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1vg5j6
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Is there some minute probability that all of my atoms suddenly wind up on the moon at the same time (since their location is described by a probability wave)?
|
askscience
|
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"Edit: given discussion elsewhere in this thread, I'm going to go with an unqualified **no**. Uncertainty in position may give uncertainty in momentum, but it's insufficient to have any classical effect on your motion, much less find you on the moon.\n\n---\n\nI say no. You're under constant \"observation.\" And by observation, I don't mean someone's looking at you. Photons and all sorts of things are bouncing off the atoms in your body \"measuring\" you to be *here* and generally destroying quantum coherence that's necessary to have the state of \"being on the moon\" as an available state. \n\nThis has been a big discussion point here in the past with the example of tossing motorcycle pieces into the air and could one piece suddenly *appear* connected correctly or not (like a screw appearing inside a nut already threaded). To which I argue that both are being continuously measured in position and momentum but neither to such a fine degree as to invoke Heisenberg uncertainty principle, so it's perfectly reasonable to treat them purely classically.",
"Just to inject a little experimentalist's perspective on this:\n\nAccording to pure quantum theory taken at face value, you could argue that there is a beyond astronomically small but not quite zero probability that you suddenly appear on the moon.\n\nNow, as /u/shavera already explained, the fact that other physical items are interacting with the atoms of your body actually makes the probability of you suddenly transferring to the moon *even more* astronomically beyond-all-imagination-ly small.\n\nWhat I'd like to add to all of this is that we don't even know if quantum mechanics really works the same way on large numbers particles [1] as it does on a small number, so we don't even know if the idea of a wave function works on something like your body. The reason for this state of ignorance is that we haven't yet constructed an experiment in which a really large number of particles exists in a coherent quantum mechanical state. We are working hard on it, but it's going to be a while before we can start to really investigate this issue.\n\n[1] I use the term \"particle\" *very* loosely here.",
"Yes. Absolutely, now realize that the probability of even a single atom finding itself that far down the tail of the wave function is infinitesimal, the chance of all of the 10^27ish atoms in your body doing so at once, is essentially zero, but not quite.\n\nThe wave function is a decaying exponential, so I can say with 95% accuracy that a given atom is within some small vicinity, but the wave function continues decaying forever in all directions, so while the wave function for the atoms in my fingertips is infinitesimally small at the other end of the universe, its not quite zero."
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Is there some minute probability that all of my atoms suddenly wind up on the moon at the same time (since their location is described by a probability wave)?
|
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||
7snbue
|
Why do LHC's two pipes placed horizontally to the ground ?
|
I had recently the opportunity to ask questions about the LHC to experts, and few questions pops up only after the meeting.
One of the question is the following : there is two parallel pipes, crossing only at particular places (where collision detectors are, obviously).
According to drawings and explanations i found, these two pipes are arranged so they are side by side (they have the same altitude).
This seems odd to me because (1) this makes the outer pipe longer than the inner pipe, since they both follow the same line and (2) needs more complex arrangement of the magnets that curves the particles trajectory.
This probably have a consequence on computations and engineering implementation.
On the other hand, making them stacked up would not change anything about how the LHC works, but would counteract the one-is-longer-than-the-other effects.
So, what didn't i understood ?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"dt7rbn5",
"dt64dts",
"dt62t5g"
],
"text": [
"It makes the dipole magnet design much easier.\n\nThe LHC accelerates protons in both rings, and uses dipole magnets to bend them around the ring. As both beams have the same charge but go in opposite directions, they need fields in opposite directions (\"up\" and \"down\"). If you would put them above each other, it is like connecting two bar magnets at their north pole - they would strongly repel each other, and each one would weaken the field of the other one.\n\nPutting them next to each other works much better, you get a magnetic field that is essentially a loop - going up in one beam line and down in the other. [Here is a sketch](_URL_0_).\n\nTwo completely separate dipole magnets would have been easier, but that wouldn't have fit nicely in the existing tunnel.\n\nAs discussed by /u/rpfeynman18, the length of the rings has to be the same - and it is the same thanks to the symmetric setup.",
"You're absolutely correct that having different pipe-lengths would be a problem. In fact for a slightly subtle reason, it wouldn't work at all! This is because protons in opposite beams are constrained to the same energy because of engineering constraints (such as the common frequency of the resonator cavities in which the protons are accelerated). If they have the same energy then they have the same speed (and in fact because this speed is so close to the speed of light, they will have almost the same speed even if the energy in the two beams could somehow be set to very different values) -- and this is a problem because the protons are actually in precisely timed \"bunches\". If they are synchronized during one cycle around the machine they will no longer be synchronized during the next if the total lengths per rotation were different!\n\nThe way this problem is solved currently is that when the beams cross, they are not \"re-crossed\" until the next collision point. See this diagram for example: _URL_2_ (EDIT: just to clarify, this is a \"top view\" of the whole beam pipe. The distance between two beams has been greatly exaggerated for clarity. The circumference of both circles is 27 km).\n\nThe symmetry should be clear: the blue pipe is the \"inner\" pipe for exactly the same length that the red pipe is the \"inner\" pipe. This is how horizontally parallel pipes are of the same length.\n\nBut I agree that vertical pipes would also not have this problem. As to why they were chosen horizontal rather than vertical, I confess I don't know -- knowing about some of these decisions, my guess is that it was probably some subtle engineering/construction constraint related to the convenience of putting the bending magnets in the correct orientation...\n\nEDIT: [As pointed out](_URL_2_) by /u/mfb-, there is actually a strong reason for choosing a horizontal orientation over the vertical orientation -- it greatly simplifies the design of the dipole magnets that are used to bend the beams.",
"If one of the beam pipes weren’t horizontal, you’d have to have bending in the vertical direction as well as the horizontal. That complicates the beam dynamics a little bit, and creates an engineering challenge because you need to lift one of them up, rotate magnets accordingly, etc."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://cds.cern.ch/record/841511/files/lhc-pho-1998-325.jpg",
"https://profmattstrassler.files.wordpress.com/2011/07/lhclayout.jpg",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/7snbue/why_do_lhcs_two_pipes_placed_horizontally_to_the/dt7rbn5/"
]
}
|
Why do LHC's two pipes placed horizontally to the ground ?
I had recently the opportunity to ask questions about the LHC to experts, and few questions pops up only after the meeting. One of the question is the following : there is two parallel pipes, crossing only at particular places (where collision detectors are, obviously). According to drawings and explanations i found, these two pipes are arranged so they are side by side (they have the same altitude). This seems odd to me because (1) this makes the outer pipe longer than the inner pipe, since they both follow the same line and (2) needs more complex arrangement of the magnets that curves the particles trajectory. This probably have a consequence on computations and engineering implementation. On the other hand, making them stacked up would not change anything about how the LHC works, but would counteract the one-is-longer-than-the-other effects. So, what didn't i understood ?
|
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|
10jzlr
|
Why is the Earth's freshwater supply diminishing?
|
If our potable water is considered a renewable resource, why are we taught to conserve water? Think about it: we use the water, it goes to the sewage cleaning facility, and then back to our water taps. So why is it so suddenly (within the last 10ish years) that there has been a movement to save, save, save water? What's happening to our fresh water?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6e46my",
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"text": [
"> it goes to the sewage cleaning facility, and then back to our water taps. \n\nThis isn't quite right, most of our treated sewage does not get sent back to the water supply as it's not fit for drinking and we either drain it into the ocean or use it for irrigation and other non-drinking uses. Most of our drinking water is from rivers, glaciers, wells/springs, rain, etc. When there are droughts, we get less water back into our drinking water sources.",
"As others have said - waste water is usually put straight our to sea.\n\nOne of the largest problems is that in large parts of the world, the freshwater supply is not drawn from the recharged water cycle, but from deep aquifers which are not recharged. This fossil water - once gone - will not be replenished.\n\nEven when active aquifers are used, there have been a large number of cases where the water is being extracted faster than it is replenished, leading not only to problems in the future, but the drawing in of saline water which poisons the aquifer.",
"The earth \"produces\" the same amount of freshwater that it always* has, what is changing is the amount of people that want to drink it and use it for bathing, cultivating land, etc.\n\nmore demand + same amount of water = shortages",
"Treated waste water *could* be routed back as input to water purification plants but in general it isn't, due to the \"ick factor\" from the public. It's a bit silly.\n\nHowever, even so that's not a perfect system, some water is used up or evaporates. For example, water used for irrigation of crops doesn't return to the system.\n\nFor the most part the way that freshwater supply is diminishing is from drawing down underground aquifers, although in some cases there are lakes that have been drained (the Aral sea being a particularly notable example), currently it is the source of 30% of all ground water in the US used for irrigation.\n\nFor example, the [Ogallala aquifer](_URL_0_) is being drained at a rate that may make it impractical to recover water from it within as few as 25 years.",
"In addition to the demand issues, one of the most effective ways to obtain fresh water in many areas is by pumping it from the groundwater, particularly aquifers. However, the water system which feeds into groundwater has a limited bandwidth, and drawing water at too fast a rate can cause sources of groundwater to deplete, which lowers the water table in the area, which dries up wells and causes rivers to change their course, which profoundly affects above-ground water sources and ecosystems.",
"One thing to consider is the energy cost of treating the waste water. With more water wasted, more energy had to be used to treat it so it's clean enough to be put back into nature."
],
"score": [
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogallala_Aquifer"
]
}
|
Why is the Earth's freshwater supply diminishing?
If our potable water is considered a renewable resource, why are we taught to conserve water? Think about it: we use the water, it goes to the sewage cleaning facility, and then back to our water taps. So why is it so suddenly (within the last 10ish years) that there has been a movement to save, save, save water? What's happening to our fresh water?
|
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|
odz01
|
Is the immune system really like a muscle (i.e. the more you use it, the stronger it gets)?
|
Have some friends whose kids play with ours. We're all pretty laid back when it comes to the kids. We give them space, let them explore on their own, get hurt, get dirty, etc. Since we agree on that one point, they seemed shocked when they saw we have hand sanitizer by the kitchen sink (I use it when cooking, and the kids will if they are walking by it and sneeze or cough). According to them, kids should not be protected from germs so that they have strong immune systems when they grow up. They also believe that this behavior means their children will not have allergies growing up. They do not use hand sanitizer, anti-bacterial soap, etc. and have no problems with their kids sharing food with other kids, chewing on shopping cart handles, crawling around on the supermarket floor, etc. Is there any scientific backing for this kind of behavior? Are they creating super children who will never have an allergy, illness, or infection?
Edit: asked this question before work, just hopped back on here...holy crap. Thanks everyone for your feedback. I look forward to reading it all tonight.
|
askscience
|
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"Sort of, but not really. Though this is definitely a common misconception. There are a few different things going on here. I'm also going to give a lot of qualifiers - we don't know *exactly* how this stuff works, and a lot of it is inference based on correlation.\n\n1) Every time you get an infectious disease that your immune system clears, your immune system generates memory cells that can respond more quickly if they ever encounter that disease again. Of course, you have to get sick to get this protection, which just means you won't get sick from the same thing again. There's no evidence that getting sick a lot as a kid makes your immune system better able to handle future, unrelated infectious disease.\n\n2) Using anti-bacterial soap, in general, is a bad idea. There are a lot of commensal (non-harmful or helpful) bacteria that colonize your skin, and repeated depletion of those bugs can make it easier for pathogenic microbes to gain a foothold (**see edit below**). Also, there's a way in which your immune system is expecting to see bacteria of some sort, and constantly blasting them may cause a bit of disregulation. Washing hands with regular soap and water removes the vast majority of harmful bugs without being so stringent.\n\nThat said, if a child is coughing/sneezing, and you don't have access to soap/water (if you're in the car or something). Hand-sanitizer isn't a bad idea. Spreading infectious organisms for the sake of spreading infectious organisms is not good. This is especially important during flu season. But using hand sanitizer on a regular basis as part of normal cleanliness has a similar effect as using anti-bacterial soap.\n\n3) On allergies: there's evidence that more exposure to certain types of bacteria during childhood can reduce the risk for allergies, but this is because there is some immune regulation that happens (that we don't fully understand), not because the immune system is stronger. In fact, allergies are a result of your immune system being **over** active, not because it's too weak. \n\nThis is the reason I hate the phrase \"boosts the immune system\" - boosting the immune system can lead to allergies or autoimmunity. What you want is appropriate regulation of the immune system, but it's so complex and everything is so interconnected that we're still figuring out exactly what that means. \n\n4) In conclusion: there's probably no benefit to a child being sick a lot, but there's also a problem if you try to keep them sterile. Practice normal hygiene, but don't freak out if they're playing in the dirt. \n\n**Edit:** Based on [some comments](_URL_2_), I went to see if I could source this claim in the literature and have been unsuccessful in finding documented evidence that disruption of commensal microbes is an issue. I didn't spend a lot of time searching, and I found [some papers](_URL_1_) that speculate, but no data. It's clear that disruption of commensal flora in the gut and urogenital tract can lead to significant health problems (ie. *Clostridium* in the gut and yeast infections), but we may just be extrapolating these effects onto the skin. If anyone else knows of any sources that set out to test this hypothesis, I'd love to know.\n\nResistance is definitely a problem though, and washing with normal soap is [just as effective.](_URL_0_)\n\n**Edit 2:** Getting a lot of responses to this, and some are getting a ways off the initial topic - please excuse me if I didn't get to yours. I was planning on doing an AskScience AMA next week anyway, so if you have other immunity related questions that aren't directly related to this topic, maybe save them until then?",
"The Hygiene Hypothesis (the Wikipedia page is so bad that I won't even link to it) proposes that some children live in an environment that's *too* clean and this could cause allergic diseases like asthma. There is some evidence for this, but it's still a hypothesis.\n\nOf course, there's also the benefit of teaching your kids a good hygienic lifestyle of washing their hands after they use the bathroom and before they eat, etc. Those are pretty good practices even if not letting them share food or crawl around on dirty surfaces might be a little extreme.\n\nAlso, since you mention antibacterial soap, I should point out that it doesn't work and no one should use it. Regular soap is more than effective enough at removing bacteria as well as viruses; the only likely effect of using a pesticide in such small, uncontrolled doses is that it will select for resistant strains. Furthermore, the pesticide commonly used for this purpose [may be an endocrine disruptor](_URL_3_), which is certainly a bigger health risk than bacteria.\n\nEDIT: lest I confuse anyone, alcohol-based hand sanitizers *do* work, but they're still not as good as soap and water - they're just a convenience for when you're away from a sink.",
"It's more complex than that.\n\nAs has been mentioned allergies are thought to be less likely where there has been greater exposure to germs. \n\nWhen it comes to actual specific infections, the immune system 'learns' how to kill each specific infection. That's why the flu jab changes every year. The flu virus changes just enough that your immune system has to relearn how to cope with it. \n\nWhen it comes to food preparation it is one place you need to be really careful. Food borne illness can cause life threatening illness. Cross contamination between raw foods and cooked foods, for example, is not good, and that's where hand washing comes in. Similarly you don't want faecal matter from the last time you visited the bathroom in your salad. Not just because it's 'gross' but because it can actually make you or someone else quite ill.\n\nFor what it's worth hand sanitiser isn't the most effective way to wash your hands, soap and water is superior.",
"_URL_4_\n\n\"a growing number of studies have suggested that kids growing up in a home with \"furred animals\" -- whether it's a pet cat or dog, or on a farm and exposed to large animals -- will have less risk of allergies and asthma, he tells WebMD.\"",
"Unless a child's immune system is compromised, overuse of anti-bacterial products can be harmful. The immune system becomes familiar with various germs and such and learns how to handle it next time around.",
"Went to a very interesting lecture by one of the heads of the CDC a while back. One of the biggest issues she was worried about for the future was the fact that kids were so over-clean/sanitized now. They dont get their immune systems built up by coming in contact with germs in low quantities/concentrations or even by dead bacteria. Causes bad immune system shock when people travel, start going to school, move, etc. \n\nObviously she wasnt saying 'hey go cough on people\", but instead, dont sanitize everything the second anyone touches something. \n\nMy takeaway quote from the lecture: \"Kids need to eat more dirt\""
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{
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18556606",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2631814/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/odz01/is_the_immune_system_really_like_a_muscle_ie_the/c3gjtjf",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triclosan#Endocrine_disruption",
"http://www.webmd.com/hypertension-high-blood-pressure/features/health-benefits-of-pets"
]
}
|
Is the immune system really like a muscle (i.e. the more you use it, the stronger it gets)?
Have some friends whose kids play with ours. We're all pretty laid back when it comes to the kids. We give them space, let them explore on their own, get hurt, get dirty, etc. Since we agree on that one point, they seemed shocked when they saw we have hand sanitizer by the kitchen sink (I use it when cooking, and the kids will if they are walking by it and sneeze or cough). According to them, kids should not be protected from germs so that they have strong immune systems when they grow up. They also believe that this behavior means their children will not have allergies growing up. They do not use hand sanitizer, anti-bacterial soap, etc. and have no problems with their kids sharing food with other kids, chewing on shopping cart handles, crawling around on the supermarket floor, etc. Is there any scientific backing for this kind of behavior? Are they creating super children who will never have an allergy, illness, or infection? Edit: asked this question before work, just hopped back on here...holy crap. Thanks everyone for your feedback. I look forward to reading it all tonight.
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|
kvnps
|
Scientists and Engineers of Reddit, explain why the following statement is either true or false.
|
"We have the technology today to provide all of our energy needs via sustainable sources such as wind, solar and geothermal. All that is lacking is the political will."
I read this the other day and found it both plausible and lacking. Hence, the request for the opinions of those of greater knowledge.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Apologies if this becomes long winded.\n\nI will address the electrical aspect of energy in this post.\n\nFor an energy source to be dependable it most have several factors.\n\n1. Constant\n\n2. Ease of call up\n\n3. Ability to scale.\n\nNow on to electricity grids. An electrical grid operates on a frequency, typically 50 to 60 Hz. To maintain this frequency the grid operator usually tasks a large generation unit to operate in what is called frequency keeping mode. In frequency keeping mode a large generation unit is tasked with keeping the frequency of the grid to the level required within +/- 0.2 Hz. To do this it is constantly ramping production up and down to meet demand.\n\nNow, let us compare this against a typical renewable source such as wind.\n\nWind turbines have no ability to scale. The power is either there and wasted, or not there at all. They cannot be called up upon demand. You can only generate with wind when the wind is blowing. Solar is very similar.\n\nNow, on to the difference in base load and peaking generation.\n\nBase load generation is quite simply a flat usually consistent generation amount that is designed to handle AVERAGE demand. Base load generation is a power plant which you turn on and run. E.g. a 1000 MW nuclear plant will continuously generate 1000 MW. \n\nComparison with solar and wind. A 1000 MW wind farm may only actually produce 1000 MW reliably 15% of the time, also the amount of generation produced may vary within a dispatch period*. Thus, a wind farm cannot be relied upon the same way a nuclear power plant may be even if they are \"equivalent\" in capacity.\n\n* Dispatch period refers to the market mechanism at which generation is dispatched for, this varies, in my country it is 30 minutes. By not being able to produce a constant output you cannot offer as much to the market (no guarantee of it being there) and therefore it is not as profitable.\n\nOn to peaking generation. Peaking generation is used to meet the rises and falls in electrical demand. These are usually caused by weather *1 and the AM and PM peaks *2. Now, we get on to the ease of call up which is required from a generation source. A wind or solar plant as we have already established can only generate when there is a wind or solar source available. Thus they are unreliable as a peaking generation source. Thus, we can establish that most peaking sources must be non-renewable as often renewable sources do not meet the reliability requirements.\n\n*1 Electrical demand is correlated quite strongly with weather. The coldest day of the year will often have the highest energy usage (heating) and solar and wind are often unavailable on these days (It may be to windy for the turbines to run safely and to overcast for solar)\n\n*2 AM and PM peaks refer to the 9am and the 6pm peaks where everyone is waking up, showering, office lights are being turned on, cooking dinner, turning on the T.V etc\n\nNow on to capital and investment time.\n\nA typical non-renewable plant can be built quickly (mature technology) and they can be located close to large sources. Contrast this to a renewable energy source. A renewable energy source is location dependent, it can only be installed where the source is. This often required large investment in transmission to get the electricity to the demand sinks. Now, to toss out some wholly unreferenced numbers which I have cited in my research but not here. Renewable investment time is ~5 years, transmission investment is ~6 years. Coal etc, baring political disruption is close to 2-3 years. This makes non-renewable a much SAFER investment from a risk perspective for a business. \n\nNow, on to environmental concerns. Everyone knows that non-renewables have a severe environmental impact. However, as does wind and solar. The majority of the population has a \"not in my backyard\" mentality. They do not want to have the wind turbines and large solar installations on their properties or nearby (decreasing land value etc). This can cause severe disruptions to investments which again makes renewables a much riskier investment (I personally know of about 500 MW of wind generation which was scuttled because people don't want to look at it****)\n\n**** Anecdotal evidence, no source.\n\nThus, a renewable energy source has severe issues of its own, it will take a long time to get operating and severe risk of disruption occurs during the planning and investing timeline. This results in it remaining a lot riskier to an energy company.\n\nThis is probably long enough to give you a little bit more of an understanding.\n\nWhat I have not covered:\n\n1. Energy storage\n\n2. Smart grid\n\n3. Integrated demand side technology\n\n4. Distributed generation issues\n\n5. Market clearing issues\n\n6. Grid stability issues\n\n7. Requirements for stable energy sources from industry (electric motors etc)\n\n8. Subsidies\n\n9. Politics\n\nIf you would like me to expand further on these, please let me know and I will be happy to do so.\n\nDisclaimer:\n\n1. I have worked in the New Zealand electricity grid, we have a lot of renewables\n\n2. I am beginning a Ph.D in energy economics next year, the majority of the information presented was as a result of my own research into the subject as well as experience gained from working in the industry.\n\n3. I have a BE in chemical engineering",
"It's not about politics, it's about economics.\n\nLet's do the math on subsidies for fossil fuels and renewable energy in the last decade. ([Source](_URL_1_\n))\n\nFossil Fuels: $10.3 billion annually\n\nRenewable: $4.1 billion annually\n\nIn 2009, the US consumed 94.578 quadrillion BTU, which is 27.72 trillion kWh ([Source](_URL_2_)). Natural gas is currently the cheapest method of producing energy, at an average of $0.0661/kWh ([Source](_URL_0_)). If all of our energy came from natural gas, then it would cost the US $1.832 trillion per year. \n\nCurrently, the cheapest energy from a renewable resource is hydroelectricity at $0.0864/kWh. If we switch all of our energy production to hydro (we'll ignore the fact that this is impossible with today's technology), then the annual US energy cost would be $2.395 trillion. That's an increase in price of $563 billion per year. These numbers get way worse as you move toward nuclear, biomass, geothermal, and solar.\n\nAs you can see, politics (in the form of subsidies) has very little effect on the economics of energy production. My analysis was very simplified and unrealistic, but I feel like it still makes my point. Non-renewable energy sources will die off when they become more expensive than renewable energy resources. Politics can give it a little nudge, but ultimately it comes down to economics. The best politicians can do is give incentives for research and development in the field in order to (hopefully) speed up the process of making renewable energy cheaper, but that can be a crapshoot.\n\nAt this point we have to wait for the cost of fossil fuels to rise and the cost of renewable energy to fall. When the two come close to each other we will see a shift toward renewable energy.",
"There's a problem with scaling, that renewable systems that work on a small scale just aren't effective (either in terms of power or cost) on a grid scale.",
"To my knowledge, there is a problem of storage. You don't get wind and sun continuously.\n\nSome water storage in altitude is used in some areas (you pump water up when you have energy and use a turbine when you don't), but you can't scale that to a whole country.\n\nEDIT: Of course there are a few lucky exceptions.",
"\"We have the technology today to provide all of our energy needs via sustainable sources such as wind, solar and geothermal.\" - **Mostly true**. Technically speaking, given designs available today, there are enough raw materials available in the world to manufacture enough wind turbines, solar electric, and solar thermal devices to support the first world's electricity, heating, cooling, and transportation needs.\n\n\"All that is lacking is the political will.\" - I'd call this **mostly false** because of the minimization of just how **massive** an undertaking this would be, so massive it's hard to comprehend. A truer way to put it might be \"All that is lacking is the political will **and half of everyone's gross income for the next 30 years**\", then I'd call it mostly true.\n\nWe've spent over 100 years building up a fossil fuel infrastructure, from gas pipes laid in every city from the 19th century to the present day, millions of oil and gas wells and pipelines laid around the world, billions of cars, and countless gas stations.\n\n\"All\" we have to do is replace _everything_: billions of electric cars, millions of additional high-power electrical lines across the globe, remove all gas lines and appliances from hundreds of millions of homes and replace with electric appliances and upgraded high-current wiring to support car charges, and then manufacture and install over 100 times as much solar and wind power capacity as has been installed in the past decade.\n\nHow long would this take, and how much of the global GDP? I tried to run the numbers once, can't seem to find them now, but something like 25% of global GDP and decades of work would be my guess, not to mention most of the world's raw material outputs for decades: steel for wind towers, copper for wires, lithium and lead for billions of enormous car batteries, etc. This graph has to be changed from [1.2 quads of renewables](_URL_4_) to 94 quads of renewables, changing the energy generation (left side), energy transportation (middle), and energy consumption (right side) of the other 92.8 quads. \n\nAside #1: The common assertion that massive energy storage is needed when the sun isn't shining, or the wind isn't blowing, is mostly solvable by over-installing renewables and running huge power lines across continents to mitigate regional weather issues. The American Southwest gets 330+ days of sun a year, and there are offshore locations with similar stats for wind. But the real engineering solution is to continue to use the existing natural gas, coal, and oil-fired power plants until they are no longer needed, shutting them down one at a time as renewable sources come online, and eventually only using them for peak power needs or as backup generators when there is a lack of wind & sun in a region.\n\nAside #2: Nuclear is not truly a renewable resource, as radioisotope mining will eventually run out. Even if a country just wanted to abandon fossil fuels and move to CO2 neutral sources, it still takes 12-15 years _minimum_ for any new nuclear site to come online, far slower than renewable sites, which are often up and producing power in 2-3 years. Unless the first world switches to dictatorships as their preferred governing structures, and who specify by fiat the thousands of newly radioactive locations over NIMBY objections, I think it would take longer to move away from fossil fuels if the new primary power source were nuclear.\n\nAside #3: Nor is geothermal truly renewable, as the sites used gradually cool down over the decades and reduce their output. See [The Geysers](_URL_3_) power output, which also notes the major side effect of hundreds of earthquakes per geothermal power plant. \n\nAside #4: No matter what you read, it's possible to manufacture solar electric that takes less energy to manufacture than is produced by the panel by at least an order of magnitude.\n\n**tl;dr: \"All\" it would take is an effort ten times the size of the Apollo project, for several decades, to switch to 100% renewables. No matter how much \"will\" anyone has, it just ain't gonna happen overnight.**",
"We certainly have the technology given infinite resources. We don't yet have the technology to do it at competitive prices. \n\nWithout a discussion of costs, reliability, and practicality, the statement is somewhat meaningless."
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Scientists and Engineers of Reddit, explain why the following statement is either true or false.
"We have the technology today to provide all of our energy needs via sustainable sources such as wind, solar and geothermal. All that is lacking is the political will." I read this the other day and found it both plausible and lacking. Hence, the request for the opinions of those of greater knowledge.
|
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|
3uez9k
|
Why could I only see out of one lens in the 3D cinema where as my SO could see out of both?
|
So a few days ago me and my SO went to IMAX, which is a 3D cinema with "laser technology" , whilst watching the previews i noticed that i could only see out of one eye through the glasses, i asked my SO and she said she could see out of both, we swapped glasses and it was the same situation.
I am aware of light polarization and how it works but my question is why only I had the issue of only being able to see through one lens and not my SO.
What could have caused this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxelfvu",
"cxeh6ac",
"cxehbw5",
"cxejif1",
"cxen215"
],
"text": [
"Most likely you have suppression scotoma, a very common condition when people's eyes have a slight misalignment. This causes one of your eyes to suppress the image in order to prevent double vision. If you cover the seeing eye you should notice that the suppressed image appears. Sometimes this causes amblyopia, where the suppressed eye never forms proper neural connections and commit get perfectly clear sight.",
"Did you try to look out of the other lens with the \"blind\" eye? For instance, if the blind eye was the right one, did you try looking out of the left lens with it? Did you or can you try orienting the lens differently?\n\nAre you wearing contacts?",
"I'm not sure what was happening based on the information in your post, but here are a few guesses. IMAX 3D uses linear polarizers (unlike Real-D that uses circular polarizers). What you are describing sounds as if something else was also acting as a polarizing filter on the light reaching your eyes, so it blocked the polarization from one lens but passed the other. If you had polarizing contact lenses that would certainly interfere with the light you saw in the way you describe, but that seems unlikely. There are also some [minor effects of polarized light on human vision](_URL_0_), but those effects shouldn't make one lens appear dimmer.\n\nHow dark was the \"blocked\" lens? Was it as if one lens was shaded, like a lens from a pair of sunglasses, and the other lens was relatively clear? If you go back to see another IMAX 3D movie, I would try flipping the glasses upside down. My hunch is that the other eye will be blocked in that case.",
"What exactly do you mean by \"can only see out of one eye\"? Was it completely black on the other eye? Did you try closing the good eye? It may have something to do with eye dominance. Basically, everyone has one eye that acts as the \"center\". You can see this by holding up a finger and closing one eye at a time, if you close an eye and your finger appears to move, that is your dominant eye. If one eye is particularly dominant it can make 3D movies not work so well since it takes two eyes to see in 3D. \n\nI think we would need to know more about the glasses and technology used to give a better answer.",
"I like the answer of suppression scotoma. Possibly, the lens that you couldn't see out of may have been rotated 90 degrees before it was actually cut to make the lens. Try taking polarized sunglasses and rotate them 90 degrees while looking at a computer screen."
],
"score": [
57,
14,
9,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haidinger%27s_brush"
]
}
|
Why could I only see out of one lens in the 3D cinema where as my SO could see out of both?
So a few days ago me and my SO went to IMAX, which is a 3D cinema with "laser technology" , whilst watching the previews i noticed that i could only see out of one eye through the glasses, i asked my SO and she said she could see out of both, we swapped glasses and it was the same situation. I am aware of light polarization and how it works but my question is why only I had the issue of only being able to see through one lens and not my SO. What could have caused this?
|
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|
mlins
|
AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Geographer in a PhD Program Studying Cartography and Visualization
|
I primarily study how people interpret mapped information and other graphics. My applied focus for this research is transportation and traffic mapping, with the goal of improving how well typical traffic maps can communicate travel-time.
I also study things like human-computer interaction, mobile devices (especially in-vehicle navigation units), and how visual tools influence attention.
Although my background is formally geographic (M.S. in Geography, B.S. in Geographic Information Science), a large part of my work is based on what I learned in computer science and the arts - especially graphic design. I was very undecided as an undergrad, but bouncing around between programming/analysis and visual art eventually steered me into the field I now love and enjoy!
Feel free to ask me anything about these disciplines, life as a PhD student, or whatever you'd like :)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"A huge number of video games have maps of various sorts, from faux-parchment (see WoW, LOTRO) to Google Earth-style (see Skyrim). Has this informed the creation of GPS tools in real-world contexts?",
"I have always heard about the difference between men and women and navigation. From your perspective what is your experience?",
"What's your favorite world map projection and why?",
"Let me run an idea have past you, with no specific question.\n\nMontreal has a public bike system called Bixi, where you take bikes out from a station and drop them off at another station. Unfortunately, in the morning everyone rides downtown and the stations there fill up really fast and guys have to truck bikes back to other neighborhoods, and in the evening the opposite happens and guys have to truck bikes towards downtown.\n\nThere is a website where you can see a map of the local stations, and see how many bikes and how many vacancies are in each one. I think it would be interesting to make a map with a Voronoi pattern around each station, the colour of each section determined by the fraction that is full, ranging between green and red.\n\nWhat you will most likely see (in the morning, let's say) is a big red clump downtown, green out of downtown, and this transition region between them where the stands are partially filled. I imagine the transition region would be pretty thin. If you track this over time, you may see this transition zone moving in or out of downtown, and sometime (around 4 PM) you will see a population inversion when the downtown will rapidly become green and the outskirts red.\n\nAnyway, I'm not sure where I'm going with this. Do you think it's a cool idea? Any ways to make it better?",
"Nice! Geography student here too, but with an interest in geohazards and environmental modelling. \n\nAny thoughts on uncertainty visualization? What works, what doesn't? \nHoping to work on my MSc thesis doing this. Models and geohazard forecasts these days produce all sorts of data which, when put in a map have a tendency to be accepted as accurate (it's on a map, it must be right...) whereas there is usually a huge amount of uncertainty involved which is lost on the enduser due to crappy visualization techniques which omit uncertainty alltogether, or show uncertainty in such a way that it results in cognitive overload for the map user (its tricky to avoid this..). \n\nAlso, how do you test the effectiveness of visualizations that you create? Do get a bunch of students and give them a form to see how well they can read the maps? Your answer about gender differences in interpretation of visualizations is also interesting, I wonder how it relates to dealing with uncertain information and risk assessment, which is very relevant for geohazards and risk assessment ofcouse. HEH so many things to think about...\n\nAnd, where are you located? Any chance I can contact you if I have a question about something you could give me a hint on? It'd be nice to know some people in the geovisualization field, because it's not like you'll run into them on the street doing their thing. Thanks!",
"All of the questions and responses have been interesting to read so far! My background has been in Land Surveying with research and practical adaptability of geographically referenced information so I guess I have a couple of questions. \n\nWhat do you think are the main restrictions or limitations are when it comes to having open sources mapping software?\n\nThis is somewhat of a general question I have always found somewhere else but have always found interesting. Maps are now online but still pretty static. What if maps were fast changing? Easy for anyone to create an interesting map of things, events or places, and fill it with other data like demographics, photos, laws and anything else? What kind of maps would you use or create? \n\nWhat are your thoughts on [this video](_URL_0_). I saw it a while ago and I found it fascinating to see what things like Bing Maps is trying to expand into.\n\nWhat do you think will ultimately decide will determine the final sovereignty in the Artic between competing interests? I know delimitation and boundaries may not be your primary research but with your history of Cartography I was seeing if you had any input on this matter. (I live in Canada so I am well aware of the general situation pertaining to say UNCLOS or how far and where does the border lie between the US and Canada in the Artic).",
"cartography always sounded so cool after it got mentioned in halo =D\nyou're cool!"
],
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{
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{
"url": [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/blaise_aguera.html"
]
}
|
AskScience AMA Series- IAMA Geographer in a PhD Program Studying Cartography and Visualization
I primarily study how people interpret mapped information and other graphics. My applied focus for this research is transportation and traffic mapping, with the goal of improving how well typical traffic maps can communicate travel-time. I also study things like human-computer interaction, mobile devices (especially in-vehicle navigation units), and how visual tools influence attention. Although my background is formally geographic (M.S. in Geography, B.S. in Geographic Information Science), a large part of my work is based on what I learned in computer science and the arts - especially graphic design. I was very undecided as an undergrad, but bouncing around between programming/analysis and visual art eventually steered me into the field I now love and enjoy! Feel free to ask me anything about these disciplines, life as a PhD student, or whatever you'd like :)
|
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|
ocdwn
|
Can you name all potential (economic) benefits from CERN research?
|
**Regardless if whole LHC project turn out successful or not.**
Huge scientific knowledge gained from this is unquestionable, but on the other side.. is all that money we poured into this... irretrievable?
*I could't find this question with search. I'm sorry if it's repeated.*
|
askscience
|
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"For comparison; the total cost of the LHC (employing tens of thousands of scientists, engineers, construction, etc) is about $10 billion [[1]](_URL_0_) over a 20-30 year period and divvied out to many countries (e.g., the US paid about ~5%). \n\nThe US military budget this year alone was $680 billion. So the total cost of the LHC is less than the cost of the development of the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter for just this year alone ($11.4 billion) [[2]](_URL_2_).\n\nI've heard from an old cynical professor that part of the reason particle physics gets the money for big projects is because politicians/the military think the eggheads may develop the next big weapon -- it worked for the A-bomb.\n\nScientists/engineers working on particle physics have developed technologies ranging from HTTP/HTML and the first web browser to the ~1-3T superconducting magnets that allow MRIs to work (needed to bend the particle beam. (They did not invent TCP/IP or the internet (aka ARPANET); but the basic web page technologies).\n\nThe main benefit you will get out of stuff like the LHC is better high performance computing that's put into the public sector (e.g. dealing with 10 Gb of incoming data per second; learning how to analyze it; etc). \n\nI simply don't see its scientific achievements (finding the mass of the Higgs/SUSY/compactified extra dimensions) becoming practical economic benefits within my lifetime and potentially ever. Its sort of like the Hubble (total costs ~$10 billion [[3]](_URL_1_) ). Astronomy is extremely interesting and a trifle compared to military spending/entitlement programs. If the gov't isn't funding it; it can't get done and you won't ever see the Hubble deep field, ever advance particle physics, learn more about cosmology, etc.",
"This questions is completely impossible to answer. *All* potential benefits? That would require prescient knowledge we simply don't have.\n\nAs far as irretrievable - bare in mind that this money isn't simply sunk into a pit. It's spent on engineers, and builders, and scientists, and admin staff, and a thousand other things that recycle the money back into the economy. Thinking of the money as disappearing is really very wrong.",
"I can't comment directly on CERN, but I can give you an example of the unpredictable economic benefit of pure theoretical physics. 80 years ago Paul Dirac theorized the existence of antiparticles and the Dirac sea. It was all a nice theory that explained how the universe work, but there was no practicle application for it at the time. Couple decades later tomographers figured they could use these particles for emmission and transmission. Today we have PET scanners.",
"No one in the early 20th century could have told you that the Einstein's works would lead to a GPS system that allows for global shipping and trade on a massive scale.",
"Wasn't Tim Berners-Lee at CERN when he developed hypertext and the World Wide Web?\n\nLong before the LHC, I know, but still CERN.",
"Devil's Advocate time.\n\nModern high-energy particle physics has a set of unfortunate properties that make any development of technological applications from the scientific discoveries themselves, as opposed to spinoffs like high-performance computing, very unlikely in the near term. Some other technologically \"productive\" scientific fields share some of these properties, but as far as I know no field shares all of them.\n\n1. **The objects of study have to be created in the lab; they are not extant in nature.** The Higgs and other sought-after particles have not existed naturally since shortly after the Big Bang; the purpose of the collider is to create the particles so that the detectors can measure their properties. This is in contrast with the many fields that study extant objects, such as astronomy, most of biology, much of chemistry, geology, and much of physics. But this by itself does not prohibit technological applications: we know it can be very useful to create a novel object for the purpose of studying how it works. Examples: much of chemistry, some biology, classical electromagnetism, materials science, and computer science.\n\n2. **The objects of study are very short-lived.** Many of the known particles have very short lifetimes, and most of the sought-for particles have lifetimes in the range of trillionths of trillionths of a second or less. These particles are observable only via observation of their longer-lived decay products. This means that it is essentially impossible to incorporate, say, a Higgs boson into any kind of complex structure, or really do anything with it at all, before it decays. There are really no examples of this outside particle physics, because the timescales involved are uniquely small.\n\n3. **Exotic particles are produced rarely and at random.** When two protons collide, many things can happen. They can scatter elastically without producing anything, or they can produce new particles. Not surprisingly, the particles being actively searched for at CERN, such as the Higgs and supersymmetric particles, are produced very, very rarely (that is why they haven't been found yet), and at random. By the rules of quantum mechanics, there is no way around this -- it is impossible to force some preferred outcome of a random process to happen more often than it \"wants\" to. So even if you found some machine that used a Higgs boson to do something, you would have to collide huge numbers of protons, and get rid of all the \"junk\" products, for every Higgs produced. I'm sure people can invent clever filtering mechanisms, but it still seems like a hugely expensive and formidable obstacle.\n\n4. **All particles decay randomly.** Any unstable particle can typically decay to many different types of particles, which are then emitted in unpredictable directions. If you are after Higgs bosons for the high-energy photons they produce, you have to prepare for losses due to Higgs decays to muons, or taus, or one of a dozen other things. Plus, if the Higgs does decay to photons, they will be emitted in a random direction. According to everything we know, it is physically impossible to get around this problem, although, again, once a certain decay happens, filtering mechanisms can be employed.\n\n5. **Exotic particles always decay to boring non-exotic particles.** The short life of the Higgs and its unpredictable decays might not matter to us if its possible decay products included Unobtanium and Ringworld structural metal. But alas, no matter how rare or strange a particle is, it will always decay into some combination of protons, electrons, photons, and neutrinos. Neutrinos cannot be captured, and the other three are abundant. A possible objection is that the decay products will in general have very high energies, which could be useful. True, but if we want a high-energy electron beam, for example, it is simpler to just accelerate the electrons, rather than counting on rare and random Higgs production and decay (see #3 and #4).\n\n6. **All fundamental particle physics reactions that we can imagine carrying out in the lab are endothermic.** This is because, as a general rule, higher-mass particles decay to lower-mass ones, so that the particles we find around us are already at the lowest energy possible. That is why we have to use lots of energy to create new particles like the Higgs. What all this means is that it is unlikely in the extreme that fundamental physics can provide new energy sources. There is no fundamental-particle version of nuclear fusion, which really is exothermic but occurs at the level of composite particles."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2008/09/the-bosons-that/",
"http://www.livescience.com/3579-hubble-worth-upgrade-mission-risk-cost.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_budget_of_the_United_States"
]
}
|
Can you name all potential (economic) benefits from CERN research?
**Regardless if whole LHC project turn out successful or not.** Huge scientific knowledge gained from this is unquestionable, but on the other side.. is all that money we poured into this... irretrievable? *I could't find this question with search. I'm sorry if it's repeated.*
|
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|
cd0d2l
|
When cutting paper with scissors, do the pressure separate the molecules Par breaking the van der waals interactions or does it cut through the c-c bonding?
|
Hello,
My friends and I were debating this the other day. For me, there is no way that scissors could break the carbon carbon bonds. I think it is more likely that the pressure of the scissors is enough to pull the molecules appart
Can someone help us on this matter? I couldn't fine anything on the internet.
Meh, should have read the title before posting. Sorry about that
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"etr5mgs",
"etqwaup",
"etrzeo5",
"ett8al8"
],
"text": [
"I have no doubt that both happen.\n\n\nBecause of the length scale of the cutting surface compared to the size of the molecular structure of the fibers in the paper, you're mostly going to be dragging polymer chains apart. But I have no doubt that there are some particularly long chains whose level of intermolecular friction makes it more energetically favorable to break a single C-C bond rather than dragging it out.",
"I dont necessarily think the scissors are sharp enough to split chain, but I wouldn't rule it out because well hey ya never know. It would most likely be a separation of cellulose chains from breaking van der waals forces, though. On a small scale, it probably looks more like the scissors are ripping apart the paper than cutting through it.",
"the c-c bonding is not as strong as you might think. The strength comes from the multitude of those bonds. One bond can easily be broken with the force you are able to apply to the scissors. But it is certainly stronger than van-der-waals force. So wherever possible the van-der-waals bond will break first. \n\nAlso those fibres are very long, depending on the type of paper. I would expect there to be at least some molecules of a length on the mm-level in most papers. If you couldn't break them you would have trouble getting through the paper with your scissors.",
"Scissors can definitely cut covalent bonds. Think about common plastic polymers like teflon, PTFE, nylon or even something even simpler like cotton candy, which are just long strands of polysaccharides. When spun into thread forms, these polymers are essentially a longitudinally aligned long molecular chains. You can cut these threads with scissors and when you do, you are cutting polymer chains which are held together by covalent bonds, not intermolecular forces."
],
"score": [
17,
7,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
When cutting paper with scissors, do the pressure separate the molecules Par breaking the van der waals interactions or does it cut through the c-c bonding?
Hello, My friends and I were debating this the other day. For me, there is no way that scissors could break the carbon carbon bonds. I think it is more likely that the pressure of the scissors is enough to pull the molecules appart Can someone help us on this matter? I couldn't fine anything on the internet. Meh, should have read the title before posting. Sorry about that
|
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] |
|
147uxu
|
How do you get energy from electromagnetic radiation?
|
Is this even possible, if not, why can't we? Or explain how we already do.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7amp8e",
"c7amjlg",
"c7aoj3o",
"c7az1sm"
],
"text": [
"You can harness the energy in electromagnetic radiation by absorbing it. Photovoltaic cells absorb light and produce electricity. Other systems absorb light and increase their temperature, the idea behind passive solar heating. You can take sunlight and use mirrors to focus the light to heat water and run a turbine to generate electricity. In the biological world, photosynthesis is another method for converting the energy from light into other forms. And, just to look at another part of the electromagnetic spectrum, crystal radios generate sound by absorbing radio waves and using their energy to create that sound.",
"We already do. You've heard of solar cells, right?",
"A wave of electromagnetic radiation is a photon travelling and oscillating at the wavelength of the light/radio/microwave/whatever radiation that is observed. Along with the photon oscillating, a magnetic field is oscillating, in sync with the photon, but perpendicular to the plane of the photon oscillation and travelling with the photon. The oscillating magnetic field causes movement of electrons when it is absorbed, which, if the right substance is used to absorb it, can be used to provide an electric current that we can use for useful work.",
"Three posts about Solar cells?!? Man, this place is filled with EEs....\n \nHow about plants! Plants are nature's solar cells and are responsible for 99.9% of life on this planet."
],
"score": [
11,
9,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do you get energy from electromagnetic radiation?
Is this even possible, if not, why can't we? Or explain how we already do.
|
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] |
|
u5xzg
|
Why wasn't the SpaceX Dragon capsule full?
|
As you can see in [this video](_URL_0_), there's plenty of room in the capsule on delivery? Why isn't it full of equipment and supplies? Is volume not the limiting factor?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4sl4xn",
"c4sl4m7",
"c4slso8",
"c4slcl2"
],
"text": [
"I think that when it comes to sending ships into space weight is the limiting factor, not volume.",
"I think the cargo was limited since this was the first flight.",
"The Dragon Capsule is rated for a certain amount of cargo by weight, not volume. Think of it the same way as a truck trailer, they're allowed to carry a certain weight so they're rarely, if ever, completely filled (in some cases, hardly at all).",
"Mass is the limiting factor. However, it was far from full; it's rated for a payload of 6000kg up and 3000kg down, according to [Wikipedia](_URL_1_), and this mission it carried 460kg up and will return with 620kg ([source](_URL_0_), PDF warning). This is a demonstration/test flight in preparation for accepting the supply contract, not a full cargo delivery.\n\nThe cargo delivered today was non-essential and SpaceX wasn't being held liable for its safe arrival; there was a reasonable expectation that it might not arrive safely at the station. (This is the first attempt by a private company, after all.) Once they start the commercial supply contract, they become liable for losses.\n\nFurthermore, the demonstration objectives included a lot of manoeuvring in the vicinity of the station which wouldn't be necessary to simply deliver cargo. There's more details in the PDF linked above, but it involves a lap around the station and several approaches and retreats. The heavier the craft is, the more thruster fuel required and the slower it responds, so you don't want it too heavily laden for manoeuvrability tests."
],
"score": [
6,
5,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gwc2fzjIX4o"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://bit.ly/Ja72fG",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX_Dragon"
]
}
|
Why wasn't the SpaceX Dragon capsule full?
As you can see in [this video](_URL_0_), there's plenty of room in the capsule on delivery? Why isn't it full of equipment and supplies? Is volume not the limiting factor?
|
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|
x7nux
|
What's our worst "design flaw" as a species?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"- Esophagus and trachea in same space.\n- Reproductive and waste disposal mechanisms in same space.\n- Insufficient protection to prevent severe or fatal injury due to falling from own height.",
"Cancer comes to mind - unpredictable, uncontrollable, unregulated cell growth is a pretty serious flaw.",
"It'd be nice if more of our important internal organs came in pairs.",
"I'd say obesity is one. our body is programmed to store as much as possible even as it stars being a detriment to our health. In our wild days this was beneficial but now it's quite a problem.",
"Wisdom teeth not coming in straight and possibly causing impaction/infection",
"Allergies: My immune system can't tell the difference between pollen and a virus, so it makes me miserable for no good reason.\n\nHeadaches: Blood vessels in my head randomly swell up and press against nerves, causing me pain I can do little about and which does me no good at all.\n\nBut these pale in comparison to how shoddy our minds are. The number of heuristics and biases that fuck up our ability to think clearly is staggering. It's believed that our minds actually evolved not to make us better at finding the truth, but to make us better at winning arguments in social situations. As a result, we get way too attached to our positions and have far too much trouble admitting, or even recognizing, when we're wrong. We're far too prone to conformity and obedience to authority. And when in the grip of strong emotions, the time when we most need to think clearly, we're least able to. If you want a shoddy piece of work made of cheap hacks and held together with duct tape, it's right inside your head.",
"Bipedalism still has some kinks to work out (e.g. back, knee, and ankle problems). Also there's the appendix which doesn't seem to do much but try and kill you sometimes (there are theories that it provides a safe harbor for gut flora, but it's adaptive value has yet to be proven).",
"I'm going to go with \"the fact that we continue to age past maturity\", ie. grow old and die. Some animals don't, we just happen to. Living forever isn't actually an evolutionary advantage, and might be a disadvantage due to slowing the rate at which we can adapt genetically, but I'd be okay with that."
],
"score": [
11,
7,
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5,
4,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What's our worst "design flaw" as a species?
|
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||
ma4fs
|
What accounts for the French paradox? (Why are French people not as fat as we'd expect, given their diet)
|
The fact that they eat so many carbohydrates from baked goods like baguettes (with saturated fat from cheeses and pork) seems like it would flood their blood vessels with blood glucose and thus insulin, which facilitates fat storage as far as I've researched. By what mechanism is this fat storage reduced?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2zama1",
"c2zbvj1",
"c2zbz48"
],
"text": [
"As a chef I can say for two reasons. First are the portion sizes, a lot smaller than American plates. Secondly, a more natural diet. Less processed foods and fewer chemicals in their food.",
"Michael Pollan discusses this in 'In Defence of Food' (forgive me for the popularist citation). He suggests that it's a combination of portion size, a preference for unprocessed ingredients, and a culture that advocates leisurely consumption of food in the context of social interaction, rather than scarfing down fuel.",
"The so-called \"French paradox\" is not actually about obesity, but about the culture's much lower levels of coronary disease. The term was coined by a French scientist at Bordeaux U. \n\nThere are a number of proposed reasons why the French appear to have a significantly smaller incidence of heart disease than other cultures. One is under-reporting and misdiagnosis. The second is the alleged health benefits of drinking larger quantities of red wine. A third is generally higher alcohol consumption overall.\n\nIf you're actually speaking about obesity rates, not coronary disease, it probably has to do with overall food intake, less snacking, less reliance on processed and industrially-cooked foods, more frequent market shopping, greater integration of markets into residential areas, using fresher, locally produced ingredients, farmers/herders who emphasize quality instead of perishability or volume, and above all, *portion control*. What Americans would consider to be a typical serving size would usually be just about right for two people in Paris or Lyon."
],
"score": [
16,
7,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What accounts for the French paradox? (Why are French people not as fat as we'd expect, given their diet)
The fact that they eat so many carbohydrates from baked goods like baguettes (with saturated fat from cheeses and pork) seems like it would flood their blood vessels with blood glucose and thus insulin, which facilitates fat storage as far as I've researched. By what mechanism is this fat storage reduced?
|
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|
4kewlf
|
Why do we give pressors in patients with shock?
|
If increasing systemic vascular resistance (SVR) increases the afterload, doesn't that reduce stroke volume?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"You're increasing SVR in a situation where the SVR is life-threateningly low. Increasing the SVR with vasopressin is one way your body itself manages perfusion, now it just needs help. Also when the SVR is too low, venous return would also suffer, further decreasing CO and systemic hypoxemia. \n\nIn cardiac babies, it's not uncommon to have a fresh post-op Norwood on drips of epi, vaso, and norepi all at the same time. All work slightly differently, so you can get pretty precise BP management while minimizing side effects (like increased HR with epi, or acute kidney injury with too much vaso) since the doses are so low (0.01 mcg/kg/min)\n\nEdit: in the above situation, you're also dealing with a mixed systemic and pulmonary blood flow system, so you're balancing SVR and PVR. Changing things such as fiO2, RR, and TV on the vent can have just as significant an impact on BP.",
"There are different types of shock: cardiogenic, neurogenic, anaphylactic, septic, and hypovolemic shock. Optimal teatment will depend on what type of shock you are treating, e.g. volume for hypovolemic shock or inotropes for cardiogenic shock. You can have a perfectly normal cardiac output (stroke volume x HR) and still be in shock. That's what happens in septic shock, where you have significant vasodilation from endotoxin release. You would start a pressor, such as norepinephrine, to treat shock because you need to maintain perfusion pressure as others have mentioned. \nCardiac output depends on multiple factors (preload, afterload, contractility) and although you may be increasing the afterload with a pressor, they often have other effects that augment your CO. Many have inotropic effects that increase contractility, chronotropic effects to increase HR (CO = HR x SV) and increasing your perfusion pressure will increase your venous return (i.e. preload) as others have already mentioned. \nIn reality, you are going to be doing multiple things simultaneously during resuscitation. Giving fluid, starting a pressor, starting antibiotics, giving blood, etc. so your cardiac output is being affected through multiple mechanisms.",
"For \"source\", I'm an MD who works in the ICU. \n\nFirst, we don't give pressors to all patients with shock, only those with a low SVR. \n\nSecond, while raising the SVR will reduce stroke volume, people who need vasopressors because of a low SVR usually have a hyperdynamic circulation to begin with, and the problem with them is the low perfusion pressure rather than a problem of low cardiac output. \n\nThirdly, the pressors we usually use like norepinephrine have inotropic and chronotropic effects via their effects on beta receptors. This may counteract any decline in stroke volume you might see from purely increasing afterload via alpha receptors. That's why a better term for norepi is actually 'inopressor', unless you're talking about drugs like phenylephrine which have really only alpha 1 effects and are more of a pure vasopressor. \n\nLastly, the alpha effects of norepinephrine and more pure vasopressors like phenylephrine also increase preload via venoconstriction. This again helps with stroke volume and may counteract the effects of increasing afterload.",
"No, since, as predicted in the Frank Starling curve, the heart pump strength will increase if the left ventricle is stretched, so the increase in stroke volume is something the heart can easily take and is built to do. Also, one reason to use pressors to relieve strain from the heart, since the normal mechanism of the body would be to increase your heart rate, and another way to help the heart is to give extra fluid (water with salt).\n\nEDIT: another thing I forgot to explain is that obviously shock is there for a reason, the main reason being the loss of blood pressure due to things like blood loss internally or externally, fluid/blood being sent somewhere due to something like infection or an immune reaction, vasodilation etc. so the main thing you need to do is to make sure all parts of the body (all essential parts) remain oxygenated. for that you need blood pressure and a mechanism to help your body achieve that is pressors (or infusion of extra fluids)",
"Depending on type of shock you will chose your pressor accordingly, in hypovolemic and septic shock the heart will be able to deal with the increased SVR.\n\nIn cardiogenic shock you are correct that increasing SVR can lead to decompensation and death. In these cases we use a positive inotropic pressor like dobutamin(which is primarily acting on beta1 receptors) instead of something like noradrenalin which also has alpha1 effects(vasoconstriction- > increased SVR) which works well in septic shock.\n\ntl;dr in patients without cardiac problems increasing SVR is manageable, in cardiogenic shock the inotropic effect of certain pressors is favored.",
"Also think of the increase in SVR, as returning it to baseline, rather than exaggerating SVR above normal. Shock, in many forms causes dilation of great vessels for various reasons, and the pressers can act to restore SVR to its previous state, or at least to a point where contractile force maintains an adequate CO."
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Why do we give pressors in patients with shock?
If increasing systemic vascular resistance (SVR) increases the afterload, doesn't that reduce stroke volume?
|
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|
pgy76
|
I just saw the documentary "How Beer Saved the World." How feasible are the claims they make in the video?
|
For those who haven't seen it, [here's a link to it on Netflix](_URL_0_). For the too long; can't watch crowd, here's what they claim:
**1)** The accidental discovery of barley wine turned us from a nomadic species to an agricultural species.
**2)** Germ theory was discovered while comparing beer to the water used to make it under a microscope.
**3)** Tetracycline from "liquid bread" beer kept Ancient Egyptians alive.
Now they use pretty convincing graphics and interviews, but the whole thing kind of reeked of speculation passed off as fact. I'm wondering how feasible the whole thing is. I love beer, and I would love to know that we as a species evolved around it, but I'm in the business of truth.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3pbg61",
"c3pashv",
"c3pebx2",
"c3pbo5i"
],
"text": [
"For #2, it seems to be referring to [Leeuwenhoek](_URL_2_), the first guy to really get into microscopy who made a lot of important discoveries. He didn't only look at beer, he looked at anything he could find, from scummy pond water to his own semen.\n\nGerm theory really first started later on, with [Semmelweis](_URL_0_), who was dismissed as a loony, and got hold with [Pasteur's](_URL_1_) and [Koch's](_URL_3_) work. Pasteur comes the closest to being a beer guy there, but as a Frenchie he was more into wine.",
"[Point one seems to have a mixed view from academics according to the quotes from articles at the top of this page](_URL_4_)",
"My Master's Thesis supervisor was a big proponent of the whole 'domestication of grains for beer' thing. But it's hard to argue it as a prime cause for domestication. I argued for it as one of many potential reasons for the adoption, but coupled with a changing demographic and environmental climate. \n\nWhat is also fishy about the first point is that domestication/agriculture lead didn't to a switch from nomadic to sedentary life. The majority of loci of domestication (there are between 6 and 10 places where plants were domesticated depending on who you ask), and as far as the archaeological evidence for settlements goes, most of the centers experienced relatively sedentary populations before domestication and agriculture. Though it does help them stay-put.\n\nAs a general rule, from the perspective of an archaeologist: every time someone says \"Archaeologists now believe\" on a t.v. show, it's probably wrong. What they should say is \"these couple of archaeologists think that this may have happened, in this very specific circumstance, and probably within a combined casualty of about a hundred thousand other things\".",
"This is very tangential and my memory is hazy, but at one point they make a claim that something exists in quantities \"more than the eskimos have words for snow.\" This is based on the trope that eskimos must have so many words for snow because they are experienced with snow, but has been roundly debunked. [See here](_URL_5_) for lots of pointers to internet debunkings and peer-reviewed literature towards the bottom."
],
"score": [
10,
7,
5,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://movies.netflix.com/WiMovie/How_Beer_Saved_the_World/70222666?trkid=2361637"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignaz_Semmelweis",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_Pasteur",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_van_Leeuwenhoek",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Koch",
"http://foodtimeline.org/foodbreads.html",
"http://itre.cis.upenn.edu/~myl/languagelog/archives/003286.html"
]
}
|
I just saw the documentary "How Beer Saved the World." How feasible are the claims they make in the video?
For those who haven't seen it, [here's a link to it on Netflix](_URL_0_). For the too long; can't watch crowd, here's what they claim: **1)** The accidental discovery of barley wine turned us from a nomadic species to an agricultural species. **2)** Germ theory was discovered while comparing beer to the water used to make it under a microscope. **3)** Tetracycline from "liquid bread" beer kept Ancient Egyptians alive. Now they use pretty convincing graphics and interviews, but the whole thing kind of reeked of speculation passed off as fact. I'm wondering how feasible the whole thing is. I love beer, and I would love to know that we as a species evolved around it, but I'm in the business of truth.
|
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3oznwh
|
We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our 75th annual meeting. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!
|
**Edit: And we're off! Thank you so much for all the wonderful questions!**
Hello AskScience! We are members of the [**Society of Vertebrate Paleontology**](_URL_5_). We study fossil fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles — anything with a backbone! Our research includes how these organisms lived, how they were affected by environmental change like a changing climate, how they're related, and much more.
You can learn more about SVP in [this video](_URL_2_) or **follow us on Twitter @SVP_vertpaleo**.
We're at our 75th Annual Meeting in Dallas, Texas and we're here to answer your questions. Joining us are:
- **Thomas Adams, Ph.D.**: Dr. Adams is the Curator of Paleontology and Geology at the [Witte Museum](_URL_3_) in San Antonio, Texas. He specializes in the diversity and biogeography of crocodile relatives in Texas.
- **[PastTime Podcast](_URL_1_) hosts Matt Borths and Adam Pritchard, Ph.D.**: Dr. Pritchard studies the early history of the reptiles that gave rise to lizards, dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds. Mr. Borths works on the evolution of carnivorous mammals and African ecosystems. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Ohio University. Find them on Twitter @PastTimePaleo.
- **[Stephanie Drumheller, Ph.D.](_URL_4_)**: Dr. Drumheller is a paleontologist at the University of Tennessee whose research focuses on the processes of fossilization, evolution, and biology, of crocodiles and their relatives, including [identifying bite marks on fossils](_URL_0_).
- **Eugenia Gold, Ph.D**: Dr. Gold studies brain evolution in relation to the acquisition of flight in dinosaurs. She is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University.
- **Jess Miller-Camp**: Jess studies alligatorine systematics, morphology, biogeography, and ecology as well as dicynodont morphology and extinction survival. She is working on a dissertation at the University of Iowa and will soon be joining the staff at the University of California, Riverside as a museum scientist.
- **Caitlin Brown**: Caitlin is a current graduate student at UCLA. She studies the evidence left on bones by mammal behaviors and environments, such as hunting injuries of Ice Age predators. She has also done some sticky experiments with a modern tar pit.
- **Eric Wilberg, Ph.D.**: Dr. Wilberg studies the functional morphology of the snouts of crocodiles and their fossils relatives. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University.
We will be here at 11am ET/10am Central to answer your questions. See you then!
|
askscience
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"text": [
"Is Ross Geller from friends a good paleontologist?",
"Did the Cambrian explosion produce animal fossils with backbones? And if so, what are your views of likely causes of such an apparently drastic change?",
"Would you rather excavate 100 duck sized horses or 1 horse sized duck?",
"For Dr. Gold: I am about to begin my Ph.D. in the field of neurophys for kinesiology. I have always wanted to study neuro-evolution, but everyone I spoken with about finding a suitable program for this has told me that they don't know if anyone studies it much due to the fact that the brain leaves us no fossil record. I am already committed to the program I am in, but would one day like to study/perhaps do a related post-doc dealing with neuro-evolution. Do you have any recommendations as to where I could find a similar program. I'd like to study more towards the human/mammalian side in application for rehab and neuropathologies dealing with motor control. Thank you for your time!",
"How does one become a paleontologist in the first place? What do you do for school?",
"What's the evidence for and against dinosaurs having been warm blooded? If it's now commonly accepted, wwere dinosaurs previously assumed to be cold blooded, because they were assumed to be reptilian?\n\nDo we have a sense of how many different lines diverged into biped and quadroped? What are the evolutionary pressures for that divergence?\n\nThanks!",
"Would you consider your work to be more founded in biology or geology? What about paleontology in general? Which field are your educations centered around?",
"In your opinions, what was the most important discovery that was made in the last five years concerning vertebrate paleontology?",
"Did boney fish emerge concurrently with cartilaginous fish, or are are boney fish descended from them? If boney fish are descended from them, what specific evolutionary changes needed to happen to replace cartilage with bone?",
"How much dietary variety is there in the fossil record of crocodilians? have some extinct branches ratcheted towards unexpected food sources?\n\nWhat do we know/suspect about the diet of early transitional birds?",
"There's a bunch of creationists that sit on a corner of the capitol building in my city. Is there any 'smoking gun' evidence for evolution I can show to them? Or a good example of extremely convincing evidence? Thanks!",
"Thank you for doing this AMA!\n\nThe earliest Paleozoic océans appear to have been dominated by large invertebrates (Cephalopods, Anomalocarids, Eurypterids, etc) in terms of their largest predators, about up to the Siluro-Devonian. Vertebrates, on the other hand, seem to have struggled on the sidelines before becoming the successful and important part of oceanic faunas they are today. \n\nWhat factor or combination of events do you believe constituted fishes \"big break\" which allowed them to rise to prominence?\n\nPS: A vertebrate paleontologists named \"Drumheller\"???? How cool is that!",
"For Dr. Gold: What were some of the differences with studying at and receiving your Ph.D. from the American Museum of Natural History, as compared to a more traditional program? I can't imagine there is much cooler of a place to study paleontology than that museum.",
"What is the most diverse vertebrate faunal assemblage that has been found, and what time frame does it encompass?",
"When I participated in a dig, the people that ran things always marked where each bone was found. What is the point of doing that? What can you learn by knowing where each individual bone was? Thanks! \n\nP.S. For anybody that sees this and is curious, I went with a group run by the Burpee Museum in Illinois.",
"Economic geologist/paleontology hobbiest here! \n\nHow do you feel about the transition from Dickinson life forms to hard boddied organisms? Was there an \"arms race\" to fend from predation or was it more beneficial to have \"hard bodies\"\n\nAnd second, why is the USA the best in paleontology and why will it always be? ;)",
"I have always wanted to ask this. I am very interested in the subject but can't get constant information: \n1) What is a discovery from the last 5-10 years which is HUGE but the general public might be unaware of? \n2) What websites could I use for general news on paleontology?",
"What bones are completely inexistant in contemporary mammals? and which were the most irregular?\n\nI'm quite fascinated by the premaxillary bone and epipubic bones for instance, would love to know about more irregular bones!",
"There's certain \"big name\" extinct species we're all familiar with - Trilobytes, Dimetrodon, Stegosaurus, Triceratops, Tyrannosaurus Rex, Austrolopithecus, the Dodo, etc. - what's the neatest extinct animal we've never heard of?",
"Is there currently greater evidence for either the \"ground up\" or \"tree down\" hypothesis in regards to the evolution of flight in dinosaurs?",
"What kind of refuge/s might have been available to crocodilians which enabled them to survive the KT extinction?",
"So, I'm pretty sure people want to know - just how wrong *was* Jurassic Park?",
"Do we know why armored fish died out while the other jawed fish survived?",
"What is your view on whether crocodilians are secondarily ectothermic (evolved from endothermic ancestors)?",
"Which creature(s) from the ediacaran do you think is the most fascinating/mind-blowing?",
"I asked the following question in a recent /r/askscience \"ask anything\" thread but there were apparently no paleontologists monitoring the thread.\n************\nFor the last month or so I have been intensively studying 4 very good books on dinosaur paleontology and phylogenetic systematics, supplemented by what I can find on line, e.g., Wikipedia, Natural History Museum, etc.\n\nA question has intensified in the back of my mind as I've read, that I thought I would have found an answer to by now, but haven't.\n\nGivens:\n\n* dinosaurs existed for ~170 million years\n* somewhere in the (very rough) neighborhood of 1000 species have been identified, within a half dozen major groups\n* individual species appear to last anywhere from 1-10 myr, and individual genera lasting from a 1-50 myr, before going exinct\n* fairly clear progressions of phylogenetic change appear to have been identified between successive genera within each cladistic branch, such that there are not very many large gaps in morphological transition\n\nMy question is probably evident from the above conditions, but to attempt to state it more clearly, how is it that there do not appear to be many big gaps in the evolution of various morphological features within major groups of dinosaurs over the course of the entire Mesozoic era, considering that we have so few representative fossils, each of which only lasted a relatively short time? It seems like there should be huge gaps in our knowledge, as represented by large scale morphological changes, given the relative paucity of the fossil record and the long period of time it represents. It's like, there aren't enough specimens to account for the granularity we observe.\n\nWith as few fossils as we've analyzed, and with as many as likely existed that we haven't even discovered, I'd expect to see many more occurrences of completely novel phenotypes popping up out of nowhere without such a clear line of slightly more primitive and slightly more advanced taxa on either side.\n\np.s. Please forgive my misuse of terminology. I'm very new to the science side of it but the more I learn the more fascinating it gets.",
"This is not a question. I just wanted to thank each and everyone of you and your colleagues for your dedication to this fascinating field of study. My four year old son has been showing a strong interest in fossils. For the past 5 months my son and me have spent a few hours everyday on the PC googling different types of animal and fish fossils. His interest in fossils began after we purchased a small fish fossil from a local shop- since then it's all he's talked about. \nI've bought books and arranged fun activities all revolving around fossils. His happiness in the subject is genuine and that feeling wouldn't be possible without dedicated people like yourselves. So Thank you :) \n\nEDIT: The fossil that started his interest \n[Imgur](_URL_0_)",
"This may be a bit too broad, but your credentials are making me feel a bit out of my depth: Based on the various aspects of crocodiles that the panel is focused on, do any of you have any insight on our recent climate variances which might impact the species as a whole in our near future? And to add to that, are there any similarities to past environmental conditions with current conditions that might bring about the rise of new behaviors or hypothetical changes to the physiology of the species?\n\nSorry if this calls for too much supposition on your parts!",
"I'm sure who this question is best suited for, but I'd love to hear your thoughts on this! There was a relatively new discovery of a reptile ancestor indicating that an anapsid skull evolved from a ~~therapsid~~ diapsid one, and not the other way around. Did you see this coming? I took a course in chordate phylogeny a few years ago and thought it was counterintuitive that anapsids arose first. So was that species a paradigm changer, or do you find that everything makes more sense this way?",
"What are your thoughts about the frequently published observations that evolution is in part driven by the least energy (least free energy) principle of thermodynamics? I just discovered this concept this year and found it in many places in the literature, as well.\n\n_URL_2_ ;; \nDr. Karl Friston, Dept. Neurosciences, National Neurological Hospital (Queen's Square), Univ. College of London. .\n.\n\n\n\n_URL_2_",
"In regards to modern day crocodilians, it seems like the morphology of different species such as caymans, alligators, and crocodiles are all very similar until you get to the skull of the animal. Are the skull and its characteristics the primary thing paleontologists look at to determine the evolutionary pathway for these different species or are other synapomorphies present outside the skull?",
"Thank you for doing this. It's hard to find good information on pre-Jurassic paleontology written for non specialists. I've seen that bipedalism is an ancestral trait in many archosauriforms, do we know what pressures caused this early bipedalism and why it seems to be conserved so much?",
"I am currently a zoology undergraduate working towards a hopeful degree in invertebrate paleontology. What was one of the biggest challenges you faced in transitioning from undergraduate to Masters/PhD course study? \n\nWhat was the most helpful activity/course work to gain experience in your field?",
"Thanks for doing the AMA!\n\nThis question was asked before but unanswered I think: favorite fossil: Dome, Helix, or Amber?\n\nAlso, how does a group AMA like this work? I picture you all like [this](_URL_3_), is it anything close to what you're doing?",
"Beginner question here. How do you determine where to dig? I mean the distribution of fossils would be pretty random so obviously you can't dig up a really big area (say size of Manhattan island).",
"I recently read the most of the Spinosaurus fossils were destroyed in WWII from bombings in Berlin. \n\nHave there been other fossils destroyed in wars (or other mishaps) that were lost until recently rediscovered?",
"How long does it take for a fossil to form? Do different remains (like say bone, or shell, or vegetable matter) have different fossilization 'speeds'? Do different soils?",
"Based on your field of study, what potential and/or definite future conclusions can be made for current living organisms?",
"Dr. Adams, What's the best thing about being curator? How is is different from being a professor?",
"At what point do you think was the major split-off between birds and dinosaurs."
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{
"url": [
"http://phenomena.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/26/taking-a-bite-out-of-time/",
"http://www.pasttime.org/",
"http://vertpaleo.org/The-Society/We-Are-SVP.aspx",
"http://www.wittemuseum.org/",
"http://eps.utk.edu/faculty/drumheller.php",
"http://vertpaleo.org/The-Society/About-the-Society.aspx"
]
}
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{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/gabb3ej.jpg",
"http://rsif.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/10/86/20130475",
"https://jochesh00.wordpress.com/2015/09/01/evolution-growth-development-a-deeper-understanding/",
"http://breaklol.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/obama-laughing-laptop.jpg"
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|
We are scientists from the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology coming to you from our 75th annual meeting. We study fossils. Ask Us Anything!
**Edit: And we're off! Thank you so much for all the wonderful questions!** Hello AskScience! We are members of the [**Society of Vertebrate Paleontology**](_URL_5_). We study fossil fish, mammals, amphibians, and reptiles — anything with a backbone! Our research includes how these organisms lived, how they were affected by environmental change like a changing climate, how they're related, and much more. You can learn more about SVP in [this video](_URL_2_) or **follow us on Twitter @SVP_vertpaleo**. We're at our 75th Annual Meeting in Dallas, Texas and we're here to answer your questions. Joining us are: - **Thomas Adams, Ph.D.**: Dr. Adams is the Curator of Paleontology and Geology at the [Witte Museum](_URL_3_) in San Antonio, Texas. He specializes in the diversity and biogeography of crocodile relatives in Texas. - **[PastTime Podcast](_URL_1_) hosts Matt Borths and Adam Pritchard, Ph.D.**: Dr. Pritchard studies the early history of the reptiles that gave rise to lizards, dinosaurs, crocodiles and birds. Mr. Borths works on the evolution of carnivorous mammals and African ecosystems. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Ohio University. Find them on Twitter @PastTimePaleo. - **[Stephanie Drumheller, Ph.D.](_URL_4_)**: Dr. Drumheller is a paleontologist at the University of Tennessee whose research focuses on the processes of fossilization, evolution, and biology, of crocodiles and their relatives, including [identifying bite marks on fossils](_URL_0_). - **Eugenia Gold, Ph.D**: Dr. Gold studies brain evolution in relation to the acquisition of flight in dinosaurs. She is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. - **Jess Miller-Camp**: Jess studies alligatorine systematics, morphology, biogeography, and ecology as well as dicynodont morphology and extinction survival. She is working on a dissertation at the University of Iowa and will soon be joining the staff at the University of California, Riverside as a museum scientist. - **Caitlin Brown**: Caitlin is a current graduate student at UCLA. She studies the evidence left on bones by mammal behaviors and environments, such as hunting injuries of Ice Age predators. She has also done some sticky experiments with a modern tar pit. - **Eric Wilberg, Ph.D.**: Dr. Wilberg studies the functional morphology of the snouts of crocodiles and their fossils relatives. He is a postdoctoral researcher at Stony Brook University. We will be here at 11am ET/10am Central to answer your questions. See you then!
|
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] |
|
35xjt0
|
What is the weirdest mathematical function?
|
My teacher talked to us about a function that is continuous at every point but never differentiable. I was wondering if there were any other 'pathological' functions.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cr8xid3",
"cr8xsdi",
"cr9l9jw",
"cr995wl",
"cr964oa",
"cr9br1q"
],
"text": [
"Yes, there are tons of pathological functions. Gelbaum and Olmsted's *Counterexamples in Analysis* is full of them. It's a good wake up call for analysis students to be careful about what properties you assume. Some are surprising and others are quite simple.\n\nI picked some of the examples about functions. This is roughly half the book: it has more about sequences, topological spaces, metric spaces, series, and so on. I also didn't want to spend time typing the actual functions out. If you want you can give it a think and ask. :-)\n\nSome of the examples require a bit of terminology. I'll explain that too if you like.\n\n# Functions defined on the rationals\n\nThese functions have unexpected properties due to the incompleteness of the underlying number system. All the other examples can be assumed to work in reals, although that doesn't mean they are defined everywhere of course.\n\n* A continuous function on a closed interval which is unbounded\n* A continuous and bounded function on a closed interval which is not uniformly continuous\n* A uniformly continuous (and therefore bounded) function on a closed interval without a maximum\n* A continuous function on a closed interval failing the intermediate value property\n* A nonconstant differentiable function with zero derivative everywhere on a closed interval\n* A differentiable function for which Rolle's theorem fails\n* A monotonic uniformly continuous nonconstant function satisfying the intermediate value property, and whose derivative is identically zero on an interval\n\n# Functions and limits\n\n* A function continuous only at one point\n* A function that is everywhere finite but locally unbounded\n* A bounded function on a compact domain with no local extrema\n* A nonconstant periodic function without a smallest period\n* Two uniformly continuous functions whose product is not uniformly continuous\n* A function continuous on the irrationals and discontinuous (removable or non-removable) on the rationals\n* A bijection between two intervals that is nowhere monotonic\n* A continuous function that is nowhere monotonic\n* A function that is not the limit of continuous functions\n* A function defined on [0,1] whose range on any non-degenerate subinterval of [0,1] is [0,1].\n\n# Derivatives\n\n* A function that is not a derivative\n* A differentiable function with an extreme value in a point where the derivative does not change sign\n* A differentiable function whose derivative is positive in a point, but which is not monotonic in any neighborhood of that point\n* A differentiable function whose derivative is bounded but with no absolute extrema on a closed interval\n* A function that is everywhere continuous but nowhere differentiable (as you say)\n* An infinitely differentiable function that is positive for *x* > 0 and zero for *x* ≤ 0\n* An infinitely differentiable monotonic function whose limit in infinity is zero, but whose derivative's limit in infinity is not zero\n\n# Riemann integration\n\n* A Riemann-integrable function without a primitive\n* A function with a primitive on a closed interval but which is not Riemann-integrable\n* A Riemann-integrable function with a dense set of discontinuities\n* A composition of two Riemann-integrable functions which is not Riemann-integrable\n* A positive and continuous function that does not approach zero at infinity whose improper integral to infinity converges\n* A convergent improper integral to infinity whose integrand is unbounded on every set *x* ≥ *a*\n* A Riemann-Stjeltjes integral that is integrable on [*a*, *b*] and [*b*, *c*] but not [*a*, *c*]\n\n# Uniform convergence\n\n* A sequence of infinitely differentiable funtions converging uniformly to zero whose sequence of derivatives diverges everywhere\n* Examples of non-uniform convergence breaking the following properties: boundedness, continuity, Riemann-integrability\n* A sequence of functions for which the limit is not interchangeable with: integration, differentiation\n\n# Multiple dimensions\n\n* A discontinuous function of two variables which is continuous in each variable separately\n* A function of two variables which is zero in the origin, and for which any straight line approach to the origin gives the limit zero, but which is not continuous at the origin\n* A discontinuous function of two variables with first partial derivatives everywhere\n* A differentiable function with unequal mixed second derivatives\n\n# Function spaces\n\n* Examples of two functions satisfying a property but whose sum does not satisfy it, for these properties: monotonic, periodic, semicontinuous, square Riemann-integrable, square Lebesgue-integrable",
"It's hard to quantify the weirdest, but the [Weierstrass function](_URL_0_) is weird in that it is continuous everywhere and differentiable nowhere.",
"Here's a function that is continuous at every irrational number but discontinuous at every rational number:\n\n* If x is irrational, f(x) = 0\n\n* If x is rational, let its reduced form be p/q and f(x) = 1/q",
"There's also pathological things that aren't functions. For example, the [Hawaiian earring](_URL_2_) and the [topologists sine curve](_URL_2_). Every branch of math has a few pathological things that they test hypotheses on and use as counterexamples for everything. Not all branches of math deal with functions.",
"So many good answers already. There's a function that hits every real on every interval. That is, there's a function f such that if (a,b) is an interval of reals, f(a,b) = R. There's even an explicit example of such a function. _URL_3_",
"Tupper's self referential formula is pretty weird even those it isn't a function.\n\n_URL_4_"
],
"score": [
40,
14,
6,
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weierstrass_function",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topologist%27s_sine_curve",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hawaiian_earring",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conway_base_13_function",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tupper%27s_self-referential_formula"
]
}
|
What is the weirdest mathematical function?
My teacher talked to us about a function that is continuous at every point but never differentiable. I was wondering if there were any other 'pathological' functions.
|
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|
8cqw91
|
How was the newly found huge Japanese "rare earths" deposit formed?
|
[Link to the story](_URL_0_)
So the higher elements are formed inside Super Novae and then spewed out into the galaxy where they mix with other clouds of matter that eventually became our solar system and planet. So they have been around for billions of years before and billions of years since becoming part of the Earth. But why are they so dense in just this one area and why are they in the form of mud?
Also, how likely is it that there are many more of these yet to be discovered?
|
askscience
|
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"Rare earths are really difficult to separate from other elements, they aren't actually particularly rare.\n\nMost of the more concentrated rare earths to come to the surface likely came via volcanos, which in the ocean likely resulted in a lot of dust laced with the stuff that just got carried off by currents (as opposed to the harder-to-process solid rock found on the surface without the constant abrasive effects of the ocean.)\n\nJapan only surveyed their exclusive economic zone and found a lot, so chances are similar deposits coat the ocean floor.",
"My understanding is the rare earth elements here come from hydrothermal vents and volcanic activity under water. Once they have entered the sea water they are then absorbed by biogenic calcium phosphates, which are minerals precipitated by various marine organisms. These minerals accumulate on the ocean floor with other deep sea muddy sediment. The reason they are in such high concentration here is likely due to the proximity to hydrothermal activity and comparatively low sedimentation rates of non REE-bearing sediments.",
"Others have addressed the formation issue (they've left out the possibility of bioacculumation, but that's another topic)\n\nI'd like to point out that this is far from a \"new\" discovery.\n\nI've copied [my comment from a few days ago](_URL_2_) when this came up in a different sub.\n\n > They used to say similar things about the manganese nodules found all over the ocean floor, sometimes in high concentrations. Those also include [large amounts of nickel, copper, titanium, cobalt, and more](_URL_1_), often in much higher concentration than in any terrestrial ore supply.\n\n > In fact this \"new\" find looks like it's in an area that's been know to have high concentrations of metals for decades (compare the maps) and this article is a mainly a refinement of earlier work.\n\n > The nodules are much easier to harvest than the mud this article refers to, but despite people having been working on it since the 1970s no economically feasible method has been developed.\n\n > That's entirely leaving out the environmental impacts of strip-mining the ocean floor.\n\nIn short, we've known about large mineral deposits on the ocean floor both in mud and in hard nodules for a long time. We've known about them in that particular area for quite a while as well. The linked article includes a map and you can see just how widespread these deposits are, they're basically global in extent, not just in that one area.\n\nRegarding this particular deposit, it's [unlikely to be mined or accessed any time in the foreseeable future](_URL_0_).\n\n > To access the rare earths at site 1222, for instance, would require pulling up the top 70 meters of seafloor sediment, filtering out the water content, removing the valuable rare earths (which make up less than one part per thousand of the sediment) and returning the rest of the material to the seabed.\n\n > Such an undertaking would require new technology, a long permitting process—and, of course, a lot of money. So there would have to be a significant economic incentive to access the seafloor resource. \"That's why I'm not sure the rare earth elements are enough in themselves to provide that,\" says James Hein, a geologist at the U.S. Geological Survey in Menlo Park, Calif. After all, the global rare earth market is relatively small—it currently runs about $2 billion to $3 billion annually, according to a recent report from Ernst & Young, whereas the markets for metals such as copper are dozens of times larger. \"I'll be surprised, really, if this gets much attention as a resource potential in the near term,\" Hein says. \"The grades really are just not very high, and the environmental issues will just be so great.\"\n\n > At depths of 4,000 to 5,000 meters, seafloor ecosystems are not well understood, nor are the potential impacts of large-scale dredging on those ecosystems. \"Essentially, this would be a strip-mining operation where they would be sucking up lots of sediments from the seafloor over large areas,\" says Craig Smith, a professor of oceanography at the University of Hawaii at Manoa, \"which would of course destroy the communities that reside there.\" Those ecosystems, to the extent that they have been explored, have low biomass but high biodiversity. And, having taken hold in a stable environment, they are not adapted to large-scale disturbances.\n\n > \"Four thousand meters in the deep ocean is a long way down, and we don't know how to mitigate against significant environmental impacts or how to restore the ecosystem, if you can even restore the ecosystem,\" says Cindy Van Dover, an oceanographer at Duke University. \"We don't understand a lot about what is going on down there from an ecological standpoint.\"\n\n > Many of the sites sampled by the Japanese researchers are in international waters and would fall under the jurisdiction of the International Seabed Authority, based in Jamaica, which means any mining concern looking to extract seafloor rare earths would likely face a long regulatory process. \"Doing things there is a very slow and considered process,\" Van Dover says. \"Things don't happen overnight in international waters.\"\n\nAnd that's not addressing the major environmental issues at stake.",
"Just want to point out that 'rare earths' are not, strictly speaking, 'rare'. Cesium, for example, is more common than copper, and we seem to have lots of that. However, the rare earths are hard to separate from other materials, and don't occur in 'veins' the way other metals sometimes do, so they were hard to identify before modern technology was available.",
"Through the processes of supergene enrichment. \n\n_URL_3_\n\nNot unexpected in a volcanic and seismically active area; part and parcel related to the Japan Trench, where all sorts of geologically strange, bizarre and unexpected events transpire. Such as REE-laden asaphane (and juvenile) groundwaters circulate through the back-arc basinal muddy carbonate sediments, and through the magic of ReDox aqueous thermogeochemistry, some elements are concentrated whilst other become or remain mobile.",
"Most heavier elements come to be because first generation stars tend to be very massive due to the abundance of hydrogen in the early universe. These stars go supernova and produce heavy elements that are spewed out. These elements get mixed in with leftover hydrogen and produce later generation stars. The protoplanetary discs from those stars form planets with deposits of heavier metals. Then geologic processes form deposits of said heavy elements and metals. Our solar system is a second or third generation star system seeded with heavier elements from the earlier generations of stars.",
"To add something new that not many people have pointed out, some of these \"newly discovered\" deposits aren't actually really \"new\". Allot of the times. People stockpile harvesting locations and just use them as the need arises. I think they found this one back in 2013. \n\nConsidering the political-economic climate right now and the apparent uses of what this deposit are, I wouldn't be surprised if they start selling it to the states..since they get allot of that stuff from China right now"
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.cnn.com/2018/04/16/asia/japan-rare-earth-metals-find-china-economy-trnd/index.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/rare-earth-elements-ocean/",
"https://worldoceanreview.com/en/wor-3/mineral-resources/manganese-nodules/",
"https://www.reddit.com/r/EverythingScience/comments/8bwvea/a_massive_semiinfinite_trove_of_rareearth_metals/dxajh5s/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supergene_(geology)"
]
}
|
How was the newly found huge Japanese "rare earths" deposit formed?
[Link to the story](_URL_0_) So the higher elements are formed inside Super Novae and then spewed out into the galaxy where they mix with other clouds of matter that eventually became our solar system and planet. So they have been around for billions of years before and billions of years since becoming part of the Earth. But why are they so dense in just this one area and why are they in the form of mud? Also, how likely is it that there are many more of these yet to be discovered?
|
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] |
|
216c8s
|
How have plug adaptors become so much smaller and lighter over the past decade or so?
|
[Here's a comparison picture](_URL_0_) of two plug adaptors for electronic devices.
The one on the left was typical of about 10 years ago; it's bulky, heavy, and only takes one type of voltage (110v, 60hz).
The one on the right is typical of today; extremely compact, about 1/10th the weight of the old one, and can take input voltages that include various world standards (110-220v, 50-60hz).
I presume some sort of technological innovation led to this advancement - what was it (or what were they, if it's multiple things), and how was it achieved?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"There are a couple major reasons.\n\nFirst, switching power converters have become vastly more commonplace, and they are more efficient while using smaller components. Older AC to DC adapters use large transformers and large heat sinks because they are very inefficient and dump a lot of wasted power into heat. Modern switched mode adapters are much more efficient (85% or sometimes more) and use much smaller components. Computers have been using switched mode power supplies for a long time but the advancements in MOSFET transistors have made it practical and economic to build switched mode power supplies at every scale, as well as increasing the conversion efficiency and reducing EF noise (which requires bulky metal shielding) which was common with earlier switched mode electronics.\n\nSecond, many electronics use a lot less power than they used to, enabling much smaller adapters. Even a comparatively high amp draw device like an iPad will only draw maybe 10 watts of power while charging. Compare that to a power supply that might need to supply 100 watts or more of power.\n\nThird, modern electronics use PCB construction and surface mount components on multi-layer PCBs, which is incredibly compact. A surface mount resistor is maybe 1 to 2mm long, and can be placed extremely tightly on a board. Today the prevalence of pick-and-place machines and reflow ovens makes it almost trivial for even one-off production runs at small scale to be done at fairly low cost using such techniques. In the past it would have been more common for small electronics, including power adapters, to be hand assembled.",
"Much of the reduction in weight is due to the widespread use of switching power supplies at higher frequencies thanks to better magnetic materials. Higher frequency supplies have better efficiency over direct 60Hz cousins.",
"The answer has basically been said already: the switch from traditional transformers to switching power supplies. I'll try to explain what that means and why it allowed for the reduction in size/weight.\n\nThe old power supplies were simple transformers + rectifiers. A transformer converts an AC input to a different voltage AC output. The AC is then converted to DC with a rectifying circuit. Transformers are just a set of two wire coils wrapped around a metal core. The old power supplies were bulky mainly because transformers are bulky.\n\nThe new switching power supplies, rather than using transformers, are controlled by microprocessors so they can intelligently switch on and off the supply of AC (wall) power to a set of capacitors (charge-storing devices), in order to precisely charge them to the correct output voltage. They constantly switch the connection from input to output on and off according to the charge state of the capacitors and the current state of the AC input wave. This is why the new adapters can take a wide range of input voltages and reliably convert to a constant output.",
"Actually, the technological innovation wouldn't have been on the part of the plugs; it would've been on the part of the devices and batteries that are being charged - a lot of devices have shrunk and their batteries have improved.\n \nStrictly in terms of size, if you look at the larger power adapter, you'll probably see that it handles a higher power than the 5V/1A converter.\n\nedit: Okay, evidently I'm a bit out of date with power converters. See below..."
],
"score": [
30,
18,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/QYI9rJj.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How have plug adaptors become so much smaller and lighter over the past decade or so?
[Here's a comparison picture](_URL_0_) of two plug adaptors for electronic devices. The one on the left was typical of about 10 years ago; it's bulky, heavy, and only takes one type of voltage (110v, 60hz). The one on the right is typical of today; extremely compact, about 1/10th the weight of the old one, and can take input voltages that include various world standards (110-220v, 50-60hz). I presume some sort of technological innovation led to this advancement - what was it (or what were they, if it's multiple things), and how was it achieved?
|
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5mm3ck
|
How viable is the idea of using artificial wombs to help save endangered species?
|
I feel like this is a potential solution especially when getting animals to breed is difficult(pandas for example). The expense and scientific limitations could be an issue but I'm not sure. I would love to hear input on this
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Right now artificial wombs aren't anywhere close to being a reality. Organizations that do want to clone endangered or extinct animals at this point need to use closely related species as the artificial womb. For instance the people working to clone mammoths will use an Asian or African elephant as a surrogate mother, that is one of the reasons they are considered clone-able. But for other animals like the Steller's Sea Cow or the giant sloth cloning is not considered an option yet because there are no closely related species that are large enough to be the clone's surrogate. You can read about specific criteria and species at this website. \n\n_URL_0_\n\nEDIT- as far as the giant panda goes, you could hypothetically set up some IVF program with their closest relatives, the Spectacled Bear. They could be birthed from Spectacled Bears and potentially nursed by them, or there may be some kind of hormone therapy you could give pandas that would cause them to lactate so the tiny pandas could be weened by their own kind/on their own milk.",
"I can only imagine the cost of operating such a system would be prohibitive in the extreme. Beyond the fact that we would have to know exactly what amounts of thousands of incredibly complex chemicals the animal produces in natures to a degree that we don't even know in humans right now.",
"Even if you birth more of said-species, it's the conditions that cause them to go extinct that ultimately need to be addressed to solve the problem. The only exceptions would be the few adequately protected species that happen to already be at a point-of-no-return.",
"We don't understand enough of what happens during development to be anywhere close to making artificial wombs a reality. DNA isn't everything, and early development plays a huge role in determining how animals will turn out. Genes are turned on and off (and up and down), sometimes permanently, as a result of conditions in utero.\n\nIn humans, we know that conditions experienced by a grandparent can impact disease risk and mortality through a process known as transgenerational epigenetics. We also know that this process is really complicated.\n_URL_3_\n\nRadioLab did a nice treatment of this recently, discussing how human embryos will only develop in the laboratory up to a certain (early) stage, and then die. Scientists have recently been able to extend this period, but not by much, and we don't really know what the barrier is.\n\n_URL_3_\n_URL_3_\n(Bonus RadioLab including the grandparent story.)\n\nSo, a major part of why artificial wombs won't save endangered species is that they aren't likely to exist for a very long time, if ever. Turns out DNA sequence is only part of the picture - you need just the right developmental conditions to get that DNA to make that endangered individual, and right now, a real mother* is the only way to get that.\n\n*Can possibly be a mother from a very closely related species, but still: you need the real deal.",
"Leaving physiology aside because I know very little about it, artificial wombs may aid in stabilizing a small captive population but I feel wouldn't play a very large role is saving a species as a whole. I think that there are a couple of things that limit the success of a captive breeding program more so than just getting the numbers up but I am definitely not an expert and would love to talk more about them if someone disagrees.\n\nFirst I think that creating more individuals without understanding the reasoning why the mating behavior isn't being expressed would be synonymous to treating a symptom of a symptom instead of working towards the actual cure. I don't know much about the panda example but I do know another one where numbers were low (can't remember the animal, I'll edit later) because female preference was low for males below a certain body-mass. which all of their males were. Understanding more about what these animals are all about is part of why we want to keep them around and so I think working with the animal's instincts should be a top priority. Not only preserving the physical animal but also that animal's behavioral culture.\n\nThe other issue I have is that I am picturing an animal raised in an artificial womb being raised either in non-ideal groupings or by humans. We already know the importance of avoiding human imprinting and the people running the best programs put a lot of work into doing that (see Whooping Crane). An artificial womb I feel would increase that risk and brings up more questions like: If the animal is raised in a lab environment will it be lacking in information that would be otherwise be passed down by herd-mates or parents? Can the animal survive as well once it is time to be released without that information. \n\nI guess the key things that make me skeptical after all that rambling are:\n\n* could the effort be better spent on addressing the 'why' behind the lack of breeding success (or the 'why' of it's endangered status)\n\n* is the risk to the animal's social knowledge worth the increase in the animal's physical numbers",
"Treating the symptom of a problem does nothing to solve the problem. Pandas, for example, will not breed in captivity or in the wild if conditions are not right. We are destroying their habitats and depleting their food source, so they are not sustaining their population. At this point there are three options: save the species by restoring their habitats; save the species by artificially reproducing them, *forever*, at an enormous expense of time and money; or let them go extinct. \n\nWithout a habitat for them to live in, what's the point of trying to save them?",
"Another question inspired by OP:\n\nAssuming we had the tech to make an effective artificial womb, to what extent would we be able to expect to manipulate early development?\n\nA human for example - in an artificial environment, limiting factors like the size of the uterus and 9 month time line could potentially all go out the window if they were in our control; we could bump the 'pregnancy' period up to 20 months or more if we wanted to... would there be any benefit to doing that?",
"It's near impossible to create an artificial womb since there are a lot of precise and specific things that have to happen in order for a fetus to mature and grow properly. Things that we just are not advanced enough to do...yet. \n\nI'm sure the technology for it will come about sooner or later, but it won't be easy and may not even happen. It'll have to get past an ethics board for sure first."
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{
"url": [
"http://reviverestore.org/species/",
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/251876-inheritance/",
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Överkalix_study",
"http://www.radiolab.org/story/primitive-streak/"
]
}
|
How viable is the idea of using artificial wombs to help save endangered species?
I feel like this is a potential solution especially when getting animals to breed is difficult(pandas for example). The expense and scientific limitations could be an issue but I'm not sure. I would love to hear input on this
|
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|
3lts33
|
Does the 1.9 mile Klystron Gallery have to account for the curvature of the earth during construction?
|
Aside from walls (e.g. the Great Wall of China), the Klystron Gallery is listed as the longest man-made structure. Given its length, are there special engineering considerations that needed to be taken to deal with the curvature of the earth, or is the curvature not a significant factor at 1.9 miles?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cv9bdac",
"cv97ruc",
"cv9ynw2",
"cva33qg"
],
"text": [
"The main accelerator is a linear beam projector buried 30ft under ground which is straight as a laser beam. The building above it is probably a series of connected, traditionally built facilities which conform to the ground. If they didn't take into account the curvature the buildings at the ends would have an inclined floor.",
"The Earth curves at about 8 inches per mile (~~5~~ 12.5 cm/km), so the linear accelerator tube definitely needs to be higher up at the ends than at the middle to make it straight. Whether the building curves with the earth or not is probably irrelevant.",
"The Linac tunnel at the SNS is only about 1/4 mile long, and they had to take the curvature of the earth into account, amongst other grading issues. The Klystron gallery runs parallel to it, and while it's flat, I'm not sure it's as level as the tunnel is.",
"[LIGO arms 4 km in length](_URL_0_) and are perpendicular to each other. They have to account for the Earth's curvature during construction."
],
"score": [
20,
17,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://ligo.caltech.edu/page/facts"
]
}
|
Does the 1.9 mile Klystron Gallery have to account for the curvature of the earth during construction?
Aside from walls (e.g. the Great Wall of China), the Klystron Gallery is listed as the longest man-made structure. Given its length, are there special engineering considerations that needed to be taken to deal with the curvature of the earth, or is the curvature not a significant factor at 1.9 miles?
|
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|
3j5zyo
|
Aren't all chemical reactions hypothetically reversible?
|
Because all the original elements are still there, just paired differently. When we classify reversible reactions vs irreversible what we are basically saying is, types that can be easily reversed(straight forward) vs types that can't be easily reversed(but still hypothetical can be).
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cummks7",
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"text": [
"Yes, but when considering \"degree of reversibility\" you look at Gibbs free energy, and it considers not only enthalpy (energy change from bond breakage/formation), but entropy as well. So for many reactions, while it is _enthalpically_ favourable for it to go one way, it is _entropically_ unfavourable in that direction.\n\nSo saying that all chemical reactions are hypothetically reversible is akin to saying it is _possible_ for all air molecules in a room to be in one tiny corner, but statistically speaking it is so unlikely that it will not happen. You _can_ make a distinction and say it's hypothetically possible, but it's not useful to do so.",
"First, to make the question clearer, there are two different kinds of reversibility. Microscopical reversibility is the property of chemical reactions by which, while the reactants follow a certain mechanism to be converted into products, the products at the same time and in the same environment are likely to follow the reverse mechanism to form the reactants again. That will happen for every reaction as long as you have a big enough number of molecules in a small region so that you can model the reaction kinetics using statistics. If you have a small, discrete number of molecules under collision and the rate of the reverse reaction is too low then you may not encounter any instance of collision that results in the reverse reaction, but it would still be possible.\n\nMacroscopical reversibility in the other hand is about the second law of thermodynamics. It's about the arrow of time in the reaction and how a given reaction won't happen in reverse spontaneously once the entropy of the universe has been let to increase already. Reactions before they reach equilibrium are driven in the sense that the entropy of the universe increases and maximizes it once equilibrium is reached. However, you can indeed reverse a chemical reaction if you allow for it to always be in equilibrium - i.e. to never lie in a kinetic state. If for instance you let vary slowly the temperature of the reaction medium once equilibrium was achieved, you will shift the equilibrium towards a new composition, so in practice you will see things reacting. However, if you later induce the opposite variation in temperature, your system will achieve the same prior composition and no entropy will have been generated over the cycle.",
"It's mostly about the energy involved. Take the classic glucose\n\n C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 ---- > 6CO2 + 6H2O. \n\nWe know this is reversible because of photosynthesis, but look at the conditions needed. To burn glucose we just need a flame. To make it we need multiple enzyme catalysts, pre-cursors to catch the energy and have it ready. So, on paper yes. \n\nIn practice - what if we have to go through multiple steps? Consider now baking a cake. We mix egg and flour and sugar then bake it. The egg and the flour will combine chemically, form bonds. We can break those bonds down, but do we get egg and flour back? even in mixture? We can burn the cake, let plants photosynthesise, get new flour and new eggs but I wouldn't call that reversing the reaction."
],
"score": [
18,
5,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Aren't all chemical reactions hypothetically reversible?
Because all the original elements are still there, just paired differently. When we classify reversible reactions vs irreversible what we are basically saying is, types that can be easily reversed(straight forward) vs types that can't be easily reversed(but still hypothetical can be).
|
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on9bq
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I can see the world map in my head, but when I try to draw it the result looks horrible. Where in the brain→hand→paper process does it go wrong?
|
This obviously doesn't only apply to world maps, but I think it's an example most can relate to. I've seen the world map so many times that I seem to have a clear picture of how it looks like in my head. However, when I try to draw one, it doesn't look like the real thing at all.
What is it that makes me so bad at drawing from memory? Is it my memory that isn't as detailed as I think, or is it because I can't control my hands good enough? If it's a combination of many factors (which I believe it is), what's the most common/important "limitation"?
Obviously this skill varies a lot between people. If I practice to draw from memory, what exactly do I improve?
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askscience
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"Betty Edwards, an experienced drawing teacher, suggests in her book *Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain* that our inability to draw actually comes from our inability to **see**. When you draw Africa, for example, your mind has a clear-cut idea of what Africa is (most likely developed at a younger age, from the first few times you saw a world map). From that point on, any time you try to draw Africa, this preconceived image dominates your drawings. This is why it is difficult for you to draw things you see, even multiple times.\n \nTo test this theory (which I have done, many times), pick a painting that you like. You can also do it with the world map, if you would like. Try to copy it onto a new sheet of paper (don't trace, just put the sheet down next to the painting and copy). Because of your preconceived notions of what a human face, or a car, or anything else looks like, it will probably look nothing like the original (unless you are an artist). \n \nNow, try it again, but this time turn the painting upside down when you copy it. By doing so, your brain no longer recognizes things as \"a face\", or \"a car\", but rather as a collection of lines. This means you copy *exactly* what you see, rather than what you think you see. The results are astounding!",
"It may be more related to your art than your science: if by \"draw a map of the world\" you mean \"draw a line around the borders\", your line is most likely *locally* accurate at any given point, but *globally* inaccurate by the compounding of errors. So the angle of any twist in the coastline is only off by a degree or two, but by the time you've come back around to it, the resulting proportions are drastically different than you intended.\n\nI know that when an artist draws a human body, they often start by drawing appropriately-sized ovals or general shapes for the head, torso and limbs, frequently adding lines to help visualize the symmetries, and only when they are satisfied with the proportions do they \"fill in\" the lines that would compose the finished drawing.\n\nI wonder whether your world map drawings would get better if you started, very lightly in pencil, by sketching the locations and relative sizes of the continents and then gradually added details only as you were satisfied that the proportions matched the map in your head.",
"Part of the problem is that the world map in your head really isn't as good as you think it is.\n\nYou can see Europe clear as day, right? Now visualize the Eastern coast of Denmark, or Ireland. As photographic as the whole feels, the details aren't really there.",
"When you \"see\" the world map in your head, how do you know it's accurate - what are you comparing it to? \n\nYep, you're comparing it to the world map in your had - you're comparing it to itself. In reality the internal map may be very inaccurate. Ask yourself some detailed questions, then check your answers. For example: Which is largest: Niger or Nigeria? Which is longest, the Mexico-US border or the Russia-Mongolia border? Is Japan further east than Australia? Which is further North, Moscow or Stockholm?\n\nIf you *did* have an accurate and accessible map of the world in your mind, you'd be able to give an accurate answer to these questions. \n\n**tl;dr** Self-deception.",
"Hope you don't mind me asking a tag along question.\n\nIs this phenomenon related in some way to the way we can hear a certain accent in our head perfectly but fail miserably to recreate it?",
"These answers still don't satisfy! I always wondered this as well.\n\nExample : I consider myself extremely creative, and I've always WANTED to be an artist, I've gotten into drawing lessons/teaching myself on and off for years, and to this day I still find inspiration and come up with ideas in my head. I've fleshed the ideas out, I have extremely detailed images in my mind, but when I put pencil to paper, I can't make the picture go to paper.\n\nI often spend a large amount of time trying to picture exactly the image I had in mind while slowly drawing it out, trying to match the idea to the drawing perfectly, but without success.\n\nI also want to know what causes this. I doubt it's ONLY drawing what \"you think\" something looks like, because I prefer to draw fictional/fantasy objects or characters (lots of steampunk-ish/cyborgish things), and it's not like I have any notion of what these look like throughout my life, I'm coming up with them in my head.",
"You need to understand its actual geometric construction before you can accurately draw anything from imagination or memory. The power is not thinking of something and then drawing it literally...it's thinking of something that has a geometrical and anatomical REALITY beyond the snapshot you imagine. Once you understand those things, you can draw from imagination, and at any angle. For a simple primer in these ideas, I'd recommend this:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nFor how the great masters did it, with painstaking attention to detail (and with techniques rarely taught today):\n_URL_1_\n\nFor a masterpiece on drawing from imagination: \n_URL_0_",
"Mental imagery is often inaccurate. For example, imagine a tiger. Got it? Now try counting the number of stripes it has. Probably can't do it. Our representations aren't precise enough. Mental maps usually aren't much better. What is further west, San Diego or Reno? You might be surprised when you look on a map.\n\nThere are a few exceptions. For example, you can probably imagine any letter and count the number of corners that it has by \"walking along\" the length of the letter. \n\nOverall, though, we often don't have as precise of an image as we feel we do.",
"I really hate to be that guy, but I must point out that none of the answers here are scientific. All of them are speculation or anecdotal. By the rules of this subreddit, all of these posts should be removed. This is probably the most karma I've ever seen on an askscience post, so I wanted to give a heads up and get some feedback before dropping the delete hammer on the whole thing.",
"Similar goes for music.\n\nI can recognize a piece of music as \"probably written by Beethoven\"; but if I try to write something that sounds like Beethoven I fail so miserably it's funny.\n\nIs that related to the seeing/drawing problem the OP asked?",
"Instructional Designer here....\n\nTo understand why you can't recreate the map from memory you need to know a little about learning. Benjamin Bloom developed a taxonomy of learning domains, basically ways to categorize how we learn. Specifically he found that there are three learning domains, Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor. \n\nSo if your learning objective is to draw a map of the world from memory, it can be broken down as such: Cognitive deals with your mental skills about the world map, you have a clear mental picture of what the world map looks like and you know they techniques to draw it. Affective targets why the learning is important. You understand that its important to know what the world map looks like (you may get lost, and its important to recreate the map). Finally Psychomotor deals with the manual or physical skills required to draw the map.\n\nEach of these domains have different levels that move from simple to complex. For example in the cognitive domain, you move from simple knowledge of subject to being able to evaluate and make judgments about that subject. In the Psychomotor domain, it moves from perception (identifying a world map that has been drawn correctly) to origination (actually drawing the map yourself). \n\nI would say that your problems drawing the world stem from having a deficiency in both the cognitive and psychomotor areas. \n\nFirst, you lack the cognitive knowledge of how to draw. The techniques of drawing are fairly complex and there are process and procedures that assist you in drawing. Second, you may not have a clear idea of what the world map actually looks like. You may know the general placement of the continents and their general shape, but you don't have the cognitive ability to identify the exact shape of the continents (which would be required to accurately recreate it).\n\nYou also lack the psychomotor skills to physically draw the map. When developing a psychomotor skill you have to practice. One of the most important steps is guided response, watching a skilled practitioner and copying their movements. It can take quite a bit of practice until you are able to move from this to origination.\n\nSo to answer your question, when you practice to draw from memory, you improve your abilities in the cognitive domain (for both knowing how to draw and knowing what the world map looks like) and the psychomotor domain.",
"Am I the only one that REALLY wants to know what was in all of those deleted comments",
"I do think there is some confusion, or neglect, as to the phenomenon of cognitive visualization sometimes referred to as memory and sometimes as imagination. Yes I did just offhandedly conflate memory and imagination. I don't see any reason to constrain this conversation merely to the realm of real objects and events as archived by the faulty, organized by connivance rather than accuracy, data processor of the mind excluding clearly unreal episodes of fantasy. \n\nI would seriously challenge this idea that the image exists fully formed at any point in the system. Lets follow with the world map example. The idea that the world can be drawn correctly supports a hegemonic view of symbolism. That it, it believes the world is capable of being represented in one of two ways: right and wrong. These are moral and ideological distinctions and not by themselves visible metrics. What might be possible, and indeed what the situation is interested in asking, is what happens to the fidelity of the image?\n\nThe ability to recognize an object is separate from the ability to understand that object. This is true for the vast majority of human history in regards to basic laws of the universe. Since we have record of human beings, there is no evidence to believe they could not recognize the physical influence of gravity, or motion, or cosmological transformations of night and day. This recognition however does not necessarily translate to a complex understanding of precisely what things are happening that create this reality. A closer to home example is the much reported bane of public testing and especially a specific form, the fill-in-the-blank question in which a student might be able to assign the correct language to satisfy the problem without any appreciation for what that problem means.\n\nI know an enormously talented artist. His drawings leave me raw with envy. He makes anything I could do look like the frustrated splatter of a distracted child. However I was strangely upset when I eventually learned his process. He would pour over case work from other artists to see how they might have solved whatever problem he was on. How would this artist draw the curvature of an arm at this perspective? How what this artist try to convey motion on a landscape? Where would this artist arrange muscles so that character looks strong and natural without being monstrous? In a primitive way it felt almost like plagiarism.\n\nIt was like lifting choice phrases and bolting them into his own creations. They were never exact, and in time all took on his own unmistakable metamorphic signature. However, it was the idea that they did not come spontaneously that seemed. . . offensive.Almost upstart like someone cutting in line. I was stuck on the naturalist cause-way and he was taking mentored shortcuts. I was doing the brain-hand-paper and he was doing something else entirely.\n\nThe point though is in the difference between fidelity and correctness. What is the nature of the problem? There are many different versions of the world map, disciples which construct the world to appear physically different. The location, proportion, spacial relationships, and geographic features does substantially change based on what properties you want to emphasis. Drawing Europe, whether Ireland appears to the left or the right of Britian depends greatly on what you want to say about their relationship. \n\nLikely the situation you're describing however assumes that the order and form of an item projected in the theater of the mind is completely known to the artist. This assumption is deeply problematic, indeed the idea that there could failure inside the brain-hand-paper system with this assumption explicitly excludes the brain from any wrongdoing. Meaning if you want to accept that your mind is capable of fully realizing an image, then the problem exists within your bio-mechanical anatomy or in the canvas's physical properties.\n\nThis possibility forecloses on much other discussion. So instead I would like to spend some time exploring the ways in which your belief in an image may not be as substantial as the actual content of that image. Essentially, how something could be wrong with the storage and reasoning of information while preserving a high degree of certainty in the truth of that error.\n\nIn 1997 Elizabeth Loftus conducted a psychology experiment classically known as the “lost in the shopping mall” study.\n\nThe study takes place in multiple phases. In priming the participants, family narratives are collected from relatives. Participants choose from the stories of their own lives which tales signal real events and which are fake. The fake story is always the same, planted by the experimenter. in which a trip to the mall is transformed into an attachment drama where the person was supposedly lost and later reunited with their anxious parents. People were able to correctly identify 68 percent of the stories as true. A smaller contingent (29%) identified the red-herring story as true. Even when confronted with the evidence, 25% of the initial 29% continued to believe the false memory was true.\n\nThat is fairly startling. Not only did about one third of people incorrectly identify history from their own lives, a quarter of those even after debriefing retained their false belief!\n\nTrue memories appear to have a larger amount of informational content and false memories, as seen by a greater word performance in self report. Themes of cognitive dissonance are running absolutely throughout. It reminds me of studies in split brain patients with the usual conclusion, the mind is not rational but rationalizing. False memories have informational content consistent with true memories. These are false memories of plausible scenarios after all, no one in these studies was made to remember a game of strip poker with a homely giraffe. It is a use of imagination that stretches conventional knowledge over new “truths”.\n\nThe imagination Inflation effect is the negative influence of encouragement on memory validity. Participants motivated to provide more information about a false event increase their own belief in the circumstance of that event. \n\nOne possible solution: mirror neurons. When we conceive of an event, many of the same neurons that would be used in that event light up. That is, thinking about doing something uses the same neuroanatomy as having actually done it. If is some research to suggest that some degree of information processing is handled by neuro-anatomical components located outside of the neural cortex. The studies I'm referring to are that of botox patients losing the ability to detect language cues regarding emotions when their own emotional interfaces have been paralyzed. Recalling a past event could use much of the same brain consoles used in the creation the artificial realities of imagination. The processes overlap because they use the same machinery to perform different actions. Therapists who provide input cues confuse an operational segregation by coding imagination as memory. \n\nI would take as evidence the phenomenon of a compelling reinterpretation. When you say something only to look back on it under a new perspective, many times you will see how the informational content of that speech is transformed by the situation. Derisive wit can read like insolent disobedience. The content hasn't changed. The words were spoken correctly and were not interrupted midair before they reached someone's ears, however simply reorienting a perspective can completely reverse the intended meaning. The general response to this is often not to accept a language barrier, but to instead engineer a new sentiment in an effort to convoy a message, this time with new more effulgent ambassadors of community. The assumption is that it is the intent of language to not merely deliver informational content but to negotiate a relationship for that content. If a therapist is telling you to have a relationship of memory with imaginary content, the dissonance can function as an intellectual mortar. \n\nTo conceptualize this it would be like there are two rooms. One for memory, one for imagination. The rooms are the same in every way, they are merely spaces. Inside memory is a toolbox, inside imagination there is a toy-box. The boxes differ only in what we choose to call them. The contents of those boxes differ only in use. A fake memory could be organizational messiness, leaving toys in the work area if you will. I suppose this does offer experimental condition if you ever wanted to test it. Can there be two categories of false memories? A toy in the toolbox and a tool in the toy box. A memory believed to be imagination and an imagination believed to be memory.\n\nThree ways that false memories of complete, self-participatory\nexperiences are created in adults.\n\n1. Confederates. Having someone stake a scenario as real enables subjects to treat it under the same impression. Vouchers are powerful influence mechanisms.\n\n2. Pressure. When memory is challenged there is a situational need to produce more of it. Sometimes this pressure is great enough that we do not have access to more memory despite the demand for it. Imagination can serve as a poor substitution in these moments. Simply wanting to draw an image can create a need to believe that you do in fact have all the prerequisites needed to make that image happen.\n\n3. Systemic failure. The effect of pressure to produce memories can be modified by inventing new rules of the game. Usually the imaginary is segregated from memory with only limited interaction. Removing restraints, like informing subjects not to concern themselves with keeping memory and imagination separate, can cause inbreeding.\n\n\n\nWhew...... Just some food for thought. I may come back later to clean up editing.",
"I would bet that most cognitive psychologists would suggest that the tightest bottleneck here is your ability to **retrieve** what the world map looks like from your memory. Getting past the debate about whether limitations occur during encoding or retrieval (in other words, is everything you've ever learned inside your head, unable to be accessed?), in order to recall what the world map looks like, you must first draw that material from memory (an ability that will vary with the degree to which you encoded it) and then hold it in working memory, in the focus of your attention, to draw it. Working memory is tightly tied to concepts like intelligence, which would suggest that individuals probably perform differently at this task. Since the focus of attention can only hold so much, you'd have to repeat this process a number of times, each which could introduce additional errors into your drawing.\n\nAlso relevant here is the idea of \"verbal overshadowing\" in psychology, which suggests that using words to describe images actually hurts memory for those images (relative to not having to use words to describe). This is particularly relevant in eyewitness research, as you might imagine.\n\n(Basically, though, I contest the idea that you have a 100% clear picture of the world map in your head.)",
"Most likely in the visual cortex. Your brain doesn't remember entire images. It remembers enough to recognize them later, which is why you can be fooled when something is almost the same but slightly different. It is also very good at convincing you that you are perfectly recalling something visual, like a map of the world.\n\nOdds are great that when you attempt to recall something specific, your brain prioritizes what you remember to recall based on the details you do have. For me this would be baja and florida sticking out of the bottom of the US.\n\nConsider the alternative: At a higher visual memory resolution you'd expend much more cognitive energy hashing out whether something is tied to your past or not, every time you encountered it.\n\nEvolution knows no bounds: The visual details our brains pay attention to the most were selected by evolution.",
"Your hand eye coordination is not good enough to draw complex shapes withtout ALOT of practice.\n\nIf you break any drawing down into simple objects and then modify those simple shapes into the complex structures your mind sees it becomes alot easier. Check any \"learn to draw\" book if you havent seen one and you will see what I mean. Cartoonists begin every drawing in pencil sketching out a few rough circles and polygons and make adjustments from there.",
"people hold models in their heads. these models are very far away from reality itself, there are always details missed. we hold models to protect our brain from too much information inflow because otherwise we'd go insane. try doing the same thing with a room, look around for 5 minutes and then try to draw it without looking back, there will be many details missed/changed.",
"Similar to what ElanRosenfeld said in her post, there is evidence that it's a case of drawing what you know, not what you see. In the link to a newscientist article below a theory is described which discusses apparent skill in recreating realistic scenes and copying images in some autistic savants and people who have suffered brain damage in a specific region of their brain. \n\nThe article suggests that all people have the ability for savant-like abilities in things like drawing but that they are normally unable to access these skills because of higher functioning brain faculties. They cite the observation that the human brain processes more sensory data than is experienced consciously, when we see the world, we synthesis raw data into manageable, categorised and simplified interpretations to form what we experience as consciousness. \n\nTherefore when you see the lines on the page representing a map of the world, you know them to be a map of the world rather than only lines. Having experienced lines in that configuration before, you interpreted that data, analysed it, categorised it and stored a conscious experience of it that will affect how you see that image in future. When you reproduce a map of the world, you're likely reproducing what you know to be a map of the world, not what you see and hence the problems in your copy, even if you can even see the map as you draw it. You idea of a map of the world is getting in the way of the actual picture. \n\nThe theory they put forth in the article is that if you can switch off the areas of the brain seen to be damaged by the patients who suffered brain injury and whom were observed to have apparent new skills in recalling and drawing, in healthy individuals - they too will exhibit new skills. This was tested by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation on the suspected area (the left frontotemporal lobe) and in those subjects who responded to the stimulation, a change in drawing style similar to that shown by savants, a more 'literal' style, was observed. This is presumably because without having their preconceived ideas of the image they were attempting to draw (a horse) they could access the more 'raw' sensory data used to construct the horse. This may also be the case with your map, though Betty Edwards' turning the picture upside down idea seems a little more elegant than switching off your left frontotemporal lobe if you want to test this at home. \n \n \n[link to new scientist article from 2004](_URL_3_)",
"If you're interested in improving your drawing, there's a great book that's become a standard text in art classes. [Drawing on the Right Side of the Brain](_URL_4_) was originally written in response to the discovery of brain region specialization... but it isn't really based on that controversial theory. More or less, the idea is that drawing or painting well entails switching into another mode of thought for your brain. Changing which areas are active... if you try and draw using your brain the same way you would for logical thought, argument, or coding, you get bogged down in drawing the OBJECT - like you have a model in your head of what a fruit bowl shape is, and in trying to make a fruit bowl shape on paper you make something weird and not fruit bowl looking. But if you can switch off the sequential-thinking part of your brain, and get yourself to just draw shapes as you see them, without modeling the whole object, it's a lot easier.\n\nSounds like a lot of hokum at first, but it really makes a difference. You probably experience different modes of thought all the time, and the trouble switching between them. Think about how your thought process feels when you're conversing with friends, versus coding. Totally different. When you come off a long time driving, and meet friends for a drink, you're \"spacey\" for a little bit while your brain switches into social mode. Well, there's a mode for drawing too... where your hand is more directly connected to what you see in your mind's eye (or your real eyes).\n\nHighly recommended.",
"[On Intelligence](_URL_5_) is a fantastic book overviewing and synthesizing the cognitive science and neuroscience research on how brains build \"representations\" of reality (aka schemas).\n\nIt's like a lot of folks have said - you don't store the actual image in your head, you store a simplified representation of it. The interesting part is that even when you are looking at an actual map, you are not interacting directly with what you are perceiving but your mental representation of it. \n\nThat is why turning things upside down helps. It tricks your brain into not automatically imposing its pre-made representation of the thing you are looking at. This then forces you to notice what is *actually* there instead of what you imagine to be there.",
"To answer your question about where in the process it goes wrong - it's likely in your brain. There are many heuristics our brain uses to make sense of the world (e.g., when we draw a map, we tend to use more right angles than there actually are in the real world).\n\nOur brains just aren't that great. You think your map is good - Which of the following is located further west: San Diego, Ca or Reno, NV?\n\nI can't remember all of the heuristics, but if you look at a bit of Cognitive Psychology, you'll find your answer.",
"I would suggest a book titled \"Phantoms on the brain\". This is a fantastic read that explores different functions of the brain by examining specific defects witnessed after brain damage. It covers multiple processes of human activity and is very insightful.",
"Because what you're remembering the fact that you remember the map of the world, but not the details of the map itself. The mind is much more confident of what's going on inside your head than what's actually possible."
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"http://www.amazon.com/Lessons-Classical-Drawing-Essential-Techniques/dp/082300659X/ref=sr_1_1?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1326986333&sr=1-1",
"http://www.amazon.com/You-Can-Draw-30-Days/dp/0738212415/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1326986285&sr=8-1",
"http://beyond-belief.org.uk/sites/beyond-belief.org.uk/files/Snyder%20GeniusMachine.pdf",
"http://www.amazon.com/New-Drawing-Right-Side-Brain/dp/0874774195/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1326993327&sr=8-1",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On_Intelligence"
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I can see the world map in my head, but when I try to draw it the result looks horrible. Where in the brain→hand→paper process does it go wrong?
This obviously doesn't only apply to world maps, but I think it's an example most can relate to. I've seen the world map so many times that I seem to have a clear picture of how it looks like in my head. However, when I try to draw one, it doesn't look like the real thing at all. What is it that makes me so bad at drawing from memory? Is it my memory that isn't as detailed as I think, or is it because I can't control my hands good enough? If it's a combination of many factors (which I believe it is), what's the most common/important "limitation"? Obviously this skill varies a lot between people. If I practice to draw from memory, what exactly do I improve?
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|
1a172j
|
What exactly does an electric field, and the value you get for an electric field, represent?
|
For physics problems, say I get a value of 1.08 x 10^(-6) N/C for an electric field, what does that number represent?
And as a whole, what is an electric field?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c8t6e7c",
"c8t63fs",
"c8t6cya"
],
"text": [
"A \"field\" is a mathematical object that has a value at every point in space. For example, the temperature of water in a bathtub is a scalar field -- it has a value (temperature) at every point in the tub. The flow of water in a bathtub is a vector field -- it has a value and direction at every point in the tub.\n\nThe electric field is a vector field. It has a value and direction in every point in space: It gives the \"force per unit charge\" that an object will have at a given point in space.",
"An electric field is a vector field that determines the force on a charged object. 1.08 x 10^-6 N/C is the magnitude of the field in that location. An object with a 1C charge will experience a force of 1.08 x 10^-6 N in the direction of the field in that location.",
"Volts/meter is a more intuitive unit for the strength of an electric field. It's how much the electric potential changes over a distance."
],
"score": [
7,
6,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What exactly does an electric field, and the value you get for an electric field, represent?
For physics problems, say I get a value of 1.08 x 10^(-6) N/C for an electric field, what does that number represent? And as a whole, what is an electric field?
|
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|
ig3w8
|
Jumping out of an airplane enclosed in a giant water bubble...
|
Imagine a giant airplane is carrying enough water to fill an olympic sized swimming pool. Hatch bay opens and all the water is let out. Unfortunately you are in the water.
Can you survive such a fall by swim to the top of this giant water sphere, while being in the freefall.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c23hfu6",
"c23haql",
"c23i5ax",
"c23hwcy"
],
"text": [
"I would say no because while your velocity relative to the water may be zero, your velocity relative to the ground will still be the same (or close to the same) as if you hadn't swam at all.",
"The water will separate into drops on the way down. If we negate air resistance, then it's another story.",
"When such a large mass of water is released, it splits into droplets at once.\n\n[See this image](_URL_0_)\n\nThey all decelerate rapidly, because of their surface/mass ratio - you don't however, and will fall straight through them.\n\nThe good news is the water will wash the blood away.",
"Assuming no air resistance (a vacuum) and the water held together, I can imagine a rather uncomfortable and lethal deceleration when the incompressible water bubble hits the ground (prior to significant horizontal flow).\n\nOf course in a vacuum terminal velocity isn't an issue so maximum speed would be much higher and the deceleration greater. Perhaps air resistance, the bubble breaking apart, and a subsequent non-buffered impact at a measly 200-300km/hr would be preferable. :)"
],
"score": [
7,
6,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://pixdaus.com/pics/wLYABNVszDw959XkUr.jpg"
]
}
|
Jumping out of an airplane enclosed in a giant water bubble...
Imagine a giant airplane is carrying enough water to fill an olympic sized swimming pool. Hatch bay opens and all the water is let out. Unfortunately you are in the water. Can you survive such a fall by swim to the top of this giant water sphere, while being in the freefall.
|
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|
14arqr
|
What is are the values of j and k in the quaternions?
|
Let me set up what my thought process so far. I'm very familiar with working with the complex plane, I'm also familiar with the idea that a true vector is an imaginary quaternion, and I use vectors throughout all my work. I understand that in the quaternion systems, there exists 4 unit dimensions: real, imaginary, and the j and k dimensions. They are defined, for reasons that I don't yet understand, as i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = ijk = -1.
-Are these j and k dimensions just extra imaginary dimensions?
-If so, are the values of j and k = sqrt(-1)?
-Why then does ijk = -1?
-It seems that that value of ijk should be -sqrt(-1).
I feel like maybe I am lost because I am not seeing how the directionality of i, j, and k and the fact that they are all mutually orthogonal are built into the formalism.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7bdyvv",
"c7be141",
"c7be6jw"
],
"text": [
"This isn't necessarily the wrong subreddit, but you may want to check out /r/math, it is quite active and they would surely help you with your questions.",
"> Are these j and k dimensions just extra imaginary dimensions? \n\nBasically, yes.\n\n > If so, are the values of j and k = sqrt(-1)? \n\nTheir values are j and k. They *satisfy* j^(2) = k^(2) = -1, but their values are their own.\n\n > Why then does ijk = -1?\n\nBecause their product rule is such that ij = k, jk = i, ki = j, and they anticommute. So we have ijk = (ij)k = kk = -1.",
"Here you'll find a copy of a letter by Hamilton himself describing the process and justification for quaternions.\n\n_URL_0_"
],
"score": [
5,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.maths.tcd.ie/pub/HistMath/People/Hamilton/QLetter/QLetter.pdf"
]
}
|
What is are the values of j and k in the quaternions?
Let me set up what my thought process so far. I'm very familiar with working with the complex plane, I'm also familiar with the idea that a true vector is an imaginary quaternion, and I use vectors throughout all my work. I understand that in the quaternion systems, there exists 4 unit dimensions: real, imaginary, and the j and k dimensions. They are defined, for reasons that I don't yet understand, as i^2 = j^2 = k^2 = ijk = -1. -Are these j and k dimensions just extra imaginary dimensions? -If so, are the values of j and k = sqrt(-1)? -Why then does ijk = -1? -It seems that that value of ijk should be -sqrt(-1). I feel like maybe I am lost because I am not seeing how the directionality of i, j, and k and the fact that they are all mutually orthogonal are built into the formalism.
|
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2eu2bv
|
Sorry if a stupid question but, is there anything in the world that is capable if bending light? Natural or man made?
|
Like the title said. Is there anything of this world, natural or man made that is capable of bending light?
|
askscience
|
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"A lot of stuff can bend light. Light is affected by gravity. A black hole is an object so massive and with such strong gravity that light cannot possibly escape it.\n\nSlightly different, but still a changing of trajectory of light, would be something like a glass prism or a glass of water. If you put a straw in a clear glass of water you'll notice the straw appears to break and bend at the surface of the water. That's because light travels at a slower speed in water. Check out the wikipedia article for \"refraction\" for more info.",
"You don't need a black hole to bend light, you can do it with a material where the index of refraction varies over space, like a tank of sugar water, where gravity makes it sweeter on the bottom.\n\n[Like this](_URL_0_)\n\nWhat you're seeing is reflection from the glass on the bottom, and total-internal reflection from a less sweet region on top.",
"One of the most fundamental principles in optics, fermat's principle, (which arises from one of the most fundamental principles in physics) is that light will travel a path between points A and B such that the time of flight between them is as short as possible. Normally, the shortest route between two points is a straight line. However, we've all seen light get bent as it goes into a glass of water - this is because the shortest time of flight when going between two materials means the light gets bent at the interface (more about this below).\n\nSince mass distorts space-time, it also distorts the path of least time for a photon to travel. What was a straight line in un-deformed space becomes a curved line in the presence of a massive object. This leads to things like gravitational lensing and the like.\n\nThis type of path is called a geodesic and massive objects tend to warp geodesics in their local vicinity.\n\nLight simply it's simply follows a path of least time described by a geodesic. An analogy that may help you understand what's going on is water flowing down a hill. The water doesn't \"know\" the direction to travel, rather it travels a path that is described by shape of the ground.\n\nLenses exploit this all the time. The time of flight for a ray traveling through the center of a convex lens is the same as the time of flight for a ray that travels through the edge of a lens (and the edge ray gets bent more). The center ray travels the shortest path through air, but travels through the thickest part of the lens where it travels slower. Another ray travels further in air to the edge of the lens, but travels a shorter distance in glass.",
"Heat can also bend light. You know when you're stranded in the desert and you look toward the horizon, you can see those silver pools of some distant oasis? That's actually the heat from the ground bending the light. The reflection is light coming from just above that point; usually the sky, turning it blue and making it look like a body of water.\n\nP.S. I was almost right. Thanks to those that clarified below! I suppose I should expand my physics learning beyond high school before I attempt to teach it."
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"http://www.vanderbilt.edu/physicsdemonstration/davesdemos/demonstrations/Pics/091-010.jpg"
]
}
|
Sorry if a stupid question but, is there anything in the world that is capable if bending light? Natural or man made?
Like the title said. Is there anything of this world, natural or man made that is capable of bending light?
|
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|
3g72t5
|
Could you marinate an animal using its circulatory system?
|
Before fully butchering an animal could you do a marinade transfusion and use its existing circulatory system to marinate the entire carcass?
I figure doing it that way over a course of time would allow the marinade to fully infuse into all of the muscle tissue like blood normally would.
I am also not sure if this should have gone into /r/shittyaskscience.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ctw1c6b",
"ctvver6",
"ctvv4y1"
],
"text": [
"Using some type of pump to force fluid around the vasculature could theoretically cause the marinade to circulate, but without living cells, I'm unsure of how \"deep\" into the meat it would get since active transport of molecules wouldn't be happening so diffusion is all you'd have. \n \nAnd considering that diffusing out of vasculture is difficult except for water, I don't know if it would be any more effective than soaking smaller pieces and allowing diffusion to do the work from cell to cell rather than from the vasculture *then* cell to cell. \n \nVery interesting question. The short answer is I'm not sure.",
"I'd imagine that putting a foreign substance into the meat, or body, before butchering, processing and packaging would cause it to turn in a shorter amount of time. It's not worth it to have the meat go bad before it can be sold and cooked. \n\nAside from that, making your own marinade is part of the cooking process.",
"This is a very interesting question. [Approving, as likely to be buried otherwise. May be buried by the Reddit sorting algorithm anyway though, in which case OP may want to try reposting it]"
],
"score": [
3,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Could you marinate an animal using its circulatory system?
Before fully butchering an animal could you do a marinade transfusion and use its existing circulatory system to marinate the entire carcass? I figure doing it that way over a course of time would allow the marinade to fully infuse into all of the muscle tissue like blood normally would. I am also not sure if this should have gone into /r/shittyaskscience.
|
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1gs8o1
|
If you coated the bottom of a boat in NeverWet, would it travel faster through the water?
|
NeverWet, the product related to [these headlines](_URL_1_)
The idea originally proposed [in comments](_URL_0_) by /u/probablyinahotel
|
askscience
|
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"To an extent.\n\nHydrophobic surfaces (NeverWet is a superhydrophobic coating) reduce drag because an air layer between the surface and the fluid causes [slip](_URL_1_) through [two-phase flow](_URL_0_), allowing the surface to *slip* past the water. This is in contrast to a no-slip surface (which, simply put, means that the fluid gets \"stuck\" to the surface, which drags the object back). As a result, we know that a hydrophobic coating [decreases drag](_URL_4_) through water, even though it's less pronounced in turbulent flow (fluid flows chaotically) than in laminar flow (fluid flows together). The difference between the two types of flows is [illustrated here](_URL_3_). However, this drag reduction is relatively weak, and [can be offset](_URL_2_) by the roughness of a boat's surface,",
"I'll make this short since I have to run to work.The resistance of ships can be (mostly simply) divided into two areas\nFrictional and Residuary Resistance (everything else including wave making, eddy making, form drag).\n\nThis will have no effect on the residuary resistance, the ship still has to move water out of the way. When you're looking behind you the waves that you're creating is basically energy you're putting into the water.\n\nFor frictional resistance the boundary layer is almost always turbulent and when turbulent it has been found to [increase the drag](_URL_5_). [Another](_URL_6_)\n\nEven if it does reduce some of the frictional resistance, the wave making resistance is the majority of the resistance of the hull by far. This is until you have submarines which have small amounts of form drag and high frictional loads (even then it wouldn't be worth the cost of reapplying constantly). Or planing boats which have dynamic lift, but then the extremely fast ones are in the air half the time anyways.",
"I assume you will get a lot of discussion focused on the drag induced by the water on the bottom of the boat, but remember: boats don't **just** skip across the surface of the water.\n\nHere's a [fascinating article](_URL_9_) I found while doing some research for your question. It talks about the sources of resistance on a boat that's traveling through water. Here's a selection (and also note the pleasing similarity to concepts from the more-familiar *aerodynamic* case): \n\n* \"Laminar flow\" -- analogous to the aerospace problem of [wingtip vortices](_URL_11_)\n* \"Wave-making Resistance\" -- i.e. trying to shove water out of the way so fast that you leave a wake. Separate from the issue of pushing your way through a viscous fluid. Analogous to the shockwaves that start to form around aircraft at appreciable Mach numbers (the extreme endpoint of which is [the intense compression-caused heating of objects entering the Earth's atmosphere](_URL_8_)).\n* \"Frictional Resistance\" -- the part the hydrophobic coating is supposed to deal with. Distinguished from the rest, I suppose, by an explicit reliance on [intermolecular forces](_URL_7_).\n\nThe point is: even if you apply a great hydrophobic coating to the bottom of your boat, *whether or not you've made any significant impact on drag* depends on a lot of other factors. And don't forget, the air resistance from the part of the boat *above* the water also contributes a significant amount to the total drag (and [scales ~quadratically](_URL_10_) with the speed of a fast boat).",
"This is quickly becoming a thing, here's a discussion on it:\n\n_URL_12_",
"Related idle musing: **what would be the effect of superhydrophobic coating on a submarine for stealth purposes?**\n\nI know that a number of modern submarines carry anechoic tiles or rubber coating to reduce propagation of noise and absorb/diffuse sonar waves. \n\nWould a fully submersed hull coated in NeverWet create an air pocket around it? I'm an audio engineer but the physics of this are way, way beyond my level of understanding!",
"Marine life likes to attach itself to the underside of boats. The algae, barnacles, limpets and various other organisms can have a very significant impact on the speed of a boat. To counter this, boats are painted with anti-fouling paint below the water line. This paint discourages marine life from growing on the boat and thus reduces the drag significantly.\n\nI have no idea if NeverWet will prevent the accumulation of sealife on the underside of a boat, but because it is not specifically tailored for that purpose, I suspect it won't work as well as anti-fouling. Therefore, any drag reduction that can be achieved by using NeverWet on the hull will be offset by the increase in drag due to an increase in underwater hitchhikers.\n\nI can see how it might be useful on things like kayaks and surfboards, but I doubt it will be useful on aircraft carriers and supertankers.",
"Followup question: this might sound ultra dumb, but if the boat was perfectly hydrophobic, would buoyancy even be possible? Wouldn't it essentially repel all the water away from it, causing it to just sink to the seabed?",
"I work for a company that prepares sailboat bottoms for racing. Over twenty five years we've done everything from J-Class mega yachts to dinghies going to the Olympics. Everyone is looking for magic goo and anyone who makes magic goo tries to pitch it to us. So far, no magic.\n\nThere are three basic areas that affect the rag of a hull: In order of importance--\n\nOver-all design of the hull. - This is where you can mess with the wave making drag. Fixing this often entails a skill saw! You can squirt any goo you want on a bad design and you will still have a bad design.\n\nThis thread is about what happens on the surface to cause drag. Most people seem to confuse the 'friction' a boat suffers with the friction that we are used to, like brakes or rubbing you finger on a table. In that case, the energy of motion is being converted pretty much straight into heat an then dispersed, usually into the air.\n\nIn boats and ships in displacement mode, the energy of motion is mostly being converted into more motion. Little eddys carry energy from the surface into the free stream. Eventually, these eddys die and disperse the energy in to the water.\n\nReducing drag in displacement mode is mostly a matter of reducing the amount and size of these little eddys. There are two areas to attack.\n\nFairness of the 'as constructed' hull. - Boats almost never are built perfectly fair. The biggest reason is that the resins shrink as they cure. Most boats use polyester resin, which shrinks the most. As the resin shrinks, the hull develops little bumps and hollows. \n\nWater doesn't like changing direction. These little bumps and hollows create relatively big eddys in the flow. Getting rid of the bumps and getting rid of the hollows gets rid of the eddys. fewer eddys = less energy transfer = less drag . \n\nThis effect dwarfs surface finish in the amount of drag created. \n\nThe next area is surface finish. This is where the magic goos could conceivably work. \n\nPeople talk a lot about the transition from laminar to turbulent flow. Basically, when the flow is laminar, it doesn't have eddys. So, of course the drag is way lower. As a practical matter, a boat is almost all in turbulent flow. \n\nA big big characteristic of turbulent flow is the 'boundary layer'. There is a really thin layer of water that is basically stuck to the hull. Moving away from the hull, subsequent layers of water have progressively more relative velocity. It's kinda like fanning a deck of cards out on a table.\n\nIt is important to note, right at the hull surface- Nothing is happening! All the relative motion is going on in the water layers. That's why I call all that stuff 'Magic' goo. It relies on spooky action at a distance to work!\n\nThe thickness of the layer of dead water gets thinner with more speed. If a bit of the hull pokes through the dead water into the moving water, eddys get made and drag goes up. For most sailboats a 400 grit finish is 'hydro dynamically smooth'. \n\nStuff that grows on the bottom can easily poke through. Most raceboats are drysailed. They aren't in the water except when they are racing. That doesn't give growth enough time to get going. We use a really hard epoxy paint that sands awesome but has ZERO anti-fouling properties. At regattas, sometimes the boats are required to stay in the water for the duration. In that case, we dive on the bottom every morning and wipe off any growth.\n\nFor boats that need to live in the water, we use a very hard vinyl-copper paint. The copper kills most stuff that tries to grow on it. It's not perfect, so those boats get a diver every week or two depending on the season.\n\nWe never use the ablative paints, because we can't be sure that as they wear away they will not create bumps and hollows. \n\nThere are two things that ARE proven to work; injected polymers and riblets. The Oracle Trimaran used riblets and was set up for polymers. \n\nSquirting certain polymers into the water near the bow changes the way that eddys propagate in the mix and effectively mimic laminar flow. Some firetrucks mix polymers with the water to make it squirt through the hoses better. You need to be pretty rich to pollute the ocean in this particular way!\n\nRiblets are a plastic sheet with really fine, specially shaped grooves micro-machined in. These are glued to the hull in a very specific orientation. The idea is that at certain speeds, eddys coming off the hull are trapped in the jaws of the ribs and can't move to the outer layers of the water flow.\n\ntl;dr - no",
"shouldn’t there be a chemical that does the same thing neverwet does only to air?",
"I'm surprised this hasn't been mentioned yet. Researchers have found that large ships can theoretically save 5-10% on fuel efficiency by blowing a thin layer of bubbles from the hull. It works in a manner similar to how I picture the NeverWet working -- reducing drag from water on the hull. The energy cost to create the bubbles is minimal. It seems to be progressing and could be in production currently/soon.\n\n_URL_13_",
"What if you coated a bowl with NeverWet and then poured water in it?",
"I hope the mythbusters get on this. Anybody remember their reddit user names?",
"How about on the part of a hydrofoil that is submerged?"
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{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/1gra3d/remember_the_super_hydrophobic_coating_that_we/can0db1",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/technology/comments/1gra3d/remember_the_super_hydrophobic_coating_that_we/"
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-phase_flow",
"http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/en/Terms/s/slip.aspx",
"http://etc14.ens-lyon.fr/openconf/modules/request.php?module=oc_program&action=view.php&id=282",
"http://blog.nialbarker.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/laminar_turbulent_flow.gif",
"http://www.learningace.com/doc/5963476/9d95b42155b5b8b3c8c19d8d4b0159a6/hydrophobic-drag-3",
"http://turb.seas.ucla.edu/~jkim/papers/pof-jul-2004.pdf",
"http://pof.aip.org/resource/1/phfle6/v25/i2/p025103_s1?bypassSSO=1",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_force",
"http://www.uu.edu/dept/physics/scienceguys/2003Mar.cfm",
"http://smalltridesign.com/Trimaran-Articles/Boat-Resistance.html",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag_%28physics%29#Drag_at_high_velocity",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wingtip_vortices",
"http://www.swaylocks.com/forums/never-wet-surfboard-bottomsfaster",
"http://www.economist.com/node/17647555"
]
}
|
If you coated the bottom of a boat in NeverWet, would it travel faster through the water?
NeverWet, the product related to [these headlines](_URL_1_) The idea originally proposed [in comments](_URL_0_) by /u/probablyinahotel
|
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|
a63dck
|
Do radio receivers draw some power from the radio waves they receive?
|
I was thinking about this the other day. When I turn on my car radio, does it actually draw some power from the EM field, weakening it? Can this affect other receivers nearby, making the signal weaker for them?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ebreqbt",
"ebsgzy7",
"ebreubc",
"ebrfeom"
],
"text": [
"A tiny bit: Yes.\n\nIf you live close to a strong source you can make a radio that works without battery - powered by the radiation it receives.\n\n_URL_0_",
"It's actually pretty easy to understand and calculate the amount of power your antenna takes from the sky, A few simplifying assumptions apply, but to give you the gist of it . . .\n\nIf a radio station transmits 10,000 watts, and if that power radiates equally in all directions, the power is spread across the surface of a sphere. At a distance, say 20km from the transmitter, 10KW is spread across 4 pi (20km)^2 for a signal strength of 2 microwatt per square meter.\n\nYour receiving antenna has an effective area, or \"effective aperture\", that's roughly the area of a circle that will contain the antenna. So, a one meter whip has an effective area of a little less than one square meter. It will receive about 2 microwatt from the sky.\n\nAs you can see, this is about one billionth of the total transmitted power. Your antenna will cast a \"shadow\" behind it, reducing signal strength in that direction, but waves diffract to quickly fill in the void, so it's not usually noticeable.",
"Yes; Although it is a very small amount. The antenna receives the radio waves and converts it into voltage and current, which can be read by the receiver as an audio signal.\n\nIn fact, Crystal radios require no batteries; it uses the signal directly to power the earphones. It’s incredibly quiet since the power absorbed is small (And the antenna has to be very long) but it does work!",
"> Can this affect other receivers nearby, making the signal weaker for them?\n\nThis would, in general, be true. Regardless of whether you're drawing useful power, you are definitely absorbing and presenting an \"absorption cross-section\" to radio light in its journey. Now, that of course assumes that the radio light that hit you was actually going to continue its journey after hitting the ground in any useful way."
],
"score": [
19,
6,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystal_radio"
]
}
|
Do radio receivers draw some power from the radio waves they receive?
I was thinking about this the other day. When I turn on my car radio, does it actually draw some power from the EM field, weakening it? Can this affect other receivers nearby, making the signal weaker for them?
|
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|
1bf3qe
|
What is the average day in the life of Curiosity made up of ?
|
What does he do all day and who controls him ?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"c96my72",
"c978sna"
],
"text": [
"Rover operator here. \n\nA typical sol on Mars often starts with what we call a \"slip assessment,\" which is just a series of photos taken by the hazcams that are compared to those from the previous sol to assess whether wind or settling caused a change in attitude or orientation. At about 10AM local time on Mars, we get a \"Direct-to-Earth\" or DTE communication from the Rover's high gain antenna, which serves as an indication that the rover is awake and healthy and ready to start its planned activities. This usually starts with a few minutes worth of housekeeping of the rover's file systems -- things like deleting old data products, etc, but then we get into actual science!\n\nThe bulk of the day-to-day activities vary depending on what we're doing on a given day, but usually there is a detailed plan of operations involving mobility (when we actually drive from one place to another), imaging (a typical day involves dozens of photographs, especially when you consider that we like to take before and after photos of things like drill locations or laser targets), or even just sitting still while the rover uses some of its daily power allocation on running experiments (analyzing soil samples, processing data, etc).\n\nThe excitement is typically broken up about 4 times per sol, when the rover takes time out from science (or time out from sleeping, in the case of early morning passes) to relay its on-board data products back to Earth via the Mars Odyssey and Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter spacecraft. We prefer this method of communication because it's more power-efficient and allows for much higher bandwidth than trying to beam everything back to Earth with the rover's own transmitters.\n\nSometime in the evening, the rover goes to sleep and we do it all again the next sol.",
"Curiosity spends its day doing research experiments. Everything is pre-programmed and sent from [Jet Propulsion Laboratory](_URL_2_) (JPL). They are in full control of the bot.\n\nIf you want to get an idea of what kind of experiments are performed, [this site has some detailed info on it](_URL_0_).\n\n[Here's a listing of a lot of the sensors onboard](_URL_3_).\n\nedit: [Video](_URL_1_), [Another Article](_URL_4_)",
"It's interesting that you ask this. My astronomy professor today was just talking about this. In fact, he's Steve Squyres, the Principal Investigator for the Mars Rovers Missions. \n\nApparently, since the Martian day is exactly 24 hours and 39 minutes, the team has to live by a Martian schedule. So every day, the meeting is 39 minutes later than it was yesterday. So these guys are often working at weird hours of the day. \n\nEverything on Curiosity is pre-programmed with instructions from Earth each day. So the rover might be told to look at Martian \"blueberries\" one day, and then the next drill a sample on another rock. The team meets everyday to decide exactly what the rover is going to do for that day. It's often easy to think the rovers aren't doing anything just because the media doesn't cover them every day, but in fact, they work around the clock.",
"Ask a simple question about a Mars rover, get the people who actually drive it to respond.\n\nThis is so awesome.",
"All I can think reading these comments: \"how lucky we are to live in this time when we are in fact visiting other worlds\" - Carl Sagan"
],
"score": [
1022,
105,
10,
5,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/multimedia/interactives/learncuriosity/index-2.html",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_hN4XdS7NMY",
"http://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/",
"http://www.msl-chemcam.com/index.php?menu=inc&page_consult=textes&rubrique=63&sousrubrique=210&soussousrubrique=0&titre_url=Curiosity%20-%20What%20are%20the%20instruments?#.UVmPf1ccOZE",
"http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/143884-how-nasa-drives-mars-rover-curiosity"
]
}
|
What is the average day in the life of Curiosity made up of ?
What does he do all day and who controls him ?
|
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] |
|
1bd4yk
|
How close could a person get to the sun, realistically?
|
How close could someone get to the surface of the sun (in a space ship obviously) before heat or gravity destroyed him?
edit: Thanks for the replies, I've learned a lot!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c95u65v",
"c95vu15",
"c95tt60"
],
"text": [
"I know the closest you can get to the sun on earth is mount chimborazo its not the tallest mountain in the world but it is the tallest one on the equator.",
"This is highly dependent on the space ship in question and how efficiently it can cool itself radiatively. At any rate, the [Helios II spacecraft](_URL_0_) currently holds the record for closest Solar approach by a human made artifact, at .29 AU (a bit inside Mercury's orbit). It wasn't carrying people, but it remained intact through many orbits (these orbits were elliptical, so .29 AU was closest approach).",
"That depends on the vessel, do you mean like in the space shuttle?"
],
"score": [
81,
23,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helios_(spacecraft\\)"
]
}
|
How close could a person get to the sun, realistically?
How close could someone get to the surface of the sun (in a space ship obviously) before heat or gravity destroyed him? edit: Thanks for the replies, I've learned a lot!
|
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|
2tqzko
|
I want to hang dry my clothes; which would be faster; exposing it to sunlight or a breeze?
|
Would it be faster to dry a garment indoors against a window that's exposed to direct sunlight, or outside, where there's a slight breeze (but in the shade)? Basically, I'm asking is the sunlight more effective at drying stuff, or is open/moving air? Strange question, I know, but I'm very curious.
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"It depends on the humidity of the indoor room. If the indoor room is small and not ventilated, the moisture from the drying clothes will quickly raise the humidity of the room to the point that is significantly slows down the drying of the clothes. If you place a large dehumidifier in the small, ventilated room, or if you give it good ventilation (open some windows) it will keep humidity low and keep the drying time short.",
"Definitely a breeze, hands-down. Without it the air close to the surface of the fabric will quickly saturate. Moving the air will keep the delta humidity between fabric and air high, creating a more efficient exchange. The sun on the other hand will add more energy to the system, increasing efficiency slightly. Consider how much heat energy you need to boil water..",
"It depends on how much you have of each. \"Drying\" is just the water evaporating into the air, and the air can only take so much. The sun only helps this to happen by raising the temperature, and the breeze only helps by moving the air that's already absorbed the water, and replacing it with presumably less saturated air. \n\nIf you were in a sealed environment with 100% humidity, no amount of sunlight would dry your clothes, and likewise, no amount of breeze at 100% humidity blowing by would help your clothes dry.",
"FYI, you might like to know that it's better for the longevity of your clothes to be hung in the shade. When hung outside in the sun, they will fade much faster over time. You can slow this by turning them inside out, but the better is to dry them in the shade outside. There are some other benefits to drying outside, and that is that they pick up the smell from outside, so it smells fresher when you put it in.",
"Moisture on the clothes keeps continually evaporating at room temperature, but it needs to be transfered to another medium like the surrounding air, or else it won't leave the cloth.\n\nThe transfer rate is affected by a factor that takes into consideration the cloth temperature (higher temperature means quicker evaporation) and the dryness of surrounding air. Thing is, the evaporation rate doesn't show a linear variation according to temperature, meaning doubling the room temperature won't double the transfer rate. Not even close. \n\nNo matter if you're in the desert or a tropical environment, it's true that the air in contact with the cloth is more humid than than the air that's a few meters away. \n\nIf you would model the moisture transfer speed, it should be something like\n\n\n**Humidity transfer** = *F(Cloth Temperature)* * *(Cloth Humidity - Air Humidity)* * (Air Flux) * K\n\n\nWhere:\n\n- transfer is measured in [water mass / (surface unit * time unit)]\n\n- K is some dark constant like Stefan Boltzman's but for humidity\n\n- Air flux is [volume/time]\n\n- F(cloth temp) resembles specific heat\n\n\nYou see that transfer increases with temperature, difference of humidity between cloth and air, and air flux.\n\nIf you leave the piece of cloth in direct sunlight, without any breeze reaching it, the air surrounding the cloth will get so humid it can't take any more humidity. Some convection will happen that will make the air move without a breeze, but it will be slow and inneficient. Even at maximum F(cloth temp), the difference of humidity will be close to zero, and the air flux will be small too.\n\nIf you leave the piece of cloth in the shade, but receiving a lot of breeze, then you would be applying a high air flux, and the air surrounding the cloth would be continually refreshed, so it will never happen that the air's humidity level approaches the cloth moisture level. Even when the cloth is cooler than it would be under direct sunlight, the evaporation rate would still be in a similar order of magnitude.\n\n**TD/LR: a lot of air, the dryer the better.**",
"You probably shouldn't use the sun on anything other than whites. It depends on the magnitude of the breeze and the sun, and I don't know if this is theoretical or you actually want to dry your clothes, but sun can change the color, especially of wet clothes. It's energy breaks down the chemicals that make the pigments.",
"This sounds like just a thought experiment, but if it's real world: The UV in direct sunlight is going to bleach anything that isn't white. Shade/Breeze if you want your clothes to retain their color.",
"Clothes dry because their moisture level exceeds the moisture level of the environment. The magnitude of that difference dictates the level of moisture at which equilibrium will be reached (the point at which the clothes won't dry anymore, because the environment and the clothes have the same moisture level). The amount of thermal energy from the sun dictates the rate at which that equilibrium is reached.\n\nIn a large, open environment that's dry and sunny, your clothes will reach equilibrium quickly (relative to the next examples) and be pretty dry.\n\nIn a large, open environment that's dry and cloudy, your clothes will reach equilibrium more slowly and be equally dry.\n\nIn a small glass container put out in the sun, your clothes will reach equilibrium quickly, but that equilibrium will be pretty moist relative to the last two examples; the moisture in your clothes will raise the moisture of the local environment until they're the same, then no further.\n\nIn a small glass container put out in the shade, your clothes will reach equilibrium more slowly, but again that equilibrium will again be relatively moist.\n\nAs to the question of which is better - it really ends up depending on how quickly you want to your clothes to dry (sun is better) and how dry you need them to be (large, dry environments are better)!",
"Chem E here, used to run industrial dryers. Drying is two separate actions: heat transfer and mass transfer. think of a dryer with a plugged vent line. Clothes get hot but they never get dry. So you need both heat to vaporize water and a lower water content atmosphere that water can escape to. \nSo to answer your question: it depends. You really need both operations ( heat and mass transfer) to dry objects.",
"I used to have to hang my clothes for awhile and I found that the sun will dry your clothes fine, but it does cause damage faster. Make sure to use liquid fabric softener trust me I lost a few good shirts. Don't hang to hot or early if they are in the sun to long it will kind of fry get crispy. A nice breeze does dry faster when there is sun too. It used to take longer if I had to hang up just in front of a fan with no kind of warmth adding a heater is great and made it faster. But the best option would be a warm shaded area with a breeze. Like a carport.",
"Don't dry dark clothing in the sun, it fades them quickly. Once or twice if necessary, sure, but not a frequent thing.\n\nDepending on the humidity, a breeze is usually best because air circulation promotes drying. Personally, I like drying things when there's a nice, brisk wind. The flapping of the fabric acts as a natural fabric softener. Wearing clothes that have just been straight up dried without a breeze usually results in them being stiff or holding shape wherever they were pinned, depending on the fabric.",
"To summarize what most people would have to say: it depends. Drying is a combined heat and mass transfer process: liquid water is absorbing heat and phase transforming to a vapor and is then moving away from the saturated clothing to the dryer (hopefully) air. The rate at which this drying happens is influenced by both the rate at which the water can vaporize and the rate at which the water vapor can move into the air. It would really depends on the conditions as to which one of these rates was limiting the process. It's a bit complicated however, because indoors the shirt is in a stagnant air environment and we can assume all heat transfer is from radiation. But because it is stagnant, the air will become localized more humid around the shirt and decrease the rate of vapor transfer from the shirt. Outside, you will still have some radiation from the ground, buildings, etc., but convective transfer from the moving air will matter as well. Additionally, the moving air removes the water vapor as it leaves the shirt preventing any decrease in the rate of mass transfer. So in the end, without knowing quite a few factors and developing a mathematical model for the process, it really is just a guess.",
"I live in the UK. I leave my clothes to dry in an unheated room, and it takes a couple of days. Obviously heat would make it go quicker, but if you're not in a hurry, why bother? The most important thing to consider is humidity. The UK has very low humidity at this time of year, so with a window open clothes will dry just fine. With the window closed it will be hard for the humidity to equalize with the outdoors, and the wet clothes will saturate the air in the room, making drying slower.",
"I live in an apartment and I've experimented with different ways to dry my clothes (to the annoyance of my roommate) and found a way that works and annoys my roomie less. Basically I hang everything on hangers in the bathroom and space them a hand width apart to get circulation. Most bathrooms have a fan to suck out the moisture and I only wash my clothes in the evening so they can hang dry all night. Pants are more trickier but throwing them over a closet door works fine.",
"It depends somewhat on the result you are looking for. Also, humidity, temperature play a part, as does how wet the garment was when it came out of the washer. In general assuming the washer has a pretty good spin cycle, a stiff breeze in low-to-middling temperatures will get you a pretty stiff garment. Warm sunlight on hot day will get you a much softer garment.",
"I love science but as a housemaker, I believe sunshine with a light breeze outdoors gives the best results. Anything you dry inside increases moisture and delays the drying process. Get a clothes dryer (they are cheap on ebay) for winter(with ventilation fan so that air goes outside and not back in the room) and hang outside in spring/summer/autumn.",
"Kids these days are so lazy. Remember when we had to actually figure things out for our self? Trial and error? Hang 2 sets of cloths (of roughly equal quality/water saturation) one set in the shade/wind, the other set in the sun. Check in every so often. You tell me what works better through the scientific process."
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I want to hang dry my clothes; which would be faster; exposing it to sunlight or a breeze?
Would it be faster to dry a garment indoors against a window that's exposed to direct sunlight, or outside, where there's a slight breeze (but in the shade)? Basically, I'm asking is the sunlight more effective at drying stuff, or is open/moving air? Strange question, I know, but I'm very curious.
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|
7m430u
|
Why do we measure time by earth specifications instead of a universal constant?
|
We use Earth's 1 loop around the sun for a year, but everything is relative including time. Think Interstellar.. Why not use a constant that works everywhere? Radioactive decay maybe?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"drrolt1",
"drrpbsv",
"drs45vm",
"drrwe2r",
"drs6vk4"
],
"text": [
"> Radioactive decay maybe?\n\nA very good idea! In fact, this is pretty close to how [modern time measurement works](_URL_0_). Some atoms, like the caesium atoms we use in atomic clocks, have a built-in oscillation frequency, which we can measure. We can turn that frequency into a period by inverting it, and then we *define* a second to be some number of that period strung together. The number itself isn't important, it's just what happens to match onto what we called a second in the 1960s when we first did this.\n\nThis doesn't get rid of the relativity problem, though. The time an atomic clock measures is the time in its rest frame on Earth. If you're moving relative to it, you'll measure time differently. Even if you're away a bit from the Earth's surface, the difference in gravity means you'll also measure time a bit differently. These are features of nature, you can't get rid of them, but you can take them into account - and we do! Without all of this we couldn't use GPS, or even get time synchronized properly on the internet.",
"The concepts of day and year are much older than even the earliest clocks. They are very useful in everyday life so they are unlikely to go away. The second was originally defined based on the day, but with increasing accuracy the definition was changed to atomic properties (see the other comment). Science is now based on the second, unless the difference doesn’t matter and the everyday units are more useful (a medical study won’t give the age of subjects in megaseconds).\n\nTime is relative, and while it doesn’t matter for your age, it matters for atomic clocks. You can take it into account - but what is the reference? We have the international atomic time (TAI). It is defined to be at sea level height - clocks elsewhere have to take their elevation into account.\n\nIf you want to measure astronomic events, in principle you have to transfer this time to “outside Earth/the Solar system” - but we don’t have measurements of time intervals precise enough for this to matter. We can observe pulsars which have a reliability rivaling our atomic clocks - but we have no measurement of their rotation time from outer space so we can keep using our seconds on Earth.",
"We all live on Earth and communicate with other people who live on Earth and even the people who don't live on Earth are still orbiting it. Units aren't chosen to be fundamental, they're chosen to be useful.",
"The system we have is better for people on earth.\n\nOur clock clearly tells us when it's day and night. Our calendar clearly tells us when it is summer or winter. If we used some kind of \"universal constant\", we'd always have to be converting into locally relevant measures.",
"That's exactly what we do! A couple years ago, we defined a second as a certain number of oscillation of a Cs atom- /u/adamsolomon's answer is pretty good here.\n\nWe're actually doing the same thing for every unit- they're all being defined in a constant that works everywhere. In 2019, the kilo's moving from a lump of platinum in Paris to a value based on planck's constant. So all our units will be free of annoying problems from relativity et al."
],
"score": [
34,
13,
7,
6,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesium_standard"
]
}
|
Why do we measure time by earth specifications instead of a universal constant?
We use Earth's 1 loop around the sun for a year, but everything is relative including time. Think Interstellar.. Why not use a constant that works everywhere? Radioactive decay maybe?
|
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|
4ai9b6
|
Can a mathematician explain this counter-intuitive coin toss fact?
|
Was reading an interesting article yesterday (_URL_0_) and this fact it mentioned intrigued me:
"Soundararajan was drawn to study consecutive primes after hearing a lecture at Stanford by the mathematician Tadashi Tokieda, of the University of Cambridge, in which he mentioned a **counterintuitive property of coin-tossing: If Alice tosses a coin until she sees a head followed by a tail, and Bob tosses a coin until he sees two heads in a row, then on average, Alice will require four tosses while Bob will require six tosses (try this at home!), even though head-tail and head-head have an equal chance of appearing after two coin tosses.** "
why is this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d10kku1",
"d10kbr8",
"d10rbcd",
"d117eqs"
],
"text": [
"Consider what happens when you're doing this experiment. First as Alice, looking for heads followed by tails. At some point, you toss heads and after that you have to toss tails. But if you fail and toss heads instead, your toss after that can still complete the sequence.\n\nNow consider playing as Bob, looking for two consecutive heads. You toss heads at some point, after which you're looking for another toss to end up with heads. If you fail and toss tails, then your next toss is guaranteed to not be able to complete the sequence, since you'll first have to toss heads again to get to the point where the next flip could be the last.\n\nThe average number of tosses appears counterintuitive when you only look at the chance to toss a certain outcome in a pair of tosses (head-tail and head-head indeed have the same chance), but you can't see things separately from the entire toss-sequence.",
"The possibility for two coin tosses when the first is a head is HT and HH. For Alice if she gets the first she wins, if she gets the second she does not win, *but she can on her next coin toss.* for Bob if he does not win he still needs to flip two heads rather than a single tails. Basically as soon as a head is flipped, which is required for both, Alice is in a better position.",
"If you're interested in knowing more about this, look into [martingale](_URL_0_) theory. This provides a general framework for talking about problems of this type.\n\nA common one: typing random letters on a type writer, what is the expected waiting time to type \"ABRACADABRA\"? (if, say, you type one letter every unit of time) [Here's an accessible reference on this problem](_URL_1_). You can hopefully see that this is a pure generalization of your coin tossing problem -- we have a larger alphabet on each \"toss\", and we're waiting for a longer string, but it's the same idea.\n\nJust for completeness, I'll give you the standard spiel applied to your problem. Say Bob is tossing his coin in a casino, and before every toss a new gambler comes in and makes a fair bet of $1 that the next coin will be heads. If they win, they fairly bet their winnings that the next toss will be heads. The game *ends* when Bob tosses his two consecutive heads. So each either gambles until he loses, or else the game ends while he still has a bet pending.\n\nSay the game ends after N tosses. What money has changed hands? Each gambler has only put down $1 of his own money, so $N have come in to the casino. But the last two gamblers get payouts -- the last guy gets $2 for betting heads, and the second to last guy already won $2 on the previous toss, and now wins a total of $4 on the final toss. So, the casino pays out $6.\n\nMartingale theory, and in particular the optional stopping theorem, basically tell us that in this situation, because each bet is fair, the entire system is fair for the casino. That is, the expected change of money is exactly zero, so *expected* money in, $N, has to equal expected money out, which is $6. So N=6 tosses.\n\nYou can apply the same setup to Alice's tosses, with each gambler betting first on H, then if they win betting on T. Since in this case the final gambler (when HT is tossed, and the game ends) will lose, the payout is only the $4 to the penultimate gambler and N=4.\n\nA robust understanding of all this requires modern probability theory, and therefore measure theory, but the idea is pretty nice.",
"If anyone wants to try this out experimentally, here is some python code (Works\nunder both python2 and python3).\n\n import random\n\n def trial1(looking_for, alpha):\n scanner = []\n n = 0 \n\n\n for _ in range(len(looking_for)):\n scanner.append(random.choice(alpha))\n n += 1\n\n while True:\n if \"\".join(looking_for) == \"\".join(scanner):\n break\n scanner.pop(0)\n scanner.append(random.choice(alpha))\n n += 1\n\n\n return n\n\n def trialmany(looking_for, alpha):\n tosses = []\n for _ in range(100000):\n tosses.append(trial1(looking_for, alpha))\n\n return float(sum(tosses)) / float(len(tosses))\n\n print(trialmany(\"ht\", \"ht\"))\n print(trialmany(\"hh\", \"ht\"))\n\nIt will randomly generate a sequence using the alphabet (second argument), and\nprint the average number of items needed to be generated in order to find the\nneeded sequence (first argument)"
],
"score": [
89,
14,
9,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.quantamagazine.org/20160313-mathematicians-discover-prime-conspiracy/"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martingale_(probability_theory\\)",
"http://jeremykun.com/2014/03/03/martingales-and-the-optional-stopping-theorem/"
]
}
|
Can a mathematician explain this counter-intuitive coin toss fact?
Was reading an interesting article yesterday (_URL_0_) and this fact it mentioned intrigued me: "Soundararajan was drawn to study consecutive primes after hearing a lecture at Stanford by the mathematician Tadashi Tokieda, of the University of Cambridge, in which he mentioned a **counterintuitive property of coin-tossing: If Alice tosses a coin until she sees a head followed by a tail, and Bob tosses a coin until he sees two heads in a row, then on average, Alice will require four tosses while Bob will require six tosses (try this at home!), even though head-tail and head-head have an equal chance of appearing after two coin tosses.** " why is this?
|
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] |
|
30r5ft
|
Just how reliable is the Myers–Briggs type indicator?
|
is it based in science or is it more akin to a horoscope?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cpvii2g",
"cpvjh4y",
"cpvjqaa"
],
"text": [
"It's basically pop-psychology garbage. Neither Jung or Myers-Briggs used scientific studies to develop and validate the test. Instead, they relied on anecdotal observations and intuition. Myers-Briggs type indicator isn't even used in clinical psychology. Its biggest flaw is that it's very binary, with people fitting into one camp or another, like extroversion vs. introversion or thinking vs. feeling, rather than people fitting on a spectrum that often varies with the situation.",
"The Wikipedia article is pretty good - you should probably read the sections on origins and criticisms.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nRegarding reliability in particular:\n\"... Some researchers have interpreted the reliability of the test as being low, particularly with regards to the test-retest reliability of the test. Studies have found that between 39% and 76% of those tested fall into different types upon retesting some weeks or years later,and large numbers of individuals have found that they get different classifications when retaking the test after just five weeks. There is also strong evidence that the different scales are correlated, and not independent as claimed. ...\"",
"The same question was asked here about a year ago. As others have said in this post, the general consensus is that it is not reliable.\n\n_URL_1_"
],
"score": [
9,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers%E2%80%93Briggs_Type_Indicator",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1p2cki/how_scientifically_valid_is_the_myers_briggs/"
]
}
|
Just how reliable is the Myers–Briggs type indicator?
is it based in science or is it more akin to a horoscope?
|
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|
q4nld
|
"The likelihood of two events occurring at precisely the same moment is 0." Is this true?
|
Was having a bit of a stoner statistics discussion with a friend and this came up. Is this true and if so, explain?
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"There's some discussion of the [relativity of simultaneity](_URL_0_) in other posts which is one aspect of the issue, but I think what the OP was really asking about is related to a branch of math called [measure theory](_URL_2_). In mathematics, a measure is a method of assigning a \"size\" to a set and all of its subsets. There are many different ways of defining a measure on a set, but we'll stick to the \"standard\" one (the [Lebesgue measure](_URL_1_)). If the measure of the whole set you're dealing with is finite, then you can rescale everything so that number is 1. This is called a probability measure since your chances of landing in some particular subset if you pick an element at random is equal to the measure of that subset.\n\nThat's pretty abstract, so here's an example. Take all of the real numbers between zero and one (inclusive). Chop this interval up into some sub-intervals, say 0-0.1, 0.1-0.2 and so on. If you pick a number at random between zero and one (with equal probability) then you chances of landing in a particular interval is equal to the size of that interval, 10% in this case.\n\nNow the measure of single a element subset (an individual number) of some interval is zero. This means if I name a real number then you pick a real number at random, the probability that you pick *exactly* the number I named is exactly zero. Thus the chances of you picking *exactly* the same real number twice is exactly zero.\n\nThis seems weird and counter-intuitive, but think about it like this: Say I tell you to pick a real number at random between zero and one. You pick 0.5 (remember, this is *at random*, not your choice). How do you know you got exactly 0.5000... and not 0.50000000000000000000001? You'd have to check all of those significant digits. To know you got exactly 0.500... you'd have to check *all the significant digits* which, of course, would take an infinite amount of time. And as you go out, the chances you landed exactly on the number you thought you did goes down by a factor of 10 with each digit, limiting to zero.",
"If time could be broken into smaller increments ad infinitum, then the probability of two events happening exactly simultaneously would be zero. However, if time is discrete like with [Planck Time](_URL_3_), then the probability would be greater than zero. \nedit: You'd think that after taking 4 stats classes, I'd spell \"probability\" correctly. Guess not. It's right now.",
"I'd suggest looking at the [Relativity of Simultaneity](_URL_4_).\n\n > According to the special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute sense whether two events occur at the same time if those events are separated in space.",
"Ok, here's my two cents. Ocarin, Occasionally_Right and 2x4b are off-topic. What they are discussing reduces to the same question, \"Can you find a reference frame in which two events occur at precisely the same moment?\". This is where TalksInMaths' answer comes in. It is correct, but only under the assumption that spacetime is continuous. \n\nIf spacetime is discretized, as many people believe, the probability of two events occurring in precisely the same discrete time unit would not always be zero, just really small. There is some discussion of what could be the smallest unit of time, and it is sometimes believed to be the [Planck time](_URL_6_), which is 5.4*10^-44 seconds.\n\nThere is a related discussion on spacetime going on [here](_URL_5_), where people say that a discretization of space has been ruled out below the Planck scale, but again that's only under certain assumptions.\n\nEDIT: clarification.",
"Be careful of zeroes in probability! Check out:\n\n_URL_7_\n\nLet's just imagine some event that is going to happen sometime between 0s and 1s (evenly distributed). What is the chance of it happening at exactly 0.5s? Well, if we can subdivide time infinitely (as discussed we might not be able to), then that's 1/infinity-- so we say zero. Yet notice-- the odds of it occurring at any other specific time is also zero, yet the sum of the probabilities of it happening at all times between 0s and 1s is 1!\n\nPut another way: yeah, the odds are zero, but events have to occur sometime, and every precise and particular time has a 0 probability."
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lebesgue_measure",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measure_%28mathematics%29",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relativity_of_simultaneity",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/q4dfr/is_spacetime_a_continuum_or_divided_into_quanta/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_time",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almost_certain"
]
}
|
"The likelihood of two events occurring at precisely the same moment is 0." Is this true?
Was having a bit of a stoner statistics discussion with a friend and this came up. Is this true and if so, explain?
|
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|
k3e9o
|
What are the negative effects on the body due to the "flight-or-fight" response?
|
To clarify, what does the body sacrifice to increase the bodies physical/mental capabilities for the short term to deal with a situation?
The Wikipedia article talks about long term stress leading to "illnesses such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system, or even cardiovascular problems, along with other mental illnesses." But what is the short term problems associated with the response?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2h7g4h",
"c2h8en6",
"c2h7alo",
"c2h81a3"
],
"text": [
"Deceased bloodflow to your gi tract and skin. Inability to maintain an erection. You may also poop and/or pee your pants.",
"Increased activation of the sympathetic nervous system will raise stress hormones called glucocorticoids. Increased levels of glucocordicoids over long periods of time have been shown to cause actual brain damage in the hippocampus, the part of your brain responsible for memory and learning. The size of the hippocampus decreases, and the size of the amygdala increases; the part of the brain responsible for fear. There is a correlation between the size of the amygdala and fear levels. People that have had their amygdala removed usually have no fear or anxiety at all.\n\nIf you are interested in this, you should check out the research done by Robert Sapolsky at Stanford.\n\n\nHere are my citations:\n\n* _URL_3_\n\n* _URL_1_\n\n* _URL_4_\n\n* _URL_2_\n\nHere is a lecture with Robert Sapolsky: _URL_0_",
"Those are long-term problems associated with repeated arousal. One stressful response isn't bad for you.",
"Here's what I tell students to expect if they're ever in a position where they have to draw their weapon:\n\n* Numbness, twitching, and loss of precision in their fingers (\"jitters\")\n\n* Tunnel vision\n\n* Degraded critical thinking skills\n\n* Possible loss of urinary or bowel control\n\n* Shortness of breath\n\n* Subjective time expansion (could either slow down or speed up)"
],
"score": [
11,
7,
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1877467554618436978",
"http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/classes/psychology/psy760/sapolsky.pdf",
"http://www.psych.nyu.edu/phelpslab/papers/01_Nature_V411.pdf",
"http://www.jneurosci.org/content/10/9/2897.full.pdf",
"http://people.usd.edu/~cliff/Courses/Advanced%20Seminars%20in%20Neuroendocrinology/fear/Rosen06.pdf"
]
}
|
What are the negative effects on the body due to the "flight-or-fight" response?
To clarify, what does the body sacrifice to increase the bodies physical/mental capabilities for the short term to deal with a situation? The Wikipedia article talks about long term stress leading to "illnesses such as ulcers, depression, diabetes, trouble with the digestive system, or even cardiovascular problems, along with other mental illnesses." But what is the short term problems associated with the response?
|
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|
26spok
|
Will a drop of liquid distribute itself evenly in a body of water without being agitated?
|
If given a fixed body of water and a quantity of a liquid that can mix with water is added at a fixed point, will the added substance eventually disperse evenly through the water or will it stay in the general area it was added? (assuming the water is not agitated in any way and there is no water movement to help disperse the added liquid)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"chu60ds",
"chu6a6o",
"chu62rl"
],
"text": [
"All particles within a fluid are constantly moving; it's called [Brownian motion](_URL_0_). The individual particles in the solute will eventually be broken up and distributed by that motion. Without any added motion from stirring or shaking, it will take a very long time, but the solution will become a homogeneous mixture asymptotically.\n\nOf course, any solute that is insoluble in the solvent will sink to the bottom or float to the top depending on its relative density.",
"If you were to drop a small amount of food coloring into a glass of water at room temperature, the food coloring would slowly be disbursed throughout the water due to random molecular motion. Water molecules bump into the food coloring molecules causing them to move throughout the water. The warmer you make the molecules, the more excited they become causing the dye to spread out faster. Cooling them down has the opposite effect.",
"Yes. At nonzero temperature, all the little molecules are zipping about, bouncing off of each other. In other words, each molecule proceeds along a [random walk](_URL_1_) that yields a positional variance that is proportional to the duration of the walk. Given enough time, the fluid molecules would distribute evenly in the volume."
],
"score": [
23,
6,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brownian_motion",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_walk"
]
}
|
Will a drop of liquid distribute itself evenly in a body of water without being agitated?
If given a fixed body of water and a quantity of a liquid that can mix with water is added at a fixed point, will the added substance eventually disperse evenly through the water or will it stay in the general area it was added? (assuming the water is not agitated in any way and there is no water movement to help disperse the added liquid)
|
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|
1z39jj
|
In evolution if mutations are random, how does bacteria learn to use the mutations correctly? Does the behavior mutate randomly too?
|
_URL_0_
This question may be a bit confusing so let me put it this way:
If a cell evolves a flagellum that it did not have before (dont know
how likely that mutation is) how does it know how to use the tail upon evolving? If it were to get proteins that help it cling to objects instead of a Flagellum, how would it know to use those proteins for that purpose?
How does behavior that comes with the use of a mutation come to be, along with the mutation? Does this question make any sense? How does it know to use the mutation to start with?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"Bacteria don't know anything because they aren't conscious. Physics drives their chemistry to happen and that is what causes them to function and react to their environment. Compounds and molecules are just bumping in to each other and reacting according to the laws of physics and chemistry, and this causes everything that happens inside the bacteria to take place.\n\nSay, for instance, a new protein evolves that helps a bacterium stick to something. Well that protein would most likely be something that is expressed in the outer membrane so that it can grab on to something. In this proteins previous form, it didn't cause the cell to stick to something at all, or it was somewhat sticky but not enough to stick permanently. Now that the protein has changed, it just causes the bacterium to stick automatically. There is no conscious thought about it, it just sticks. If that new protein leads to the increased survivability of that bacterium then it will reproduce more than other bacteria in that specific area where being sticky is advantageous and the new protein will spread.",
"It's kind of like breaking a continuous string of changing passwords. The population of bacteria doesn't know what the password is or how it will change, so it does a brute force method and throws everything at it. Some fail along the way and don't pass, others crack it and get to the next password. Each time it passes an environmental check, i.e. the password, it marks a mutation that is well suited for that environment. The changes are incremental, but the rate of mutation may vary as with the environment. It has no end goal except to survive in the current moment. Not every mutation results in a change, however. They may code for the same protein or be useless until something triggers its usefulness. The thing is you only get to see the successful organisms that make it, not the endless dead ones that have lined its path. \n\nWith simple organism, there is no thought in behavior. It is a result of its functions, some may swim in circles, some may not even know how to swim. Again, only the successful ones get to move on.\n\nTL;DR: Evolution throws everything against the wall until one sticks.",
"Bacteria don't \"know\" anything, they just react, chemically and physically to their environment.\n\nThere is no \"plan\" to evolution. Mutations happen all the time, but because they are random, most either do nothing, or are actually harmful, resulting in the death of the organism. \n\nEvolution happens because every once in a great while, a mutation occurs that creates some slight advantage. Over MASSIVE amounts of time, these can build up, and eventually the species looks very different from its older form.\n\nBacteria can develop antibiotic resistance so quickly because their generations are so quick, sometimes only minutes long, and there are so many cells, rather than one large multicellular organism. This gives many more chances for mutation. \n\nAlso, bacteria have ways of sharing genes amongst themselves, so beneficial mutations can spread either through inheritance, or through sideways gene swapping, something multicellular organisms can't do.",
"Something complex like a flagellum does not appear in a single generation. More likely it will evolve from an existing structure and as that transitions toward a \"new\" structure like the flagellum in your example behavioral traits will evolve along with it. Keep in mind though that this will happen over many many generations in a gradient fashion.",
"'Mutation' refers to somewhat random modification of a cell's genome. This usually affects only affects a few proteins. A cell doesn't just mutate and create a complex structure like a flagellum. That sort of evolution takes a long time, think millions of years. In addition, mutation is only a small part of what drives evolution.\n\nAs for which came first, the flagellum or the behavior, that's a bit like asking if the chicken or the egg came first. Both could happen or they could co-evolve at the same time. That is entirely dependent on the species though. And to answer that question for just one species is incredibly difficult and takes years of research.",
"This should really blow your mind, then.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNot only are its 'flagella' actually an entirely separate species of bacteria in their own right, they are attached to the cell wall via special mounting brackets that are _also_ a different species."
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://evolution.berkeley.edu/evosite/evo101/IIIC1aRandom.shtml"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mixotrich"
]
}
|
In evolution if mutations are random, how does bacteria learn to use the mutations correctly? Does the behavior mutate randomly too?
_URL_0_ This question may be a bit confusing so let me put it this way: If a cell evolves a flagellum that it did not have before (dont know how likely that mutation is) how does it know how to use the tail upon evolving? If it were to get proteins that help it cling to objects instead of a Flagellum, how would it know to use those proteins for that purpose? How does behavior that comes with the use of a mutation come to be, along with the mutation? Does this question make any sense? How does it know to use the mutation to start with?
|
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|
ouug0
|
A Muslim friend of mine insists that scientists have been unable to create life from the elements that were present in the "primordial soup of the earth." Is this true?
|
I think what he means is that scientists cannot recreate how life began, so God did it. I didn't quite know how to answer him on this topic because I have never researched it much myself :/ Thanks reddit!
EDIT: It really has nothing to do with him being Muslim, other than the fact that we were debating about Islam's creation beliefs vs. science, and this came up. Probably should have just said my "friend" unless I described the context a bit more haha.
OBLIGATORY FRONT PAGE EDIT: Cool :) thanks for all the info reddit!
|
askscience
|
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"Technically, he is correct. Scientists haven't put a bunch of chemicals in a test tube, mixed them up, and dumped out a living organism.\n\nBut they've made precursor chemicals by simulating Earth's early atmosphere and running an electric charge through it to simulate lightning.\n\nSee _URL_0_\n\nThere have been many similar experiments since then.",
"His statement is correct.\n\nTo be honest, as a science community we cannot even agree on the definition of \"life.\"\n\nAsk a biologist whether or not a virus is alive and then ask him to justify the answer. You will be amused.\n\nThis is one of the reasons I am a physicist. They worst problem we have is newton's 3rd and euclid's 5th.",
"Remind him of the difference between a dozen scientists working normal hours over 50 years versus the entire lithosphere/aquasphere\\* of the earth \"working\" non-stop (albeit in a much less purposeful fashion) for around 700,000,000 years\\**. \n\nSure, people are arguably smarter and better-directed than random processes, but nature's got one hell of a head-start.\n\n\\* I'd say \"biosphere\", except that we're talking about before there was any \"bio\" aspect to it. \n\\** Or perhaps even more time, under panspermia theories. All of the numbers given here are malleable.",
"I recall seeing an article recently about a group of scientists that managed to create an artificial cell by synthesising DNA and combining it with a bacterium of some kind. While it's not exactly creating a living cell from scratch, it at least shows that functional DNA can be constructed from constituent chemicals.\n\nYou should also explain to your friend that just because scientists have not managed to do something (yet!), it is in no way evidence that something else happened, i.e. \"God did it\".\n\nEDIT: [Found the article I mentioned.](_URL_1_)",
"AskScience is not the place for religious debate, or indeed religious discussion at all except in a sociological or anthropological question.\n\nPlease do not engage in religious debate or 'proofs' for any side of that discussion. There are many subreddits where that is appropriate; this is not one of them.",
"He is correct. I can't cite a paper that says that we haven't, but we haven't.\n\nHowever, we've been able to create the organic building blocks of life (including peptides, sugars, nucleic acids, etc.) from the \"primordial soup\" (Miller and Urey did it first, but there's been dozens of follow-ups with different conditions). We have also been able to genetically engineer a primitive chromosome and insert it into a liposome to create a primitive cell (Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0). And, we've been able to force single-celled organisms into multicellular organisms (where the cells develop roles like primitive tissue differentiation), through artificial selection (_URL_2_).\n\nWhat we haven't done is connect all the pieces to go from inorganic matter to multicellular life. That's, perhaps, dozens of years away.",
"There are so many questions to be answered before that is attempted. We are not even sure what the condition of a supposed \"primordial soup\" is. We are not sure when life began on Earth (best evidence puts it at 3.8 billion years ago). Saying scientists haven't been able to to start life is true but is ahead of where the current focus is. The Miller Urey experiment is a valid attempt but the initial composition is highly debatable (and is debated). \n\nThe questions that need to be answered before such an experiment can be attempt are as follows:\n\n1) What is the right composition to use?\n\n2) What is the energy source (lightning strike, hydrothermal vent, something volcanic, impact related, or etc)?\n\nIn reality we know very little about the extremely early Earth and we have no idea when life began (only upper limits).",
"Simply scientists not being able to create life from primordial elements isn't an argument, because who knows what they'll accomplish tomorrow. In 1869 man hadn't walked on the Moon, and it didn't seem likely, but 100 years later we did just that. Think of all the things that weren't possible in 1869 and were in fact impossible and beyond the realm of belief compared to 1969. The only way your friend's claim would have any sort of meaning is if he is claiming man has learned everything there is to know. In which case why haven't scientists created life yet?\n\nHe's arguing god of the gaps. Wherever gaps in our knowledge are, there is God. The problem is when we learn things and some of those gaps disappear and God appears to lose his dominion and really any interest in it. It's not a very wise position for those of faith to embrace because it just sets them up for retreat after retreat and their god becomes more diminished as our knowledge grows. And it's believers own fault for engaging in that sort of mentality and they get pissed because they believe they're being told their god isn't so great after all.\n\nSo we don't know how life started exactly. So? We're still learning. And the thing creationists don't understand is most people who do science don't care what the answer is, they just want to the truth. But for the question, \"How did life get started?\", \"God did it\" is not a helpful answer. Because it leads to the question, \"How did God do it?\". It hasn't furthered the discussion or added any information. You're still at square one, and there's no reason for God to be there and you lose nothing by taking him out.",
"A very good podcast/lecture series on this topic is [The Teaching Company's Origins of Life](_URL_3_). In it, the lecturer goes through definitions of life, the Miller-Urey experiments and the numerous followups, and several different model scenarios for how life may have began. It's very good.",
"[This](_URL_4_) is a great site for understanding one leading theory of/experiments concerning the origins of life on earth. Basically, we haven't created life in a test tube yet, but to be fair, nature had a billion years or so to do it, and scientists have only been trying for a few decades. Also, we're getting closer! It's the difference between \"we have few pretty good ideas and are narrowing it down\" vs. \"we have no clue how it happened\", which your friend seems to be implying.",
"I watched a video on this same subject my sophomore year of high school. Your friend is actually right and wrong in a way. The scientists put the elements they though would have been in the primordial soup and began to cause sparks (to simulate a lightning storm) and the vial that contained the soup actually contained a certain type of protein needed for life. So while it wasn't life, it was a start",
"He is entirely correct. Humans haven't created life of any kind under any circumstance. Several groups are working on it though, and I expect them to manage the feat sometime in the next decade or two.\n\nThough, to be perfectly honest, when scientists do create life for the first time it's going to demonstrate directly and once-and-for-all that life can be created by an intelligent being (in this case, scientists).",
"I know I am posting this late in the game, but maybe some upvotes will get it some visibility.\n\n[This is a Ted talk by Martin Hanczyc on this very topic.](_URL_5_) It is a great explanation on what has been done, what is possible now, and what is around the corner. I really enjoyed this talk - it is one of my favorites.",
"Yes, you're friend is correct. But the experiments that people are referencing here took place over a matter of days. The primordial soup existed for millions of years before life started to arise, so I would say that nature had a bit more time than we have had to work on this problem.",
"Nova Science Now program on the topic.\n\n_URL_6_",
"I have a couple papers that are worth mentioning:\n\n[This one](_URL_7_) showed that specific RNA sequences were able to indefinitely catalyze the replication of their own sequences.\n\n[This one](_URL_8_) ([lay summary](_URL_9_)) showed that the replication of lipid vesicles (which spontaneously occur when detergents are dissolved in water) was enhanced from hours to minutes by the replication of contained nucleic acid sequences.\n\nLife is just a sophisticated system of replicators, and studying abiogenesis is just looking for the first replicator. While other experiments attempting to simulate the early conditions on earth have been able to generate lipids, amino acids, and nucleic acids, I don't think anyone is saying that if you mix a certain bunch of these molecules together that you're going to get a fully functioning pro- or eukaryotic cell, but as soon as you have a basic replicator (RNA, or RNA driving the budding and reproduction of lipid vesicles), that is something that will show variation over generations, at with point natural selection kicks in. \n\nWe may never know exactly which replicator became all of terrestrial life, but the exciting part of this kind of work is knowing that very simple molecules, based on nothing more than their inherent chemical properties (in this case a bunch of lipids and nucleic acids), form complex and replicating membrane-bound structures.",
"the top comments have to do with creating the chemicals we think life started with (amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates). we don't know that the first \"life\" actually used these. rna can act as a store for information as well as catalyze reactions. a number of self-replicating ribozymes have been created, which satisfy a basic requirement for \"life\" in that it can reproduce. however, this again operates under the assumption that the first life would be recognizable to us (here, using RNA). there are other molecules that could also work.",
"Maybe my Ctrl+F search was inadequate, [but I was really surprised no one explicitly mentioned \"Synthia\"](_URL_10_) yet. I'll be the first to say it didn't create life entirely from scratch, but it did create an organism with a synthetic genome, modeled after a species of mycoplasma. They incorporated the synthetic genome into existing bacterial machinery, and after 3 months of tweaking Mycoplasma laboratorium was born. There are some people who will debate whether this truly constitutes an artificial life form. I would say partly.",
"Just a quick note, if you were debating evolution then evolution and the origin of life are actually 2 very different theories. Evolution explains how you start with simple life and develop more complex life, while abiogenesis explains how life began. Evolution is a very [widely accepted](_URL_11_) and widely proven theory, while abiogenesis is still very much a developing theory.\n\nHowever there are plenty of workable theories about abiogenesis, [such as this](_URL_12_)",
"Check out this great TED talk about protocells and the difference between what is alive and what is not. It really does a nice job of representing how chemicals can behave in ways that similar to things that are alive.\n\n_URL_13_",
"Just in today:\n\nChemists have taken an important step in making artificial life forms from scratch. \n\n_URL_14_",
"Is \"abiogenesis\" still the best term to use for this process?",
"Have you ever heard of the Miller/Urey experiment?\n\n_URL_15_"
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{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miller%E2%80%93Urey_experiment",
"http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10132762",
"http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1115323109",
"http://www.thegreatcourses.com/tgc/courses/course_detail.aspx?cid=1515",
"http://exploringorigins.org/rnaworld.html",
"http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/martin_hanczyc_the_line_between_life_and_not_life.html",
"http://video.pbs.org/video/1790640610/",
"http://www.sciencemag.org/content/323/5918/1229",
"http://www.nature.com/nchem/journal/v3/n10/full/nchem.1127.html",
"http://www.nature.com/nchem/journal/v3/n10/full/nchem.1156.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma_laboratorium",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Steve",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_profilepage&v=U6QYDdgP9eg",
"http://blog.ted.com/2011/11/07/the-line-between-life-and-not-life-martin-hanczyc-on-ted-com/",
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2012-01-envelope-artificial-cell.html",
"http://www.chem.duke.edu/~jds/cruise_chem/Exobiology/miller.html"
]
}
|
A Muslim friend of mine insists that scientists have been unable to create life from the elements that were present in the "primordial soup of the earth." Is this true?
I think what he means is that scientists cannot recreate how life began, so God did it. I didn't quite know how to answer him on this topic because I have never researched it much myself :/ Thanks reddit! EDIT: It really has nothing to do with him being Muslim, other than the fact that we were debating about Islam's creation beliefs vs. science, and this came up. Probably should have just said my "friend" unless I described the context a bit more haha. OBLIGATORY FRONT PAGE EDIT: Cool :) thanks for all the info reddit!
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|
n4x7a
|
Is the phenonemon of "childhood imaginary friends" present in all human cultures?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c36baeh",
"c36bjan",
"c36b6tu",
"c36eha4"
],
"text": [
"Here are a few reports on location-specific prevalence:\n\n* [65% in the United States, 46% in United Kingdom](_URL_0_)\n* [10% in Japan](_URL_1_)",
"According to some studies in the US{1}, roughly 65% of children create an imaginary friend at some point. While this doesn't answer your original question of whether this is common in all cultures, the current research model suggests that imaginary companions are a way for children to facilitate learning about the world. Imaginary friends help children learn about the world and practice behaviors and concepts that they are just starting to be aware of.\n\nThere's some evidence that children who have imaginary friends pick up stronger language skills earlier, because they have to engage in \"conversations\" with someone. Parents also report that children with imaginary friends are actually less shy than those without. It also takes a reasonable smart kid to make an imaginary friend, but not having one isn't a sign of an intelligence deficit. Children who don't watch television are also more likely to have imaginary friends, presumably because children who watch television don't need to engage in as much imaginary play to keep occupied.\n\nDoes this happen in all cultures? I can't answer that definitively, but the research I've read would suggest that it probably does, because the characteristics of children who have imaginary friends doesn't seem to correlate to any specific societal factor like the level of socialization of the child or family structure. \n\n{1} [Imaginary Companions and the Children Who Create Them](_URL_2_)",
"I read a Julian Jaynes book on the Bicameral Mind awhile ago (the book has enjoyed revived popularity since Dawkins mentioned it in his). Unfortunately, I can't accurately remember very much. [This](_URL_3_) website is full of relevant studies found in the book. They might interest you.\n\nI seem to recall the book mentioning that children of all cultures experience auditory and visual hallucinations far more often than you might think. Differences in prevalence of imaginary companions (ICs) show themselves most in developed nations and suburbs. It is thought that they are conditioned earlier that hearing voices is a sign of illness and so hide it or ignore it.",
"Are any of the people talking in this thread trained in mental health and/or early childhood development? Seems like this askscience post is garnering mostly speculative responses and very few informed synopses of the scientific literature on cross cultural child development. I've been slammed for the same kind of posts on this subreddit. So, what gives on askscience?"
],
"score": [
116,
51,
19,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://news.bbc.co.uk/today/hi/today/newsid_9359000/9359360.stm",
"http://books.google.com/books?id=uVlZa9XTaBwC&lpg=PA246&ots=Zor30XpduS&dq=%22a%20questionnaire%20study%20of%20the%20imaginary%20companion%22&pg=PA246#v=onepage&q=%22a%20questionnaire%20study%20of%20the%20imaginary%20companion%22&f=false",
"http://www.amazon.com/Imaginary-Companions-Children-Create-Them/dp/0195146298",
"http://www.julianjaynes.org/related-articles_hallucinations.php"
]
}
|
Is the phenonemon of "childhood imaginary friends" present in all human cultures?
|
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||
1qav9n
|
I heard that after sex, men have a biological impulse to get away from the woman and women have the impulse to keep the man close. Is this true?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdazc2v",
"cdazdgg",
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"cdazhbo"
],
"text": [
"The real, honest answer, that you won't actually see much on reddit: Nobody knows.\n\n \n\nWe don't know much about our behaviour and evolution and \"Why do humans..\".\n\nWe can make guesses based on neurotransmitter levels. (Oxytocin especially in this case would be relevant).\n\nThe statement \"Humans have evolved to...\" seems almost entirely irrelevant in todays human. Our behaviours are unpredictable and very largely based on enviromental factors like culture and parents. \n\n \n\nOff tangent. But I hate seeing people try to guess \"why we evolved...\" Like \"Why did humans evolve to enjoy music so much\" You will have countless postulations that go on patterns and seem plausible but in reality have **ZERO RELEVANCE** to a scientific look at the question. The answer may actually be \"We didn't..\" or \"no\". Similar to your question.",
"This (and a myriad of other gender-related behavior explanations) are very popular in evolutionary psychology. However, there is hardly any supporting research to back-up these claims. Take it with a grain of salt.",
"I'm an evolutionary psychologist, and this is gibberish. It assumes that there are tons of women just waiting for a man to come along and have sex with them, so that the guy could just go find another mate immediately, which is just ridiculous. Furthermore, if this were true, then presumably some other male would come and have sex with the woman the guy just ran away from, which would completely obviate the supposed goal of the behavior.\n\nContrary to what everyone in this thread seems to think evolutionary hypotheses are very testable (they're just like any other psychological hypothesis, except they are derived from evolutionary theory, rather than say the researcher's imagination). For example there is some very interesting work on [semen displacement and the refractory period](_URL_0_). It seems likely that the refractory period males experience after orgasm is designed to prevent them from displacing their own semen. If this is true, it would suggest that something closer to the opposite of your hypothesis is true, namely that males should stick around and mate guard after having sex. I don't know of any evidence for that off the top of my head, but it is a plausible and testable hypothesis.",
"There is evidence that this reaction in men correlates with their sexual history (although only for first time intercourse).\n\n > men with high numbers of sex partners, but not men with low numbers of partners, experienced a decrease in their partner's physical and sexual attractiveness following first-time sexual intercourse. In contrast, women, more than men, experienced increases in feelings of love and commitment following first-time sex.\n\nHere's the urbandictionary page on it (wtf?):\n\n_URL_1_\n\n*(Haselton, M. G., & Buss, D. M. (2001). The affective shift hypothesis: The functions of emotional changes following sexual intercourse. Personal Relationships, 8, 357 -369.) btw if you want the actual source."
],
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.epjournal.net/wp-content/uploads/ep021223.pdf",
"http://www.urbandictionary.com/define.php?term=affective%20shift%20hypothesis"
]
}
|
I heard that after sex, men have a biological impulse to get away from the woman and women have the impulse to keep the man close. Is this true?
|
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||
3u80t7
|
Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
|
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science**
Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...".
**Asking Questions:**
Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions.
The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists.
**Answering Questions:**
Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience.
If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_).
Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_).
Ask away!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cxcnfbb",
"cxcr5i8",
"cxcmgqf",
"cxcwxfa",
"cxcpzik",
"cxcruuj"
],
"text": [
"I got a degree in software engineering, now all job offers I see are either \"make an app\" or \"make a website\"... is there any way to become researcher / scientist (or assitant)? aka, is there ANY IT in science?",
"This is a little bit more of a computer hardware question, but... Knowing the very basics of how an LCD monitor scans an image from top to bottom 60 times per second (and 120-144 times per second for gaming monitors), is it possible to parallelize that design and have multiple scans occurring at once to make LCD monitors capable of even higher refresh rates, ignoring bandwidth requirements?\n\nCould the technology be divided into, for example, four wide but short panels stacked on top of each other that perform a full scan of an image 240-480 times per second?",
"What was your hardest CompSci course you took? How much would you actually use physics/Cal in your CompSci?",
"I have a B.S degree in mechanical engineering technology, graduated with a 3.6 gpa. It's basically an easier version of ME. I currently work for a huge aerospace company and we design turbine engines. My title is \"designer\", not an \"engineer\" title. The work I do (i think) is pretty related to engineering I'd say. The design engineers give me the concept and I make a 3d cad models from them and/or i make them from looking at engineering drawings. I also set up the engineering drawings by labeling the GD & T and making sure it's up to standard for manufacturing. We also build the turbine engines digitally in this dpt. So every single engine we have here, can be searched for digitally and every single part (including nuts and bolts) can be searched within the engine digitally, which we set up and do here. \n\nThis company will never let engineering technology graduates move into their \"design engineering\" departments unfortunately.\n\nIf i were to leave, are there any positions out there (and company name examples) where i can actually hold an \"engineer\" title?\n\nI only know of a couple, and that's 'systems engineering' and 'validation engineering' from a few friends that has the same major. \n\nAny advice is appreciated, thanks.",
"For the MassSpec community out there-\n\nHow is the comparative mass-throughput for various mass filters? More specifically, could any sort of epitaxial growth or even bulk \"3D Printing\" of ultra-high purity materials (specifically metals) be feasable by filtering out one mass with a mass spectrometer setup (quadrupole, r-ToF, sector, orbitrap, RIT, etc?)\n\nI know that soft-landing mass spectrometry has been done with silver nanoparticles, but could atomic deposition be achieved via the same methods? \n\nCould soft-landing potentially be used for low-defect and high-purity monocrystalline growth?",
"If I'm good at math, physics, have good logical thinking would it be a wise idea to pick software engineering?"
],
"score": [
8,
3,
3,
2,
2,
2
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
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{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/1uxrxz/askscience_panel_of_scientists_x/",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/wiki/index#wiki_answering_askscience",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/search?q=flair%3A%27meta%27&restrict_sr=on&sort=new&t=all"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Ask Anything Wednesday - Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science
Welcome to our weekly feature, Ask Anything Wednesday - this week we are focusing on **Engineering, Mathematics, Computer Science** Do you have a question within these topics you weren't sure was worth submitting? Is something a bit too speculative for a typical /r/AskScience post? No question is too big or small for AAW. In this thread you can ask any science-related question! Things like: "What would happen if...", "How will the future...", "If all the rules for 'X' were different...", "Why does my...". **Asking Questions:** Please post your question as a top-level response to this, and our team of panellists will be here to answer and discuss your questions. The other topic areas will appear in future Ask Anything Wednesdays, so if you have other questions not covered by this weeks theme please either hold on to it until those topics come around, or go and post over in our sister subreddit /r/AskScienceDiscussion , where every day is Ask Anything Wednesday! Off-theme questions in this post will be removed to try and keep the thread a manageable size for both our readers and panellists. **Answering Questions:** Please only answer a posted question if you are an expert in the field. [The full guidelines for posting responses in AskScience can be found here](_URL_1_). In short, this is a moderated subreddit, and responses which do not meet our quality guidelines will be removed. Remember, peer reviewed sources are always appreciated, and anecdotes are absolutely not appropriate. In general if your answer begins with 'I think', or 'I've heard', then it's not suitable for /r/AskScience. If you would like to become a member of the AskScience panel, [please refer to the information provided here](_URL_0_). Past AskAnythingWednesday posts [can be found here](_URL_2_). Ask away!
|
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k0ddi
|
What predictions can you make based on evolutionary theory?
|
Recently, I was having a debate with a friend of mine about skeptical thinking, and he was discussing what he saw as flaws in the theory of evolution. He said that - unlike the heliocentric theory about the solar system for instance - evolutionary theory cannot be used to make testable predictions about the future, and that the science is inherently speculative and mostly historical guesswork. Is this really the case? I'm not a scientist, so I wasn't sure how to respond. Any suggestions?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"No, that is not really the case. For instance, you can make the prediction that if you subject a population of bacteria to some environmental stress and allow them to reproduce, repeating a bunch of times, your final population will be highly resistant to that stress. This prediction has been borne out many times.",
"You can also take the approach that there are multiple chains of data that support evolution. We can take contemporary animal physiology, like Darwin's finches. We can take fossil patterns and ages. We also have the genetic data. When the theory of evolution was put together, we only had the first, and the starts of the second, and none of the third. So suppose we wanted to make an enumerated set of falsifiable hypotheses to test evolution against:\n\nInitial Data: Similarities between extant species suggest common ancestry\n\nHypothesis: Fossil record should reflect common ancestry, with most similar species having more recent common ancestors, and more dissimilar species having older common ancestors.\n\nData: Fossil records support this hypothesis with changes in species occuring over time. (depending on your scientific viewpoint this can be seen as either data *failing to falsify* the theory, or data *supporting* the theory. I don't want to get into this quibble at the moment).\n\n---\n\nInitial data: similarities between extant species, and chronology from fossil records suggest common ancestry and changes and branching occuring over time.\n\nHypothesis: genetic markers of extant species should reflect the chronological history of the species. It should share genes with little modification between closely related species, share genes with greater modification between less closely related species, and show evidence of some genetic patterns evolving uniformly through all species (last universal common ancestor)\n\nData: Genetic studies of species agree with the hypothesis, again either *failing to falsify* or *supporting* the theory of evolution.\n\n---\n\nSo don't let people tell you that just because we weren't there to see evolution, we can't falsify the theory. The theory makes predictions that can be tested in the present and are confirmed in the present.",
"This ties into usefulness as well. Amarkov mentioned bacteria, and I'll give you a real world example.\n\nI'm currently testing a novel antibiotic. I'm collaborating with a biotech, so I apologize if my details only go so far. A part of the benefit of the compound is that it only inhibits a specific pathogenic behavior of the bugs, it does not outright kill them. (but does make them more susceptible to other things)\n\nThe biochemistry & genetics of the situation make it likely that a bug would develop resistance to the compound (and that's all I'm going to say about that). Natural selection makes the prediction that if this compound only shifts the behavior of the bug but does not kill it, bacteria that develop resistance to the compound will not be given a strong selective advantage, and resistance will not come up as quickly as it does with more traditional antibiotics. Long story short: The bugs don't develop resistance. \n\nSo here, the predictions of natural selection gave us something to strive to; an antibiotic that does not directly kill. With this system, it would take changes in several genes, each one without a strong selective advantage on its own, to get resistance to the whole system. Evolution also predicts that the bugs will eventually develop resistance, but hopefully it will be delayed long enough that it's harder for the population in any one patient to perfect the system of resistance.",
"Evolution is also not just exclusive to biology. We can apply evolutionary mechanics to evolve solutions to many other research problems.\n\nFor example, DARPA is funding a \"evolve a brain\" which makes use of our knowledge of evolution mechanics from computational, microbial, and archaeological findings."
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What predictions can you make based on evolutionary theory?
Recently, I was having a debate with a friend of mine about skeptical thinking, and he was discussing what he saw as flaws in the theory of evolution. He said that - unlike the heliocentric theory about the solar system for instance - evolutionary theory cannot be used to make testable predictions about the future, and that the science is inherently speculative and mostly historical guesswork. Is this really the case? I'm not a scientist, so I wasn't sure how to respond. Any suggestions?
|
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|
2ttwt1
|
What exactly is electric charge? (Specific questions inside)
|
I was just reading the wiki page on [electric charge](_URL_1_) and read these sentences which i'm trying to understand.
**1** "The unit is today treated as nameless, referred to as "elementary charge", "fundamental unit of charge", or simply as "e". A measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a real quantity."
**2.** "It is now known that the Franklin/Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge."
**3** "The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge e; we say that electric charge is quantized. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge."
**4.** ".. in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers, i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners."
**5.** "Actually, all bodies are electrified, but may appear not to be so by the relative similar charge of neighboring objects in the environment."
**In relation to 1.** I'm trying to get my head around the concept of something having no unit. I understand that it's somewhat similar to mass. But would greatly appreciate some help in understanding this concept. As an addition why is 1C defined as 6.24x10^18 e? Any particular reason why they chose that number?
**In relation to 2.** This may be a semantical problem. It states at the start of the article that there are two types of electric charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and opposite charges attract. I followed up the reference which states that ["The charge of the electron is different from the charge of the positron, but this is a difference in amount, not a difference in kind."](_URL_0_). But i can't fully grasp the concept because they do seem fundamentally different in some sense because one repels the other. Perhaps someone can clear this up?
**In relation to 3** Does that mean that the charge an object has will always be a product of 1.60x10^-19C (1/6.24x10^18)? Why does that only hold for free-standing particles?
**In relation to 4.** The current is in the opposite direction of the electrons? What does that mean?
**In relation to 5.** What about neutrons?
There are many questions in this post because i'm very ignorant of this subject but i would greatly appreciate the answer to any of these questions.
|
askscience
|
{
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"1) The \"elementary charge\" is just that, elementary. We haven't found any way to express it in terms of other quantities. When we talk about the total charge of an object, we express that as the multiple of the elementary charge. This variable is a quantity, something that has been counted. That's why it doesn't have a unit. If you count the fingers on one hand, the value is 5 and that value doesn't have a unit. Counting elementary charges is effectively the same.\n\nThe definition of the Coulomb is relatively arbitrary. As with most physical constants and units, there is some historical reason why they have the scaling that they have, but the whole system would work just as well when you'd rescale everything to different values (as long as you do it consistently). It is common for physicists to pick a unit scaling that makes the calculations simpler.\n\n2) What is meant by there being just one type of charge is, that the physics are not different for a particle with positive charge as for one with negative charge. If positive and negative charge where truly different properties, there might be (subtle) differences in how these two types of charges interact with the rest of the world. As it turns out, the physics of electromagnetism is unchanged when you flip the minus sign of charge. This phenomenon is also known as C Symmetry (_URL_0_), but it does not apply to all fundamental forces.\n\n3) All objects have a charge that is an integer multiple of the elementary charge.\n\n4) It is a convention in electrical engineering to consider current as flowing from the positive electrode to the negative. This has historic reasons, as originally it was expected that this is what happens microscopically. In reality, we've found that the, negatively charged, electrons are actually moving in an electric current. However, the convention to use current from positive to negative has remained in use, primarily due to the use of older textbooks combined with an unwillingness to make a clean break with old texts, tools and methods.\n\n5) I'm assuming that in this text, \"bodies\" refers to larger (macroscopic scale) entities rather than single particles such as neutrons. A neutron is obviously not charged.",
"You've taken a bunch of confusingly worded sentences and put them together out of context to make something even more confusing! That's not a criticism of your question, just a result of curiosity.\n\nBasically, some particles have electric charge, either positive or negative, found only in units of the fundamental value. Objects made of smaller objects have integer multiples of this. What charge is, besides \"the thing that particles have makes some particles attract other particles with different kinds and repel the same kind\" comes from something called Gauge symmetry.\n\nSo to answer your specific questions.\n\n1. It does have a unit, it's e.\n\n2. I think they're saying 1-(-1)=2. Both the positive and negative are associated with gauge symmetry.\n\n3. Yes. For quarks, they can come in units of 1/3 or 2/3 (plus or minus) e, but they will only be found in aggregates whose total charge adds up to an integer.\n\n4. Positive current is the rate of change of positive charge. If current goes one way, negative charges are going the other way. This is because the terms were made up before it was known that it's the negative charges that do most of the moving.\n\n5. What about them?",
"Regarding 1: There are many units which have been redefined in terms of more modern measurement techniques. This is something that will continue to happen as our technology and science improves. I'm not sure what the historical origins for the coulomb are, but you can see how the definition of some other units has changed here:\n\n_URL_2_\n\nRegarding 2: We can only observe net charge. If we assume - for a moment - that everything (including space) carries some constant non-zero charge in addition to what we observe, then electromagnetism will work out the same way.\n\nRegarding 3: For a charge in motion, there is less of an electrostatic field, and more of a magnetic field. And yes, we expect that everything with a static charge will have a charge that's a multiple of electron charges. (Quarks have 1/3 and 2/3 charges, but they don't stick around.)\n\nRegarding 4: By convention, we talk about current flowing from the + to the - in a circuit, but the electrons - which are negatively charged - travel along the wire from the - to the +.\n\nRegarding 5: This relates to issue 2 - we don't know that neutrons are properly neutral, but rather only that they carry the same net charge as space. It turns out that neutrons also have some internal electrical structure. _URL_2_",
"I'll take a stab at some of these too:\n\n* 1 : The Coulomb was defined first, to give a unit to some amount of stored charge, withoutout knowing anything about electrons at all. Once you found out how many electrons were in one C of charge, you had your answer. The \"unit\" is \"e\" as in, to tell someone how much charge there is stored in something, or that something has, you tell them how many electrons it has. \n\n* 2 : The positron is opposite in charge to the electron. +1e vs -1e. They are the same \"charge\". You say \"Like charges repel and opposite charges attract.\" but you really mean to say \"Like SIGNED charges repel...\"\n\nThe problem is that there can be other \"charge\" in a greater sense of the word. You can think of \"mass\" as a \"Gravitational Charge\" as it determines how much force the gravitational field gets. Theres also Color and the Weak Interaction, etc.\n\nYou could image a world where you have 2 types of properties, maybe a particle can be +1 or -1, but also be blue or red. So two particles interact with different interactions. If something is +blue, and another is -blue, they are electrically attracted but color-repelled. If one is +red and the other is +blue, then they are color-attracted, but electrically repelled. (as an example). So there can be different \"types\" of charge.\n\n* 3 : In the macro-world, all charges are due to either an accumulation of electrons, a lack of electrons, or extra protons. Things want to be neutral in general. The only way to make something more charged is to add an electron, or take away a proton (which HAPPENS to have the same charge as an electron, and notice I'm talking about protons, not positrons).\n\nThere are also quarks that make up the proton and neutron, and they come in +2/3 or -1/3 charge (and the opposite signs for anti-particles). But they want to be bound together in packets of 2 or 3. If you add two together, using the fact that it has to be particle-antiparticle, then you can have sums of either 0 or 1. If you add 3 like-type ones together you can have [-1/3-1/3-1/3], [-1/3-1/3+2/3],[-1/3+2/3+2/3] and [+2/3+2/3+2/3]. \nWhich are charges of -1,0,1 and 2 (and with the anti-particles also gives you -2).\n\n* 4 : They mean that the current, as defined, is the flow of positive charge. So if you're looking at a tube of electrons moving to the right, the CURRENT as DEFINED, is to the left. Its merely convention, and is due to historical reasons that we do this. If it was a tube of positrons (+1e) to the right, the current would be to the right.\n\n* 5 : I disagree with the statement made. \"All bodies are electrified\" sounds very 1900. All bodies are composed of things that carry charge, and on average everything is neutral. If I gather too much charge, you will repel things of like charge and attract things of opposing charge. Its not like something with (+100e) and another (+100e) thing don't see eachother; I feel that the statement is just wrong. If you're charged, you'll know when in the presence of other charges.\n\nPerhaps their point was that you could be incredibly charged, but if you spend all day interacting with things that are electrically neutral, then you wouldn't push or pull it, and so you might think you yourself are not charged. (until you get a static shock from touching it!)",
"Let me try to explain the concept as I understand it. Its seems to me your not understanding what is happening on the atomic level which is the why of most electronics. \n\nTo start out you have a basic atom. This includes protons, neutrons, and electrons. The electrons all have a negative charge. The protons have positive charges but lets just ignore that for now because we are concerned in electronics with electron flow. The electrons orbit the atom's nucleus in what are called orbits or shells. The outermost shell we call the valence shell. All atoms want to have full Valence shells (8 electrons), to do this they will either try to get rid of electrons or gain electrons. If a atom has 3 or less valence electrons it will try to get rid of those electrons. These are called conductors and examples include most metals. 5 or more valence electrons are insulators and examples include plastic and rubber. When there is a small charge applied to a conductor it pulls the electrons from their shells so you end up with a bunch of \"free electrons\". Free electrons are just electrons floating around without an atom to orbit.\n\n\nSo lets get to what causes electrons to flow. I am going to use a battery as an example. On the positive end of the battery there are a bunch of electron holes (or spaces to fill, remember the valence wants to be 8) in the valence shells of the atoms these holes are considered positively charged because the electrons want to fill them. On the negative end there are bunches of free electrons. When a wire is hooked between these two potentials the free electrons will take the path through the wire to get to the holes of valence shells. The actual flow of electrons is referred to as amperage (represented by I in calculations) . The potential of electrons to flow on the battery is referred to as Voltage (represented by E in calculations). I hope that explains the why of electron flow because that seems like the basis of most of your questions. \n\nNow to answer your question about current being in the opposite direction of electron flow. As the electrons are moving towards the positive charge, the holes (places where electrons should go) are flowing to the negative end. For some reason when we talk about current in engineering we are talking about hole flow and not electron flow. I am not sure why this is the way of it but there you go.\n\nNeutrons are parts of the atom. Now if you recall me saying that protons are positively charged. Now also remember that like charges repel. What keeps all the protons in the nucleus of an atom from flying away from each other? The answer is neutrons. They have no charge so they act as a buffer between the protons to prevent them from touching so they don't try and fly off in every which direction.",
"With regard to the units, really the defining unit is the ampere. According to [NIST](_URL_3_), the ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross section, and placed 1 meter apart in vacuum, would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 x 10-7 newton per meter of length.\n\nThe coulomb, the base unit for charge is defined as how much charge passes a given point if a current of one ampere is passing through it for one second.\n\nBut nobody really knew until Millikan's experiment that charge came only in minimal-sized chunks. Until then, it was a continuous variable like mass or energy. What we've found out since then is that the smallest amount of free charge you'll ever see is e. In this sense, then, a coulomb is just an accident of history. It is a convenient unit that really means \"a bazillion e's\". It means this in almost exactly the same sense that a mole of hydrogen means \"a gazillion hydrogen atoms\".\n\nSo if you have a capacitor with 1.2 microcoulombs of charge on it, what that means, roughly, is that it has 1.2 millionths of a bazillion e's on it."
],
"score": [
19,
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.av8n.com/physics/one-kind-of-charge.htm",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_charge"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_symmetry",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutron_electric_dipole_moment",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SI_base_unit",
"http://physics.nist.gov/cuu/Units/ampere.html"
]
}
|
What exactly is electric charge? (Specific questions inside)
I was just reading the wiki page on [electric charge](_URL_1_) and read these sentences which i'm trying to understand. **1** "The unit is today treated as nameless, referred to as "elementary charge", "fundamental unit of charge", or simply as "e". A measure of charge should be a multiple of the elementary charge e, even if at large scales charge seems to behave as a real quantity." **2.** "It is now known that the Franklin/Watson model was fundamentally correct. There is only one kind of electrical charge, and only one variable is required to keep track of the amount of charge." **3** "The charges of free-standing particles are integer multiples of the elementary charge e; we say that electric charge is quantized. Michael Faraday, in his electrolysis experiments, was the first to note the discrete nature of electric charge." **4.** ".. in the common and important case of metallic wires, the direction of the conventional current is opposite to the drift velocity of the actual charge carriers, i.e., the electrons. This is a source of confusion for beginners." **5.** "Actually, all bodies are electrified, but may appear not to be so by the relative similar charge of neighboring objects in the environment." **In relation to 1.** I'm trying to get my head around the concept of something having no unit. I understand that it's somewhat similar to mass. But would greatly appreciate some help in understanding this concept. As an addition why is 1C defined as 6.24x10^18 e? Any particular reason why they chose that number? **In relation to 2.** This may be a semantical problem. It states at the start of the article that there are two types of electric charges, positive and negative. Like charges repel and opposite charges attract. I followed up the reference which states that ["The charge of the electron is different from the charge of the positron, but this is a difference in amount, not a difference in kind."](_URL_0_). But i can't fully grasp the concept because they do seem fundamentally different in some sense because one repels the other. Perhaps someone can clear this up? **In relation to 3** Does that mean that the charge an object has will always be a product of 1.60x10^-19C (1/6.24x10^18)? Why does that only hold for free-standing particles? **In relation to 4.** The current is in the opposite direction of the electrons? What does that mean? **In relation to 5.** What about neutrons? There are many questions in this post because i'm very ignorant of this subject but i would greatly appreciate the answer to any of these questions.
|
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|
3cga45
|
If you were lost in space, and encountered intelligent life, how would you explain where Earth is, in order to get home?
|
So you can't say the milky way, because no one else calls it that, you can't explain the Earth is "x" kilometers wide/from the sun or the Earth is "x" kilograms because they may not have the same unit/ratio of measurement. idea based on the show Farscape. In a seemingly endless universe, how would you begin to describe earth and how to get back there?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"csver7n",
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"csvjkyg",
"csvpw0l",
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"csvz89o"
],
"text": [
"Before the Voyager probes' golden record, the the Pioneer space probes had a [plaque](_URL_0_) which located earth relative to a dozen pulsars, so that ~~earth's~~ our sun's location could be triangulated. For the units, they used the [hyperfine period](_URL_0_#Hyperfine_transition_of_neutral_hydrogen) of hydrogen to define both time and distance (the most common galactic atom).\n\n[Photo of plaque.](_URL_1_)",
"From a different point-of-view, this has already been answered. We sent Voyager out many years ago. With it, we sent a very intelligent and well thought out set of diagrams to illustrate where we are from. The biggest contributor to answering your question would be to identify our pulsar. Check this out...\n_URL_3_",
"Far out in the uncharted backwaters of the unfashionable end of the western spiral arm of the Galaxy lies a small unregarded yellow sun. Orbiting this at a distance of roughly ninety-two million miles is an utterly insignificant little blue green planet whose ape-descended life forms are so amazingly primitive that they still think digital watches are a pretty neat idea.",
"For clarification, just how \"lost\" are we? If we're still within the milky way, I think there's enough landmarks that you'd be able to navigate to within ~30LY of Sol, where you should be able to start picking up human broadcasts of some strength, which you could then navigate home by.\n\nI think I'd start by showing a sketch of the milky way, our approximate position relative to the center of the galaxy, and then explaining that our view of [The Great Attractor](_URL_4_) is obscured by the center of the galaxy.\n\nAssuming they know what you're talking about, that gets you to within ~30kly of home. Still not close enough yet, but a much more reasonable place to search. At this point, I'd show them some constellations as seen from Earth. Assuming they have astronomy capabilities similar to ours, with a little work, they should be able to extrapolate where Earth is from those sketches.\n\nWith only \"top of the noggin\" information, I think that's about as good as I could do.",
"If I have my smartphone with my I whip out my star chart app with constellations as seen from earth it should be enough to give them enough info to triangulate my point of origin ~~and begin their invasion~~\n\nOtherwise I just tell them I'm from the unfashionable end of an outer spiral arm and taunt them into figuring out where I originate from, if they're so superintelligent and superior.\n\nIt would probably end up playing out something like [this](_URL_5_)",
"While everyone has a variety of exposure there are likely 10,000 questions an alien could ask to help determine where earth is. Let's say they're in our galaxy and are within a light cone of 800 light years of us. They'd know of the locations of a few of our nearby supernovae, like the crab nebula. They know when that occured. They'd might be familiar with the Seven Sisters. If we knew the form of several constellations that would help to isolate what type of locations we were in. Info like, \"our closest neighbour is just over four light years away\" and \"there's an orangy star nearby that's a binary system\" might help.\n\n Under torture in a distant star system you could be forced to cough up useful data. Be careful.\n\nNone of us know where those pulsars are. We're not going to remember how bright the sun is relative to other suns, but our eyes will tell an observant individual what we see.",
"Assuming you end up in the same galaxy, upon being showed a galactic map, you could at least narrow it down to the Orion Spur (assuming you know the rough outline of the galaxy). \n\nI'm wondering if drawing some prominent constellations (Orion, big dipper, Pleiades) would allow them then to interpolate Sol's location."
],
"score": [
174,
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_plaque",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pioneer_plaque.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pioneer_plaque#Hyperfine_transition_of_neutral_hydrogen",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voyager_Golden_Record",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Attractor",
"http://falsepositivecomic.com/2014/05/06/redeem-page-1-cosmic-horror-commic/"
]
}
|
If you were lost in space, and encountered intelligent life, how would you explain where Earth is, in order to get home?
So you can't say the milky way, because no one else calls it that, you can't explain the Earth is "x" kilometers wide/from the sun or the Earth is "x" kilograms because they may not have the same unit/ratio of measurement. idea based on the show Farscape. In a seemingly endless universe, how would you begin to describe earth and how to get back there?
|
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|
yt8yt
|
Is there a theoretical physicist that can explain what I'm looking at?
|
James Gates PhD. described [this](_URL_0_) as "computer code" in the equations of string theory. More and more of my friends are quoting him as proof we live in The Matrix. Can /r/askscience please help explain what this is all about?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5ym70c",
"c5yp1kp",
"c5ymugf"
],
"text": [
"This diagram is an *adinkra*. Adinkras are diagrams used to study the represesntations of supersymmetry algebras. They were introduced in a paper by Mike Faux and Jim Gates, which you can find [here](_URL_0_).\n\nEdit: Jim Gates has written a somewhat lengthy [piece](_URL_2_) explaining adinkras and, in the final section, he addresses why he thinks they might be related to [Wheeler's \"it from bit\" notion](_URL_1_).",
"> More and more of my friends are quoting him as proof we live in The Matrix.\n\nThat's a \"Reification Fallacy\". Your friends are asserting the physical existence of abstract models, which doesn't really make sense.",
"Looking at the diagram, the first code that comes to mind is a Hamming code -- which is only loosely related. Basically, the diagram lays out all sixteen four-bit words, then adds connections between the ones whose hamming distance (number of bits that differ) is 1.\n\n\nHamming codes are used for error correction and detection. Basically, if you look at this graph -- or one like it but reflecting more bits -- you select nodes on the graph to represent your data. A single bit error in a transmission will make the receiver receive a node adjacent to the one you sent, so you make sure that none of the nodes you select are adjacent; this gives you a \"single bit error detection code\" ...in this case, if you only use the white nodes, any single bit will cause the receiver to get a node that is dark, and the receiver knows it had an error.\n\nGoing one step further, select your nodes so that every error node is adjacent to only one data node (that is, the minimum hamming distance between your data nodes is 3, rather than 2). Now when you receive a pattern corresponding to a shaded node, you can correct the error by observing that only one of its neighbors is a data node.\n\nOf course, real error correction codes will be based on much larger sets of bits. For instance, you might combine 64 bits of data with 8 more bits in the message, which allows you to correct any single bit error.\n\nThere are efficient ways of mapping data into larger messages, then mapping messages back into the most probable original data, but I've already tossed a wall of text at you ; )"
],
"score": [
21,
10,
9
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.imgur.com/nFXby"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-th/0408004",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_physics#Wheeler.27s_.22it_from_bit.22",
"http://www.onbeing.org/program/uncovering-codes-reality/feature/symbols-power-adinkras-and-nature-reality/1460"
]
}
|
Is there a theoretical physicist that can explain what I'm looking at?
James Gates PhD. described [this](_URL_0_) as "computer code" in the equations of string theory. More and more of my friends are quoting him as proof we live in The Matrix. Can /r/askscience please help explain what this is all about?
|
[
-0.6700322031974792,
0.0917895957827568,
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odxb1
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Why does it take humans such a long time to become self sufficient after we're born?
|
It takes humans about 1 year before we are even able to stand up without holding on to something. Why is it that compared to other animals, we take such a long time to develop into a being that can actually survive on our own without constant protection and assistance?
|
askscience
|
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"It's a balance between walking upright and having big brains.\n\nBefore we got big brains, our ancestors starting walking upright. This helped as it allows us see farther, it gave us the ability to engage in cursorial (endurance) hunting, and later gave us the ability to use tools while walking.\n\nOur big brains give us intelligence and communication.\n\nBut there's a problem here; because of the way the femur fits into the pelvic bone, pelvic width has a limit in two-legged gaits. Once you go past that, you can't move as fast or be as stable; you lose agility. But to be born with a big brain, you have to have a big head which, in humans, would require a wide pelvis....catch-22.\n\nWe have developed a number of adaptations to deal with this. One is the fact that infant skulls don't fuse until later on, letting the head deform during birth. Another is the changing of the female pelvis during mid/late pregnancy; it changes shape temporarily and some of the connections alter, widening the opening for the baby. This is part of the reason really pregnant women \"waddle\" when they walk.\n\nBut the last gets at what you're talking about...we're born before we finish developing. Since being born with a fully developed brain would be too much of a fitness expense for the mother, a portion of development takes place outside of the womb. An infant can't walk or take care of itself for a long time because it isn't finished yet.\n\n(edited for some typos & formatting errors)",
"It's already been answered, but I always loved the passage relating to this in **The Lost World** novel:\n\n > “About three million years ago,” Malcolm said, “some African apes that had been living in trees came down to the ground. There was nothing special about these apes. Their brains were small and they weren’t especially smart. They didn’t have claws or sharp teeth for weapons. They weren’t particularly strong, or fast. They were certainly no match for a leopard. But because they were short, they started standing upright on their hind legs, to see over the tall African grass. That’s how it began. Just some ordinary apes, looking out over the grass.\n\n > “As time went on, the apes stood upright more and more of the time. That left their hands free to do things. Like all apes, they were tool-users. Chimps, for example, use twigs to fish for termites. That sort of thing. As time went on, our ape ancestors developed more complex tools. That stimulated their brains to grow in size and complexity. It began a spiral: more complex tools provoked more complex brains which provoked more complex tools. And our brains literally exploded, in evolutionary terms. Our brains more than doubled in size in about a million years. And that caused problems for us.”\n\n > “Like what?”\n\n > “Like getting born, for one thing. Big brains can’t pass through the birth canal—which means that both mother and child die in childbirth. That’s no good. What’s the evolutionary response? To make human infants born very early in development, when their brains are still small enough to pass through the pelvis. It’s the marsupial solution—most of the growth occurs outside the mother’s body. A human child’s brain doubles during the first year of life. That’s a good solution to the problem of birth, but it creates other problems. It means that human children will be helpless long after birth. The infants of many mammals can walk minutes after they’re born. Others walk in a few days, or weeks. But human infants can’t walk for a full year. They can’t feed themselves for even longer. So one price of big brains was that our ancestors had to evolve new, stable social organizations to permit long-term child care, lasting many years. These big-brained, totally helpless children changed society. But that’s not the most important consequence.”\n\n > “No?”\n\n > “No. Being born in an immature state means that human infants have unformed brains. They don’t arrive with a lot of built-in, instinctive behavior. Instinctively, a newborn infant can suck and grasp, but that’s about all. Complex human behavior is not instinctive at all. So human societies had to develop education to train the brains of their children. To teach them how to act. Every human society expends tremendous time and energy teaching its children the right way to behave. You look at a simpler society, in the rain forest somewhere, and you find that every child is born into a network of adults responsible for helping to raise the child. Not only parents, but aunts and uncles and grandparents and tribal elders. Some teach the child to hunt or gather food or weave; some teach them about sex or war. But the responsibilities are clearly defined, and if a child does not have, say, a mother’s brother’s sister to do a specific teaching job, the people get together and appoint a substitute. Because raising children is, in a sense, the reason the society exists in the first place. It’s the most important thing that happens, and it’s the culmination of all the tools and language and social structure that has evolved. And eventually, a few million years later, we have kids using computers.\"",
"I always imagine what would happen if you gave toddlers the strength of teenagers. With humans born knowing so very little and having to learn so very much, it's a good thing we're not physically self-sufficient for a while.",
"This question raises to complementary questions. 1) At what age is a human considered to be able to be self sufficient? 2) What percentage of our lifespan is considered to be spent as self sufficient, and how does this percentage of self sufficiency compare to wild animals?"
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Why does it take humans such a long time to become self sufficient after we're born?
It takes humans about 1 year before we are even able to stand up without holding on to something. Why is it that compared to other animals, we take such a long time to develop into a being that can actually survive on our own without constant protection and assistance?
|
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] |
|
75z12c
|
Could a helium balloon with a GoPro™ attached reach a high enough altitude to record the curvature of the earth?
|
Understandably, maybe not a regular store bought balloon, but my real question here is; couldn't "flat-earth" be disproven on a shoestring-budget?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"doa2sqt",
"doab46a",
"doated0"
],
"text": [
"Yep, [on a weather balloon](_URL_1_). Lots of people have already done this. GoPros have a lens that distorts the view a bit, but that can be corrected for (or you can send up a camera with a different lens).\n\nYou can see the curvature of the Earth from the ground though, no need for a camera. Go to an ocean or large lake like Lake Michigan, and look at [boats on the horizon](_URL_7_). Lake Pontchartrain outside New Orleans has [powerlines running across it that dip below the horizon too](_URL_3_). Also lunar eclipses [always show](_URL_0_) a [circular shadow of the Earth](_URL_4_), no matter the position of the [moon on the sky](_URL_6_) when it happens, and an object where every cross-section is a circle is...a SPHERE! (Not a [disk](_URL_2_)!)\n\nIt's so easy to prove that the Earth is a sphere, we've known *not only* that it was a sphere, but also *how big it was* for [well over 2000 years](_URL_5_)! Eratosthenes didn't need a weather balloon, just a tall stick and some shadows!",
"The amount of evidence demonstrating that the earth is not flat, is huge, and has been gathered over centuries. The problem with convincing flat earthers they're wrong isn't finding the right bit of proof, it's that they refuse to accept any evidence that contradicts their belief. It's a matter of faith, and isn't swayed by facts.",
"You can see it when you're out at sea. I could go on the flying bridge on the ship I was on in the Navy, and was about 55' above the surface of the water. Quite easy to see the curve.\n\nI'm sure folks on the giant cruise ships can see it as well."
],
"score": [
137,
60,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.mreclipse.com/LEphoto/TLE2000Jan/image/TLE2000umbra2w.JPG",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a2tPCNjFIo4",
"https://imgur.com/dSAs5OZ",
"https://www.metabunk.org/attachments/lake-pontchartrain-power-lines-demonstrating-the-curvature-metabunk-jpg.27877/",
"http://www.slate.com/content/dam/slate/blogs/bad_astronomy/2014/04/12/ayiomamitis_lunareclipse_umbra.jpg.CROP.original-original.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes#Measurement_of_the_Earth.27s_circumference",
"https://c2.staticflickr.com/2/1149/1262022092_6d2bf5dbd1_z.jpg?zz%5Cu003d1",
"https://i.redd.it/zfio6r3vaadz.jpg"
]
}
|
Could a helium balloon with a GoPro™ attached reach a high enough altitude to record the curvature of the earth?
Understandably, maybe not a regular store bought balloon, but my real question here is; couldn't "flat-earth" be disproven on a shoestring-budget?
|
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2876br
|
Why is this picture so hard to look at?
|
All it is is colours, but it's so hard on the eyes. What causes this?
_URL_0_
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"The index of refraction for the lens in your eye (and any lens, for that matter) is wavelength dependent. [Blue is more strongly refracted than red](_URL_1_), so one will always be slightly out of focus while the other is in focus. This effect is known as [chromatic aberration.](_URL_2_) High-end cameras use multiple lenses and glass types to get all colors to focus to roughly the same point at the image plane. \n\nedit: apparently the human perception of this case of chromatic aberration is called [Chromostereopsis](_URL_0_)",
"Don't stare too long. Strongly contrasted horizontal and vertical stripes induce a phenomenon known as the McCollough effect [_URL_3_](_URL_3_).\n\nIf you stare at this image -- or ones like it -- for too long, you can get distorted vision that lasts from a few hours up to three months (!).",
"Because of the way light is captured by our eyes, and how that sensory input is processed by the visual cortex. \n\nYour eyes can't interpret the image well at the size it's at--it's like not having enough megapixels. It's strongly stimulating your retinal ganglion cells along with your red and blue cone cells. \n\n\n_URL_6_\n\nYour eyes are processing information in a way that your visual cortex is not used to, so we see weird stuff. \n\nOn off cell image example: _URL_8_ (these help us detect edges and moving things)\n\nAn example of an illusion that shows your cells trying to detect edges with your retinal ganglion cells: _URL_7_\n\nCombine that with color: _URL_8_\n\nBefore your brain has a chance to interpret the stimulus from your eyes, retinal cells have already filtered out some information. Your visual cortex is trying to make sense of what the eyes are sending it, and that requires more cognitive load, causing your prefrontal cortex to try and identify patterns since your eyes and visual cortex can't figure it out, unconsciously, like they usually do. \n\nTl;dr your brain is a pattern recognizer, and our eyes/visual cortex has difficulty filtering this image into a form our brain can interpret as a pattern. \n\nSource: Bachelors in Cognitive Psychology, doing UX design, web design/dev, and IT consulting. \n\n\nPS: our brains are really cool, and understanding how they work is even cooler. In this image, A and B are the same grey, _URL_5_\nbut since our experience has gaps our brains fill in so well we tend to not notice how much our brains lie to us about stimulus input.",
"You think this is hard to look at? Try a [pixel-correct version](_URL_9_) without crappy jpeg compression or [with pure R/B](_URL_10_)",
"While plenty of people are pointing out valid reasons, I think something is being overlooked. If this were a picture of if, the effect wouldn't be as strong. But on a monitor, the effect is enhanced. Think back to old GeoCities sites. That same design, on a wall in a elementary classroom, would look acceptable. Put those same colors on a computer and they \"pop\" more and create a more uncomfortable effect. I think it has something to do with resolution clarity and refresh rates.",
"I've had a sweatshirt in a very similar color scheme, shown here: _URL_11_ \n\nThe sweatshirt has smaller dots. Still has the same effect despite the muted colors. Back when I got it I asked an artist friend what the deal was. He said \"they have the same color value.\" I have no idea what that means."
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}
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://web.archive.org/web/20140112035245/http://i.imgur.com/iOsjQ8w.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromostereopsis",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/aa/Chromatic_aberration_lens_diagram.svg/415px-Chromatic_aberration_lens_diagram.svg.png",
"http://www.tlc-systems.com/pp011185crp.jpg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McCollough_effect",
"http://www.cns.nyu.edu/~david/courses/perception/lecturenotes/ganglion/rgc-slides/Slide4.jpg",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Grey_square_optical_illusion.PNG",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina_bipolar_cell",
"http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Grid_illusion.svg/450px-Grid_illusion.svg.png",
"http://blogs-images.forbes.com/singularity/files/2012/07/optical-illusion1.jpeg",
"http://i.imgur.com/4HfPnwl.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/yjGZCGb",
"http://store.americanapparel.net/polka-dot-fine-jersey-short-sleeve-t-shirt_2001sppd"
]
}
|
Why is this picture so hard to look at?
All it is is colours, but it's so hard on the eyes. What causes this? _URL_0_
|
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5amdsb
|
I have a coin that I suspect flips heads 50.1% of the time, how many flips do I need to distinguish it from a coin that flips heads 50% of the time?
|
This is entirely hypothetical. I'm interested in understanding the statistical analysis involved, especially assigning confidence intervals.
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"Confidence intervals are used for when you're not even sure what the hypotheses *are*. You're testing to see if the coin is fair, when you don't know what it is if it's unfair. You can do better than that here. I'll let someone else give the confidence interval answer. I want to give another method.\n\nThis is an area where [Bayes factors](_URL_0_) and [odds ratios](_URL_2_) excel. The Bayes factor for landing on heads is 50.1%/50% = 1.002. Each time you land heads, you multiply your odds ratio by that. For landing on tails you get 49.9%/50% = 0.998. Each time you land on tails you multiply by that. At this point, [log odds](_URL_1_) will be helpful. If we take the logs of those, we get ln(1.002) = 0.001998, and ln(0.998) = -0.002002. So every time we get heads, we add 0.001998, and every time we get tails we subtract 0.002002. And say we started with even odds and we want a final odds ratio of ten, where we're ten times as sure the coin is one of those possibilities as opposed to the other. ln(10) = 2.302585, so we need to keep adding those numbers until we get to that.\n\nEdit: To add to this a bit, if the coin is unfair, each flip gives you an extra 0.51\\*0.001998 - 0.49\\*0.002002 = 0.000038, so you'll need something like 2.302585/0.000038 = 60594 flips. Likewise, if it's unfair, you'll need about 0.5\\*0.002002 - 0.5\\*0.001998 = 0.000002, and you'll need something like 2.302585/0.000002 = 1151290. At least, that's it unless I messed up somewhere. I expected those to be closer together.",
"A lot. What you're looking for is a hypothesis test. You have two hypotheses:\n\n1. The coin is far (P(Heads) = 1/2).\n\n2. The coin is not fair, and P(Heads) = 501/1000.\n\nSo the way to proceed would be to flip the coin a huge number of times and compare it to the probability distribution functions for each hypothesis.\n\nYou can define a test statistic and a significance level for the test. Basically you draw a line in the sand and say \"If the test statistic falls beyond this line, I will reject the 'fair coin' hypothesis.\"\n\nSince these hypotheses are very close to each other, you'll need an enormous number of flips to distinguish them in a test of reasonable significance.\n\nAnother approach is to use parameter estimation. You can assume a PDF for the coin (binomial) and extract the parameter of the distribution which represents the probability of flipping heads. This is where you can use statistical techniques to come up with an estimate and a confidence interval.\n\nBut to go any further with either of these approaches, you'd need *actual data*.",
"You are trying to measure an event that occurs about 1 time in 1000 (an extra head). \n\nSo, you need roughly 1000^2 events, or about a million flips. \n\nIf you flipped the coin a million times, you would get a mean of 501,000 heads, with a standard deviation of \\sqrt(501,000) or 708.\n\nDepending on the exact confidence you want in the answer, you would multiply this one million by some small integer.",
"Ok, you have two different types of tests you want to look at. First, you could test *if the coin is 50.1%*, and second you could test to find out the coins true distribution without any assumption. I personally prefer these methods because of how simple they are to understand, and the tightness of the result.\n\nThese are actually two different tests, but actually quite similar. So suppose the coin has distribution Q. You will toss it and obtain a certain number of heads and tails, we will call this set of outcomes the empirical distribution P. Directly then,\n\n2^-nD(P||Q)\n\nis roughly the probability of P occurring given Q. D(P||Q) being the [KL-Divergence](_URL_4_), and this general concept roughly being [Sanov's Theorem](_URL_3_). \n\nSo back to the two tests. If you want to specifically test if the coin is (50.1/49.9), you set Q = (50.1/49.9). If D(P||Q) is small (around 1/Number of flips), then it is possible. On the other hand, if D(P||Q) is large you must discard. \n\nThe other test works very similarly. For this test, you basically discard the Q such that D(P||Q) > t. This works simply because 2^-nD(P||Q) is the probability of observing P in n flips if Q is the true distribution. Therefore 2^-nt is roughly the probability of any Q such that D(P||Q) > t . Obviously your value of t can decrease as n gets larger. This is one method by which to make confidence intervals. \n\nIf you want the *exact* values, I can go into more detail. But it does not provide any more insight than the above."
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayes_factor",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logit",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odds_ratio",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanov%27s_theorem",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kullback%E2%80%93Leibler_divergence"
]
}
|
I have a coin that I suspect flips heads 50.1% of the time, how many flips do I need to distinguish it from a coin that flips heads 50% of the time?
This is entirely hypothetical. I'm interested in understanding the statistical analysis involved, especially assigning confidence intervals.
|
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|
latz1
|
Does "peak science" exist?
|
.
|
askscience
|
{
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"I feel like this hypothesis is limited by working within a strictly capitalist framework. Ultimately, if we can envisage a world where no science can withstand a cost/benefit analysis, it would be equally possible to see a world where money isn't the limiting factor.\n\ntl;dr: Money ain't real, science is. If money stops permitting science, money is more likely to be the obsolete factor!\n\n(Sorry this is so woolly, it's hard not to be on this topic.)",
"I think most of the commenters have misunderstood OP's question/point. The increasing expense and difficulty of scientific discovery is what is at question. See [related](_URL_0_) article from physorg discussing the problems with limiting a Nobel to only three individuals in an age where groundbreaking science is not done by Einsteins i.e. single, brilliant individuals, but by massive teams of brilliant individuals collaborating on huge and expensive projects.\n\nI tend to think along the same lines as 4thredditaccount. The current incentive system will see a point at which the ROI on big science becomes diminishingly small as the investments required become too big to justify, so something will have to change.",
"Prior to WWII, almost all scientific discovery are self funded. People are curious. Making a buck is not the only reason we learn and discover new things.",
"This is a really interesting question. I'd recommend the book 'The End of Science' by John Horgan to those interested in this topic. He discusses these issues with Roger Penrose, Stephen Jay Gould, Stephen Hawking, Freeman Dyson, and others.",
"So I think the the point about \"capitalist framework\" etc is quite good. Let me rethink the question then.\n\nToday there's so much discovered that a person can't just go and make new scientific discoveries. There's a barrier to entry in the form of education. You have to learn a wide variety of maths, physics, theoretical physics, - whatever - to gather all the tools you need to then be able to add something truly novel to the discourse. In the U.S. this often takes the form of Elementary + Middle + High School + college + PhD +Post Doc.\n\nAs human discovery progresses, this barrier to entry will, ostensibly, keep growing. Put simply - you will have to be familiar with more and more \"stuff\" to be able to come up with something new. \n\nIs there a point where the amount of \"stuff\" one has to master to add to scientific discourse is simply beyond an individual's ability to achieve in a life time? Would this be \"peak-science\"?",
"In principle, it seems like there could be a time when we understand everything there is to understand, at which point, science would end. However, I don't think there's any way for us to project when the peak will be.\n\nConsider that at the end of the 19^th century, a lot of physicists thought that everything was discovered. Then, a couple of decades later, we have both relativity and quantum mechanics. So we'll never be able to know that we know everything until a long time after we know it.\n\nFurthermore, the innovation will continue a long time after all of the science is done, just because it takes a long time to figure out how to use things once we understand them.",
"Probably only in specific fields and only temporarily. Physics and pharmacology are slowing down. Genetics and biochem are speeding up and becoming cheaper every day. Chemistry is cruising along at a similar pace it has for decades. Neuroscience is moving very slowly and in fits and starts, but there will probably be 'double helix' equivalent found soon. Many discoveries make other discoveries much cheaper and more efficient. There is probably no limit to how much we can know as the explorable space for biochemistry alone is functionally infinite. (like really, we will NEVER be able to search it all). This is even more true in chemistry where the nature of compounds and rules tend to alter under different temperatures, pressures, and conditions, which are seen even in our own solar system. EDIT: Though we may someday characterize these spaces, characterization leaves out fringe cases. Fringe cases are often very important and sometimes a whole field.\n\nPeople sometimes talk, in fields like pharmacology, about lowering return on investment as it's more and more difficult to beat existing compounds already on the market. However, as technology progresses, what people see as the 'killer product' changes. It might have been impossible to build a better gas engine, however weird a design you try. But then it turns out no one wants gas engines anymore. Humans are heavily novelty seeking. So the moment we hit a 'top' in one field chances are another will already be starting up.",
"New technologies will present humanity with new problems and new areas of study; which will lead to more work for scientists.\n\nThese new technologies and the solutions to the related problems can and will be monetized. Therefore, there will always be a financial incentive to keep funding scientists.",
"Research in many disciplines is is often an analysis of combinations of factors. Does factor X effect outcome Y? Is factor X mediated by factor Z? As long as the list of possible interacting factors exists, there is more research to do - and the resources required to answer those questions are no greater than they were in the past. I could imagine a public health research program lasting for centuries and still being nowhere near exhausting the possible factors and interactions implicated in just one disease outcome. Many subfields of psychology could also conceivably run off of combinations of factors indefinitely. The same holds for many of the biomedical and life sciences, and these questions don't necessarily become more resource intensive to answer over time.",
"> the findings they will come up with will be valuable enough so that someone pays for them\n\nSince a lot of the pay for science comes in pre-emptive grants and loans, it's quite foreseeable that funding will dry up simply as a result of cost. For example, reagents (almost entirely derived from petrochemicals) will eventually become much harder to produce unless there's a paradigm shift in our methods. Metals like rhodium, iridium, and ruthenium, so deliciously versatile for catalysis, will eventually run out (or we'll turn to dump mining and other methods to reclaim them).\n\nAt some point, the equipment and resources necessary to do certain types of science will become so absurdly expensive that it will no longer be feasible to fund them.",
"It seems to me like the *opposite* is true. Virtually every time a new discovery is made, it opens up the door for even more discoveries to be made, and every time a technology is invented, it opens the door for new technology to be invented to augment or improve that technology. It seems unlikely that discovery will ever cease to be profitable."
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|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.physorg.com/news/2011-10-nobels-science.html"
]
}
|
Does "peak science" exist?
.
|
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] |
|
3o9r3v
|
Don't checksums prove that some problems are easier to verify than to solve?
|
I've been reading about P vs NP, the premise is “If the solution to a problem can be verified in polynomial time, can it be found in polynomial time?”
A checksum is very fast to verify, however it is impossible to reverse it. Wouldn't that mean it takes longer to solve than to verify?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cvvcxvs",
"cvvldj3",
"cvviesh",
"cvveij3"
],
"text": [
"The problem lies in that for many NP problems, for example a lot of cryptographic algorithms, there is no mathematical proof that they can't be broken within polynomial time. To our current knowledge, there might be an efficient way of finding an input which produces your desired checksum and we just have not figured it our yet. This happened before, e.g. with the MD5 checksum algorithm.",
"It's not hard to find a solution to a checksum. You can't find the original solution, but that's not what P vs NP is about. For example, if I know the digits add to 7, then 7 has that checksum. It's not the only thing that has that checksum, but it's a solution to the problem \"Find a number with the checksum 7\".",
"We don't know definitively if some problems, such as some of the cryptographic NP problems, can or cannot be ultimately solved in polynomial-time. The general consensus is that they probably cannot be, but formal proofs have not been found to confirm this.\n\n > A checksum is very fast to verify, however it is impossible to reverse it.\n\nThis is also an unproven assumption. It sure seems that way, but again, we don't know for sure.",
"We haven't been able to *prove* that computing a preimage for a given checksum doesn't have an efficient algorithm. All we know is that we don't know of such an algorithm.\n\nYou can formulate reversing a checksum as an instance of [SAT](_URL_0_), for example."
],
"score": [
12,
4,
3,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_satisfiability_problem"
]
}
|
Don't checksums prove that some problems are easier to verify than to solve?
I've been reading about P vs NP, the premise is “If the solution to a problem can be verified in polynomial time, can it be found in polynomial time?” A checksum is very fast to verify, however it is impossible to reverse it. Wouldn't that mean it takes longer to solve than to verify?
|
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|
2xdw5s
|
If little crumbs fall down your trachea what happens to them?
|
They wont be digested by stomach acid, so what happens? Do I have a little pile of crumbs at the bottom??
Edit: Thank you all so much for the explanation, you all helped settle a debate between a few college students!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"coz8pt6",
"cozi9mn",
"cozwqtf"
],
"text": [
"[Alveolar macrophages](_URL_0_) residing in the lungs will break down and destroy any debris or foreign material that is inhaled or makes it down the wrong pipe.",
"Hi, this is actually something I know about, I'm a speech and swallowing therapist. I work with patients who have trouble swallowing.\n\nIf you inhale food or liquid particles into your airway (\"aspiration\"), your body will respond with reflexes to clear the airway, i.e., you'll cough. Coughing causes highly pressurized air to push through your vocal cords and upper airway. Then, after you cough, you'll reflexively swallow, which brings those particles down to your esophagus where they belong. (Try it: touch the front of your throat and cough. You'll notice that you probably swallow right after you cough).\n\nIf the particles aren't coughed up and swallowed the right way, two things could happen:\n\n1. You could choke. If the particles are big enough to occlude your airway, you can't building up a strong enough cough clear the airway. This is why choking victims don't make any noise (no air going through vocal cords = no talking, no coughing) they just silently clutch their necks.\n\n2. The particles could descend into your airway, pulled by gravity. There are cilia lining your airway which will try to move the particles up and out. And your immune system will attack the particles, too. But if food/liquid particles descend far enough into your lungs, you could end up with a gnarly case of aspiration pneumonia. Basically, the particles cause an infection and your lungs fill with fluid to fight the infection, but then the fluid prevents you from breathing good.\n\nTL;DR no, you do not have crumbs in your lungs.",
"Acute medical speech pathologist here. Short version, you could get aspiration pneumonia, and if you're old or ill enough, potentially die. Part of my job in a hospital is to help stop mostly old people and patients with neurological damage from stroke, traumatic brain injury, or degenerative neurological diseases from aspirating their food or drinks and potentially getting aspiration pneumonia."
],
"score": [
1895,
95,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_macrophage"
]
}
|
If little crumbs fall down your trachea what happens to them?
They wont be digested by stomach acid, so what happens? Do I have a little pile of crumbs at the bottom?? Edit: Thank you all so much for the explanation, you all helped settle a debate between a few college students!
|
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|
1t3wfb
|
What are the differences between arcsin and cosec? (As well as the cos and tan counterparts)
|
It confused me a little today when I realised that we write sin(x)^2 as sin^(2)(x), so we should be able to write sin(x)^-1 (AKA cosec(x)) as sin^(-1)(x), which is also used to denote arcsin(x).
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ce42plh",
"ce44g8k",
"ce457o0"
],
"text": [
"It's just a bad choice of notation. [They are different functions](_URL_0_). \n\nedit: I would hazard to guess that it's borrowed from linear algebra notation, where the inverse of matrix operator is another matrix that when multiplied by the original matrix yields 1.",
"As a calculus TA, this terrible notation is a limitless source of frustration for my students.",
"Usually, when someone writes something like sin^-1 (x) you have to use context to figure out what that person means. Because, of the obvious ambiguity, I prefer to always write arcsin(x) for the inverse of sine and 1/sin(x) or csc(x) for division by sine. In fact, in graduate level classes I rarely ever saw a trigonometric exponent of -1. Most people I've taken classes with at this level use the arcsin(x) convention."
],
"score": [
23,
13,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=plot%28arcsin%28x%29%2Ccsc%28x%29%29+from+x%3D-1+to+x%3D1"
]
}
|
What are the differences between arcsin and cosec? (As well as the cos and tan counterparts)
It confused me a little today when I realised that we write sin(x)^2 as sin^(2)(x), so we should be able to write sin(x)^-1 (AKA cosec(x)) as sin^(-1)(x), which is also used to denote arcsin(x).
|
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|
aimxeh
|
Do any non-human species exhibit the concept of familial inheritance of either property or position?
|
Several non-human species (e.g. certain birds, rats, and primates) seem to have a sense of property. Many species have hierarchical social structures, in which certain individuals are considered dominant or superior to others. Are there any species in which the offspring of a deceased individual "inherit" either their property or their social position? Or does such property merely become "fair game," and social position is rearranged to promote the next individual in the "pecking order," regardless of genetic lineage? In other words, is familial "inheritance" of property or position an entirely human construct?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"Familiar inheritance of position, absolutely. It looks like macaques have been studied the most, Google turns up a number of scholarly articles including [The Influence of Gender, Age, Matriline and Hierarchical Rank on Individual Social Position, Role and Interactional Patterns in Macaca sylvanus](_URL_4_):\n\n\\ > One major kinship phenomenon among the animal kingdom is the matrilineal rank inheritance (MRI) ([Kawamura, 1958](_URL_0_)) observed in macaques. It consists of the transmission of hierarchical rank from mother to daughter; the latter acquires the hierarchical rank directly below that of her mother. In addition, as according to the youngest ascendancy rule, young females outrank their older sisters ([Thierry et al., 2004](_URL_2_)). The MRI process is made possible by nepotism, in that related females support each other during conflicts against non-kin females and help juvenile females outrank their older sisters ([Cheney, 1977](_URL_3_); [Datta, 1983](_URL_4_#B24); [Chapais and Gauthier, 1993](_URL_1_)).\n\nNote this inheritance in non-human primates only happens in female philopatric species - those where females stay with their birth group and the males leave to join other groups (perhaps to avoid inbreeding, there is a lot of research on it) - and the inheritance is strictly through the female line.\n\nThe closest relatives of humans are male philopatric - males stay with their birth group and females leave to join other groups. Humans are the only species of primate to have inheritance through the male line.",
"Honeybees. Without outside intervention (like a beekeeper re-queening), one of the reigning queen's daughters will take her place as ruler of the hive, inheriting both the hive and its occupants (with the exception of those members who swarm when the aging queen departs).",
"Spotted hyenas' social heirarchy is organized primarily by relation to the matriarch. The eldest daughter of the matriarch is the second highest rank, and eventually becomes the next matriarch assuming another hyena doesn't kill her and her mother. The male offspring of the matriarch are highest ranking among the males, but are still lower rank than the lowest ranked female.\n\nSpotted hyenas are some of the most fascinating carnivores in the world and if you have time you should definitely read more about them.",
"Some birds will stay with their parents and help raise their siblings instead of leaving to find a mate. Although it may be interpreted a selfless act it is common when territory is limited in quantity or quality. By doing this the bird increases it's chances of inheriting the territory of it's parents.",
"As far as i know, individual in families and social groups – upon death of a relative – still maintain their social ties and don't inherit it.\n\nDe facto, in real life, even nobles and aristocrats make themselves known as \"socially powerful\". If they want to maintain their status, they have to act toward it. \nA random baby of a farmer, doesn't know, by generic inheritance, that a Rothschild property can seldom be approached.\n\nFor example, a monkey toddler can learn, by her fearful monkey mother grasping him, that he shouldn't play with alpha female kid.\nAnd that memory can last for decades."
],
"score": [
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/#B53",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/#B15",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/#B83",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/#B17",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4834345/#B24"
]
}
|
Do any non-human species exhibit the concept of familial inheritance of either property or position?
Several non-human species (e.g. certain birds, rats, and primates) seem to have a sense of property. Many species have hierarchical social structures, in which certain individuals are considered dominant or superior to others. Are there any species in which the offspring of a deceased individual "inherit" either their property or their social position? Or does such property merely become "fair game," and social position is rearranged to promote the next individual in the "pecking order," regardless of genetic lineage? In other words, is familial "inheritance" of property or position an entirely human construct?
|
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vqes4
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Imaginary numbers. Sqrt of -1 does not exist, yet it can be applied in electronics. This makes no sense. Anyone care to explain?
|
askscience
|
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"1 doesn't 'exist' either.\n\nJust because 1 can be used to describe objects doesn't make it more real than a numerical entity that can't be visualised in the same way. 'Imaginary' is an unfortunate word because, while in the first instance the use of imaginary to describe something that can only be conceived off mentally is perfectly apt, it also implies that it lacks substance; 'i' is a mathematical object that has relevance in the real world in the same way that 1, or e, or pi does... it occupies a place on a different spectrum of counting that's all.\n\ni exists in the same way that a circle does, or the perfect sandwich, a comparison to a summer's day or the length of a piece of string that is twice that between the middle and either terminus.",
"Isn't it strange that when you teach people to add and multiply matrices, nobody ever asks \"do matrices exist?\" In fact, one can imagine the reaction of students if you asked them if they exist. \"What do you mean? I just wrote down a matrix. Of course it exists!\"\n\nMatrices are a tool of mathematics and so are imaginary numbers. You can use matrices for [all sorts of things](_URL_0_), including physics. We never worry about whether matrices exist, only whether the math is correct and the relation between reality and the math is right.\n\nSo, if you don't worry about whether matrices exist, don't worry about whether imaginary numbers exist. In fact, complex numbers are just [a special case of 2x2 matrices](_URL_1_).",
"Imaginary is a bad name. They're no more imaginary than negative numbers, or even fractions. (Or, arguably, all numbers are imaginary.)",
"I take it you believe that the natural numbers \"exist\" in some sense. I'll accept that as a starting point. (There's a lot of philosophical discussion to be had on that point, too, but I'll leave it aside here.)\n\n* Natural numbers can be added, so we like to subtract them as well. However, sometimes when we subtract two natural numbers, we don't get a natural number: for example, what's 1 - 3? Thus, we define new integers, which we call \"negative\", to represent the answers to these questions.\n\n* Integers can be multiplied, so we like to divide them as well. However, sometimes when we divide two integers, we don't get an integer: for example, what's 3/7? Thus, we define new reals, which we call \"rationals\", to represent the answers to these questions.\n\n* Reals can be raised to powers, so we like to take roots as well. However, sometimes when we take a root of a real number, we don't get a real: for example, what's sqrt(-1)? Thus, we define new numbers, which we call \"imaginary\", to represent the answers to these questions.\n\nImaginary numbers aren't any more \"made up\" than these other kinds of numbers; -1 is every bit as much a formalism as *i*.",
"This might help you to understand why *i* is called imaginary. \"History of Complex Numbers (also known as History of Imaginary Numbers or the History of *i*)\" at _URL_3_. It's not long and it explains that the word *imaginary* was meant to be an insult.\n\nAlso, to get a sense of just how *real* imaginary numbers can be check out this explanation _URL_2_ and scroll down to *Visual Understanding of Negative and Complex Numbers*.\n\n*i* can represent a few different things like orthogonality and rotation as you'll see in the article. But to get a more intuitive understanding of complex numbers you can begin by creating graphs on the imaginary plane. That is a graph where i replaces y and the real part replaces x of the cartesian coordinates.",
"One example that involves complex numbers is the use of [phasors](_URL_5_) to represent [sine waves](_URL_4_). It's very useful for solving some circuit problems.",
"Sure they exist, sqrt(-1) is i\n\nAnd they are perfect for describing some things that have to do with alternating current for example",
"Some people have discussed the math of complex numbers, and others have mentioned phasors, all of which are pretty useful in answering your question. However, you specifically mentioned electronics, so I thought I'd talk about why we use complex numbers (i = j = sqrt(-1)) in electronics. The biggest reason is that it is a *tool* which allows us to transform difficult problems into simple ones.\n\nPassive circuits are described by differential equations relating the voltage across an element to the current running through it. This ranges from resistors which have the ohmic relationship V=IR to inductors and capacitors with the equations v = Ldi/dt and i = Cdv/dt respectively. An important aspect of the derivative operator is that the exponential function is an eigenfunction--this means that the derivative of an exponential function is the same exponential function multiplied by some constant. By Euler's formula we know that we can write a sine or cosine as a complex exponential, because exp(jt) = cos(t)+jsin(t). [There was a good post](_URL_6_) explaining this result recently in AskScience.\n\nWith that in mind, but skipping most of the details, we know that if we plug in a complex exponential for the voltage or current in a circuit, the result that we are trying to calculate (voltage or current somewhere else in the circuit) will be *the same complex exponential* scaled by a constant (which may also be a complex number), because the only relationships are governed by differential equations. Some more profound math (Fourier series and generalizations) tells us that *any* function can be expressed as a sum of sines and cosines, which we in turn understand means that it can be expressed as a sum of complex exponentials. Therefore, if we can solve the circuit's behavior for one complex exponential, in principle we can solve it for any number, which also means that we can solve it for any function. In class, usually you only do one, because the rest is just busy work, and this isn't middle school.\n\nThe biggest benefit of this (and phasors in general) is that we can then replace the derivatives in circuits and convert passive RLC circuits that normally require calculus to solve into circuits containing only one type of element, a complex impedance, denoted by Z, which behaves exactly the same way as a resistor, so V = IZ. The proof for this is long enough that I don't want to repeat it, despite consistently writing really long posts on reddit. This means that we can solve the circuit with simple algebra, rather than difficult calculus, which makes it faster to do by hand, and very easy to implement on a computer.\n\nTL;DR: imaginary numbers are a tool (not necessary a tangible object) that allow us to solve a problem by transforming it into another representation where it is easy.\n\nEDIT: phasers = phasors, too much star trek"
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"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics\\)#Applications",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number#Matrix_representation_of_complex_numbers",
"http://betterexplained.com/articles/a-visual-intuitive-guide-to-imaginary-numbers",
"http://rossroessler.tripod.com",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Unfasor.gif",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/voqmi/how_exactly_can_eipi_1/c56arkw"
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|
Imaginary numbers. Sqrt of -1 does not exist, yet it can be applied in electronics. This makes no sense. Anyone care to explain?
|
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okv96
|
Why do we space out?
|
I just caught myself spacing out in class, and I came to wonder, why do we do it? Does it happen when we're tired? When we're bored?
Edit: If you're gonna comment "because we're high", please spare me the 19th of the kind. Thanks.
|
askscience
|
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"[Jonah Lehrer](_URL_1_) calls daydreaming our \"default activity,\" which you can read more about [here](_URL_0_).",
"It's very difficult to answer this succinctly without using metaphors from psychology. The upside is that if you search for information about these metaphors, you'll find vast amounts of relevant studies that transform the statements from a more \"pseudo-science\" explanation into something for which hard scientists would have more appreciation. Now, onto my attempt at an explanation:\n\nThe brain links concepts and subconcepts (be they abstract thoughts, motor movements, parts of images, etc.) through neuronal connections. In brief, when you recall a memory, your brain accesses one concept, and then electrical connections travel through these neural connections to other \"concept nodes,\" linking relevant nodes to create a \"story\" from abstract concepts. These neuronal connections are plastic (variable in strength), and their \"strength\" is dependent on both *how frequently* they are used (e.g. frequent recollection of a memory makes its connections stronger) and *how physiologically significant* that connection is (neurotransmitters released during very emotional states enforce the connections created between concepts to create strong memories during those states).\n\nYour brain creates transient (quick-to-form and quick-to-disappear; seconds to hours in duration) associations between concepts in its working memory, and if these associations are important (i.e. fulfilling either the frequency or significance requirements explained above), they are mirrored into the brain's long-term memory, in which neural connections are more stable, coherent, and last for a much, much longer duration (days, weeks, years, a lifetime), also depending on how often they are accessed and on their significance.\n\nOne of the major tasks required by our brains is to very frequently run through our memories and thoughts in order to \"save\" them. When you sleep, the brain spends a lot of time doing just this; running through connections in our memory to strengthen relevant connections and maintain those memories/knowledge (which is one reason why looking over a page of notes before sleeping is a tremendous aid to its memorization).\n\nNow, when you are awake, the brain is never \"idle.\" It is never doing simply nothing. It is continually seeking stimulus and input, as a means to keep you alert (among other reasons). If you are in a lecture, for example, and you are paying full attention to the presenter, your brain is constantly running through the ideas/concepts it receives through your visual/auditory senses, while simultaneously recalling similar connections between concepts, as it attempts to link this new information to older networks of concepts/ideas. This is how we gain \"knowledge,\" by bridging new concepts to our old conceptual \"knowledge\" networks, and strengthening the most relevant connections by repeatedly accessing them. \n\nBecoming bored means that the brain is not sufficiently stimulated by the information delivered by your senses, so it begins to inhibit higher-level visual/auditory processing (you get a blank stare, and the lecturer's voice turns simply into noise that you ignore), and turns its attention elsewhere. It begins to introspect, and instead of attempting to piece together information from the environment, turns to the task of piecing together information you have already absorbed. Daydreaming, as it is relevant here, is simply the brain exploring conceptual networks it has already begun to internalize, thus optimizing these networks and cross-linking/de-linking various concepts depending on their co-relevance and significance. You might recall memories, or wonder about things, or fantasize a myriad of scenarios, conversations, and so on. The important thing is, your brain is learning from your daydreams, and adapting its connections (slowly or rapidly, depending on what it comes up with) to suit your thought patterns.\n\nSo, to answer your question, when you are \"bored\" in class, it means your brain is not receiving sufficient useful input from its senses (as deemed by the brain, of course; \"useful\" is used loosely here), so it goes back to what it spends most of its time doing; organizing your memories/ideas and exploring the conceptual connections it has already made as it optimizes and searches for new, useful conceptual links.\n\nEdit: If any psych/neuroscience guys want to comment on this, please do. I'm more on the bioengineering side of things, so there might be more straightforward ways of explaining this phenomenon. Thanks!",
"This is what was told to me, years ago, by a Dr. in psychology. I am not offering it as an answer, but hoping someone in the field can clarify, as it relates to the OP...\n\nIn psychology class, it was said that spacing out is a form of meditation. While meditation may not be your intention, your brain is just taking some time to breathe. Can Brain_Doc82 offer any info on this notion? \nThanks!",
"Here is a cognitive science answer. Note: this is a working theory that has not been peer reviewed or published, but it is based on strong evidence. I have designed several experiments capable of falsifying the idea but these have not been performed yet.\n\nNonetheless, here's why:\n\n* Your focus naturally shifts to whatever is changing and unexpected in the environment.\n* Nothing interesting is happening around you and you're not moving, so you start focusing on your internal environment instead.\n* Your brain only has so much working memory.\n* Since you are not externalizing your thoughts, pretty soon you run out of \"room\" in your working memory, and you start to forget things.\n* Nonetheless, you continue to associate from thought to thought, adding new links to the chain of thought as old ones fade from working memory.\n* Pretty soon your mind has erased all connections to the original input.\n* Something happens in the physical world and now your brain gets to work figuring out what happened.\n* Whatever you were thinking about is overwritten and since the chain of associations that got you there was long and never recorded, there is no easy way to retrieve the thought again.\n\n\nThe two basic concepts are:\n\n* your attention is entirely represented by sensory data (either internal memories/daydreams or external input from your sense organs)\n* you only have so much brainpower, so the brain uses the physical environment as an extended short term storage system\n\nEverything above follows logically from those two points. They also explain why people lose hours surfing the web or playing video games, why it's hard for most people to have lucid dreams, why written goals are more likely to be followed, why you get more done when you write down your goals and plans (or for some people, why they have piles of notes with ideas and goals and plans but never get anything done).\n\nAnyway, I may turn out to be a crackpot, but even so, that's the answer. ;)\n\n(edit: typos)",
"According to some theories of cognition, there is a serial bottleneck in our brain that forces us to attend to only one thing at a time, with \"multitasking\" just being an interleaving of activities (like on a CPU). Thus, if you start thinking about something, you must not be doing some other activity. If you don't share time equally between attending your class lecturer and your other thoughts, then you may lose track of the lecture.\n\nIf you are interested I can get into more detail.",
"Did a research paper about this for a Science Writing class. Look for the work of Jonathan Schooler and Jonathan Smallwood.\n\nThey demonstrated that daydreaming (\"mind-wandering\") is a key element of creative thinking. They showed that there are two kinds of mind wandering, \"meta-aware\" and \"non-meta-aware\" mind wandering. The prior is when you are actively paying attention to where your mind goes, as opposed to zoning out. Meta-aware mind wandering was shown to be the effective process in creative thinking.\n\nSources:\n\nSchooler, Jonathan W., Charles A. Schreiber . “Experience, Meta-consciousness, and the \tParadox of Introspection.” Journal of Consciousness Studies. Vol. 11 (2004): 17-\t39. PsychINFO. Web. 17 Nov. 2009\n\nSchooler, Jonathan W., Jonathan Smallwood, Julia W. Y. Kam, Stephen M. Fiore, Lynn \tHasher, and Patricia Linville. “Flights of imagination: Cognitive Similarities \tbetween mind-wandering & creative thought.” Unpublished\n\nSmallwood, Jonathan, Jonathan W. Schooler. “The Restless Mind.” Psychological \tBulletin. Vol. 132 (2006): 946-958. PsychINFO. Web. 5 Nov. 2009\n\nEDIT: grammar",
"Can't believe of all these comments no one mentioned being under-carbed.\n\nMost of the time when you 'space out' you need sugar.",
"Out of curiosity, does the amount of daydreaming a person does correlate to a creative personality or intelligence in a specific way??",
"Pema Chodron explained it as an escape, a way to never be present. She says we do it to get away from whatever is going on around us and to get away from that uncomfortable feeling we get with having to deal with what is going on around us at any given moment. I do it when I am bored at work too, but have been working on being present and leaning into that uncomfortable feeling. Didn't realize how much I have done that drifting away in thought thing all my life.",
"I'm limited on time here, but if you want to understand the underlying neuroscience to daydreaming and mind-wandering, look into research on ADD. A lot of inquiry has been done looking into the actual mechanics of inattentiveness, and its relation to the drugs used to treat ADD. I'll post some links to study abstracts later if I have the time.",
"I'm sure its probably been said but obviously I'm too lazy to read the comments our brains are trained to tv...alot of people can only pay attention for 10 minutes at a time with a break inbetween (similar to patterns while watching tv). Just a theory, no big deal."
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|
Why do we space out?
I just caught myself spacing out in class, and I came to wonder, why do we do it? Does it happen when we're tired? When we're bored? Edit: If you're gonna comment "because we're high", please spare me the 19th of the kind. Thanks.
|
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] |
|
jrg6m
|
What has been living in my dad's eye for the last 20 years?!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2ejb20",
"c2eiuji",
"c2ejcbl",
"c2ej646",
"c2ej1na"
],
"text": [
"Sounds like a combination of [Floaters](_URL_0_) , and light schizophrenia.\n\nNote: I am not a trained psychologist, or doctor.",
"I think acid has been living in your dads eye.",
"If there is something in his eye that he can see a good doctor/optician would probably find it.\n\nIt's probably floaters + imagination. Or trollbait.",
"I bet your dad also informed you that the word gullible is not in the dictionary.",
"I've had one particularly large floater in my eye, it has been changing in shape very so slightly over the last 10 years, but it has not been growing, so I assume it's not alive. I then looked up a lot of things, mainly nematodes, that could have explained the strange size and depth of the floater, but nothing matched.\n\nMaybe you can suggest your father to look into that sort of small organisms, check for pictures and try to find anything related.\n\nAlso, did he ever get an eye examination? Anyone would be thinking about eye floaters when you talk to them about it, but did anyone ever tried to look at them directly?"
],
"score": [
10,
8,
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floater"
]
}
|
What has been living in my dad's eye for the last 20 years?!
|
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61tg8r
|
If Newton's Law of Gravitation is only meant for point masses, how come we use it to calculate force of gravity on a massive body like Earth?
|
askscience
|
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"For extended bodies, the force law holds for each infinitesimal piece, and so the total force is the sum (i.e., integral) of each of these infinitesimal forces.\n\nFor a spherically symmetric object *A* (this means the object is a sphere and its mass density depends only on the distance from the center), it turns out that the gravitational force from *A* on any other object *B* that is *exterior* to *A* is just the gravitational force on *B* as if all of the mass of *A* were concentrated at its center. In other words, spherically symmetric objects act as if they were point masses, but only on their exterior. This can be proved using the divergence theorem from advanced calculus, and in physics it typically goes by the name of Gauss's Law.",
"For a spherical body, it acts like a point mass. You can actually do that calculation if you like, assuming that the Earth is spherical and homogenous in density. I remember doing it back in my freshman year.\n\nPick a point, distance from the center of the earth at *r*, and integrate across a series of concentric infinitesimally thin spherical shells. (Though, I'd describe them more as infinitessimally thin doughnuts.) The math is reproduced here:\n\n_URL_0_\n\nNote, because the smells are infinitessimally thin, you *don't actually need* to be homogenous! So long as the *density* of the Earth is spherically symmetric (and basically it is - the denser mantle is a concentric sphere) then this calculation holds up.\n\nOne of the other interesting (well I find it interesting) consequences of this theorem is that, while when you're outside a spherical shell it can be treated as a point mass, when you're *inside* a spherical shell all the gravity cancels out. So if you're falling down an evacuated tunnel connecting the two poles (gotta be the poles or Coriolis forces kick in) the gravitational acceleration begins to diminish. You'll still be weightless because you're in freefall, but your acceleration will begin to drop.\n\nAnd then if you want to REALLY model the Earth accurately, in the second-order approximation you get an even more surprising result: As you fall through the tunnel, and you're passing through the less-dense crust, you actually experience *higher* gravity! The mass of the crust that you get \"inside of\", rendering it's gravity moot, is more than offset by the decreasing distance to the center of the much-denser mantle and core!\n\n > There's a reddit post proving this, if you're interested. I can't find it right now, but it's not that hard to do the calculation yourself. The mass of the Earth is 5.97 * 10^24 kg. The mass of the Earth's crust is 2.6 * 10^22 kg. The thickness of the crust is between 5 and 50 km, depending on ocean vs. continent. Call it 15 or 20, since 70% of the Earth is ocean.\n\nTD;DR: A spherically symmetric body can be treated as a point mass. This is not an approximation, but an exact solution in calculus, and applies to any 1/r^2 force law.",
"Very good answers already in this thread. Putting it in more explicit terms:\n\n > If Newton's Law of Gravitation is only meant for point masses\n\nI'd rather change this to: *Newton's Law of Gravitation is an oversimplification that works perfectly with point masses*.\n\nObjects that are not point masses can be approximated as the sum of the gravities of several objects. For instance, when explaining the precession of satellites due to the equatorial bulge, my professor showed Earth as a sphere with a massive belt - then the satellite would feel the gravities of both objects and precess.\n\nObjects with a relatively simple shape can be predicted mathematically if you treat them like a sum of an infinite number of infinitesimally small point masses. Then you can prove mathematically e.g. that a spherically symmetrical object behaves as a point mass (Newton's shell theorem).\n\nFor more complex objects, like the Earth with its mountains and its non-uniform crust, the best we can do is [measure local variations](_URL_1_) from the approximation of a sphere.",
"newton's law may be considered the solution of the poisson equation\n\nΔφ = 4πG ρ(x)\n\n_URL_2_\n\nfor a point mass distribution ρ(x) (ie ρ(x) ~ δ(x), dirac delta). so basically it's the green function for the laplace operator Δ, so you can feed in an arbitrary distribution and get the full solutions from that by integrating (convolution of the density with newton's law). you basically treat the full distribution as composed of infinitesimal particles at positions x with masses ρ(x) d³x (density times infinitesimal volume)."
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{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shell_theorem",
"http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Observing_the_Earth/GOCE/Earth_s_gravity_revealed_in_unprecedented_detail",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisson%27s_equation#Newtonian_gravity"
]
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|
If Newton's Law of Gravitation is only meant for point masses, how come we use it to calculate force of gravity on a massive body like Earth?
|
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||
41sgzw
|
How much work does it take to send a packet across the internet?
|
A packet of some size is sent from A to B, which are some distance part, via some number of routers. Can someone Fermi estimate (or better) the energy required to do this?
*edit*
thanks everybody, i see it's a complicated question, and i like the material answers that were provided. to those who answer along the lines of "it takes no extra work since the network is always active", then my question becomes "what is the energy cost of a packet's worth of activity?".
|
askscience
|
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"Thanks to IPV6, your average path length is probably diving down toward 3.5. In your endpoint, you're probably spending 20 Watts moving your data around, and that's millions of bits per second. Power loss is ideally something like 1% on good wires per hundred km. The largest packet you can move is 65kb.\n\nLet's assume you're moving one max size packet a thousand kilometers on a 20Mbps line.\n\nSo, we get: 20 Watts/ router * 3.5 routers * .99^10 percentage loss / 20 Mbits/s *65000 bits/packet ....\n\nThat's .2 Joules.\n\nSources: \npath length: _URL_1_\n\nTransmission loss: _URL_0_\n\nThe rest is either simple to look up or an educated guess.\n\nQuick edit: it's less than one ten-thousandth the caloric value of a Tic Tac.\n\nBig edit: I knew that I was off a fair bit, because I was using home routers, power line approximations versus fiber, and finding an edge-to-edge average path length is, well, difficult. OP asked for a Fermi-style approximation, and I tried to deliver on that. Given all the great comments on improving the estimate, I can't wait to read through them and see where the real answer lies! ^^^^plus-thanks-for-gilding",
"I'm not sure your question is answerable in any meaningful way. Network hardware uses basically the same amount of power weather your packet traverses it or not. The actual reasons power consumption increases under load are vast and complicated. I can tell you based on my experience in this stuff, that most ISPs/Networking companies consider power consumption the very least of their concerns. They'll dump any and all power saving modes, sleep modes, install every line card the thing can hold, etc... as long as it increases speed or reduces maintenance time. (i.e. we're plugging that line card in now, even if no-one will use it for 6 months, because if we don't we'll have to reboot the switch when we do and that's bad) \n\nHere's some info on just how complicated your question is:\n_URL_2_\n\nI think a better question is: \"How much *more* power does the networking equipment my path is routed through use when I send a packet across the internet\" and the answer to that would most probably be \"None\"",
"A hop count of 3.5 is far too low: here in Toronto 3.5 doesn't get me outside my providers network.\n\nI think the confusion is AS-paths vs hops... An AS is generally a company or provider (hence Autonomous system) so the paper is basically saying your traffic crosses (on average) 3.5 companies. \n\n_URL_3_ and _URL_4_ would put the average hop counts in the 12 to 17 range. \n\nThose hops, as others have mentioned are larger and more powerful. Think 100Gbps and 2000 watts (_URL_5_) gives you a lower power cost per router hop per packet.\n\nIPv6 doesn't change the router-structure of the internet (much, we're ignoring NAT and end users here) it is just another addressing system so it doesn't really impact the result. \n\nAnd bits per packet is closer to 12000 (roughly 1500 bytes, less a bit because you have headers in there. But also less more because we're also not taking into account overhead due to encapsulation that might be on your home DSL line for instance)",
"I've worked as an architect on the largest transit ISP backbones, both as an operator and as an equipment manufacturer. I'm interpreting \"work\" as classical electrical power (watts).\n\nThere are two broad classes of power consumption in network equipment (both switching/\"routing\" and optical transmission). The first is passive power. This is what's needed to keep the lights on: the transmission lasers themselves, the baseband modulation, the keepalive frames, power conversion losses, fans, the routing protocols and monitoring software, etc.. This is the amount of power consumed (work performed) even when there are no customer packets on the network whatsoever. And it is a very high amount of power. It's so high because all of the circuits, all of the silicon in the systems is powered and contributing to transistor gate leakage current, which relative to number of gates is going up with every new Si process (e.g. worse at 22 nm than at 90 nm). The second class of power consumption is active power, which is the extra power consumed by switching transistors on and off, and which goes up as the packet processing load on the devices increases. This is also very high, but anecdotally, may in many cases only contribute 20% of the total power (e.g. zero packets per second is 80% of max, and line-rate PPS is 100%). As another commenter said, it would be obtuse to look only at the active power; the network was built at great expense expressly to deliver your packet. I'll consider both.\n\nThe total power consumed per unit of packet forwarding capacity has consistently decreased since the beginning of the Internet, thanks to Moore's Law. The discussion about copper vs. fiber is mostly irrelevant, since today copper is only used for the last mile (e.g. DOCSIS over coax or ADSL over UTP) or in the datacenter where the packets originate (again not a great distance). The specification for total power per unit of full-duplex capacity on a router product that was just introduced in December, 2015 is 0.3 W/Gb/s (that's passive and active power at 100% load, using very recent silicon from Broadcom). The Internet at large is made up of older generations of silicon/equipment, plus lots of stuff on the edge that's not as efficient, so let's multiply that by 10 (more than three Moore's Law generations) to average it out and assume it's 3 W/Gb/s globally. Note this is per \"hop.\" You can use a full-duplex spec as the cost to transit one hop, because you're going into one port and out of another (same as two packets ingress/egress on the same FDX port). The other contributor to power is the optical transmission system. Usually the total contribution to power from these systems is less than that from the switching layer, so let's say it's 2/5 and round up to 5 W/Gb/s.\n\nHop counts calculated by others are mostly correct. A dozen or so is typical. Not all hops have the same power consumption profile, because some are core equipment at massive scale that efficiently do 0.5 W/Gb/s or better, while other hops are access network equipment at smaller scale (per device) that may do 15W/Gb/s or worse. Ok, 5 W/Gb/s, and 12 hops. Let's say that your access modem or ONT plus home router adds another 10W/Gb and take it up to 15 W/Gb/s.\n\nBut how many \"packets\" in a gigabit? We have something called IMIX, which is nothing more than a real-life traffic profile. There is no single IMIX, because it depends on what applications the users of a particular ISP use the most. Video applications send a lot of packets at the MTU (1500 bytes path MTU for almost all Internet conversations), with a lot of GETs (HTTP) and ACKs (TCP) sprayed around in smaller packets ( < 200B). IMIX for a typical residential ISP profile, end-to-end is around 800 bytes. So let's assume our packet is that big. 1 Gb/s gives us about 156,000 packets per second (800B each).\n\nAll together now. 15 W/hop * seconds/Gb * 12 hops * 1/156,000 Gb/packet = 1.2 mW-s/packet = 1.2 mJ/packet. \n\nEDIT: Made a mistake in unit analysis; thanks, /u/bitwiseshiftleft.",
"There are two questions here. How much power is required for your specific packet of info to move now. That is straightforward. Find how much power all the routers and infrastructure take and the total volume of traffic of your category, divide it by your info. \n\nThere is a deeper problem. How much power is required to move the information of your packet. That is much more difficult to ascertain. Not a little more difficult. That question involves the vacuum energy of the universe and the nature of information.",
"Energy use of Internet communication has been studied [here](_URL_9_) and [here](_URL_8_) among many other places. The better papers are behind paywalls!!!\n\nThe best answer is to take the total energy a user is responsible for in a year and divide by the amount of data they use to get J/bit or something. \n\nSpitballing based on the citations, looks like under 100kWh per year per home. Say you watch an hour of netflix (or porn) a day and use no more data, that's about [a GB a day](_URL_6_). \n\nComes out to about 100uJ/bit. Or really nothing. This excludes data center energy use, but this has been [pretty well characterised](_URL_7_) as well.",
"As someone already pointed out, network appliance ultimately spends energy independently from data passing through (or not). The packet doesn't move in a physical sense, it isn't a physical thing, it is information being replicated down the line. The work (energy) is completely spent in heat.",
"Work at an ISP. There are too many additional factors to energy consumption than a router's packet forwarding engine.\n\nIn an extremely conservitive scenario, the Ethernet frame traverses at least 1 switch and then as a packet it is forwarded by 2 routers. Then, if the destination is on an equally short path and happens to be within the same ISP and POP, it will be forwarded by 2 more routers and 1 switch. All that gear could theoretically reside in 1 physical site (keep in mind this entire scenario almost never happens), and that site will consume at least 1,000 amps (again, almost never happens).\n\nBut, what makes energy consumption by packet nearly impossible to quantify is that another user sending a packet to another destination may traverse 10 times the amount of equipment and locations, so it becomes arbitrary. It's like asking how much energy is consumed for a road trip, and leaving out any other criteria.\n\nAs others have said, network gear consumes energy regardless of load. There are always resources eaten up by maintenace processes such as broadcast storm controls (Spanning Tree), and routing protocols (BGP, etc). There is also energy consumed by voice and video traffic whether you sent that packet or not.\n\nThe closest way to put a number on this would be to divide all the world's internet users, accounting for multiple connections (home, phone, and work), by the total energy used by all the carriers' data-present COs, POPs, Towers, Remote Cabinets, etc. This would at least give an estimate on each user's impact. \n\nIt doesn't take into account any energy consumed by operations to keep the ISPs and backbone providers running though.",
"Pretty complex question. I mean, are we taking into consideration how much energy it takes to build and maintain the network? Things like copper ore being mined, processed, shipped for cables.. And then again, the resources mined to make the rest of the equipment like gold, plastic, glass(fibre) amongst many other things. Then you've got the workers who are installing it, maintaining it.. they need to eat to exist, to do that job - how much energy does it require to feed, house, and provide income? How much fuel is used in all the maintenance vehicles? What about the resources that go into those vehicles when being built? What about all the mechanics and engineers who had to design and build, and fix those vehicles? The ships that lay the cables underwater?\n\nSo many variables, it would take a seriously dedicated team a long ass time to find the real answer.",
"Former network engineer here. Here's how I would tackle this problem. Pick two points whose path can be the one under analysis. Count the hops, learn the underlying routers/switches in between. First, establish the electricity draw of each of those devices under zero traffic basis. Then select an avg traffic for each device and measure the electrical draw under those circumstances. Divide that total traffic per unit time (eg a day) by that electrical draw and solve for one packet. Add each of the hops together. Of interest to me is the cost per packet or per transmission or per transaction. \n\nA looser way to do this is analyze only one hop device and as long as it is typical of most isp devices...just multiply it by hops.",
"There is this paper \n\n_URL_12_\n\n_URL_10_\n\nIf you skip to the last figure you get **about 1µJ per bit.** \n\nInterestingly enough, it's not the transport that cost the most energy with optical communications. This is actually true at all scales, from the long haul to the intra-chip communications.\n***\n\nI also remember this paper about the fundamental limits, which was written at the beginning of Bell Labs green touch initiative:\n\n_URL_11_\n\nfor those with access to IEEE.\n\nIf i remember correctly they also found 4 order of magnitude between the fundamental limit and the current network."
],
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": [
"https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power_transmission",
"https://labs.ripe.net/Members/mirjam/interesting-graph-as-path-lengths",
"http://sysnet.ucsd.edu/~pmahadevan/publications/FinalVersion_Networking2009.pdf",
"http://nrlweb.cs.ucla.edu/publication/download/281/garyglcm98.pdf",
"http://circuit.ucsd.edu/~massimo/ECE158A/Handouts_files/hop-count.pdf",
"http://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/collateral/routers/12000-series-routers/product_data_sheet0900aecd8027c8dd.html",
"http://www.gci.com/kb/netflix-movie-and-data-usage",
"https://www.nrdc.org/energy/files/data-center-efficiency-assessment-IP.pdf",
"http://nordman.lbl.gov/docs/lanzisera_aceee2010.pdf",
"http://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/rtucker/talks/files/Tucker_ECOC2008.pdf",
"http://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/rtucker/publications/files/Tucker_Green_Part_II.pdf",
"http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/login.jsp?tp=&arnumber=5621584&url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fiel5%2F5610908%2F5621084%2F05621584.pdf%3Farnumber%3D5621584",
"http://people.eng.unimelb.edu.au/rtucker/publications/files/Tucker_Green_Part_I.pdf"
]
}
|
How much work does it take to send a packet across the internet?
A packet of some size is sent from A to B, which are some distance part, via some number of routers. Can someone Fermi estimate (or better) the energy required to do this? *edit* thanks everybody, i see it's a complicated question, and i like the material answers that were provided. to those who answer along the lines of "it takes no extra work since the network is always active", then my question becomes "what is the energy cost of a packet's worth of activity?".
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|
kfd6f
|
I'm 0 negative blood type. Could I give blood directly from my circulatory system to any other person's?
|
Let's say I'm a witness of an accident and I have the equipment and formation needed to do a blood transfusion directly from me to the victim. Would it be safe to do so? In other words; does my blood need to be processed in some way before being given to other person?
(Sorry for my English, I'm not a native speaker)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2ju6t3",
"c2juii3",
"c2ju6sw",
"c2ju3iu",
"c2ju2li"
],
"text": [
"If you are witnessing an acute trauma, then no, you should not if you can help it, as there are better first-responder options, such as packed RBCs or IV saline. Being O- means that you have circulating plasma antibodies against other antigens. There are have been document cases of hemolytic reactions occurring several days after the transfusions, but this is *different* from the acute hemolytic anemia that occurs in ABO incompatibility, which occurs several hours after transfusion.\n\nWhen considering plasma transfusion instead of red blood cell transfusions, AB+ donors become the *best* donors (because they will not create antibodies to the other antigens) and O- donors are the *worst*.",
"So we have 4 professionals in what could be considered the general field that are split 2:2 yes and no. Interesting.",
"Damn, deleted my big reaction because of a small mistake, oh well.\n\nYou can't because you have A and B antibodies in your blood. If you give A/B/AB people your blood, the antibodys will attach to their blood cells and cause blockages of small vessels. (damage to kidney's, eyes, etc). So the serum is spun off and the packed blood cells are given. If you are miles and miles in the wilderness you can try of course!\n\n_URL_0_",
"It was done that way for many years in emergency battlefield situations.",
"Actually, you can give to basically everyone but people with the Bombay phenotype. This blood type is about 4 in every million people, so it's really uncommon. But Bombay people can only receive blood from other Bombay people. If you gave a Bombay person O negative blood, they would have a terrible reaction (same as if you gave type A blood to a type O person.)\n\nEdit: Please see postings below. As other commentators have pointed out, blood transfusions can be a dangerous business so don't try to do what the OP was asking (giving your blood to someone at a trauma scene.)"
],
"score": [
32,
12,
8,
8,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_transfusion"
]
}
|
I'm 0 negative blood type. Could I give blood directly from my circulatory system to any other person's?
Let's say I'm a witness of an accident and I have the equipment and formation needed to do a blood transfusion directly from me to the victim. Would it be safe to do so? In other words; does my blood need to be processed in some way before being given to other person? (Sorry for my English, I'm not a native speaker)
|
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5l3bjf
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AskScience AMA Series: I'm /u/OrbitalPete, a volcanologist who works on explosive eruptions, earthquakes, and underwater currents. Ask Me Anything!
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/u/OrbitalPete is a volcanologist based at a university in the UK. He got his PhD in 2010, and has since worked in several countries developing new lab techniques, experiments, and computer models. He specialises in using flume experiments to explore the behaviour of pyroclastic density currents from explosive eruptions, but has also worked on volcanic earthquakes, as well as research looking at submarine turbidity currents and how they relate to oil and gas exploration.
He's watched volcanoes erupt, he's spent lots of time in the field digging up their deposits, and he's here to answer your questions (starting at 12 ET, 16 UT)!
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askscience
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"text": [
"Are there any new or troubling signs surrounding the Yellowstone Caldera? How prepared are we to deal with an event of that scope?",
"Thank you for doing this! Are there any new techniques that allow us to be more accurate with predicting volcanic eruptions? If not do you think we will be sometime in the near future?",
"What is the deal with Mt Vesuvius? What is the current risk of an eruption right now, and how would that be assessed? Why does it erupt in such a violent way at seemingly random moments? In general, how does this specific volcano work?",
"Many fields of science have a holy grail of a discovery that has not been found yet. Is there something that is thought to happen/exist that is being searched for but not found yet? If so what kind of impact would it have on your field?",
"Two questions if you do not mind. \nScientists are sometimes known for not communicating their science to the none-scientific community too well. How would you suggest scientists communicate their science better to get more people interested in science?\nSecondly, I am currently applying for volcanology PhD's and wonder how much doing a specific PhD would confine me to that specialty in the future?",
"Can you explain why Mount Saint Helen's eruption was so different than what we view as a 'typical' volcanic eruption?",
"Hey /u/Orbitalpete! Great of you to make this AMA!\n\nhere's a question I'd like your personnal insights on:\n\nIf you had to compare, both chemically as well as from the point of view of facies development and expression, ocean floor mafic volcanism in the Archean with that of the current period, what are the main differences which stand out in your eye?\n\nAnd best wishes for the New Year!",
"Just a friendly reminder that our guest will begin answering questions at 12pm Eastern Time. Please do not answer questions for the guests. After the time of their AMA, you are free to answer or follow-up on questions. If you have questions on comment policy, please check our [rules wiki](_URL_0_).",
"Hello! Can you describe some of your flume experiments? Are you building some kind of setup and simulating them or are you finding natural ones and extrapolating the properties of those to the explosive-eruption kind?",
"I always see stuff about super volcanoes all of the world like Yellowstone and the one in Indonesia, and I've recently heard about the one in Italy. Since if any of them erupted it would probably throw the world into a massive famine or something else terrible (due to the ash cloud and gases released changing the climate), I would like to know how early we would be able to figure out that an eruption is coming. \n\nAlso: the Canary Islands. I heard about one of the volcanoes on one of the islands and it kind of scared me. Apparently if it erupts violently enough and the mountain falls into the ocean, it would create a tsunami that would travel across the Atlantic and reach like 5 miles inland on the east coast. I know this volcano is active and does have small eruptions from time to time (like just the standard spewing out some rocks and a bit of gases being released), but how likely do you think that it could erupt violently enough to cause the mountain to fall into the ocean?\n\nTLDR: how far before it happened would we know if a super volcano was going to have a massive eruption? How likely do you think it is that Cumbre Vieja volcano will cause a large enough landslide to create a mega tsunami?",
"Thanks for taking time to answer questions!\n\nI am familiar with science funding practices in the U.S., from Federal through philanthropic. A chief complaint of U.S. researchers is the amount of time spent writing, and reviewing others', proposals.\n\nWould you care to describe your own funding experiences?\n\nCheers.",
"What drew you to be interested in volcanology? What is the most interesting part of the field to you?",
"What's your opinion about earthquakes in Oklahoma and Kansas caused by fracking? I have lived here my entire life, and I wonder if the quakes are from fracking or from something more insidious, like the caldera at Yellowstone.",
"Thank you for doing this AMA. As a child I wanted to become a volcanologist and it's great to hear about the methodology used nowadays.",
"What are your thoughts of Mt. Aso turning into a eruption like that which was seen in Iceland?",
"What's the status of using [muon tomography](_URL_1_) for mapping the internals of volcanoes? How sensitive is this? How good is the spatial and temporal resolution? Is it good enough to let one see magma moving through the volcano? I guess this depends on the number of sight lines one has through the volcano at any given time, and that it can't see anything below the ambient ground level.",
"I live on Oahu and we get vog here from Big Island quite frequently. It affects many people, and really just makes things nasty. How bad is it to be breathing this stuff in? Is there any hope of it going away anytime soon? It really hurts the natural beauty by making everything greyish blue. Thanks!",
"A couple of questions about the volcanos in Italy:\n\n1. Are the continuing eruptions of Etna and Stromboli enough to \"grease the wheels\" such that it reduces the stress below Vesuvius?\n\n2. The Campi Flegrei area west of Vesuvius - is it becoming active enough to start to class it alongside Yellowstone as a supervolcano?",
"Could you explain how submarine turbidity currents affect gas and oil exploration? Do they control where we drill? \n\nAlso, do mid-ocean ridges contribute to creating new volcanoes on the ocean floor? I know that hotspots do, such as in the Hawaiian islands. \n\nThanks so much!",
"I am near White Island, NZ. \n\n_URL_2_\n\nIn a couple of hours I will embark on a 6 hour trip to the volcano. What are your top three things I should be thinking about?\n\nThank you for this great ama!",
"My pre-school son thinks your job is absolutely awesome. :) (No question to ask, just wanted to share his enthusiasm.)",
"Have you seen Werner Herzogs documentary on Volcanoes? If so what did you think of it?.",
"What are some emerging trends in volcanology that you see as a promising frontier?",
"Favorite Volcano Movie? Did it get the science right or just entertaining?",
"How common are underwater earthquakes and are scientists able to predict them?",
"How did you get your job after receiving your PhD?",
"What does your average day of work look like?",
"I live in Alaska and in 1964 (or around then atleast) there was a massive earthquake. I've heard fault lines typically follow a pattern of large quakes. I can't cite any article or anything now but I read that the San Andreas fault produces a large quake every 300 years or so. Is this true and does that rule apply for the fault that South Central Alaska is sitting on? If so, how often does The fault that South Central Alaska is sitting on produce a catastrophic earthquake?",
"I've heard recently that there has been a new subduction zone discovered on one of the plates by the Asian continent. And subdiction zones are always where the oceanic plates and land based plates meet (or something of that nature) but this one was discovered on a land based plate. I'm aware that a subduction zone caused the 2011 Japan quake. So what does this new subduction zone mean for people living in the area and what are your thoughts on the whole matter?",
"In the movies and in many tv shows on Discovery / TLC / National Geographic the animations show Yellowstone going off all at once.\n\nHowever, I've read some books on Yellowstone and they imply that it more likely that there may be multiple \"regular\" eruptions occurring around and in the caldera.\n\nGiven that we have anywhere from 0 to 40,000 years before the next eruption is there any way to predict at this time which is more likely, the all-at-once vs several smaller eruptions?",
"Hey, I make a video game about an exploding volcano that destroys everything in its wake. I'm really curious about the different types of lava textures.\n\n* Does the properties of the lava change based on the type of ore its made from? things like texture, flow speeds, densities, and other properties?\n\n* Have you measured the wattage of the lightning in volcano clouds? \n\nThanks!",
"Just curious, I remember reading that the Indian Ocean quake of 2004, caused a ridiculously long piece of the ocean floor to raise quite a bit. What truth is there to that, and what effect would that have had on the ocean's currents? If there were any changes to the currents, could that explain some of the changes to our global weather?",
"I'm going to Hawaii tomorrow for a volcanology class. I am presenting on Xenoliths of Hualalai. I understand that they are unique because they are tholeiitic Xenoliths with some Alkalic with no intermediate. Do post-shield volcanos usually have intermediate Xenoliths? I'm a bit confused on the range of Xenoliths and the expected types of Xenoliths on a post-shield volcano.",
"As a Chilean, earthquakes do not worry me too much, but with volcanoes we have very little information and from time to time some have a greater activity than usual.\n\nDo volcanoes need to release pressure after some time? As is the case of earthquakes caused by tectonic plates\n\nThank you!",
"Which of the 16 \"decade volcanos\" are most likely to erupt soon? I can see Mt Ranier out my window and it seems every year there's large earthquake swarms that show up in the news which always starts the \"is it going to erupt soon\" conversation. Thanks for doing this!",
"Is there much work for divers when it comes to plate tectonics? Im studying Ocean Science at the moment and am a qualified Commercial diver but want to become a scientific diver. I find plate tectonics fascinating and would love to work with them, however diving is my main passion.",
"What is the confidence level that a volcano like Mt Ranier will give warning before it goes off? I know we've gotten good at predicting eruptions, but that would be a catastrophe if it went off without warning so I worry if there's even a slim chance that could happen.",
"I've always been fascinated by Jökulhlaups, especially those caused by sub-glacial volcanic eruptions. I've not seen much new research emerge about this since I left undergrad. Any insights into the dynamics of pyroclastic flow, ash, off-gassing, and all that ice and water?",
"Has anybody tried punching a hot, active rising plume with a reinforced sensor drone? You could get a lot of data to make better models on column heat, density, etc..., to better predict column collapse.",
"Thank you for doing the AMA. Have you done any work on the New Madrid seismic zone in Missouri, Kentucky and Arkansas? I would be interested to know your take on the \"failed rift\".",
"Technonic plates..wtf. it blows my mind to even consider that all our continents moved so much they were once comnected. Is this still believed to be tru? Highschool grad 2010",
"Fellow geologist here, do you prefer the bubble rise theory or foam collapse theory for explosive eruptions? If you don't mind explaining them for the non geos.",
"Has there been any successful research made into finding ways to either safely bleed off pressure, or otherwise reduce the explosive power of a stratovolcano's eruption?",
"If I just moved to the Big Island of Hawaii, how long will I be able to enjoy it before the volcano kills me?",
"Living in California I have heard forever that we are late for the \"big one\". Are we actually? And how big will it be.",
"Any research around terraforming by exploiting Vulcanism on places like Mars or IO etc? Realize this is way out there...",
"Which volcanoes do you think are about to erupt in the next few months or years?",
"Can you briefly explain why aa, pahoehoe, and pillow lava look/come out so different?",
"How much information can you infer about a volcano based only on it's pyroclasts?",
"(serious) if I got lave on my hand what would happen?",
"I'm a kiwi living in New Zealand, are we fucked?",
"What is the most rewarding part of your job?",
"Should we be worried about fracking causing earthquakes?"
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|
AskScience AMA Series: I'm /u/OrbitalPete, a volcanologist who works on explosive eruptions, earthquakes, and underwater currents. Ask Me Anything!
/u/OrbitalPete is a volcanologist based at a university in the UK. He got his PhD in 2010, and has since worked in several countries developing new lab techniques, experiments, and computer models. He specialises in using flume experiments to explore the behaviour of pyroclastic density currents from explosive eruptions, but has also worked on volcanic earthquakes, as well as research looking at submarine turbidity currents and how they relate to oil and gas exploration. He's watched volcanoes erupt, he's spent lots of time in the field digging up their deposits, and he's here to answer your questions (starting at 12 ET, 16 UT)!
|
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|
r1noh
|
If we use a non base 10 counting system, do all math theories still work?
|
We base most of our math equations on the base 10 system, obviously since we have 10 fingers. If we had 8 fingers, and used a base 8 system, or for some reason a base 9 system, would our mathematical equations that we use to "do science" still work? All the formulas to explain acceleration, speed of light, gravity's pull, etc?
I have a feeling the answer will be that our formulas would just be different, but they still could be worked out mathematically. But, Im a nursing student, not a math wizard.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c426cmc",
"c426dj4",
"c426o43",
"c426qlk",
"c426nvz"
],
"text": [
"A number doesn't change when you switch bases; only the representation is different. All of our equations would work just fine. All that would change is anywhere a number appears in our current equations you would replace it with the representation of that number in the new basis.",
"Very little mathematics has to do with decimal representations of numbers. You'll never see a theorem that starts \"Let p be the hundreds place of an integer\" or something like that.\n\nConsider, for example, the classical equation f=ma from Newtonian physics, which relates the acceleration an object undergoes, the object's mass, and the magnitude of a force acting on that object. f, m, and a are numbers (well, numbers with units), and you multiply two of them together to get the third. This multiplication has nothing to do with the encoding system you happen to use to write the numbers down; three times three is nine, even if you write three as \"11\" and nine as \"1001\" in binary or three as \"3\" and nine as \"21\" in base four or even just three as \"xxx\" and nine as \"xxxxxxxxx\".",
"The only theorems that would not apply would be the very few that are specific to base ten...things like \"if the sum of the digits is divisible by three, so is the number\". The proofs for these specifically assume base ten, so no rule is being broken.",
"Most mathematical theorems, at the abstract level, deal with a set with specific properties (vector spaces, metric spaces, topological spaces, etc.) and while many of those spaces are different representations of specific properties of the real numbers, they are far more abstract than that. Therefore, not only is the counting system arbitrary in most upper level mathematics, but the concept of even needing a \"number\" is arbitrary. The obvious exception being number theory, but as others have pointed out, the representation of the number does not change the properties of said number drastically.",
"Computer use binary to calculate:\n_URL_0_\nBut electronic components use octal or hexadecimal:\n_URL_2_\n_URL_1_\n\nWhen I was student we were resolving equation in binary and also doing logic simplification.\n\nNot sure I could do it today."
],
"score": [
17,
7,
5,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Octal",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"
]
}
|
If we use a non base 10 counting system, do all math theories still work?
We base most of our math equations on the base 10 system, obviously since we have 10 fingers. If we had 8 fingers, and used a base 8 system, or for some reason a base 9 system, would our mathematical equations that we use to "do science" still work? All the formulas to explain acceleration, speed of light, gravity's pull, etc? I have a feeling the answer will be that our formulas would just be different, but they still could be worked out mathematically. But, Im a nursing student, not a math wizard.
|
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|
bud7iq
|
AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!
|
Hi Reddit! I’m Jamil Zaki, a professor of psychology at Stanford University and head of the [Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab](_URL_1_). My first book, called [The War for Kindness](_URL_3_), comes out next week!
For the last fifteen years, I’ve studied empathy—people’s ability to share, think about, and care about each other’s experiences. My team investigates everything from the brain mechanisms that allow us to accurately understand what others feel, to the relationship between empathy and kindness, to the ways helping others de-stresses us.
While examining empathy as a scientist, I also noticed that it seems to be in short supply. Isolation and tribalism are rampant. We struggle to understand people who aren't like us, but find it easy to hate them. In fact, studies show that we are less caring than we were even thirty years ago.
I wrote The War for Kindness to explore and explain why it can feel so difficult to connect with people amidst modern barriers. A key point of the book is that empathy is less like a trait, and more like a skill, something we can build and strengthen even in the face of those barriers. It’s not always easy to grow our empathy, but I think it’s crucial we try.
If you’re interested, you can pre-order a copy of the book here: _URL_2_
You can [see](_URL_0_) I'll be ready for your questions at 9AM Pacific/Noon Eastern (16 UT), AMA! Here to answer any and all of your questions about kindness, caring, goodness, badness, and horse-sized ducks (VERY strong opinions).
Also, today is my mom’s birthday. Happy birthday, mom!!
EDIT: Thank you for your stellar questions! I have to run for a few hours but will come back later today and try to answer more.
|
askscience
|
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"Are there empathy building exercises that have tangible impact in practical life ? Do such exercises really work or are just scoffed off by adult participants ?",
"How does empathy fatigue play into your research? Being that we're so connected with the world and other peoples lives, how do we stay empathic without burnout?",
"Comparing massive urban areas, to smaller urban areas, to rural areas: how does population density affect empathy and, if we can know pertinent information about this, do we have a duty to plan our population density accordingly to maximize empathy?",
"Thank you for taking the time for do this AMA professor. My main questions are about external influences on the decline in global empathy. \n\n- Is empathy declining more rapidly in individualistic countries like the US or in collectivist countries like Japan? \n\n- Do you think people are becoming too quick to attribute things together which results in quick assumptions of a person, that can lead to a decline of empathy? \n\n- This sort of leads to the idea of the whole current #cancelled movement where actors/celebrities are called out for behaviour by accusers. One example is the Kevin Hart and Oscars fiasco. What do you think about that ordeal? \n\nThank you for this opportunity to answer some questions :)",
"Excited to read your book! I work in early years education in conflict/post-conflict zones and am constantly looking for ways to include empathy-building in the classroom.\n\nWhat do you think it will take for educational policy to reflect the need for empathy in our curricula?",
"How do we help the unempathetic want to change? For example, schools are rife with bullies and ‘mean girl cliques’. What would motivate those young people to feel empathy for the less fortunate/popular/athletic and cease their hurtful behavior?",
"Which country do you think must be reaching highest on empathy scale, and why ?",
"What about someone who had too much empathy?\nI've been told that. At first I thought they were crazy, but now I've started to notice that I do try to think of and please everyone, to the point I often forget myself.\nI enjoy understanding unique positions, and unique people, and I really enjoy seeing people happy. But what do I do if it has taken over my own identity?",
"Hi Dr. Zaki! Can you tell us why sometimes people who can empathise with a community living in distress, in a far away place, find it hard to empathise with people close to them?",
"I completely agree with you that empathy is in short supply. That said, how does empathy integrate with game theory, specifically bad-faith participantsbir \"defectors\". It seems there is a fairly consistent trend towards authoritarianism globally. Is empathy a useful tool to address this?",
"How can someone become devoid of empathy on purpose?",
"In your studies, have you seen a relationship between a lack of empathy and the feeling of isolation/loneliness? I wonder if the more disconnected people feel in their communities, the less likely they are to relate to those around them. Thank you!",
"What scale did you use to measure empathy, and how sure are you that empathy is what was really being measured?",
"Is empathy \"activated\" through experience with people of various backgrounds or is empathy better off being taught to someone (as opposed to experience)? Or is it more complex than that?",
"While it can be easy to empathize with people we can agree with, it can be very hard to empathize with people we deeply disagree with, such as our political opponents. How do you think we can increase empathy for people who have dramatically different political beliefs? Can empathy be used to decrease political polarization in our hyper-polarized times?",
"Three fast ones for you:\n\n1. How does one measure empathy from year to year etc.?\n2. Would you define empathy as somewhat of a muscle?\n3. What do you think is the reasoning for the decline?",
"Hi Dr Zaki. Can you tell us what an “optimal” level of empathy is, how to build empathy in ourselves, and also whether the concept of being “overly empathetic” exists? Thanks!",
"Thanks so much. I have two questions. \n1. How do you recommend finding a balance between giving empathy and honoring your own pain? I know they're not exactly in conflict but many of the conversations I see devolve into people comparing someone else's pain to their own instead of each connecting with the other. \n\n\n2. How can we build empathy in professional settings where it is required but hard maintain? I know many healthcare professionals go into the field specifically for empathic reasons but get burned out. Alternatively, many of those in the criminal justice system (lawyers, prison guards, law enforcement) are not deaf to empathy but it is not a focus of the job and many would claim it is antithetical to the jobs purpose.",
"Why do you think people nowadays are less emphatic than before? How does the internet affect this? Do you think that when we encounter the same issue too many times, we are being less sensitive about it, unless we got to experience them first hand",
"You seem to be the antagonist to Paul Bloom. How would you argue against his position? Or do you just have different definitions of the word empathy? Sometimes he says \"empathy\" but all I hear is \"emotionally irrational\".",
"What's the most important advice you can give an early-career cognitive neuroscientists trying his best to improve science and increase our body of knowledge? Thank you!",
"First off, thank you so much for doing this important work. I've witness a dramatic decline in empathy among those I know, both online and IRL, and people in general, and I've become extremely despondent about it all.\n\nWhenever I've attempted to discuss this general lack of empathy, especially as it concerns tribalism and \"the Other\", I find that my friends and acquaintances immediately become defensive. They typically immediately fire back that \"Tribalism only exists among \\[the other side - usually \"the Right\" from their perspective\\]\", and have told me if I think tribalism exists anywhere else, I'm just believing \"their\" right-wing / racist / nationalist propaganda. This is clearly a) false, and b) part of the exact problem I've described, but they refuse to see the forest for the trees.\n\nHow can a layperson like myself push back against these stereotypes and change minds with legit information? Can you recommend any credible and (relatively) easy-to-digest published material to help regular people overcome the echo chambers and see that this is a problem affecting all of us?",
"What is your view on psychopaths and their lack of empathy? Do you think they can be taught or programmed to feel a level of empathy for others? Especially regarding the difference between hot and cold empathy.",
"Why is it so crucial that we practice empathy? And in what ways, if any, (scientific or otherwise) do you think that being empathetic leads to personal gain?",
"Would you advocate for teaching empathy skills to criminals? In what way do you think this should be implemented?\n\nThank you for your time!",
"How far are we from empathy enhancing technology? And is the research done at your lab conducive to such tech?",
"A lot of my questions you've already answered but I would like to say that I really enjoyed this post and your insight. I am currently studying for my bachelor's in psychology and addiction counseling. Empathy building skills has been a huge part. I certainly believe there has been a large decline of general empathy in the world, its discouraging at times.",
"What does it mean for your research and efforts if the \"empathy defect\" isn't causing the problems that appear to be linked to a lack of empathy? How conclusive are these studies that claim empathy has been declining? How do you ensure that you aren't just aiming at targets that have materialized from sociological hand waving?",
"What are your thoughts on the emerging field of \"neuropsychoanalysis\"?",
"I believe that the fact empathy is in short supply, and that isolation and tribalism are rampant, are symptoms of a bigger problem. Parents today, \"want to raise their kids to have it better than they did.\" However, I don't think this parenting style is working. Discipline, hard work, and being lead by example, are all important life lessons that go missing under the new style of parenting. When you take away these life lessons, kids get conditioned the wrong way -- and you're pointing out the results. What are your thoughts on this?",
"I work in an industry that we are taught empathy in a way, at least we are asked to think about it. From personal experience and speaking to my colleagues, very hard to emphasis when the person we are trying to be empathetic with is unknown to us, when there wast personal experience in anything we need to involve empathy. We need a strong personal will to be able scratch a surface of empathy, so if someone is genuinely emphasising with you, don’t take it for granted.",
"What are your thoughts on Dr. Fritz Breithaupt's assertions that some of our current problems with terrorism and incels may actually stem from excessive empathy rather than a deficit and empathy, but excessive empathy in favor only of one's own group, to the exclusion of empathy for others? He has talked about this and some of his recent books and in a recent NPR interview.",
"What sort of interesting conversations have you had with your colleague Robert Sapolsky on the overlaps between your research and his work on conflict and stress? \n\nWould you say that primate communities are more or less empathetic than human communities? Are our instincts supporting empathy or do we develop empathy in spite of our instincts?",
"Kindness is great but empathy and kindness are such vague concepts and it's very individualistic. It doesn't work on systemic problems or collectively like feminism or socialism. Did you ever consider these concerns to your work ? I guess we should all be empathy warriors in the war for kindness.",
"What line of work would be somewhat profitable for someone who's very empathetic? I don't mean caregiving and similar. I want to do good for my fellow humans, but also make a decent buck along the way.",
"What has been the recent paradigm shifts with regards to advances in neurosciences and its effects on psychology as a field? Has the \"hard science\" of biochemistry been connected to the \"softer ones\"?",
"Is there evidence that high levels of empathy has become more of a negative trait than a positive one? I.e empathetic people being more stressed by the news, experience more suffering, etc?",
"Thanks for doing this AMA. \n\nMy friend asks, is there a relationship between emotion regulation and empathy. If there is, is emotional regulation capable of enhancing or diminishing empathy?",
"Why do psychologists tend to be liberal? Aren’t Christians (and other conservatives as well) also drawn to the prospect of helping people suffering from mental issues?",
"As a parent how can we foster kindness and empathy in our young children. What reward system would most accurately incentivize kindness and empathic behaviors?",
"What do you think we can do to bridge the political divide here in America before we devolve into a civil war?",
"Are religious people more likely to be less empathetic than the average person?",
"Does killing your enemy with kindness really work?",
"I've struggled since having graduated with my masters to make sense of my experience with my supervisors. It seems to be a generally unaddressed problem but to most who have gone to grad school it seems most have some negative experiences (work looking at depression in grad students seems to support this). After reading your AMA part of it clicked in me. I didn't feel like my supervisor really related or empathized, which struck me as a bit strange since he was once upon a time a grad student. I don't think this is isolated to this specific situation (though maybe it's more precarious because the rest of your future can heavily depend on a supervisor because of recommendation letters, etc) but is probably true for any situation having similar power dynamics. I was wondering if you had any insight into how power dynamics and empathy affect one another?\n\n\nThann you for the very insightful AMA.",
"Is there a thing like being overempathic? Sometimes to de-stress myself i imagine myself doing random acts of kindness to people. For instance talking a depressed individual away from suicidal thoughts or sacrificing myself to save a little girl. I also feel dissatisfied while enjoying things for myself (excluding things that can only be enjoyed by a person) say like eating a snack. I feel if i hadn't shared it i really haven't eaten it (although the hunger does go). I always sacrifice myself when an opportunity can be given to someone else. I try to relate to people so much either in fiction or real-life just to understand how they feel. An ordinary commute will see me observe little details of persons for that. I'm confused because at times i know it shouldnt concern me and at times i feel i might be unfair to myself.",
"When talking about children specifically the first 3 years of life. What interactions with children would you say build empathy? Is it crucial for them to begin early, would it effect the way they build relationships if they don't? I ask because my 18 month old seems highly unbothered with any kind of empathy (someone is crying, or someone gets hurt) when I watch him in these situations it seems he realizes what's going on and removes himself from the room altogether if he can. I was told it may be a sign of autism but docs say they don't believe he is autistic because he shows no other signs... should I worry? What can I do to help him develop?",
"Thank you so much for doing this AMA! I’m a huge fan of your work.\n\nHas there ever been a moment in your life where you felt a strong sense of Empathy for an aspiring researcher, because they were making a similar mistake you might have made?\n\nWhat can the average person do in their life to increase their Empathy? Alternatively, what small things can people do to help someone else change their Empathy towards others?\n\nYou probably get this question a lot (I’m sorry): What advice would you give young people who are aspiring to have careers in psychology research?\n\nThank you so much!! :)",
"Hi Jamil! Personally I believe in the fact that one of the biggest things we as humans have lost due to our rapid and dynamic lifestyle resulting from an exponential progress as a species over the past century is empathy.\n\nSo my question to you is, which of the major developments or milestones achieved by us according to you has contributed to it the most.\n\nAlso, to what extent do you think this lack of empathy in humans are being exploited by people like politicians in a political climate which seems dangerously divisive, and can it be stopped? Or is it too late?",
"Fantastic! I can’t wait to read this. I did spend some time on the farm, myself. I have complex ptsd and I’ve been studying rapists and the brain, to try and require my brain. Do you have any suggestions on other books I should read to help me with my studies and help with my ptsd? I’m currently finishing a book by Vander kolk, ‘Body keeps the score. I have been stuck at home for a few years now and couldn’t finish school, one day I will. Do you need any scut monkeys to volunteer?\n\nEdit: rewire my brain*",
"I try to empathize with everyone, but this becomes controversial when empathy is directed towards terrible criminals or people who have done horrible things. In fact, in these cases we as a society have decided that these people do not deserve empathy. Even the concept of mildly defending someone who has done something terrible is looked down upon. What are your thoughts on this situation? Is the restriction of our empathetic capabilities when it comes to the law a good thing?",
"Wow! Now I need to read your book. I’m an ER Nurse and I would say I practice empathy deeply every day I work. I think it is what makes a good nurse, great. I’ve considered researching it further for a possible PhD, put simply I think nursing is the practice/job of empathy. Thanks for giving me more to consider. I look forward to reading your book. Have you spoken to/worked with any nurses?",
"Hey!\nWhat an interesting book. I may be too late but here are a few questions:\n\nIs empathy self-reported? \n\nDo you find that people over or underestimate their level of empathy?\n\nIs there a danger of being too empathetic? This is mostly related to the term “empaths” (not sure if this is recognized in the scientific community). Either way— I would love to hear your thoughts on it. \n\nThanks for doing this!",
"Can you describe your understanding of the closely related concept of boundaries, specifically healthy boundaries, how they are determined empirically, and how they correlate with empathic function? Can you give an empirically based definition for empathy?\n\nAlso can you discuss how unhealthy empathy (codependence) works in contrast with healthy empathy, and it's relation to pathological narcissism vs. healthy narcissism? Please give as much/many empirical definitions and standards for your answer as possible.",
"Thank you for doing this AMA. I'm highly interested in this subject, though I am just now beginning to comprehend it and have never really read about it in depth. I'll surely listen to your book. That said, and this is a really silly question, why are there two versions of your book on Audible, both equal in length and almost equal in price?",
"Do you think your research into empathy building can be used to help rehabilitate those convicted of sex crimes (or other violent crimes)? I remember reading that a major personality component behind rapists and murders was a profound lack of empathy for their victims. Would you have any advice on how a rehabilitative organization would implement that?\n\nHappy bday to your mom!!",
"Hi Jamil, your work is certainly interesting and appreciated. Well done.\n\nLiving in Christchurch, New Zealand we have just witnessed sad events which have really shocked\n\nand asked us to reassess how empathetic we really are. Jacinda Ardern- prime minister, has been noble in tasking everyone to rethink\n\nour empathy and become more skillful in applying it.\n\nAll the best\n\nA.",
"Reading Lakoff and putting things in a political perspective, he might say that someone shopping and seeing a homeless person might make themselves feel better by reasoning that the person perhaps made some bad choices and the wealth ramp is there to teach us to do the right things. A war for kindness will have to break that linguistic frame. How?",
"Hi Dr. Zaki! I attended SANS this year and really loved your presentation (congrats on the award, by the way). I don't really have a question (outside of, uh, can I post-doc in your lab in a couple years??), just wanted to say hi and I'll be purchasing your book! Best of luck with your future endeavors!",
"What's your take on the abuse of empathy by social media for monetary gains? You mention burnout due to bad news but most bad news are intentionally exaggerated because outrage gives more views, to the point that some people have a worldview completely manufactured by bogus information, and I'm taking the whole ideological spectrum here.",
"In case you are still taking questions! \n\nHave you found that there is an age in which populations have a pattern of reaching \"peak empathy\"? To rephrase, do people younger than 18, or in their mid 20s, or in their late 80s, etc. experience more/less empathy than other age groups?",
"I haven't read any comments yet, I just want to say that I love the idea of this book and will be buying it.\nAs an RBT and (former) student of Psychology, I believe empathy and kindness are the most important skills to share with others on a daily basis",
"1. Do people with less empathy tend to be more financially successful than people with high empathy?\n2. How do empathy towards people and environmentally friendly behaviour correlate?\n3. Are people with a lower amount of empathy correlated to a certain tendency towards a political spectrum (left/right)?",
"What effect does social media have on young people's ability to socially connect, and their ability to develop empathy and kindness? Also, what did you think of Matthew Lieberman's book Social: Why Our Brains are Wired to Connect?",
"Of the people I know with Aspergers, some tend to exhibit extreme empathy while others struggle with an extreme lack of empathy. \nIs it common that people with Aspergers tend to fall into polar extremes?",
"Do you feel that Sam Harris’ work on free will and the lack of it promotes empathy within the society or does the religious side have a better argument for empathy?",
"Is there some study which describes the relation between empathy and religiousness? i.e are religious people more/less likely to empathize as compared to non-religious people.",
"Which religion had the highest levels of empathy? My money would be on Buddhism, but I'm curious to see if this would be correct.",
"How would you suggest breeding empathy in couples? Learning to be there for each other or detect emotional need or pain?",
"Hello Dr. Zaki, I am so excited to buy your book! Please tell me, how do you nurture empathy for yourself?",
"Are there people with no empathy but not actual *sociopaths* if so what would be the signs of that?",
"How do people naturally end up with empathy, how do they learn to recognize these things without being told?",
"Your name translates to \"Pretty Smart\" and that's just some good RNG",
"Does it go over empathy and its role in social justice?",
"How does apathy and empathy work together? Can they coexist?"
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{
"url": [
"https://twitter.com/zakijam/status/1131953030461394944",
"http://ssnl.stanford.edu/",
"https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/550616/the-war-for-kindness-by-jamil-zaki/",
"https://www.amazon.com/War-Kindness-Building-Empathy-Fractured/dp/0451499247/ref=tmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&qid=1547223297&sr=8-1"
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{
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|
AskScience AMA Series: I am Jamil Zaki, professor of psychology at Stanford University and director of the Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab. I wrote a book called The War for Kindness, which shares stories and research about how to fight for empathy even when it feels impossible to some days. AMA!
Hi Reddit! I’m Jamil Zaki, a professor of psychology at Stanford University and head of the [Stanford Social Neuroscience Lab](_URL_1_). My first book, called [The War for Kindness](_URL_3_), comes out next week! For the last fifteen years, I’ve studied empathy—people’s ability to share, think about, and care about each other’s experiences. My team investigates everything from the brain mechanisms that allow us to accurately understand what others feel, to the relationship between empathy and kindness, to the ways helping others de-stresses us. While examining empathy as a scientist, I also noticed that it seems to be in short supply. Isolation and tribalism are rampant. We struggle to understand people who aren't like us, but find it easy to hate them. In fact, studies show that we are less caring than we were even thirty years ago. I wrote The War for Kindness to explore and explain why it can feel so difficult to connect with people amidst modern barriers. A key point of the book is that empathy is less like a trait, and more like a skill, something we can build and strengthen even in the face of those barriers. It’s not always easy to grow our empathy, but I think it’s crucial we try. If you’re interested, you can pre-order a copy of the book here: _URL_2_ You can [see](_URL_0_) I'll be ready for your questions at 9AM Pacific/Noon Eastern (16 UT), AMA! Here to answer any and all of your questions about kindness, caring, goodness, badness, and horse-sized ducks (VERY strong opinions). Also, today is my mom’s birthday. Happy birthday, mom!! EDIT: Thank you for your stellar questions! I have to run for a few hours but will come back later today and try to answer more.
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|
xztt1
|
How would a triple helix affect a human being.
|
how would a third strand added to our dna's double helix change us
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5r1q15",
"c5r1hib",
"c5r1mv5",
"c5r5ayp"
],
"text": [
"It's like asking what would happen if you added a third state to current computers. A bit can either be 0 or 1. What if a bit could also be 2? Although it's possible to design computers that use 3-state bits, there's no way you can change existing computers to deal with that third state. The transistors in a current computer can only flip between on and off, 1 and 0. There's no physical way to add a third state to those millions of transistors that reside in your computer's processor.\n\nSo although there's nothing that says it's impossible for a triple helix to exist or even to work, there's no way it can be relevant to our current genetics. But I'm no expert, so maybe someone more knowledgeable can either expand or correct me.",
"The chemical structure and base pairing rules simply don't allow for a third strand of DNA. A triple helical structure of our genetic information would require a completely different carrier molecule altogether. As a result it is hard to make any predictions about the effects of a triple stranded genome.",
"Its not that simple, DNA is a very precise system that works the way it is. Adding a third strand is impossible as it is and would require a complete re-work of DNA basic structure.",
"We shouldn't have a sense that triple helix DNA is something we can move towards, it's just a different molecule with different properties that humans have never really used. **We would need an entirely new biology to \"use\" triple helix DNA** and thus answer your question.\n\nSome comments have mentioned that triple helix does exist, but for all intents and purposes we can ignore that matter for this question because we have huge amounts of DNA in our cells and the amount that is triple helix is minuscule in comparison. Additionally, triple helix DNA does not serve the same function(s) as traditional double-helix DNA.\n\nLet's just say that we can't all of a sudden change our DNA to triple helix. If we imagine our cells as a construction site (cells) with a construction crew (proteins), that would be like changing all the blueprints (DNA) to another language. No one knows how read it and nothing gets built. DNA evolved along with cells so that all the DNA and proteins work together in a precise way. The proteins we have now would not interact the same way with triple helix DNA and things would go bad very quickly.\n\nIn order for cells to even survive with triple helix DNA we would need a long period of evolution of DNA and proteins so that they could play well together. I don't know what the stability or properties of the triple helix DNA are, but we can't say if cells will ever use it like they currently use double stranded DNA."
],
"score": [
4,
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How would a triple helix affect a human being.
how would a third strand added to our dna's double helix change us
|
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|
38niz0
|
Has an artifact ever been found that is too advanced for the time period that it originates from?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"[Antikythera mechanism] ancient greek anolog astronomical clock. estimated 205BC, up until it's discovery it had never been heard of in antiquity. It is one of a kind and no documents found have ever mentioned such a device in Greek history. Also to note that simulations of it's mechanism shown that it would have been off due to holes in greek theory and that hand-built gears couldn't be as precise. (_URL_0_)",
"The \"Baghdad Batteries\" were a standard example for many years. \n\nThey were clay jars (possibly with other parts) from the Middle East circa 250 BCE.\n\nBatteries made like this could have been used for electroplating. (E.g. putting a thin outer layer of gold onto a statuette made of some cheaper metal.)\n\nApparently, after considering the question for several decades, no archaeologist today believes that these things really were batteries, but instead thinks that they were clay storage jars for sacred scrolls. \n\n_URL_1_ \n\nSo\n\n[A] Even if they were batteries, they wouldn't exactly have been \"too advanced for the time period that it originates from\", just that people would have had primitive batteries circa 250 BCE.\n\n[B] They probably weren't really batteries.",
"Nothing that is really *too* advanced for its time, unless it's from site contamination or a hoax. There have been finds that are *remarkably* advanced for their time and have become archaeological puzzles to be solved. An interesting one is the beautiful [Clovis spear points](_URL_2_) from about 13,000 years ago.",
"Maybe not what you had in mind but in 2014 someone found a [WWI era motorcycle](_URL_3_) that has features decades ahead of its time. It had been sealed off in a wall and no one (at least when the article was written) seemed to know who built it or why.",
"Lots of *claims* have been made, but none of them stand up to actual scientific scrutiny.\n\nKinda. Every once in awhile, we find something that pushes back our estimates of when some technology happened, like we find a stone tool that pushes back our estimate of when hominids started using stone tools. But these sorts of finds generally wind up being supported by further evidence.\n\nThere are no credible examples of artifacts that are *wildly* anachronistic, like a mechanical adding machine from ancient Egypt. \n\nEvery once in awhile, some culture will develop some technology far in advance of anyone else on the planet. For example, the Austronesian people who migrated out of southeast Asia to populate New Guinea, the Philippines, Australia, and so on had simple boats or rafts perhaps 10-20,000 years before anyone else was known to have them, which is pretty remarkable.",
"Well it happens all the time but that is more of an issue of us having an incomplete understanding of the technologies of the time period. For example running water in the Indus valley civs. But the result was that we re-evaluate what actually capable for it's time. There are still \"mysteries\" that modern science can not replicate, Greek Fire and Syrian Steel being the 2 most famous. We often think that we know so much more now than what they knew in the past (which is true to an extent) but what a lot of people don't realize is that the amount of knowledge we have lost through out history is far greater that the amount of knowledge we posses.",
"[Here](_URL_5_) is a Wikipedia article about \"Out of place artifacts,\" most of which are called questionable, incorrect, or hoaxes. \n\nI found that Wikipedia page while looking for [this](_URL_4_), the Aiud Artifact, which is \"a block of metal similar in some respects to the head of a hammer.\" It was found along with 2 mastodon bones, aging it at ~11,000 years. After testing, it was found to be composed of ~89% aluminum, which according to a different article \"was not discovered until 1808 and not produced in quantity until 1885.\"",
"The entire site of [Göbekli Tepe](_URL_6_).\n\nMegalithic, beutifully carved stone architecture that is older to the pyramids in Giza, Egypt than the pyramids are to us. In use since perhaps before 11,000 BCE. (Not a typo). The massive architecture from 9,000 BCE is totally out place with hunter gatherer society at the time.This incredible place was built before agriculture and animal husbandry was even discovered. It is also unknown why a later civilization intentionally buried Göbekli Tepe in the 8th millennium BCE.",
"The Nebra Sky Disk is a bit of a neat mystery: \n_URL_7_",
"Not exactly an artifact, but the Gobekli Tepe site in Turkey has monoliths and carvings of fair complexity thought impossible for the time period. The dating on it is unknown, but it was purposely buried in sand around 12,000 years ago. If I remember right."
],
"score": [
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|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baghdad_Battery",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clovis_point",
"https://rideapart.com/articles/mystery-traub-motorcycle",
"http://s8int.com/page29.html",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-place_artifact",
"http://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6bekli_Tepe",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk"
]
}
|
Has an artifact ever been found that is too advanced for the time period that it originates from?
|
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rx63l
|
Would it be possible, given a person's prescription, to create an altered image that would appear normal to that person?
|
And if so, would it further be possible to create something of a filter on a PC that would alter the image displayed on the monitor to appear "normal" based on an inputted prescription?
|
askscience
|
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"text": [
"I was refraining from answering before because I'm not a full expert in the field, but I've got some experience, and given the other... not very helpful \"answers\" below, I'll give it a shot.\n\nBlurriness from bad vision, while looking at a flat plane (computer monitor), is a convolution filter on an image (a gaussian blur in photoshop is another example of a convolution). I'm not sure exactly how your eye geometry works in that I'm not sure what your eyeball's defocus filter looks like (i.e. it's probably not a gaussian blur, it's probably not a box filter - it's probably closer to a defocus filter, but again, I'm not sure what that looks like mathematically).\n\nI'm not sure how helpful this is, but it at least gives you a starting place to start a-googlin.\n\nSo, the inverse of convolution is deconvolution, you're essentially asking whether it's possible to find the deconvolution function to undo the blur that your eye does. I... believe convolutions are commutative, so it's identical to the \"real question\" of: can you find a convolution function to pre-apply to an image such that the eye's blur is that function's deconvolution. I definitely don't have the math background to tell you the full answer to that, but I would guess NO.\n\nCertainly you cannot do it for the general case, for any image that a monitor could display. For example, a fully white screen with a fully black dot in the middle of it would be impossible to deconvolve so that your blurry vision made it sharp again, since you need some of your pixels to go darker than black and whiter than white. But if you added some constraints to the problem (for example, if your eyes aren't super super blurry, the image is very low contrast, etc.), perhaps it is possible to get close (or perfect?)\n\nReally you need an mathy expert to help you out, but you can do some googling on \"deconvolution\" if you are interested.",
"This is not an answer. But related to the Google Glasses thing, Because the image projected on the glasses is seemingly too close for anyone to focus on, would it be possible to project an image that can appear to be in focus based on a persons prescription?",
"You could if you were able to produce the complete light field, not just a planar image as we do on a computer monitor. I am not an expert on light fields, so correct me if I'm wrong.\n\nPoor vision results from the inability to focus an image on the retina, leading to a blurry image. We can model the vision process as an optical system like this:\n\npoint on image - > propagation to eye - > eye lens - > propagation to retina - > (hopefully) point on retina\n\nYou should draw a ray diagram where you start at the left with a point, draw two diverging rays, hits the lens, the rays converge, and the retina should be at where the rays meet.\n\nIf you are nearsighted, like I am, then after propagation to the retina, the light rays do not converge at a point. If we want a point on the retina, we can map this point backwards through the system, and see that it corresponds to a disc on the original image. So you say: fine, I will generate an image based on what each disc needs to be to obtain the points of the image. BUT: this won't work, since those disks overlap for points close to each other on the retina, and if you want to nearby points on your retina to get different colors, those two discs will have to be different colors, _but they overlap_!\n\nSo the problem is that mapping backwards is not a one-to-one function between points on your retina to points on the screen. However, in terms of rays, rays coming out of a point on the screen at different _angles_ will reach different points on the retina, so what you need is a screen where each pixel looks different at a different angle (and not in the way that an LCD looks wonky at different angles, you need to be able to control the appearance of a pixel for each angle).\n\nThe technical term for the kind of display you want is a \"light field display\". A light field is a full description of the light leaving an image plane, both the color of each point _and_ the angle it leaves the point. Fortunately, there is much research in light fields, so maybe one day we can have monitors that can compensate for myopia.",
"With an image, like a picture on a piece of paper, your eye focuses on the image (the surface of the paper in this case) rather than the object in the image. So it wouldn't matter if the object in the image was distorted, the paper itself will be out of focus/stigmated/whatever.\n\nI have thought a similar thing, where an actual object is made, that had the correct distortions at the correct depths. I wonder if this would work? This is an interesting question, I hope it will be answered!"
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{
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|
Would it be possible, given a person's prescription, to create an altered image that would appear normal to that person?
And if so, would it further be possible to create something of a filter on a PC that would alter the image displayed on the monitor to appear "normal" based on an inputted prescription?
|
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|
4wag2n
|
Why do we say entangled particles 'know' what happened to the other, instead of 'they're part of a system that balances'?
|
I've recently tried, once again, to get to the point where I actually feel I've wrapped my head around quantum entanglement, and cannot get there - then remembered this sub exists!
When we observe a particle from a pair of entangled particles, its properties 'balance' the other particle (ie, if one spins x to the left, the other spins exactly opposite, etc) Why, then, do we go ahead and describe this as 'the other particle knows and, at that time, chooses its state', instead of just 'we've found half of the variable, we can now deduce the other'?
I've tried to understand quantum superposition in an effort to understand this, to no avail (surely a deficiency on my part in ability to understand the subject), so here I am! Please help me understand what seems to make no sense, that something as seemingly-simple a concept as "these two parts of an entangled system will balance each other out, and we can thus infer properties about one by knowing them about the other", is explained as "the parts of the entangled system have weird and previously-unobserved properties, where they're not actually in a state, yet when we look at one of them, at that moment it just chooses its state, and [somehow] instantly communicates this information to the other particle instantaneously, so that particle can then just 'be' in the opposite state".
This just makes no sense to me, it seems like an easy idea (the particles' properties balance each other, thus we can infer properties of the an unknown-half of a pair by knowing one half of it) made hard (it doesn't have properties til we see it, then in a way we don't understand it immediately communicates those to the other in a way that breaks the speed of information travel's light-speed restriction), and only at that time does the other particle 'get in line' and conform to its position/spin/whatever-other-property.
Thank you very much for any dumbing-down of this, I badly want to get it but cannot figure out what I'm missing, why to me it looks like an unnecessarily roundabout way to explain a simple thing (or, maybe phrased differently, just why do we say it didn't have a property til we observed that property, I mean never before in science have I seen the idea that, before we measured a distance from point A to B, that distance did not exist, but merely sprung up when we measured it - and the walk back was made into the same distance, when we walked it to figure its distance! That's how the 'entangled particles just know' concept sounds to me, what am I missing?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d65tpcf",
"d6612uq",
"d660fdl"
],
"text": [
"You should look up [Bell's Theorem](_URL_1_). The idea you're describing, that the particles have definite opposite states that we just don't know yet, is the \"local hidden variable\" hypothesis. As you point out, for the simple case of two entangled states where you make the same measurement on each quantum mechanics and a local hidden variable theory make the same predictions. This is sort of obvious, because it's just like if I put a right handed glove and a left handed glove in separate boxes, and then transport the boxes far away from each other. Of course if someone opens one of the boxes they instantaneously know the handedness of the other glove, there is nothing quantum mechanical here.\n\nHowever, if you start to do slightly more complicated things, namely measure the spin or polarization of each particle along a different axis, you will find that the predictions of a classical local hidden variable theory differ from quantum mechanics. [This](_URL_0_) is a famous diagram that shows the predicted correlation between measurements in a local hidden variable (red) or quantum mechanical theory (blue). You can see that for the simple cases where the angle between measurement axes is 0 or 180 degrees (the same axis or opposite), the correlation is the same in both cases, but for intermediate angles they differ.\n\nThis inequality has been tested experimentally numerous times and it has always been found that the predictions of quantum mechanics conform with reality, i.e. that the entangles particles really don't have definite states before they are measured. Strictly speaking, there have historically always been possible loopholes in these experiments in which experimenters were forced to make certain assumptions which, if violated, may have allowed some locally real theory to give the same experimental results. However, it seems that the last of these loopholes has been [recently closed](_URL_2_)",
"> When we observe a particle from a pair of entangled particles, its properties 'balance' the other particle (ie, if one spins x to the left, the other spins exactly opposite, etc) \n\nI just quickly want to point out that this is not the case in general. The state (|00 > +|11 > ) is also an entangled state, where if I find one particle with spin up, I will always find the other one to be spin up as well and vice versa. It is further possible to entangle a large number of particles in arbitrarily complicated states. There is no balancing involved.",
"/u/Sirkkus already explained that the simplest form of entanglement isn't very mysterious and really you need to look at slightly more complicated experiments to understand why people sometimes describe entangled particles as 'knowing' things about each other. If you want a detailed but non-mathematical explanation of Bell's theorem and why it's difficult to imagine explaining quantum phenomena with a hidden variables theory then I recommend [this article](_URL_3_)."
],
"score": [
7,
5,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/e2/Bell.svg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell%27s_theorem",
"http://arxiv.org/abs/1508.05949",
"http://www.felderbooks.com/papers/bell.html"
]
}
|
Why do we say entangled particles 'know' what happened to the other, instead of 'they're part of a system that balances'?
I've recently tried, once again, to get to the point where I actually feel I've wrapped my head around quantum entanglement, and cannot get there - then remembered this sub exists! When we observe a particle from a pair of entangled particles, its properties 'balance' the other particle (ie, if one spins x to the left, the other spins exactly opposite, etc) Why, then, do we go ahead and describe this as 'the other particle knows and, at that time, chooses its state', instead of just 'we've found half of the variable, we can now deduce the other'? I've tried to understand quantum superposition in an effort to understand this, to no avail (surely a deficiency on my part in ability to understand the subject), so here I am! Please help me understand what seems to make no sense, that something as seemingly-simple a concept as "these two parts of an entangled system will balance each other out, and we can thus infer properties about one by knowing them about the other", is explained as "the parts of the entangled system have weird and previously-unobserved properties, where they're not actually in a state, yet when we look at one of them, at that moment it just chooses its state, and [somehow] instantly communicates this information to the other particle instantaneously, so that particle can then just 'be' in the opposite state". This just makes no sense to me, it seems like an easy idea (the particles' properties balance each other, thus we can infer properties of the an unknown-half of a pair by knowing one half of it) made hard (it doesn't have properties til we see it, then in a way we don't understand it immediately communicates those to the other in a way that breaks the speed of information travel's light-speed restriction), and only at that time does the other particle 'get in line' and conform to its position/spin/whatever-other-property. Thank you very much for any dumbing-down of this, I badly want to get it but cannot figure out what I'm missing, why to me it looks like an unnecessarily roundabout way to explain a simple thing (or, maybe phrased differently, just why do we say it didn't have a property til we observed that property, I mean never before in science have I seen the idea that, before we measured a distance from point A to B, that distance did not exist, but merely sprung up when we measured it - and the walk back was made into the same distance, when we walked it to figure its distance! That's how the 'entangled particles just know' concept sounds to me, what am I missing?
|
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|
1bb5tg
|
Why are COX2 inhibitors bad.
|
I'm taking Biochemistry right now, and a point of discussion is the cyclooxygenase cycle. I've learned that COX2 inhibitors were pulled from the market due to vascular problems related to inhibition of COX2, which led me to a question. Why don't COX1/COX2 inhibitors have the same problems. Since the COX2 inhibitors only block COX2, shouldn't regular NSAIDs cause the same problems?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
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"text": [
"tl;dr: We still have a poor understanding of differential COX-2 expression across various tissues, meaning it has unpredictable effects. Further research is needed.\n\nCOX-2 specific inhibitors (e.g., roceficoxib, celecoxib) have been under a lot of scrutiny recently because of the associated coronary vasospasm with COX-2 inhibition. You probably learned that COX-1 is constitutive whereas COX-2 is inducible (i.e., COX-2 ramps up especially as an inflammatory response whereas COX-1 is always present low level), but more recent evidence suggests that COX-2 may be constitutive in endothelial cells and the downstream prostacycline effects inhibit platelet aggregation. \n\nCOX-1/2 inhibitors (e.g., ketorolac, ibuprofen, naproxen) in theory do actually have the same effect, but the key difference is the doses at which they are administered. Celecoxib has a nearly 20:1 preference for COX-2 inhibition over COX-1, whereas ibuprofen is closer to 1:1. Rodent studies have shown chronically giving very high doses of aspirin will also cause coronary vasospasm, in addition to all the bad effects of high level COX-1 inhibition.\n\nI was a cardiology grand rounds recently on the topic of COX-2 usage where the presenter talked about COX-2 inhibitor usage. The fundamental point of the talk was that growing evidence suggests we should be identifying cardiac risk factors in patients before perscribing COX-2 inhibitors, because in the abscence of moderate or severe cardiac risk factors use of COX-2 inhibitors doesn't impose significant risk. That being said, the patients who need COX-2 inhibitors are going to be typically older males who will have multiple cardiac risk factors.",
"Cox-2′s have come under a lot of scrutiny. One of which is the Vioxx litigation as Vioxx is a cox-2 inhibitor. It shows a higher risk of heart attacks in patients prone to heart attacks. *The media* had a lot to play on this one. We had a lot of patients on this drug and it was helpful for them but it was pulled from the market. There was a higher risk of heart attacks **for people who already had a high risk for a heart attack, but not for the ones with a low-risk, so those people were left without a drug therapy.** Who should be doing the analysis whether a drug is safe or not? The physicians. Not the media. There is talk that when the lawsuits are over in a year or two that the drug will come back, *if it goes out of the lime light.*",
"One of my pharmacy school professors told us that one theory for the mechanism is the following:\n\nExtremely selective COX2 inhibitors leave COX1 mostly alone, which can actually cause its activity to be elevated above normal levels. Since one thing it promotes is platelet aggregation, is why it can increase risk of heart attack in certain at-risk populations."
],
"score": [
16,
4,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Why are COX2 inhibitors bad.
I'm taking Biochemistry right now, and a point of discussion is the cyclooxygenase cycle. I've learned that COX2 inhibitors were pulled from the market due to vascular problems related to inhibition of COX2, which led me to a question. Why don't COX1/COX2 inhibitors have the same problems. Since the COX2 inhibitors only block COX2, shouldn't regular NSAIDs cause the same problems?
|
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|
1qm85s
|
Various cultures eat cow brains on a regular basis. Is this not dangerous? Why isn't there a high rate of BSE in these cultures?
|
maybe I'm just ignorant? But I thought eating brains was a dangerous thing to do and carried the risk of contracting certain types of diseases Like bovine spongiform encephalitis? yet these cultures don't seem to have a high rate of that disease.
Re:
_URL_0_.
Beef brains and veal (juvenile beef) or calf's brains are used in the cuisines of France; Italy; Spain; El Salvador; Mexico, etc. where they are called sesos in Spanish and are eaten in tacos and quesadillas; Pakistan, where they are known in Urdu as Maghaz; Portugal; Indonesia; and in the United States, especially in St. Louis, Missouri, and the Ohio River valley.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cdeawh7",
"cdeb5jo",
"cdei50m"
],
"text": [
"Eating brains does run a higher risk than eating muscle or other organs, but that risk is still very low. If you read about the epidemiology of Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease (CJD), the most common prion disease, the incidence was 1 in 1,000,000 from 1979 to 1994 and 5 in 1,000,000,000 in those under the age of 30 in the US. With that said, CJD is is thought to have a 20-50 year incubation period which could explain why it's so rare in young people. I think more supportive (or contradictory) evidence of this will start appearing in the 2000-2040 time frame (20-50 years after) the UK 80s-90s outbreak and those that ate that tainted beef.\n\nTesting for BSE in cattle and discarding those that have the disease helps protect those that eat cattle organs (particularly the brain). \n\nTLDR: It's all about statistical probability and the risk of a prion disease infection is very low.",
"Tougher for the prions to transmit from cows to humans, however, cultures like the \"Fore\" in Papua New Guinea experienced much higher rates of prion-related diseases, [Kuru](_URL_0_), because they used to consume the body and brains of their deceased. Ironically, they only would participate in this ritual if the deceased looked healthy upon their death, and Kuru had a side effect of 'marbling' muscle making it more appetizing--only leading to the continuing spread of the disease. \n\nSource--wrote a research paper on Kuru and CJD for a physio class",
"In addition to what others have written, a major problem with the 90s outbreak was how modern western food systems operate. \n\nFor one, cows in many places were being given meat, bone and feather meal in their feed that may have been contaminated and may have spread the disease. On their natural diet of grass, cows may still spontaneously develop a prion disease, but it would be less likely. \n\nSecondly, meat products now often involve blending of meat from from different cows. That effectively multiplies the chances by however many individual cows contribute to a particular hamburger. When eating a brain, however, it is likely just a single cow involved."
],
"score": [
29,
12,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beef_brain"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuru_%28disease%29"
]
}
|
Various cultures eat cow brains on a regular basis. Is this not dangerous? Why isn't there a high rate of BSE in these cultures?
maybe I'm just ignorant? But I thought eating brains was a dangerous thing to do and carried the risk of contracting certain types of diseases Like bovine spongiform encephalitis? yet these cultures don't seem to have a high rate of that disease. Re: _URL_0_. Beef brains and veal (juvenile beef) or calf's brains are used in the cuisines of France; Italy; Spain; El Salvador; Mexico, etc. where they are called sesos in Spanish and are eaten in tacos and quesadillas; Pakistan, where they are known in Urdu as Maghaz; Portugal; Indonesia; and in the United States, especially in St. Louis, Missouri, and the Ohio River valley.
|
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|
4hxl88
|
What do intelligent mammals like primates do with their dead?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"d2u3x22",
"d2u9bbs",
"d2ufwm0"
],
"text": [
"Not much. Animals that live in groups will sometimes drag a body away from where the group is living, nature does the rest. Birds will pick a corpse clean in a few days, if dogs don't get to it first; insects will get whatever they miss.",
"Not sure about primates, but elephants are intelligent mammals and they have all sorts of interesting behavior with their dead. They will return to skeletons along their migrations to feel their tusks and teeth with their trunks, as they did with those individuals while they were alive. They linger around the body of the recently deceased and even put mud on their wounds, as they are often killed by people.",
"While most animals including current primates don't do much (chimps might play with a dead body in a way we might anthropomorphise as mourning or something) there is some good evidence that now extinct hominids (essentially apes like us) buried their dead, like Neanderthals and maybe heidelbergensis. This process is hypothesised to coincide with the belief in an after life or at the very least a concept of death. This requires quite advanced brains and we are the last of these lineages 'intelligent' enough to do this."
],
"score": [
13,
11,
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What do intelligent mammals like primates do with their dead?
|
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||
rpwvt
|
While in High School, my science teacher explained evaporative cooling as "the warm molecules evaporate, leaving only the colder molecules behind". This didn't sound completely right then, and still doesn't now, is it?
|
Is a liquid of a stable temperature really comprised of molecules of different temperatures? I realize there must be some variation, but nothing great.
I.E. Evaporative cooling can cool a 90 degree sample of water to say 30 degrees, but I don't imagine 90 degree water contains any 30 degree molecules, so there must be either more to his explanation or a different explanation completely.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c47oktv",
"c47p3uq",
"c47pgv7",
"c47q4sq"
],
"text": [
"Check out the [Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution](_URL_0_) for the speeds of gas molecules at a given temperature. You will find that there exists molecules with a wide range of kinetic energy.",
"The language is a bit wooden, the way you quote it, but you could say that is indeed the case. Not all molecules have the same speed, and of course the fastest ones are more likely to escape.",
"Temperature is a statistical value. It doesn't make much sense to speak of the temperature of one molecule. But if by \"warm\" you mean \"which has an energy higher than the average for a distribution of molecules at this temperature\" then it's absolutely correct.",
"It's not that the warm (energetic) molecules leave, per se... it's that the process of going from liquid to gas is endothermic (takes energy).\n\nWhen a molecule evaporates, it takes some of the ambient energy from the surrounding medium, which drops the overall energy in the liquid."
],
"score": [
13,
10,
5,
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell-Boltzmann_distribution"
]
}
|
While in High School, my science teacher explained evaporative cooling as "the warm molecules evaporate, leaving only the colder molecules behind". This didn't sound completely right then, and still doesn't now, is it?
Is a liquid of a stable temperature really comprised of molecules of different temperatures? I realize there must be some variation, but nothing great. I.E. Evaporative cooling can cool a 90 degree sample of water to say 30 degrees, but I don't imagine 90 degree water contains any 30 degree molecules, so there must be either more to his explanation or a different explanation completely.
|
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5ep72l
|
Is the the discovery of CRISPR the most impactful scientific advance since 1900?
|
[removed]
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askscience
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"text": [
"That's a hell of a lot of competition you have set for CRISPR. Even if CRISPR can do all the things people suggest it might, you are putting it up against:\n\n* flight - the ability to move people anywhere on the globe in a single day\n\n* computing - the ability to perform millions calculations in seconds, bringing tasks that would have taken years or decades of human effort into the realm of possibility, and forming a basis for a telecommunications network which can store and disseminate all human knowledge \n\n* Advances in rocketry, and the begginings of space exploration. If you are thinking far enough into the future, our first steps into leaving our own planet might be the only thing that ensures the survival of our species.",
"You can't be serious, right? How about; powered flight, semiconductors, computers, personal computers, cell phones, the internet, space flight, satellites, DNA structure, DNA sequencing...and about a hundred other things that would be ahead of CRISPR?",
"Since quantum theory, which made the transistor, microprocessor, computers, lasers, cell phones and many of the other useful things we are surrounded by today possible, was developed in the 1920s, the answer to your first question is \"No.\" There are other examples as well, as pointed out by others here.\n\nIt's difficult for us to envision now what CRISPR will be used for in subsequent decades. Predicting the future impact of anything is difficult but it is especially so in science. It's already had a big impact on research, mostly because it is cheap, precise, and powerful.\n\nBut most of the hype isn't about its potential research applications, its about its use in medicine. What we would like to be able to do is deliver a CRISPR-Cas (or other nuclease) system safely to targeted somatic cells, edit a specific sequence, and then inactivate it after it has done its job. This requires very fine spatio-temporal regulation and must be highly accurate -- off-target edits could disrupt the functioning of other genes, potentially causing tumorigenesis. \n\nOne of the biggest problems to solve is how to deliver the molecular machinery to the right place. It's all well and good to take cells out of the body, edit them, and infuse them back into a patient (*ex vivo* editing and adoptive cell transfer) and this approach has value (see [CAR-T cells](_URL_2_)). It's much harder, however, to do it all in an animal (*in vivo*), which is necessary to correct large numbers of cells in entire organs (for example, treating cystic fibrosis would require editing the CFTR locus in many different cell types in the lungs, kidneys, the pancreas, etc.). But we're making progress on this problem all of the time. A large group at the Broad Institute/MIT [published a paper](_URL_1_) in January showing partial amelioration of Duchenne muscular dystrophy symptoms after they delivered a CRISPR-Cas9 system designed to edit the gene encoding mutated dystrophin to myocytes in a mouse using adeno-associated virus (AAV). No doubt we will get better at targeting and eventually will have demonstrated enough success editing in model organisms to move into human clinical trials. \n\nMuch of the hype surrounding the application is warranted. If we are able to successfully edit any gene in a human with no off-target effects and these effects can be temporally regulated and titrated *in vivo*, our ability to alleviate the burden of genetic diseases is only limited by our understanding of the genetic basis of the disease (i.e., we know that mutations in genes X, and Y are necessary and sufficient to produce it).\n\nIt should be emphasized that nobody intends to use this to edit the germline. Such changes would have effects on subsequent generations of people and that's the sort of thing that gets theologians and philosophers tied up in knots. In some cases, however, like [fatal familial insomnia](_URL_0_), it would seem to be a moral obligation to eliminate the mutation to prevent the suffering from being passed on to future generations.\n\nAs an aside, if the vast therapeutic potential of CRISPR is realized, we owe it all to basic research that was done for no purpose than to figure out how cells work. This is why we fund it.",
"CRISPR is a big deal but I wouldn't say its the most impactful scientific advance in 100 years. Considering we also learned the structure of the DNA double helix, that DNA contains genetic information and how to sequence genomes, CRISPR is pretty ordinary. CRISPR is huge deal right now, but so was PCR when it first came out. If it is as efficient as it seems to be, it'll simply become a day to day lab technique, just like PCR.",
"Since 1900? Absolutely not. As someone whos done a bit of work with CRISPR its great, but 99% of what we can do with CRISPR (gene knock in, knock out, knock down, tagging etc) we could already do before (much of it since the 1970s) with other tools. CRISPR just makes those tasks measurably easier and more accurate than they were before. Its also adaptable enough that all of those other techniques which were done in very different ways before can be consolidated into a single system with only minor modifications. But there are tons of other targeting systems with the potential to be even better. I would liken CRISPR to the development of 'fly-by-wire' in avionics. It didn't single-handedlh cause a revolution that changed the way the entire world travels but it was a really useful tool in commercial and military aircraft. Genome editing itself in the very very long term may indeed change the world (like once we actually figure out how most of the genome even works which is at least a generation away) but CRISPR isn't a revolution in any meaningful sense. Its a big upgrade.",
"This is a hard question because it is likely that many advances couldn't happen without earlier ones, as a cause do those earlier things also get credit for the advances of the future?\n\nFor example: any discovery using modern computers \ncan, in some sense, be called a result of quantum mechanics (understanding semi-conductors and making modern computers requires knowledge of quantum mechanics)."
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17,
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{
"url": []
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{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2015/02/insomnia-that-kills/384841/",
"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/26721686",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimeric_antigen_receptor"
]
}
|
Is the the discovery of CRISPR the most impactful scientific advance since 1900?
[removed]
|
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|
164oe9
|
What is the most efficient/powerful movement the human body can perform?
|
In an attempt to be brief: I'm working with a group that makes human-powered devices for post harvest processing. Threshers, winnowers, grinders, etc.
Some of them are small enough to be powered by a simple hand crank, some are quite large and require one or even two people using foot (bicycle) power.
**And so the question is this: What is the movement that would best be suited for such an application?** Is the most powerful/sustainable human movement bicycling? Rowing seems like it would involve many more big muscles to me. Perhaps some odd motion I'm not thinking of?
Any links to any studies on this would be greatly appreciated!
Thanks.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c7spoqt",
"c7st23u",
"c7srrj5"
],
"text": [
"Cycling is generally the best way to harness sustained power from a person. An average value for sustained power this way is 125 W (1/6 hp), but obviously there is a large variation in people's power capacity.\n\n[Here](_URL_0_) is a page with a couple useful graphs that show how much power you can actually harness cycling. A professional cyclist can produce about .8 hp, but a recreational cyclist can only make about 1/3 hp sustained for a couple hours.\n\nFor very short duration events, weightlifters produce much more power (~3 hp), but only for a few seconds. In this case squats are generally the exercise with the highest force for this short burst.",
"If you're speaking about power output in a single repetition, then there's a clear answer. Compound movements combining thoracic extension with gluteal/hamstring extension as in a deadlift or a clean are the strongest unassisted human movements.\n\nIf you're talking of *sustained* power though, cycling is a good method but it uses the inefficient quadriceps muscles instead of the powerful \"posterior chain\" (back, glutes, hamstrings, calves) that athletes train. Cycling's power output suffers from a lack of leverage and is only advantaged by the duration it can be sustained.",
"I did some experiments in school on power output of a person rowing vs. cycling. I found the same as you: cycling produces more power (on a usable time table) than rowing. I didn't test out an elliptical motion though. Maybe that would have higher output? Just a stab."
],
"score": [
55,
6,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://users.frii.com/katana/biketext.html"
]
}
|
What is the most efficient/powerful movement the human body can perform?
In an attempt to be brief: I'm working with a group that makes human-powered devices for post harvest processing. Threshers, winnowers, grinders, etc. Some of them are small enough to be powered by a simple hand crank, some are quite large and require one or even two people using foot (bicycle) power. **And so the question is this: What is the movement that would best be suited for such an application?** Is the most powerful/sustainable human movement bicycling? Rowing seems like it would involve many more big muscles to me. Perhaps some odd motion I'm not thinking of? Any links to any studies on this would be greatly appreciated! Thanks.
|
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|
4zuywu
|
Is there a ratio of speed to time dilation? (Ex: 1 Minute slower per 1,000 mph)
|
askscience
|
{
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"text": [
"The ratio between the time intervals measured by two observers in inertial reference frames (that is: no acceleration) moving with relative velocity *v* is:\n\n1 / sqrt( 1 - *v*^2 / *c*^2 )\n\nThis quantity occurs more often in relativistic equations and is often denoted by the lowercase letter gamma.",
"The simpler answer is that there is a way to calculate the relationship between speed and time dilation (i.e. the other answers), but it is non-linear. The amount of time dilation is relatively small until you reach very large speeds, at which point it increases more quickly. To your parenthetical question, it is not possible to represent the relationship as simply an amount of time per unit of measure, because as I said, the relationship is non-linear.",
"The equation for time dilation is:\n\n\n\nt = t₀/√(1 - (v/c)²)\n\n\n\nwhere,\nt = time elapsed in the rest frame\nt₀ = time elapsed for the frame in motion\nv = velocity\nc = speed of light\n\nfor t₀ + 1 = t, \n\nt₀ + 1 = t₀/√(1 - (v/c)²)\n\n\n\nsolve for v\n\n\n\nc√(1 - [t₀/(t₀ + 1)]²) = v\n\n\n\nFor a stationary observer to measure 1 minute slower than a person traveling at some percent c relative to them, then that person will be traveling at \n\nv = c√(1-25/36) = .553c\n\n\nEdit: The ratio, of course, is c = v/√(1 - [t₀/(t₀ + 1)]²",
"**To answer your question**\n\nNo there is no ratio, the relationship between velocity and time dilation is not linear. Here's a graph of time dilation against velocity.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nThe equation for time dilation is on the top right corner of the image - c is the speed of light. As we can see, time dilation does not become a factor until relativistic speeds (close to the speed of light 3x10^8 m/s) are reached, after which time dilation increases exponentially.\n\n**Extra interesting physics facts! - somewhat related**\n\n\nTheoretically, time stops when travelling at the speed of light, as can be observed from the shape of the graph - there is no 'cap' to how high that branch of the graph reaches. By extension, it is also theorised that time goes backwards when travelling at speeds greater than the speed of light. \n\nHowever, the speed of light is impossible to reach due to the existence of mass dilation, which is given by [this equation](_URL_0_). This equation has the same shape as the time dilation equation when graphed, when speed (v) approaches the speed of light (c), the mass of the fast object also approaches infinity.\n\nSince the force required to accelerate an object is given by Force = mass*acceleration, and mass increases exponentially at relativistic speeds, we have no means of achieving anything even close to the speed of light since an infinite force would be required to accelerate an object whose mass is approaching infinity."
],
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{
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}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://i.imgur.com/mjPKPLT.png",
"http://i.imgur.com/qufRTGL.png"
]
}
|
Is there a ratio of speed to time dilation? (Ex: 1 Minute slower per 1,000 mph)
|
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p792r
|
What is the next likely leap forward in computing?
|
I have heard that computers are reaching their a physical constraint in how fast they go so what is are the potential technologies for the next big breakthrough?
I am computer illiterate but have heard about quantum computers, and other potential technologies involving bioligical elements...
How far away are we from realising any of these technologies?
|
askscience
|
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"Quantum computing is definitely advancing, but it's not near the point of matching a classical computer any time soon. There's quite a few hurdles to overcome before we can fully utilize the potential of quantum computing. For instance, Shor's algorithm is an algorithm that made quantum computing much more popular because it showed that it could solve certain problems much faster than classical computers. It factors a number. To date, the largest number ever factored by Shor's algorithm on a quantum computer is 15. That should give you a rough idea of the stage that quantum computing is at. It's still in its infancy, with new technologies and methods popping up and overtaking others. The increase in power we would obtain from it isn't an increase in the number of calculations that can be done per second, though. Its power comes from massive parallelism. So, once we do have it, we won't be able to use standard classical algorithms and expect it to increase speed. It's going to be a while before we have the hardware needed, and it's going to take even longer for software algorithms that can truly take advantage of quantum computing are created.\n\nI'll refrain from commenting much on this subject, as I'm not knowledgeable enough on it to contribute meaningfully, but I would appreciate it if someone commented on the subject of graphene and its potential use in computing.",
"The physical constraints have more or less pretty much been encountered as you said. \n\nNot that this is what you asked, but the nature of the problem is that the circuitry making up CPUs has gotten so small that the \"wires\" and \"rubber/insulator\" that consitute the circuit are each no thicker than a few nanometers. At scales this small the strange world of quantum mechanics comes in and while quantum mechanics is not my field of expertise, a person once explained it to me as the following (though he might have been over-simplifying): \nAtoms have various energy levels in which electrons are spinning around the nucleus. These various energy levels are in turn at varying distances away from the nucleus. Due to quantum mechanics there is no real \"transition\" between these distances. Given enough energy, the electron in a lower energy level will simply hop the distance to the higher energy level without really travelling through the intermediate space. As such, if the thickness of the \"wire\" is narrower than the distance of the energy levels, electrons can simply leap across the \"rubber/resistor\" resulting in current leakage completely negating the purpose of the circuit.\n\nCurrent efforts at improving computing besides big paradigm shifts like quantim or biologic computing include:\n1) Algorithm optimization - i.e. using our brains to instruct computers to do things much more efficiently, freeing up resources to allow the computer to do more with the same or less amount of circuitry\n2) Multiple Cores - basically shoving multiple computers into one device. Again though, this relies on humans writing programs that lend themselves to parallel tasks.",
"\"next likely leap\"\n\nMany many processor cores in a single chip.\n\nRecently 1 core was the only affordable option; and highly parallel chips were rather inflexible and could only do one thing well (say, GPUs, or hardware video chips), or were extremely hard to program (DSPs with odd-sized registers and tricky memory management; Playstation 3's Core processor).\n\nNow 4 core CPUs are cheap and 8 core CPUs are common; and GPUs capable of doing hundreds of operations in parallel are now becoming easier and easier to program each month as the tools improve.\n\nI think it's safe to say that the next leap will be very programmable massively parallel logic in a single chip.",
"First I just want to note that Moore's law (which may soon be violated) only predicting the number of transistors you get. What you do with the transistors is largely up to you. CPUs are build around preforming complex calculations quickly, so they have a few core (4 or less) and a large cache. GPUs on the other hand are built for parallel processing (preforming lots of simple calculations in parallel), so they have hundreds of cores and very little cache. \n[Nvidia Explanation](_URL_1_)\n\nSo even if we stop being able to pack transistors as tightly there's still a lot of room for improvement in design itself. I wouldn't worry about progress slowing to a halt anytime soon. That said here's so \"breakthrough\" technology that we'll be seeing soon:\n**Improved Wireless Networks / High-speed Fiber to the Home**\n*Part 1 - Why*\nWhen electricity first made an appearance in the home there was a huge cost to install it because you had run all of the electric lines (digging up roads, putting up poles, etc). When the world wide web was created it piggybacked on the existing phone (and later cable) system. This system wasn't designed to support the amount of strain being put on it. The new systems that will support future internet traffic are only now being deployed. WiMax is a start but really we need to open the wireless spectrum (particularly the parts owned by old technology like TV and AM radio). High speed fiber to the home is being tested / deployed. Engineering is the study of tradeoffs and computer / software engineering is no different. Every technology you use today deals with fundamental bandwidth issues. There's always a bottleneck or limiting factor be it hard read/write speeds, network latency, or anything else. As you increase network transmission speeds you open the door for all sorts of technologies to exist. \n\n* [Jeff Bezos excellent TED talk about the future of the internet](_URL_0_)\n\n* [2003 US Spectrum Allocation Map](_URL_4_)\n\n*Part 2 - What*\nThe fundamental question becomes what can you do with all this bandwidth. I was involved in a project in Cleveland to bring high speed fiber to the home. In that case the network was very real and we were on the cutting edge of inventing the technologies to use with it. Here's what we came up with: Smart homes, high quality media (significantly better than \"HDTV\"), realistic telecommuting (work from home), cloud computing. Those are the things we *implemented*, the future technology will probably include things that we don't imagine are possible now.\n\n\n* [Article about The Beta Block– Hessler St project](_URL_2_)\n\n* [XKCD about HDTV](_URL_3_)\n\n**3D Printing**\nThe advances in 3D (I believe) will cause a tipping point within 15 years. You can compare the point where we are now with the first people soldering together “home computers”, just before the ZX-81 hit the market. Nobody had any idea why they were making computers, if you'd ask, the answer would probably be “because we can”. With 3D print, we're at the same stage: we build machines because we can and because our machines can build machines, we replicate into even better machines. At a certain stage, demand will rise and end-users will suddenly appear out of nowhere.\n\n* [A video from a year ago showing a 3D Copier / Printer](_URL_5_)\n\n**Advances in Programming Techniques**\nA story about computer graphics: The most popular method of computing per pixel lighting in computer graphics is complete BS. It's a faux model created several years ago but momentum keeps it in use. The one material that the lighting model does map well is plastics. And that's why most 3D computer graphics look like plastic. There are a bunch of examples like this through software. As we find better methods for doing things you'll see an advance in technologies across the board.\n\n\n* [More information about Phong Lighting](_URL_6_)\n\n**Software Infrastructure**\nAlong with the above consider things like HTML5. HTML5 is built on years of experience in web development. Modern Javascript was modeled after Lisp just like C# is modeled after C++ which in turn is based on FORTRAN and C which was derived from B, etc, etc. We are still moving up through levels of abstraction with language concepts and the growth is exponential. It's the old, \"stood on the shoulders of giants\" argument. \n\nOther thigns I would look to:\n\n* Immersive / Interactive Technologies like Natural Language processing and Projection / 3D imagery\n* Artificial Intelligence particularly neural networks and machine learning\n* Embedded Systems\n* Solid State Drives\n* Bio-medical Augmentations.",
"I'm an undergrad EE here, but I'll try my best to offer some enlightenment on where we're going to have to do in the near future.\n\nEssentially, a processor consists of billions of field-effect transistors (FET's) that act as on and off switches. Since a computer only speaks in binary, having two states is similar to the 1's and 0's of a binary computer language. \n\nCurrently, we use metal-oxide silicon as the base material for these transistors [(MOSFET's)](_URL_10_). However, at a transistor size of about 11 nm, this material no longer suffices due to something called electron tunneling because of the exceptionally small gate length of 1.2 nm. Currently, we're able to purchase 32 nm processors, with [22 nm](_URL_11_) coming this year, and then [14 nm](_URL_9_) much later. As you can see, 11 nm is very, very close to reality. \n\nSo what's the next advance for our beloved FET? [Graphene](_URL_7_) most likely.\n\nEdit: Here's a [link](_URL_8_) to the news article talking about graphene transistors.",
"Depends what scope of time you are looking on.\n\nLong time leaps is probably, like most other have already stated, quantum computing, biological computing, new and unknown type of computing. \n\nMore short time improvements are probably more likely to be better and faster RAM, more bandwidth between components (CPU - > GPU ; CPU - > RAM ; CPU - > Harddisk), faster memory and so on.\nCurrently the fastest leaps are seen in the mobile hardware market. This comes from one simple factor, which is that most mobile hardware is SoC (System on a chip) based.\nBasically, manufacturing the whole computer as one single chip, many bottlenecks are avoided, making the chip much more efficient. \nMy best guess is that the biggest leaps in technology in the coming years will be the mobile technology."
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"url": [
"http://www.ted.com/talks/jeff_bezos_on_the_next_web_innovation.html",
"http://www.nvidia.com/object/GPU_Computing.html",
"http://www.cleveland.com/business/index.ssf/2010/03/case_western_reserve_universit.html",
"http://xkcd.com/732/",
"http://www.ntia.doc.gov/files/ntia/publications/2003-allochrt.pdf",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jQ-aWFYT_SU",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phong_shading",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphene",
"http://www.technologyreview.com/computing/24482/?a=f",
"http://www.engadget.com/2011/02/19/intel-to-spend-5-billion-on-new-14nm-fab-in-arizona-creating-4/",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosfet",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Ivy_Bridge"
]
}
|
What is the next likely leap forward in computing?
I have heard that computers are reaching their a physical constraint in how fast they go so what is are the potential technologies for the next big breakthrough? I am computer illiterate but have heard about quantum computers, and other potential technologies involving bioligical elements... How far away are we from realising any of these technologies?
|
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|
3q0fs7
|
How do you get cold in space without a transference medium?
|
I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cwb1c71",
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"cwbihyh"
],
"text": [
"Solid objects get cold in space (assuming ideal vacuum) only by radiation loss. Every object at a given temperature will radiate energy/heat in the form of electromagnetic waves (photons) due to [spontaneous emission](_URL_1_). The power of the emitted heat radiation follows the [Stefan-Boltzmann law](_URL_0_) and is proportional to the fourth power of temperature.\n\nThe same phenomenon also works in reverse, that is if a cold objects is subject to radiation, it will absorb that radiation while increasing its temperature. In (interstellar) space the radiation energy density corresponds to a temperature of 2.7 K, so any object at a temperature above that will lose heat by emission until that temperature is reached, any object colder would heat up by absorbing background radiation.\n\nWhen an object is precisely at the same temperature as space, absorption and emission occurs at the same rate and an equilibrium state with constant temperature is reached.\n\nYou can experience that effect even on earth, for example under a clear sky during night. Objects will cool even below the surrounding air temperature because radiated energy will be lost through the sky to space. That results, for example, in frozen car windshields in winter. If the sky is overcast, the clouds shield the radiation (or in other words also emit heat radiation which is absorbed by the car), so frozen windshields are less probable.\n\nedit: added a link",
"> I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.\n\nThat's right. As others pointed out, radiation is the main cooling method. However this method is terribly inefficient when compared to conduction or convection, so excessively large radiators are needed. Another important difference is that Earth-bound radiators can have [several parallel plates](_URL_4_); as long as air can flow between them cooling will still be effective. This is not possible with radiative cooling - plates must not even point to each other if you don't want them to absorb the heat that each other emits. The white plates in [this picture](_URL_4_) of the ISS are the radiators.\n\nAn important detail that has been overlooked so far in this thread is the effect of different wavelengths in the radiation environment. The Sun will emit mostly in the visible spectrum^1. Planetary bodies (including Earth itself) will reflect a part of it (albedo), but what they absorb will be emitted in the far infrared.\n\nExternal surfaces are designed to avoid absorbing much heat. White surfaces like [beta cloth](_URL_5_) are good at reflecting visible light, and they are usually covering [multi-layer insulation](_URL_5_). White paints are also common, they have the advantage of emitting infrared efficiently even if they don't absorb visible.\n\nInfrared is easy to reflect using metallic surfaces such as aluminium. The cons is that these cannot be exposed to direct sunlight; even if they reflect a good part of it, they still absorb a tiny bit more than the infrared they can emit, so they heat up to insane temperatures.\n\nTherefore, orbiting a planet like Earth, which reflects visible *and* emits far infrared is kind of a problem. Radiators must be designed to point at deep space to work efficiently. In a satellite in a purely equatorial orbit this would be fairly easy, but on different orbits the radiators must be able to rotate, or be excessively large and massive = > high cost.\n\n^1 Treating the near infrared as visible. This is an oversimplification but it's not wrong from a thermal control point of view.",
"No one seems to have mentioned that \"you\" as a human, would also lose quite a bit of heat from evaporation. Any fluids exposed would instantly boil and dissipate taking quite a bit of energy with them wouldn't they?",
"Very slowly, as the only outlet for your heat is heat as electromagnetic waves. There are two kinds of heat: heat as molecules bouncing around, and heat as radiation. Radiated heat is much less efficient on human scales."
],
"score": [
51,
4,
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]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan%E2%80%93Boltzmann_law",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spontaneous_emission",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Radiator_FxJ_v2.JPG",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_cloth",
"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/04/International_Space_Station_after_undocking_of_STS-132.jpg",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-layer_insulation"
]
}
|
How do you get cold in space without a transference medium?
I'd imagine it wouldn't at all be like getting cold on earth, where the heat transfers into the air.
|
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] |
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1y2gkt
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We are usually shown waves in two dimensions. How do waves look in three dimensions?
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Can they be rendered in 3d. Is there an illustration that already exists? I imagine we've all seen a drop of water hit the surface. What about a submarine ping underwater or yelling in a room?
|
askscience
|
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"It may help to think of a single, sharp tone being emitted from a point. Say you have a little spherical balloon, and you suddenly inflate it. It will compress a shell of air around it. These air molecules will then collide with the ones next to them (a slightly larger shell, still centered on the center of your sphere). Then *those* molecules will get pushed outward and collide with the shell of air around *them*, and so on, losing a little bit of intensity each time. So if you color the air based on its pressure, the one burst of sound would look like an expanding sphere that fades over time. \n\nIf you were to take your original sphere and have it expand and contract quickly in complex ways, you would be creating patterns of pressure in the air right next to it: pushing on it a little or a lot, creating a vacuum that sucks some back in toward the sphere before throwing it out again, etc. In this example, the waves would still be uniform spheres of pressure, but there would be lots of areas of high, low, and medium pressure at any given moment depending on how far away from the speaker (the original sphere) you are.\n\nOf course, in real life, sound gets generated by objects more complex than a single sphere, and it gets focused in certain directions, and it interacts with features of the environment. \n\nHere are some videos that may help of sound waves simulations.\n\n[Echobox](_URL_1_)\n\n[Oculus Rift Wave Cube](_URL_3_)\n\n[3D Propagation Test](_URL_2_)\n\n\n\nWhile this isn't strictly the same thing as sound in air, I think this video may also interest you as you try to visualize: it shows what how ripples move through a free-floating sphere of water on the ISS. These waves are disproportionately affected by the movement of the surface of the water, but similar things do happen as sound bounces along the walls of a room.\n\n[Waves in a large free sphere (Nasa)](_URL_0_)",
"That will be a very hard thing to illustrate, as it is four dimensional (3 spatial dimensions + wave amplitude). This is all I will say before more informed minds inevitably find their way to the conversation with amazing illustrations :)",
"One example of a wave in 3 dimensions is the shock wave in air that is sometimes plainly observable in high-speed video of explosions and the like. It appears as a sort of ripple that seems to momentarily warp one's view; this warping effect results from the refraction of the light as it passes through the gradient of air presure that rides along with the expanding shock wave.",
"There are plenty of ways to visualize a wave in 3d space (I recommend star trek special effects for examples, they're less meaningful but also very pretty), but crucially those are all just 2d representations of 3d phenomena because we only see in 2 dimensions... Perhaps a better way to say that is that we can't see multiple sides or depths of a 3d object, so what you see in real life is kind of 2 dimensional."
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"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NS2mxMAgMn0",
"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vmT-yFhD0eU",
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We are usually shown waves in two dimensions. How do waves look in three dimensions?
Can they be rendered in 3d. Is there an illustration that already exists? I imagine we've all seen a drop of water hit the surface. What about a submarine ping underwater or yelling in a room?
|
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] |
|
y0z8i
|
Do anti-perspirants actually do any harm to humans?
|
I've always heard that the active ingredient of aluminum zirconium is no good for your skin because of how it blocks your pores, stopping sweat. Any truth to this?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5rd2kq",
"c5rcnzq",
"c5retqr",
"c5rlnlt"
],
"text": [
"There isn't a ton of good research on the topic, unfortunately. It has been suggested (but without solid clinical data) that aluminum-containing antiperspirants may be associated with increased risk of breast cancer due to [blockage of ducts](_URL_1_), [accumulation](_URL_3_) and subsequent [genotoxicity and anti-estrogenic effects](_URL_2_). They have also been associated with [Alzheimer's Disease](_URL_5_). \n\nOverall, I'd say that the data point towards the possibility of harm but does not definitively prove anything one way or another. \n\n\nedit: chadcf has a [good response](_URL_4_) that notes a number of studies demonstrating no association between antiperspirant use and Alzheimers or cancer. His [second](_URL_6_) and [third](_URL_0_) links are particularly good, with fairly large sample sizes. To reemphasize my point - the possibility of harm exists due to 1) feasible biological mechanisms and 2) some studies finding such associations, but given the availability of other (and from my quick perusal, better) studies with opposite findings I would not say that we know for sure, though the data suggest that there is likely not a safety problem associated with antiperspirant use.",
"Also, if anyone has any insight into why they always have warnings for people with Kidney Disease",
"Suggestions for any supposed safer alternatives for anti-perspirants while we wait for adequate research?",
"This might not exactly answer the question you intended to ask, but the profits on anti-perspirants are typically re-invested in advertising and marketing campaigns with the intent of undermining self-confidence.\n\nIf you see social anxiety as harmful, then yes, the use of antiperspirants has caused well-documented harm:\n\n_URL_7_"
],
"score": [
301,
45,
15,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12381712",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2797685/?tool=pubmed",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16045991",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17629949",
"http://www.reddit.com/r/askscience/comments/y0z8i/do_antiperspirants_actually_do_any_harm_to_humans/c5rg6w7",
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9575492",
"http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/content/156/5/445.long",
"http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/How-Advertisers-Convinced-Americans-They-Smelled-Bad-164779646.html"
]
}
|
Do anti-perspirants actually do any harm to humans?
I've always heard that the active ingredient of aluminum zirconium is no good for your skin because of how it blocks your pores, stopping sweat. Any truth to this?
|
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|
n7o1e
|
I'm watching Star Trek: First Contact and it got me thinking about FTL travel. Obviously we won't have FTL by the year 2063 but is there any legitimate research being done in the field, is it even considered a legitimate possibility?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c36weui",
"c36wor0",
"c36wd6b",
"c36zm8a",
"c36y2kr"
],
"text": [
"Things like wormholes and wrap drives (alcubierre drive) are valid solutions to the Einstein field equations, but for them to exist requires the presence of some sort of exotic matter that has negative mass. We have no evidence to suggest that such a thing exists.",
"Here you go... but in order to make this work we need a LOT of energy....a LOT. _URL_0_",
"FTL travel is believed to be an impossibility. Massive objects cannot be accelerated to the speed of light, because doing so would require a literally infinite amount of energy.\n\nPlus, FTL travel breaks causality, and is effectively time travel. If you could travel at least twice the speed of light, you'd be able to take a trip over to, say... alpha centauri, and send a message that you'd gotten there safely, which would reach you on earth right as you were leaving!",
"The main problem with FTL travel is that you can use to to break causality, even if you aren't technically moving an object faster than the speed of light. It's fairly easy to show how you can send a signal into your own past via FTL communications using special relativity. You could also potentially use FTL travel to break thermodynamics in some fun ways. What if you jump from a lower gravitational potential to a higher gravitational potential? That's creating free energy.",
"An exact solution to Einstein field equations on a rotating uncharged black hole contain closed timelike curves. This implies that time travel backwards in time might be possible."
],
"score": [
10,
5,
4,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcubierre_drive"
]
}
|
I'm watching Star Trek: First Contact and it got me thinking about FTL travel. Obviously we won't have FTL by the year 2063 but is there any legitimate research being done in the field, is it even considered a legitimate possibility?
|
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] |
||
28a8l2
|
How do chemists check their work?
|
For example when new pharmaceuticals are developed, how do they go about to make sure that the end result is of the exact nature and purity they were aiming for?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"ci8xesi",
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],
"text": [
"They do various analyses, like nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), mass spectrometry, chromatography. They can tell you both what substance(s) you have and how pure they are. Or did you want to know exactly how each works? That's probably too much to tell in a comment.",
"Analytical chemist here, there's lots of ways to quantitatively and qualitatively analyze a product. It depends on what kind of products you're trying to analyze, the instruments available at the lab, and the time and money necessary to perform the analysis.",
"This is a bit difficult to answer. It depends what field you are talking about really. Polymer scientists will use a completely different set of tests and machines to determine their molecule versus an organic or inorganic chemist. Where as pharmaceutical companies rely heavily on computer programs now and days.\n\nNMR, mass spectrometry, chromotography, CV (cyclic voltammetry), DSC (differential scanning calorimetry), GPC (gel permeation chromatography), the list is really quite large to determine if your product is correct, and in what yield with what impurities.\n\nNMR is easily the most widely used, however.",
"It really depends on the type of chemistry that you do. Organic and Inorganic chemists will typically use NMR, Mass Spec, UV-Vis, IR spectroscopy. They also have other more exotic techniques like Mossbauer etc. Someone on the more physical side of chemistry is going to typically use a lot of lasers for things like transient absorption, Raman spectroscopy, all sorts of flavors of ultrafast and steady state measurements. I assume theoretical chemists just go back through their code after their Gaussian input file closes the job after two minutes.",
"Repeating experiments. Chemists are their own worst critics. That usually suffices for checking the results of experimentation."
],
"score": [
19,
5,
4,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How do chemists check their work?
For example when new pharmaceuticals are developed, how do they go about to make sure that the end result is of the exact nature and purity they were aiming for?
|
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uoivy
|
How does evolution explain the emergence of new organs?
|
I understand that organs such as the liver or kidneys become more adaptable over time because of natural selection, and others like the appendix lose their function, as well as that mutations are what lead to simpler adaptations like hair color. But I was wondering, assuming we evolved from bacteria, how did the first organism to have a liver or a heart get that organ? Did it just sprout from nothing as a mutation then become more efficient?
|
askscience
|
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"Though the modification of existing structures, for the most part. At least that's how large organs like lungs and the liver were formed.\n\nFor example, human jaws are modified gill arches from fish. Human lungs are modified from fish swim bladders, which are far more basic (and one would predict that swim bladders are modified from some even simpler structure).\n\nOnce you have one of something, it's not such a large step to duplicate it. Once it is duplicated, it is not a large step to modify one of those 2 structures to do something new. Ergo, over time, you can have greater diversity and amount of organs in species.",
"> Did it just sprout from nothing as a mutation then become more efficient?\n\nMutations don't work quite that way. A mutation in DNA will generally only lead to a difference in protein expression, not something huge like the development of a new organ. Over many many generations, these small changes can modify existing organs, or smaller structures in the case of the first \"organs\", until they perform a new or different function.",
"These changes happen over a very, very long period of time and eventually manifest themselves as organs. \n\nLets take the development of sensory cells, for example. Take some cell, floating about way way back as a single celled organism. Say that it gets some mutation that causes the cell to contract in the direction of a certain chemical influence. If that chemical is beneficial to the development and reproduction of the cell, then it is likely that this cell will be more successful and reproduce more than the other cells. Over time, this cell could create multiple cell lines that responded to different stimuli and this could be the early development of sensory cells.\n\nNow lets look at a multicellular organism, make it something resembling a jellyfish. Say this organism already has some sort reflex towards a negative chemical influence, which probably is a modified form of the bacteria that I talked about in the last paragraph. However, this reflex is very localized, i.e. if one side detects this poisonous chemical, only that side will contract, or make swimming motions, or whatever. You could imagine this jellyfish thing won't move away from the chemical very fast, but it is better than just sitting there. If one of these organisms obtains a mutation that makes the response less localized, the organism might be able to escape a bit better since it would swim faster, and is more likely to reproduce. This could be the very beginning of a neural structure. Then, more and more mutations and changes accumulate and the organism gets a complete neural system. After that, some form of centralization begins to occur and a brain could come out of this eventually.\n\nIf you want to get lungs, other others have stated, this could have come from the modification of a swim bladder. Many organs we have now are modified versions or older organs. But these original organs arise from small scale things that slowly grew over time\n\nThis is super simplified, and both the bacteria and organism I referred to are completely made up examples.",
"This was actually a major argument against evolution from the intelligent design/creationist crowd not too long ago. They pushed the idea of \"irreducible complexity\", which meant that there were complex biological systems, like organs, that were so complex and specific that they could not work with the absence of even just one of its components. Thus, they claimed that gradual development through evolution was not possible.\n\nIrreducible complexity proponents often used the eye and the bacterial flagellum as examples of an organ and organelle that could not have come to exist through evolution. However, we are now pretty sure about the [evolution of the eye](_URL_0_) as well as the [evolution of the bacterial flagellum](_URL_2_).\n\nThe evolution of the eye is essentially what you would expect: Light-sensitive structures eventually become more complex over time until they became what we know today.\n\nThe evolution of the bacterial flagellum is not so straightforward and is a fascinating example of how beneficial mutations can create strikingly different structures than those in the preceding state. The motor of the flagellum was originally a secretory and transport system that is only known to be used to inject toxins into other cells.\n\nSo ultimately, as others have mentioned, organs developed through gradual change over a long period of time facing the pressures of selection. Some of the developments are \"linear\" in that the ancestral structure's function is quite similar, while others may have developed from systems that were otherwise unrelated.\n\nFor a much more in depth lecture on this topic, I would point you towards [Ken Miller's lecture](_URL_1_) on why irreducible complexity does not hold up. He includes the examples I just mentioned and, especially in the case of the bacterial flagellum, goes into much more detail."
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|
{
"url": []
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|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye",
"http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JVRsWAjvQSg",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_flagella"
]
}
|
How does evolution explain the emergence of new organs?
I understand that organs such as the liver or kidneys become more adaptable over time because of natural selection, and others like the appendix lose their function, as well as that mutations are what lead to simpler adaptations like hair color. But I was wondering, assuming we evolved from bacteria, how did the first organism to have a liver or a heart get that organ? Did it just sprout from nothing as a mutation then become more efficient?
|
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|
o5to3
|
How could a modern-day moon landing verify that it's actually on the moon?
|
So I was randomly thinking about people who believe in moon landing hoaxes, and I realized that if 1960's, pre-CGI, pre-realistic greenscreen footage of the landing doesn't seem authentic to them, then with all of our advances in CGI that blur the boundary between real and fake footage, there's no way that any modern day footage from a new landing would convince them. So my question is then, **if a group of astronauts landed on the moon in our times, in what ways could they verify that they were actually on the surface of the moon?**
**EDIT:**: Posts by ChillyCheese and AbrahamVanHelsing raise the issue that there's little a human could do that couldn't somehow be replicated by a machine. So I'll clarify and say that for a satisfactory answer, the machine that could replicate the actions would have to be so impractical, large, expensive, or difficult to actually construct that it couldn't be feasibly built in these times. Granted we are talking about deniers here, so "feasible" isn't always a factor to them, but still, humor me.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c3elrag",
"c3elsy2",
"c3ep7m0",
"c3en32g",
"c3ergat"
],
"text": [
"In 1969, the Apollo 11 team dropped some retro-reflectors on the moon. Anyone with the know-how and a few bucks could easily send a laser signal to the moon and measure the response, verifying for themselves that man landed on the moon.",
"Set off some sort of bomb such that the massive explosion could be seen from earth.",
"In all honesty I think that the only way you could convince beyond a shadow of a doubt would be to have a group of astronauts live there for long enough that skeptics could make requests, and then have something like LRO record them carrying them out in timespans that would preclude the possibility that NASA sent up another robot or something to do these tasks.\n\nThis is only better than previous suggestions because it might be easier to come up with something that only a Human could do if the element of speed was to be involved.\n\nA robot might be able to draw a giant penis in the dust of Mare Serenitatis, but probably not as quickly as an astronaut with a buggy.",
"Send a laser from the Moon to Earth. Place new reflectors on the Moon in unique locations.",
"I think the way to go would be to take such a skeptic with you. Once you get to the moon, put on space suits and go outside. If they *still*don't believe you, suggest they take off the helmet..."
],
"score": [
9,
5,
3,
3,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
How could a modern-day moon landing verify that it's actually on the moon?
So I was randomly thinking about people who believe in moon landing hoaxes, and I realized that if 1960's, pre-CGI, pre-realistic greenscreen footage of the landing doesn't seem authentic to them, then with all of our advances in CGI that blur the boundary between real and fake footage, there's no way that any modern day footage from a new landing would convince them. So my question is then, **if a group of astronauts landed on the moon in our times, in what ways could they verify that they were actually on the surface of the moon?** **EDIT:**: Posts by ChillyCheese and AbrahamVanHelsing raise the issue that there's little a human could do that couldn't somehow be replicated by a machine. So I'll clarify and say that for a satisfactory answer, the machine that could replicate the actions would have to be so impractical, large, expensive, or difficult to actually construct that it couldn't be feasibly built in these times. Granted we are talking about deniers here, so "feasible" isn't always a factor to them, but still, humor me.
|
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|
11zdoy
|
What do you think the major ethical roles will be in future technologies?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6qul3z"
],
"text": [
"I'm assuming that one of the topics that would be at least somewhat controversial would be stem cell research. However, this only remains controversial today because many don't understand that stem cell development has moved on quite a bit in the last few years. The reason that stem cells are so valuable, is due to the fact that they can divide (to put it simply) into many different types of cells, making it easier to try and grow the tissue needed. In the past, collecting stem cells was only possible by using the ones found in the earliest stages of embryo development. Removing some of these original cells means killing a possible baby. However, new research allows for the reverse engineering (to put it comparatively) of current, aged cells, into a previous stage of less differentiated cells, which can now differentiate into something new. Basically, the uneducated would say that stem cells are taking life away, but truthfully, new research will use a participants own cells, to grow new stem cells."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What do you think the major ethical roles will be in future technologies?
|
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] |
||
4g3j2v
|
Are there any interesting things about Quincunx patterns? (pictures inside)
|
_URL_0_
If a Quincunx pattern extends infinitely outward, could you draw infinite lines from a single point?
Is there a special ratio of the angle between each of the lines?
The pattern is used in farming. Is there any other practical application?
|
askscience
|
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"This is an example of a Lattice (_URL_7_). If we assume the points are ordinary points (no area), and the lines are ordinary lines, then each line you've placed passes through a straight line of points in the lattice, you've just shifted the line over a bit but you're actually finding lines that can be made using the points on the lattice. In other words, you could get the same lines by just shifting them a bit and putting them *on top* of the the bumps. Also, talking about the angle of each line is not *super* pretty but it is really interesting to look at the *slope*, m, and you can get the angle from the slope by looking at arctan(m). So talking about slope and talking about angle are the same thing via the tangent function.\n\nWe can make lattices using the integers and the complex numbers. For instance, if we have the integers and we decide to include i=sqrt(-1) into them, then because we still need to be able to add and multiply things, we'll also include things like 14i, 90, 7-6i,-2332+4421i etc. In general, we'll pick up all numbers of the form N+iM, where N and M are integers. This will make a lattice, but just the typical grid ([the grid on the left](_URL_6_).) This actually makes a number system, and we call it the [Gaussian Integers](_URL_2_). \n\nSince it's a little easier than yours, let's look at this one first. What does a line like you drew look like in the Gaussian Integers? Well, we can make any of the kinds of lines you drew by just picking one Gaussian integer and drawing a line from 0 to that number. For instance, if we pick 1+i, then the line we draw will have slope 1 and be a perfect diagonal and if we continue this line through we'll get 2+2i and 3+3i and 4+4i and in the opposite direction -1-i, -2-2i etc. This is also the line that makes and angle of pi/4 with the x-axis, and actually 1+i = sqrt(2)(cos(pi/4)+isin(pi/4)). If we choose 2+5i and draw a line, then this will be the line passing through zero and 2+5i and have slope 5/2 and the Gaussian Integers on it will be all the ones of the form 2n+5ni like 4+10i, 6+15i, -8i-20i etc. In general, if N+iM is any Gaussian integer then we can draw a line of slope M/N through it. If M and N have no common factors, then this will be the *smallest* Gaussian Integer that this line passes through. So 1000000+1000001i has a line of slope 1000001/100000 passing through it, and it is the first point in this grid that this line passes through. Interestingly, if N/M is *any* fraction, then we can make the line that passes through N+iM which will have slope N/M and pass through infinitely many points on the grid. This means that there is a correspondence between the lines we can draw and the fractions, which represent the slope. This means that there is exactly one line that you can draw for every rational number, and the only line that doesn't have a corresponding rational number is the vertical line passing through 0 and i, with infinite slope.\n\nNow, the Gaussian Integers is the lattice you drew, just viewed diagonally. So there will be a slope for every rational number, which means there *are* infinitely many lines that you can draw. Moreover, the ratio of the slopes of any two lines must be a rational number.\n\nIn this way, if we rotate your lattice by 45 degrees, then the first line you drew is the one through 1+i, with slope 1 the second is the one through just 1, with slope 0, and the third is the one through 2-i (if I'm seeing it right) with slope -1/2.\n\n-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------\n\n(Edit: Initially, I thought OPs lattice was not the Gaussian integers, so I wrote what follows (hey, I don't have my glasses on!) I'll keep it how it was, but I do have the mistaken assumption that they had the Eisenstein Integers and now it is just extra instead of directly addressing the OPs question.)\n\nBut your grid is not this simple, even lattice, yours is more complicated. If we set w=(-1+isqrt(3))/2, then your lattice will be given by including w into the integers, rather than i. Just as above, this will give us all numbers of the form M+wN, where M and N are integers, so things like 1+2w = isqrt(3) or -7+4w=-9+2isqrt(3) and 1+w = (1/2)+(isqrt(3)/2) are in it, but i and 1+i won't be. In fact, the only numbers that are in this lattice and the Gaussian Integers are the ordinary integers ...,-2,-1,0,1,2,... everything else is different. The significance of w is that w^(3)=1, compare this to i^(4)=1, which is the significant thing about i. This lattice system is known as the [Eisenstein Integers](_URL_1_) and can be visualized with the [grid on the right](_URL_6_).\n\nWhat lines can we make in this lattice? We can play the same game: Pick any Eisenstein Integer and draw the line that passes through it and 0. This means that we can make the line that passes through 0 and 1+w. What will the slope be? It won't be just 1, we'll have to break up 1+w into 1+(-1+isqrt(3))/2 which is just (1+isqrt(3))/2 to figure it out. The amount this line rises is sqrt(3)/2 and the run of this line is 1/2. So the slope of the line given by 1+w is sqrt(3). This is also the line that makes an angle of pi/3 with the x-axis (in fact, 1+w=cos(pi/3)+isin(pi/3)). This is the second line you marked in your images. You created a line that makes an angle pi/3 with the horizontal. What are the other lines you can make? \n\nIf we pass through N+Mw, then this can be written as (2N-M)/2 + i Msqrt(3)/2. The slope of the line through N+Mw will then be have rise Msqrt(3)/2 and run (2N-M)/2 and will therefore have slope Msqrt(3)/(2N-M). We can think of this as sqrt(3)x(Special Fraction) where the special fraction is one that looks like M/(2N-M). But it turns out these fractions are not special at all, I can use any rational number: If A/B is any rational number, then I can pick M=2A and N=A+B and then the line given by the number N+Mw will have slope A/B. So just as all the (nonvertical) lines for the Gaussian Integers were given by rational numbers, all the (nonvertical) lines for the Eisenstein Integers are given by sqrt(3)x(Rational Numbers). That is, the slope will always be a rational multiple of sqrt(3). If I'm looking at it right, your third line should be the one passing through 2+w, which would have slope sqrt(3)/3.\n\nIn general, you can make a lattice starting with any single complex number, and this is actually a really deep thing. It's used in Number Theory all the time and is a fundamental aspect to many things including [Elliptic Curves](_URL_3_), [Fermat's Last Theorem](_URL_5_), [Monstrous Moonshine](_URL_0_) and a whole lot more. The [Geometry of Numbers](_URL_4_) extends these ideas to higher dimensions."
],
"score": [
34
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://imgur.com/a/V7pgm"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monstrous_moonshine",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eisenstein_integer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaussian_integer",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve#Elliptic_curves_over_the_complex_numbers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometry_of_numbers",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem",
"https://cp4space.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/2d-lattices.png",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(group)"
]
}
|
Are there any interesting things about Quincunx patterns? (pictures inside)
_URL_0_ If a Quincunx pattern extends infinitely outward, could you draw infinite lines from a single point? Is there a special ratio of the angle between each of the lines? The pattern is used in farming. Is there any other practical application?
|
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|
1j3ul4
|
N2 lack of moisture moisture/Humidity
|
When I work with optics we purge the airtight spaces with nitrogen to drive out air and moisture. In the theory and maintenance manuals it is stated that N2 is moisture free. But according to the CRC handbook N2 is water soluble. When N2 gas is containerized is it processed to drive more moisture out or is the solubility so low it is considered moisture free?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cbatnm6",
"cbb06xf"
],
"text": [
"I believe the nitrogen is passed though a cold trap and other dessicants to remove the moisture. Obviously nitrogen can hold quite a bit of moisture just like the ambient atmosphere, which is where the nitrogen ultimately comes from.",
"N2 gas being water soluble is different than water dissolving into liquid nitrogen. I haven't compared phase diagram, but I imagine at any pressure/temp combination that you liquid nitrogen you probably have solid water (i.e. ice).\n\nN2 cylinders and dewars probably don't have much moisture because the process of separating N2 gas and then compressing it will remove most moisture. Gaseous water vapor will condense on compression/cooling well before N2, so it can be easily separated."
],
"score": [
4,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
N2 lack of moisture moisture/Humidity
When I work with optics we purge the airtight spaces with nitrogen to drive out air and moisture. In the theory and maintenance manuals it is stated that N2 is moisture free. But according to the CRC handbook N2 is water soluble. When N2 gas is containerized is it processed to drive more moisture out or is the solubility so low it is considered moisture free?
|
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|
vo6w0
|
Crystal Identification
|
There's a puzzle floating around my computational nanoscience
lab.
Our resident mathematician put together [this crystal](_URL_2_) and challenged us to identify it. We think the space group is P3Pm, but that's a vague guess. It has cubic and some kind of helical/chiral symmetry, we think 3-fold, so we checked the navy crystal database and closest is [Ga_4 Ni](_URL_0_), but in the crystal above elements either have 2, 5, or 6 connections, and it's not chiral anyways. Any crystallographers on here care to take a stab at this?
EDIT (New Information): The unit cell has four elements, and we think it's three points on one of the triangles and a point on a triangle that shares one element with it, because each triangle shares elements with at least one other triangle, depending on distance from the center
EDIT 2: So we figured out that it has chiral octahedral symmetry (point group O) and the top is a (slightly sheared) snub cube tiling. Thus, it's a quasicrystal, specifically the one that occurs at around 85% packing fraction of tetrahedra. Interestingly enough, it was originally generated (using MC code) from an error in a paper. Still dunno what the unit cell is, though. A good image of said crystal is [here](_URL_1_)
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c566mji"
],
"text": [
"Alternate Hypothesis: Your resident mathematician is screwing with you."
],
"score": [
4
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://cst-www.nrl.navy.mil/lattice/struk/Ga4Ni.html",
"http://www.math.sunysb.edu/~tony/whatsnew/feb10/images/quasi-tiling.jpg",
"http://i.imgur.com/5KwKO.jpg"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
Crystal Identification
There's a puzzle floating around my computational nanoscience lab. Our resident mathematician put together [this crystal](_URL_2_) and challenged us to identify it. We think the space group is P3Pm, but that's a vague guess. It has cubic and some kind of helical/chiral symmetry, we think 3-fold, so we checked the navy crystal database and closest is [Ga_4 Ni](_URL_0_), but in the crystal above elements either have 2, 5, or 6 connections, and it's not chiral anyways. Any crystallographers on here care to take a stab at this? EDIT (New Information): The unit cell has four elements, and we think it's three points on one of the triangles and a point on a triangle that shares one element with it, because each triangle shares elements with at least one other triangle, depending on distance from the center EDIT 2: So we figured out that it has chiral octahedral symmetry (point group O) and the top is a (slightly sheared) snub cube tiling. Thus, it's a quasicrystal, specifically the one that occurs at around 85% packing fraction of tetrahedra. Interestingly enough, it was originally generated (using MC code) from an error in a paper. Still dunno what the unit cell is, though. A good image of said crystal is [here](_URL_1_)
|
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] |
|
mad1b
|
2 simple moon questions
|
First, why does our moon appear different colors when near the horizon? i believe it is because the different green house gases/the sun's light being reflected off those gases i think (sorta the same way the sky changes color with the sun set). Second, why is it that the moon seems like it is bigger when it is first coming up over the horizon and then seems to be smaller when in the sky?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2zce5e"
],
"text": [
"The reason for the red/orange color of the moon near the horizon is due to the fact that light reflected from the moon needs to travel a greater distance through the atmosphere and the blue, green, purple colors are more easily scattered. Therefore, more of the red and orange light makes it through to your eyes.\n\nAs far as the moon appearing larger near the horizon, I thought it was simply an optical illusion due to its visual proximity to distant objects like trees, mountains, buildings, etc."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
2 simple moon questions
First, why does our moon appear different colors when near the horizon? i believe it is because the different green house gases/the sun's light being reflected off those gases i think (sorta the same way the sky changes color with the sun set). Second, why is it that the moon seems like it is bigger when it is first coming up over the horizon and then seems to be smaller when in the sky?
|
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] |
|
1y58pv
|
How does an electrical burn cause star-shaped cataracts?
|
An electrician in California had a serious accident where 14,000 volts passed through his body. 4 weeks after the accident, his cataracts were star shaped. You can read the livescience article [here](_URL_0_). The doctor who treated this man is quoted saying "The reason cataracts sometimes take on a star shape is not fully understood".
By "not *fully* understood" - does he mean parts of it is understood? This is a very interesting phenomenon that I would love to know more about!
EDIT: Not sure what flair would be more fitting. I went with *biology*, but *physics* might be more suitable?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cfir7v8"
],
"text": [
"This type of cataract is specifically called a stellate cataract. Stellate cataracts usually occur when there has been trauma- like electrocution or blunt force trauma to the face.\n\nYou may find [this brief description](_URL_0_) from another case study to be useful. Specifically:\n\n > The proposed mechanism for indirect injury is shock waves progressing through the eye along the line of concussion. Opacification of the lens may occur in the cortex or capsule and can result in the formation of a stellate-shaped or rosette-shaped cataract.\n\nNote that the patient in the case study I have quoted regained his vision. The electrocuted patient did not- but the vision loss was due to damage to his retina, not the stellate cataract.\n\n[Here's](_URL_1_) the case study which describes the electrocution patient."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.livescience.com/42778-electrical-burn-star-cataract.html"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1204510",
"http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMicm1213581"
]
}
|
How does an electrical burn cause star-shaped cataracts?
An electrician in California had a serious accident where 14,000 volts passed through his body. 4 weeks after the accident, his cataracts were star shaped. You can read the livescience article [here](_URL_0_). The doctor who treated this man is quoted saying "The reason cataracts sometimes take on a star shape is not fully understood". By "not *fully* understood" - does he mean parts of it is understood? This is a very interesting phenomenon that I would love to know more about! EDIT: Not sure what flair would be more fitting. I went with *biology*, but *physics* might be more suitable?
|
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] |
|
klla1
|
What is the status of and the general consensus on the Energy Catalyzer?
|
For anyone who doesn't know, [here](_URL_0_) is its Wikipedia page. It seems that one scientist has come up with a possible mechanism, that the Nickel could form a Bose-Einstein condensate and this would provide a mechanism for a copper-nickel conversion with low-energy gamma rays, provided the reaction takes place at ~22 bar and above nickel's Curie temperature.
All I've been able to find recently outside of the Wiki page is a bunch of blog articles that mostly deal with the apparent conspiracy of the device's suppression. I'm suspicious of the lack of investment, lack of academic frenzy, and general secrecy that this device has.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2l8if4"
],
"text": [
"They have neither been able to properly demonstrate their claims, nor provide a physical mechanism for how it happens. Sounds a lot like BS to me. If they won't patent their device and allow people to look inside of it, then it sounds like a scam to rob investors of their money. \n\nFusion happens when nuclei, which are both positively charged, have sufficient energy to over come their repulsion and bind together. *Thermo*nuclear fusion just heats the whole mess up so hot that some fraction of the nuclei have sufficient kinetic energy to overcome that barrier. Other types, like inertial confinement, are more controlled and directed motion, but still the same principle. So when they can't propose a mechanism of action to get through this coulomb barrier (one that passes peer-review into a proper journal), then all we can rely on are their experimental setups. And while their experiments make grand claims, they don't open the box and let people confirm those claims. How do we know there isn't just a battery and another container of copper powder they stir into the container of nickel powder?"
],
"score": [
3
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_Catalyzer"
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
What is the status of and the general consensus on the Energy Catalyzer?
For anyone who doesn't know, [here](_URL_0_) is its Wikipedia page. It seems that one scientist has come up with a possible mechanism, that the Nickel could form a Bose-Einstein condensate and this would provide a mechanism for a copper-nickel conversion with low-energy gamma rays, provided the reaction takes place at ~22 bar and above nickel's Curie temperature. All I've been able to find recently outside of the Wiki page is a bunch of blog articles that mostly deal with the apparent conspiracy of the device's suppression. I'm suspicious of the lack of investment, lack of academic frenzy, and general secrecy that this device has.
|
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] |
|
jz5nx
|
How does interferon work exactly?
|
Does it just stimulate the immune system to work harder?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c2g9x8n",
"c2gaudc"
],
"text": [
"Which one? There are about 15-20 of them, and they have different functions based on when, where, and how they are expressed. \n\nYour question is very broad; it would take a long time to fully & properly answer it, and even then you may not get what you're really looking for. \n\nSkim over [this](_URL_0_), it should give you a good overview. If you have any more specific questions after that, I'd be happy to help you out.",
"When you say interferon in what context are you talking about? In viral diseases or something else? We may be able to figure out which one you're asking about, but I can't guarantee it."
],
"score": [
7,
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferons"
]
}
|
How does interferon work exactly?
Does it just stimulate the immune system to work harder?
|
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] |
|
xvx0a
|
Could somebody with knowledge of metal casting help me with a question about wooden casts and how to get a smooth surface.
|
I asked some time ago a question in math for my [small upcoming project](_URL_0_) and now I've got the [Type metal](_URL_1_) in hand, a propane burner and a steel pot to smelt it in.
The question is: Can I create a cast out of wood, 2x4 planks, and will it hold without bursting to flames long enough for the Type metal to settle? And if so, how important is that the wood is 'natural', i.e. not heat treated/otherwise treated (to endure mold etc) and it's completely dry? I suppose wet wood might not like the sudden change of temperature that much.
The other question is that I would like the bottom of the cast to be flat as possible. I mean like glass surface smooth. So, what type of ceramics/glass I could use at the bottom so it won't shatter into pieces due to the sudden temperature difference and it would be as smooth as possible?
Thank you for any assistance.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c5q3tmy"
],
"text": [
"It is difficult to get a good surface finish without using an investment casting process. I think a wooden mold will hold up to 300C fine, but your surface finish will be bad with a wooden mold. Source: _URL_0_."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.reddit.com/r/math/comments/u65y1/could_somebody_be_kind_enough_to_help_me_with_a/",
"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_metal"
]
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-ignition-temperatures-d_171.html"
]
}
|
Could somebody with knowledge of metal casting help me with a question about wooden casts and how to get a smooth surface.
I asked some time ago a question in math for my [small upcoming project](_URL_0_) and now I've got the [Type metal](_URL_1_) in hand, a propane burner and a steel pot to smelt it in. The question is: Can I create a cast out of wood, 2x4 planks, and will it hold without bursting to flames long enough for the Type metal to settle? And if so, how important is that the wood is 'natural', i.e. not heat treated/otherwise treated (to endure mold etc) and it's completely dry? I suppose wet wood might not like the sudden change of temperature that much. The other question is that I would like the bottom of the cast to be flat as possible. I mean like glass surface smooth. So, what type of ceramics/glass I could use at the bottom so it won't shatter into pieces due to the sudden temperature difference and it would be as smooth as possible? Thank you for any assistance.
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|
a3cczx
|
What is an anaerobic environment?
|
[deleted]
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"eb7hthm"
],
"text": [
"An anaerobic environment is one in which there is little to no breathable oxygen. The Earth is mostly made of aerobic environments and features few anaerobic areas. Perhaps unsurprisingly, most of the life on Earth inhabits aerobic environments while avoiding anaerobic anomalies. However, anaerobic environments are often of great interest to geologists, zoologists and biologists due to the unusual insights they provide into nature.\n\nYour container would initially not be an anaerobic environment until the available oxygen is used up or removed. \n\nSource: _URL_0_"
],
"score": [
6
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"https://sciencing.com/anaerobic-environment-10003906.html"
]
}
|
What is an anaerobic environment?
[deleted]
|
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|
sx53l
|
Is my physiology professor wrong?
|
Hi folks,
I am wondering if someone could enlighten me here. I'm in a physiology class and we're covering cardiac output. I'm not sure if this is the right subreddit, but if there is a more suitable one, please point me to it.
Anyways, my physiology professor asked us a question in class and said it was a trick question. He said, if the cardiac output of the heart is 5.5L/min, and there is a total of 5.5L of blood in the body, how long on average will a RBC or drop of blood complete the entire systemic and pulmonary circuit. My guess is 1 min. However, he said it is 30 seconds, because the cardiac output is for just one ventricle and two ventricles are pumping blood. I was like, that's retarded. Because the right and left ventricles are still pumping at the same rate. It's like a tandem bike. If one guy is pedaling at 30 RPM's and goes 10 MPH, another guy on the tandem bike pedaling the same rate of 30 RPM's will not increase the speed by another 10 MPH. They will both be traveling at 10 MPH.
Can anyone tell me who is right here? I mean, even our book is saying that for a cardiac output of 5.5L/min, it will take a drop of blood on average of 1 minute to complete both circuits.
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c4hpyw3",
"c4hpnwc"
],
"text": [
"Without a doubt, the cardiac output of both ventricles are the same. If they weren't, blood would back up on one side of the system. Total is flow equal *everywhere*.",
"[Wikipedia](_URL_0_) says cardiac output is the combined total of the left and right ventricles. \n\nIf the professor is like any professor I've had, you could probably just send him an email asking to clarify his statement."
],
"score": [
7,
5
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_output"
]
}
|
Is my physiology professor wrong?
Hi folks, I am wondering if someone could enlighten me here. I'm in a physiology class and we're covering cardiac output. I'm not sure if this is the right subreddit, but if there is a more suitable one, please point me to it. Anyways, my physiology professor asked us a question in class and said it was a trick question. He said, if the cardiac output of the heart is 5.5L/min, and there is a total of 5.5L of blood in the body, how long on average will a RBC or drop of blood complete the entire systemic and pulmonary circuit. My guess is 1 min. However, he said it is 30 seconds, because the cardiac output is for just one ventricle and two ventricles are pumping blood. I was like, that's retarded. Because the right and left ventricles are still pumping at the same rate. It's like a tandem bike. If one guy is pedaling at 30 RPM's and goes 10 MPH, another guy on the tandem bike pedaling the same rate of 30 RPM's will not increase the speed by another 10 MPH. They will both be traveling at 10 MPH. Can anyone tell me who is right here? I mean, even our book is saying that for a cardiac output of 5.5L/min, it will take a drop of blood on average of 1 minute to complete both circuits.
|
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] |
|
2nvr97
|
Does thinking use up any resources?
|
Seriously. No energy is being expelled, is it? Is heat created by your brain by merely thinking? Or is it a closed loop of energy used to create thoughts?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"cmhnmbj",
"cmi413h",
"cmho0eb"
],
"text": [
"Having and using a large brain is a major cost for the human physiology. [This article](_URL_0_) summarizes a few sources that seem to agree about 1/5 of the bodies energy is consumed in the brain on average. Of course, if you start climbing a mountain or running a marathon, your muscles probably take more of a lions share than normal.",
"Here is a more practical example: a diagnostic tool called PET can measure the activity of different areas of the brain in 3 dimensions. This is not because of measurement of electric activity, but because of selective increased blood flow in the active areals caused by acute accumulation of metabolites like lactate and hydronium ions) which is then measured. This does mean that yes, thinking processes (and of course other central activities) are more resource intensive and thus the brain has mechanisms in place to increase the blood flow to these areas whenever neuron populations have to fire.",
"It uses a lot of glucose to survive, and heavy \"thinking\" tasks uses more glucose. Also it uses many proteins and amino acids when \"thinking\". Amino acids such as tyrosine, phenylalanine and tryptophan trips serve as precursors to neurotransmitters. When more synapses are firing, more neurotransmitters are being used. Gluatmate is also used to capture a lot of the free nitrogen that results as a by-product of neurotransmitter production. Water also is used to help the electric conductivity. Pretty much \"thinking\" requires increased amounts of all resources opposed to a resting brain"
],
"score": [
5,
2,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://hypertextbook.com/facts/2001/JacquelineLing.shtml"
]
}
|
Does thinking use up any resources?
Seriously. No energy is being expelled, is it? Is heat created by your brain by merely thinking? Or is it a closed loop of energy used to create thoughts?
|
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|
xqlgq
|
A Question on the Future of Ecology and Conservation
Biology
|
As we study Ecology, we realize the connections between species that make ecosystems what they are, and therefore we learn how exactly these ecosystems which we depend on are sustaining us. It makes sense to preserve species which have been shown to be useful for our survival, such as honey bees and their colonies. But what of the species whose ecological roles we hardly understand?
I'm under the impression that we conserve these species and prevent their extinction not only because of an obligation to respect life, or to serve the guilt we get from destroying their habitats, but because every species supposedly has a deeply rooted role somewhere in its ecosystem and the removal of that role could possibly trigger a collapse that would damage that ecosystem, and the important foundations we've built upon it.
We may not know every role, but we assume every species has one, and therefore try to grant every dying species conservation. Correct?
If this is correct, my question is to ask: is it possible that Ecology could discover a species role that was so useless to the sustainability of an ecosystem that its preservation would simply be unnecessary?
|
askscience
|
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"Well I don't know too much about it, but I have recently learned that there are two views of this concept, the first (and more traditional viewpoint) being is that there is only one state that an ecosystem can maintain healthy function in, and the other being that there are an infinite amount of healthy states. The problem with what we humans see is that we tend to consider what we see over a short time span. Evolution happened over billions of years and there have been innumerable booms and busts of many species. Many go extinct when they become unsuited for their environment (or their environment becomes unsuitable for them rather), but at the same time these niches open up for more species to fill in (adaptive radiation).\n\nAnyway what I'm trying to get to is that previously ecologists and environmental scientists etc. tried to solve ecological issues by striving to maintain ecosystems precisely in the states that we observed them in initially when it is much more likely that biodiversity allows for resilience in the face of ecosystem change. Now I'm not saying we can just destroy anything and expect ecosystems to bounce back (there are many instances where they don't), but on some scale it may be a waste of energy to save species that is perhaps unnecessary for healthy function of an ecosystem."
],
"score": [
3
]
}
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{
"url": []
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{
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{
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|
A Question on the Future of Ecology and Conservation Biology
As we study Ecology, we realize the connections between species that make ecosystems what they are, and therefore we learn how exactly these ecosystems which we depend on are sustaining us. It makes sense to preserve species which have been shown to be useful for our survival, such as honey bees and their colonies. But what of the species whose ecological roles we hardly understand? I'm under the impression that we conserve these species and prevent their extinction not only because of an obligation to respect life, or to serve the guilt we get from destroying their habitats, but because every species supposedly has a deeply rooted role somewhere in its ecosystem and the removal of that role could possibly trigger a collapse that would damage that ecosystem, and the important foundations we've built upon it. We may not know every role, but we assume every species has one, and therefore try to grant every dying species conservation. Correct? If this is correct, my question is to ask: is it possible that Ecology could discover a species role that was so useless to the sustainability of an ecosystem that its preservation would simply be unnecessary?
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] |
|
rmb84
|
A physics question; a hard one. All about lasers, absorption spectra and conservation of energy.
|
In my quantum physics lectures we have been told that for an atom to absorb a photon it does not require exactly the same energy as the energy gap. It can be slightly more, or slightly less; what does happen though is that the further away you are from the correct energy the less likely it is to happen.
In the unlikely event that a photon with less energy than the energy gap IS absorbed, the electron will exist in an excited state for some amount of time and then emit a photon with slightly higher energy than the incident one.
So, here is the conundrum. If one were to fire a laser into a reflective cavity filled with a lasing material that had been tuned to a slightly lower energy than the absorption gap, does this allow us to extract energy from the system, and if it does what are the consequences?
Let me know if any clarification is needed. This isn't a question I came up with myself, rather one of my more intelligent peers did. It has succeeded in stumping a number of lecturers in my world class university physics department though, so if anyone wants to take up the challenge they are welcome!
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c46ytqg",
"c46yvcw",
"c46yst5"
],
"text": [
"I think this is related to [doppler cooling](_URL_0_).\nThe extra energy from the emitted photon comes from reducing the speed of the atom that emitted it.\nThe [brief explanation](_URL_0_#Brief_Explanation) section seems similar to what you described.",
"> In the unlikely event that a photon with less energy than the energy gap IS absorbed, the electron will exist in an excited state for some amount of time and then emit a photon with slightly higher energy than the incident one.\n\nEnergy is conserved - the electron and the photon have the same total energy before 'absorption' and after 'emission'. Whether the photon/electron is in a higher or lower state depends on if it's \"Stokes\" or \"Anti-Stokes\" scattering. But the total energy is conserved, always. \n\nTo get into detail, it's also not a real excitation but a _virtual_ one. This is basically a way of describing the process, mathematically (and then expressed in words). The excited state doesn't really exist - the system can never be observed in that state. The absorption and emission events aren't actually two independent events. \n\nSo you cannot use a photon with less energy than the gaps between _real_ states to excite that photon to that real state, where it can be observed. In the formalism of QED, this is a different process.",
"Are you sure they were discussing atoms and not molecules? I can understand a molecule using its vibrational energy levels to absorb outside of its typical region but an individual atom is quite restricted in where it can put the energy it stores."
],
"score": [
12,
11,
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_cooling",
"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_cooling#Brief_Explanation"
]
}
|
A physics question; a hard one. All about lasers, absorption spectra and conservation of energy.
In my quantum physics lectures we have been told that for an atom to absorb a photon it does not require exactly the same energy as the energy gap. It can be slightly more, or slightly less; what does happen though is that the further away you are from the correct energy the less likely it is to happen. In the unlikely event that a photon with less energy than the energy gap IS absorbed, the electron will exist in an excited state for some amount of time and then emit a photon with slightly higher energy than the incident one. So, here is the conundrum. If one were to fire a laser into a reflective cavity filled with a lasing material that had been tuned to a slightly lower energy than the absorption gap, does this allow us to extract energy from the system, and if it does what are the consequences? Let me know if any clarification is needed. This isn't a question I came up with myself, rather one of my more intelligent peers did. It has succeeded in stumping a number of lecturers in my world class university physics department though, so if anyone wants to take up the challenge they are welcome!
|
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] |
|
11yg79
|
How effective is Helminthic therapy?
|
askscience
|
{
"a_id": [
"c6qqs7z"
],
"text": [
"There're not a lot of good data on the topic yet. [This paper reports](_URL_0_):\n\n > Random controlled trials conducted to date and published have been small scale, and focused on safety as opposed to efficacy.\n\n > Of the trials conducted, Necator americanus has been shown to be **safe**, causing no change in lung function following pulmonary migration in rhinitis or asthma patients. Worms were resident in the gut for 12 weeks only, and **little therapeutic benefit** was expected (Mortimer et al., 2006; Blount et al., 2009; Feary et al., 2009a, b). Similarly, the Trichuris suis ova product (TSO) was shown to be of **no benefit in rhinitis**, and explanations for this failure have been offered (Bager et al., 2010; Hepworth et al., 2010). Conversely, TSO imparted **benefit in inflammatory bowel disease** (Summers et al., 2003, 2005). However, some have expressed reservations about the use of a zoonotic infection (Kradin et al., 2006).\n\nIt's certainly very interesting and promising from a mechanistic/basic science perspective, with some epidemiological associations to back it up. But it has not yet stood up to rigorous testing to really make statements about its efficacy in treating human disease."
],
"score": [
2
]
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": []
}
|
{
"url": [
"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21729383"
]
}
|
How effective is Helminthic therapy?
|
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