arash11/wikipedia-physics-corpus · Datasets at Hugging Face

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Environmental radioactivity has been monitored in Germany since the 1950s. Until 1986, this was carried out by various authorities that did not coordinate with each other. Following the confusion during the Chernobyl reactor disaster in April 1986, measurement activities were pooled in the IMIS (Integrated Measurement and Information System) project, an environmental information system for monitoring radioactivity in Germany. Previously, the measuring equipment was affiliated to the warning offices under the name WADIS ("Warning service information system").	564	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,000	219	2,024	8	10	54	32
The aim of the CONCERT (European Joint Programme for the Integration of Radiation Protection Research) project is to establish a joint European program for radiation protection research in Europe in 2018, based on the current strategic research programs of the European research platforms MELODI (radiation effects and radiation risks), ALLIANCE (radioecology), NERIS (nuclear and radiological emergency response), EURADOS (radiation dosimetry) and EURAMED (medical radiation protection).	488	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,001	220	2,024	8	10	54	32
The REWARD (Real time wide area radiation surveillance system) project was established to address the threats of nuclear terrorism, missing radioactive sources, radioactive contamination and nuclear accidents. The consortium developed a mobile system for real time wide area radiation monitoring based on the integration of new miniaturized solid state sensors. Two sensors are used: a cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) detector for gamma radiation and a high efficiency neutron detector based on novel silicon technologies. The gamma and neutron detectors are integrated into a single monitoring device called a tag. The sensor unit includes a wireless communication interface to remotely transmit data to a monitoring base station, which also uses a GPS system to calculate the tag's position.	793	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,002	221	2,024	8	10	54	32
The Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST) is a US program for all types of nuclear emergencies of the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) of the United States Department of Energy and is also a counter-terrorism unit that responds to incidents involving radioactive materials or nuclear weapons in US possession abroad. It was founded in 1974/75 under US President Gerald Ford and renamed the Nuclear Emergency Support Team in 2002. In 1988, a secret agreement from 1976 between the USA and the Federal Republic of Germany became known, which stipulates the deployment of NEST in the Federal Republic. In Germany, a similar unit has existed since 2003 with the name Central Federal Support Group for Serious Cases of Nuclear-Specific Emergency Response (ZUB).	771	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,003	222	2,024	8	10	54	32
As early as 1905, the Frenchman Viktor Hennecart called for special legislation to regulate the use of X-rays. In England, Sidney Russ (1879-1963) suggested to the British Roentgen Society in 1915 that it should develop its own set of safety standards, which it did in July 1921 with the formation of the British X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee. In the United States, the American X-Ray Society developed its own guidelines in 1922. In the German Reich, a special committee of the German X-Ray Society under Franz Maximilian Groedel (1881-1951), Hans Liniger (1863-1933) and Heinz Lossen (1893-1967) formulated the first guidelines after the First World War. In 1953, the employers' liability insurance associations issued the accident prevention regulation "Use of X-rays in medical facilities" based on the legal basis in § 848a of the Reich Insurance Code (RVG). In the GDR, the Occupational Safety and Health Regulation (ASAO) 950 was in effect from 1954 to 1971. It was replaced by ASAO 980 on April 1, 1971.	1,019	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,004	223	2,024	8	10	54	32
The European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) was founded on March 25, 1957, by the Treaty of Rome between France, Italy, the Benelux countries and the Federal Republic of Germany, and remains almost unchanged to this day. Chapter 3 of the Euratom Treaty regulates measures to protect the health of the population. Article 35 requires facilities for the continuous monitoring of soil, air and water for radioactivity. As a result, monitoring networks have been set up in all Member States and the data collected is sent to the EU's central database (EURDEP, European Radiological Data Exchange Platform). The platform is part of the EU's ECURIE system for the exchange of information in the event of radiological emergencies and became operational in 1995. Switzerland also participates in this information system.	815	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,005	224	2,024	8	10	54	32
In Germany, the first X-ray regulation (RGBl. I p. 88) was issued in 1941 and originally applied to non-medical companies. The first medical regulations were issued in October 1953 by the Main Association of Industrial Employer's Liability Insurance Associations as accident prevention regulations for the Reich Insurance Code. Basic standards for radiation protection were introduced by directives of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) on February 2, 1959. The Atomic Energy Act of December 23, 1959 is the national legal basis for all radiation protection legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany (West) with the Radiation Protection Ordinance of June 24, 1960 (only for radioactive substances), the Radiation Protection Ordinance of July 18, 1964 (for the medical sector) and the X-ray Ordinance of March 1, 1973. Radiation protection was formulated in § 1, according to which life, health and property are to be protected from the dangers of nuclear energy and the harmful effects of ionizing radiation and damage caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation is to be compensated. The Radiation Protection Ordinance sets dose limits for the general population and for occupationally exposed persons. In general, any use of ionizing radiation must be justified and radiation exposure must be kept as low as possible even below the limit values. To this end, physicians, dentists and veterinarians, for example, must provide proof every five years - by Section 18a (2) X-ray Ordinance. in the version dated April 30, 2003 - that their specialist knowledge in radiation protection has been updated and must complete a full-day course with a final examination. Specialist knowledge in radiation protection is required by the Technical Knowledge Guideline according to X-ray Ordinance. - R3 for persons who work with baggage screening equipment, industrial measuring equipment and interfering emitters. Since 2019, the regulatory areas of the previous X-ray and radiation protection ordinances have been merged in the amended Radiation Protection Ordinance.	2,076	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,006	225	2,024	8	10	54	32
The Radiation Protection Commission (SSK) was founded in 1974 as an advisory body to the Federal Ministry of the Interior. It emerged from Commission IV "Radiation Protection" of the German Atomic Energy Commission, which was founded on January 26, 1956. After the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection was established in the Federal Republic of Germany. The creation of this ministry was primarily a response to the perceived lack of coordination in the political response to the Chernobyl disaster and its aftermath. On December 11, 1986, the German Bundestag passed the Precautionary Radiation Protection Act (StrVG) to protect the population, to monitor radioactivity in the environment, and to minimize human exposure to radiation and radioactive contamination of the environment in the event of radioactive accidents or incidents. The last revision of the X-Ray Ordinance was issued on January 8, 1987. As part of a comprehensive modernization of German radiation protection law, which is largely based on Directive 2013/59/Euratom, the provisions of the X-Ray Ordinance have been incorporated into the revised Radiation Protection Ordinance.	1,248	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,007	226	2,024	8	10	54	32
Among many other measures, contaminated food was withdrawn from the market on a large scale. Parents were strongly advised not to let their children play in sandboxes. Some of the contaminated sand was replaced. In 1989, the Federal Office for Radiation Protection was incorporated into the Ministry of the Environment. On April 30, 2003, a new precautionary radiation protection law was promulgated to implement two EU directives on the health protection of persons against the dangers of ionizing radiation during medical exposure. The protection of workers from optical radiation (infrared radiation (IR), visible light (VIS) and ultraviolet radiation (UV)), which falls under the category of non-ionizing radiation, is regulated by the Ordinance on the Protection of Workers from Artificial Optical Radiation of 19 July 2010. It is based on the EU Directive 2006/25/EC of April 27, 2006. On March 1, 2010, the "Act on the Protection of Humans from Non-Ionizing Radiation" (NiSG), BGBl. I p. 2433, came into force, according to which the use of sunbeds by minors has been prohibited since August 4, 2009, in accordance with	1,126	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,008	227	2,024	8	10	54	32
§ 4 NiSG [Network and Information Systems Security Ordinance – NIS Ordinance] (in German) A new Radiation Protection Act came into force in Germany on October 1, 2017.	167	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,009	228	2,024	8	10	54	32
In Germany, a radiation protection officer directs and supervises activities to ensure radiation protection when handling radioactive materials or ionizing radiation. Their duties are described in	196	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,010	229	2,024	8	10	54	32
§ 31-33 StrlSchV (in German) of the Radiation Protection Ordinance and	70	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,011	230	2,024	8	10	54	32
§ 13-15 RöV (in German) of the X-Ray Ordinance. They are appointed by the radiation protection officer, who is responsible for ensuring that all radiation protection regulations are observed.	191	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,012	231	2,024	8	10	54	32
Since 2002, an x-ray pass is a document in which the examining physician or dentist must enter information about the x-ray examinations performed on the patient. The main aim was to avoid unnecessary repeat examinations. According to the new Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV), practices and clinics are no longer obliged to offer their patients X-ray passports and to enter examinations in them. The Radiation Protection Ordinance came into force on December 31, 2018, together with the Radiation Protection Act (StrlSchG) passed in 2017, replacing the previous Radiation Protection Ordinance and the X-ray Ordinance. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) continues to advise patients to keep records of their own radiation diagnostic examinations. On its website, the BfS provides a downloadable document that can be used for personal documentation.	870	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,013	232	2,024	8	10	54	32
In Switzerland, institutionalized radiation protection began in 1955 with the issuance of guidelines for protection against ionizing radiation in medicine, laboratories, industry and manufacturing plants, although these were only recommendations. The legal basis was created by a new constitutional article (Art. 24), according to which the federal government issues regulations on protection against the dangers of ionizing radiation. On this basis, a corresponding federal law entered into force on July 1, 1960. The first Swiss ordinance on radiation protection entered into force on May 1, 1963. On October 7, 1963, the Federal Department of Home Affairs (EDI) issued the following decrees to supplement the ordinance:	722	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,014	233	2,024	8	10	54	32
Another 40 regulations followed. The monitoring of such facilities took many years due to a lack of personnel. From 1963, dosimeters were to be used for personal protection, but this met with great resistance. It was not until 1989 that an updated radiation protection law was passed, accompanied by radiation protection training for the people concerned.	355	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,015	234	2,024	8	10	54	32
The legal basis for radiation protection in Austria is the Radiation Protection Act (BGBl. 277/69 as amended) of June 11, 1969. The tasks of radiation protection extend to the fields of medicine, commerce and industry, research, schools, worker protection and food. The General Radiation Protection Ordinance, Federal Law Gazette II No. 191/2006, has been in force since June 1, 2006. Based on the Radiation Protection Act, it regulates the handling of radiation sources and measures for protection against ionizing radiation. The Optical Radiation Ordinance (VOPST) is a detailed ordinance to the Occupational Safety and Health Act (ASchG).	641	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,016	235	2,024	8	10	54	32
On August 1, 2020, a new radiation protection law came into force, which largely harmonized the radiation protection regulations for artificial radioactive substances and terrestrial natural radioactive substances. They are now enshrined in the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020. Companies that carry out activities with naturally occurring radioactive substances are now subject to the licensing or notification requirements pursuant to Sections 15 to 17 of the Radiation Protection Act 2020, unless an exemption provision pursuant to Sections 7 or 8 of the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020 applies. Cement production including maintenance of clinker kilns, production of primary iron and tin, lead and copper smelting are included in the scope. If a company falls within the scope of the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020, its owner must commission an officially authorized monitoring body. The mandate includes dose assessment for workers who may be exposed to increased radiation exposure and, if necessary, determination of the activity concentration of residues and radioactive substances discharged with the air or waste water.	1,165	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,017	236	2,024	8	10	54	32
Wikipedia is an encyclopedia anyone can edit. As a result, medical information on Wikipedia is not guaranteed to be true, correct, precise, or up-to-date! Wikipedia is not a substitute for a doctor or medical professional. None of the volunteers who write articles, maintain the systems or assist users can take responsibility for medical advice, and the same applies for the Wikimedia Foundation.	397	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,018	237	2,024	8	10	54	32
If you need medical assistance, please call your national emergency telephone number, or contact a medical professional (for instance, a qualified doctor/physician, nurse, pharmacist/chemist, and so on) for advice. Nothing on Wikipedia.org or included as part of any project of Wikimedia Foundation Inc., should be construed as an attempt to offer or render a medical opinion or otherwise engage in the practice of medicine.	424	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,019	238	2,024	8	10	54	32
Please see the article Wikipedia:Medical disclaimer for more information.	73	History_of_radiation_protection	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_radiation_protection	102,020	239	2,024	8	10	54	32
Sufi Zafar is a physicist and electrical engineer known for her research on CMOS -based biosensors. She has a 1991 PhD in physics from Syracuse University, and works as a researcher for IBM Research at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center.	239	Sufi_Zafar	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_Zafar	102,021	0	2,024	8	10	54	32
Zafar was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2007, after a nomination from the APS Forum on Industrial & Applied Physics, "for her contribution to the understanding of electrical degradation and charge transport mechanisms in high permittivity and SiO2 dielectric thin films, with a focus on advanced CMOS and memory device applications". She was elected as an IEEE Fellow in 2023, "for contributions to CMOS-compatible biosensors and high permittivity field effect transistor reliability models".	524	Sufi_Zafar	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_Zafar	102,022	1	2,024	8	10	54	32
In 2021 she received the 2021 FIAP Career Lectureship Award of the APS, "for contributions to semiconductor device-based biosensors with applications in biology, healthcare and Internet of Things (IoT)". She was a Distinguished Lecturer of the APS for 2022.	257	Sufi_Zafar	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufi_Zafar	102,023	2	2,024	8	10	54	32
Colored Symmetry is a book by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov and published by Pergamon Press in 1964. The book contains translations of materials originally written in Russian and published between 1951 and 1958. The book was notable because it gave English-language speakers access to new work in the fields of dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry.	350	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,024	0	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book is divided into two parts. The first part is a translation into English of A.V. Shubnikov's book Symmetry and antisymmetry of finite figures (Russian: Симметрия и антисимметрия конечных фигур) originally published in 1951. As the editor says in his preface, this book rekindled interest in the field of antisymmetry after a break of 20 years. The book defines symmetry elements, operations and groups; it then introduces the concept of antisymmetry, and derives the full set of dichromatic three-dimensional point groups. A paper entitled Antisymmetry of textures is appended to part 1; it analyzes the antisymmetry of groups containing infinity-fold axes.	665	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,025	1	2,024	8	10	54	32
The second part, entitled Infinite groups of colored symmetry, consists of translations of six papers by N.V. Belov and his co-workers in the new field of polychromatic symmetry. These papers cover the derivation of the 42 magnetic Bravais lattices and the 1651 magnetic space groups, the 46 dichromatic plane groups, mosaics for the 46 dichromatic plane groups, one-dimensional infinite crystallographic groups, polychromatic plane groups, and three-dimensional mosaics with colored symmetry.	493	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,026	2	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book is written for crystallographers, mathematicians and physics researchers who are interested in the application of color symmetry to crystal structure analysis and physics experiments involving magnetic or ferroelectric materials.	238	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,027	3	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book had a mixed reception from reviewers. Allen Nussbaum in American Scientist praised the editor for constructing a consistent story from the original works, but criticised the papers in part two for being difficult to read. G.S. Pawley in a review for Science Progress gave credit to the editor for adding the international notation next to the authors' "retrograde personal notation". However, he criticised claims that the book is a "valuable reference book" as being "optimistic". Martin Buerger in an extensive review for Science also offered both praise and criticism. He stated that previous work in the field by William Barlow and H.J. Woods is not given sufficient credit by the authors and is largely missing from the, otherwise full, bibliography. He praised Shubnikov's book (part 1) as being "very clearly written, well illustrated, and easy to understand", but criticised Belov's papers in part 2 because they "lack a central unifying theme." R.J. Davis in a brief review in Mineralogical Magazine said "this book is therefore unique in English and forms an essential introduction to modern developments in symmetry theory."	1,144	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,028	4	2,024	8	10	54	32
In later reviews of the literature by R.L.E. Schwarzenberger and by Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns the work of the Russian color symmetry school led by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov was put into its proper historical context. Schwarzenberger, and Grünbaum and Shephard, give credit to Shubnikov and Belov for relaunching the field of color symmetry after the work of Heinrich Heesch and H.J. Woods in the 1930s was largely ignored. However, they criticise Shubnikov and Belov for taking a crystallographic rather than a group-theoretic approach, and for using their own confusing notation rather than adopting the international standard Hermann–Mauguin notation for crystallographic symmetry elements.	739	Colored_Symmetry_(book)	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colored_Symmetry_(book)	102,029	5	2,024	8	10	54	32
Symmetry in Science and Art is a book by A.V. Shubnikov and V.A. Koptsik published by Plenum Press in 1974. The book is a translation of Simmetrija v nauke i iskusstve (Russian: Симметрия в науке и искусстве) published by Nauka in 1972. The book was notable because it gave English-language speakers access to Russian work in the fields of dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry.	379	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,030	0	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book is divided into two parts. The first part is an updated version of A.V. Shubnikov's 1940 book Symmetry: laws of symmetry and their application in science, technology and applied arts (Russian: Симметрия : законы симметрии и их применение в науке, технике и прикладном искусстве). The following types of classical (one-color) and dichromatic (two-color) symmetries are covered in the first part of the book: one-sided rosettes, figures with a singular point, one-sided bands, two-sided bands, rods, network patterns, layers and space groups.	549	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,031	1	2,024	8	10	54	32
The second part consists of three new chapters written by V.A. Koptsik covering the following subjects: group theory, crystallographic groups, antisymmetry, colored symmetry, symmetry in science and art, and conservation laws.	226	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,032	2	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book is written for crystallographers, mathematicians and physicists who are interested in the application of color symmetry to crystal structure analysis and physics experiments involving magnetic or ferroelectric materials. Werner Nowacki in his review of the book for Science stated: "This is an extraordinary book, dealing with symmetry in all its aspects and written for the nonspecialist as well as the specialist (crystallographer and physicist) in this domain of natural sciences."	493	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,033	3	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book had a mixed reception from contemporary reviewers. Marc H. Bornstein in a review for Leonardo praised the book: "Shubnikov and Koptsik, I find, should stand beside Weyl's classic treatise, Symmetry ". Werner Nowacki wrote a positive review: "This clearly written, beautifully illustrated book will become a standard work for all who are interested in unifying branches of natural sciences and of art, and we must be grateful to the translator, the editor, and the publisher for having produced such a precious publication."	532	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,034	4	2,024	8	10	54	32
However, Herbert Callen in American Scientist, criticised the book:"The book remains as it was in its original edition - an exhaustive classification of symmetry groups for systems with particular types of symmetry operations, now updated by Koptsik. The larger philosophical and aesthetic extensions, however, do not meet Western standards of critical accuracy, rigour, or precision of statement; they are not pursued in any depth, and they draw on no currents of thought outside the Soviet Union."	499	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,035	5	2,024	8	10	54	32
Tony Crilly, when reviewing Jaswon and Rose's Crystal symmetry, theory of colour crystallography in The Mathematical Gazette in 1984 commented: "The beginning student would find Symmetry in Science and Art (by A. V. Shubnikov and V. A. Koptsick, 1974) a stimulating introduction to the ideas worked out in technical detail by Jaswon and Rose." István and Magdolna Hargittai in the preface to their book Symmetry through the eyes of a chemist remarked: "We would like especially to note here two classics in the literature of symmetry which have strongly influenced us: Weyl 's Symmetry and Shubnikov and Koptsik's Symmetry in Science and Art ".	644	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,036	6	2,024	8	10	54	32
In later reviews of the literature by R.L.E. Schwarzenberger and by Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns the work of the Russian color symmetry school led by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov was put into its proper historical context. Schwarzenberger, and Grünbaum and Shephard, give credit to Shubnikov and Belov for relaunching the field of color symmetry after the work of Heinrich Heesch and H.J. Woods in the 1930s was largely ignored. However, they criticise Shubnikov and Koptsik for taking a crystallographic rather than a group-theoretic approach, and for continuing to use their own confusing notation rather than adopting the international standard Hermann–Mauguin notation for crystallographic symmetry elements.	753	Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_in_Science_and_Art	102,037	7	2,024	8	10	54	32
Color and Symmetry is a book by Arthur L. Loeb published by Wiley Interscience in 1971. The author adopts an unconventional algorithmic approach to generating the line and plane groups based on the concept of "rotocenter" (the invariant point of a rotation). He then introduces the concept of two or more colors to derive all of the plane dichromatic symmetry groups and some of the polychromatic symmetry groups.	413	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,038	0	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book is divided into three parts. In the first part, chapters 1–7, the author introduces his "algorismic" (algorithmic) method based on "rotocenters" and "rotosimplexes" (a set of congruent rotocenters). He then derives the 7 frieze groups and the 17 wallpaper groups.	272	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,039	1	2,024	8	10	54	32
In the second part, chapters 8–10, the dichromatic (black-and-white, two-colored) patterns are introduced and the 17 dichromatic line groups and the 46 black-and-white dichromatic plane groups are derived.	205	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,040	2	2,024	8	10	54	32
In the third part, chapters 11–22, polychromatic patterns (3 or more colors), polychromatic line groups, and polychromatic plane groups are derived and illustrated. Loeb's synthetic approach does not enable a comparison of colour symmetry concepts and definitions by other authors, and it is therefore not surprising that the number of polychromatic patterns he identifies are different from that published elsewhere.	417	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,041	3	2,024	8	10	54	32
Unusually, the author does not state the target audience for his book; his publisher, in their dust jacket blurb, say " Color and Symmetry will be of primary interest on the one hand to crystallographers, chemists, material scientists, and mathematicians. On the other hand, this volume will serve the interests of those active in the fields of design, visual and environmental studies and architecture."	404	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,042	4	2,024	8	10	54	32
Only a school-level mathematical background is required to follow the author's logical development of his argument. Group theory is not used in the book, which is beneficial to readers without this specific mathematical background, but it makes some of the material more long-winded than it would be if it had been developed using standard group theory.	353	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,043	5	2,024	8	10	54	32
Michael Holt in his review for Leonardo said: "In this erudite and handsomely presented monograph, then, designers should find a rich source of explicit rules for pattern-making and mathematicians and crystallographers a welcome and novel slant on symmetry operations with colours."	282	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,044	6	2,024	8	10	54	32
The book had a generally positive reception from contemporary reviewers. W.E. Klee in a review for Acta Crystallographica wrote: " Color and Symmetry will surely stimulate new interest in colour symmetries and will be of special interest to crystallographers. People active in design may also profit from this book." D.M. Brink in a review for Physics Bulletin published by the Institute of Physics said: "The book will be useful to workers with a technical interest in periodic structures and also to more general readers who are fascinated by symmetrical patterns. The illustrations encourage the reader to understand the mathematical structure underlying the patterns."	672	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,045	7	2,024	8	10	54	32
J.D.H. Donney in a review for Physics Today said: "This book should prove useful to physicists, chemists, crystallographers (of course), but also to decorators and designers, from textiles to ceramics. It will be enjoyed, not only by mathematicians, but by all lovers of orderliness, logic and beauty." David Harker in a review for Science said: "It may well be that this work will become a classic essay on planar color symmetry"	430	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,046	8	2,024	8	10	54	32
The author's idiosyncratic approach was not adopted by researchers in the field, and later assessments of Loeb's contribution to color symmetry were more critical of his work than earlier reviewers had been. Marjorie Senechal said that Loeb's work on polychromatic patterns, whilst not wrong, imposed artificial restrictions which meant that some valid colored patterns with three or more colors were excluded from his lists.	425	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,047	9	2,024	8	10	54	32
R.L.E. Schwarzenberger in 1980 said: "The study of colour symmetry has been bedevilled by a lack of precise definitions when the number of colours is greater than two... it is unfortunate that this paper was apparently ignored by Shubnikov and Loeb whose books give incomplete and unsystematic listings." In a 1984 review paper Schwarzenberger remarks: "... these authors [including Loeb] confine themselves to a restricted class of colour group... for N > 2 the effect is to dramatically limit the number of colour groups considered."	535	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,048	10	2,024	8	10	54	32
Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns gave an assessment of previous work in the field. Commenting on Color and Symmetry they said:"Loeb gives an original, interesting and satisfactory account of the 2-color groups... unfortunately when discussing multicolor patterns, Loeb restricts the admissible color changes so severely that he obtains a total of only 54 periodic k -color configurations with k ≥ 3." Later authors determined that the total number of k -color configurations with 3 ≤ k ≤ 12 is 751.	534	Color_and_Symmetry	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_and_Symmetry	102,049	11	2,024	8	10	54	32
WonderFest is an American fan convention focusing on science fiction and horror, held annually since 1992 after two years as a predecessor event. "One of the biggest hobby events in the country," it takes place in Louisville, Kentucky, and is the site of the annual presentation of the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards.	321	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,050	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
WonderFest originated in 1990 as the hobbyist club The Scale Figure Modelers Society's Louisville Plastic Kit & Toy Show, held at a Ramada Inn hotel. The club had been founded the year before by Irwin Severs and Larry Johnson. In 1992, the convention changed its name to WonderFest, and was held at a larger venue. Four years later, it relocated to its current home, the hotel Crowne Plaza, formerly Executive West. The convention formally split off from the hobbyist club after the 1997 show. The edition originally scheduled for May 30–31, 2020, and then October 24–25, 200, was canceled because of the COVID-19 pandemic.	623	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,051	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
Guests throughout the years have included filmmakers / TV producers Joe Dante, D. C. Fontana, Nicholas Meyer, Greg Nicotero, and George Romero, genre-film actors and actresses Dirk Benedict, Martine Beswick, Veronica and Angela Cartwright, Joanna Cassidy, Yvonne Craig, Claudia Christian, Denise Crosby, Sybil Danning, Keir Dullea, Anne Francis, Marta Kristen, Gary Lockwood, Kevin McCarthy, Lee Meriwether, Caroline Munro, Robert Picardo, Linnea Quigley, and Brinke Stevens, special effects artists Ray Harryhausen, Tom Savini, and Chris Walas, comics and children's-book writers / artists Frank Cho, Basil Gogos, Joe Jusko, Michael Kaluta, Mark Schultz, William Stout, and Bernie Wrightson, and horror scions Sara Karloff and Vanessa Harryhausen. It also features cosplayers.	777	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,052	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
Events there include the annual presentation of the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards and the WonderFest Model Contest, hosted by Amazing Figure Modeler magazine. Charitable outreach has included raffles to benefit the Pediatric AIDS Foundation and the WHAS Crusade for Children.	280	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,053	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
In 2014, three Louisville, Kentucky-based podcasters attempted to set a Guinness World Record at WonderFest for the Longest Uninterrupted Webcast (now called now Longest Audio-Only Live Stream), Tower of Technobabble, to raise money for a local animal organization's spay and neuter program. They set the then-record of 41 hours.	329	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,054	4	2,024	8	10	54	33
The CEO as of 2004 was Dave Hodge. As of 2022, its CEO was Melina Angstrom.	75	WonderFest	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest	102,055	5	2,024	8	10	54	33
In probability theory, the KPZ fixed point is a Markov field and conjectured to be a universal limit of a wide range of stochastic models forming the universality class of a non-linear stochastic partial differential equation called the KPZ equation. Even though the universality class was already introduced in 1986 with the KPZ equation itself, the KPZ fixed point was not concretely specified until 2021 when mathematicians Konstantin Matetski, Jeremy Quastel and Daniel Remenik gave an explicit description of the transition probabilities in terms of Fredholm determinants.	577	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,056	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
All models in the KPZ class have in common, that they have a fluctuating height function or some analogue function, that can be thought of as a function, that models the growth of the model by time. The KPZ equation itself is also a member of this class and the canonical model of modelling random interface growth. The strong KPZ universality conjecture conjectures that all models in the KPZ universality class converge under a specific scaling of the height function to the KPZ fixed point and only depend on the initial condition.	534	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,057	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
Matetski-Quastel-Remenik constructed the KPZ fixed point for the ( 1 + 1 ) -dimensional KPZ universality class (i.e. one space and one time dimension) on the polish space of upper semicontinous functions (UC) with the topology of local UC convergence. They did this by studying a particular model of the KPZ universality class the TASEP („Totally Asymmetric Simple Exclusion Process“) with general initial conditions and the random walk of its associated height function. They achieved this by rewriting the biorthogonal function of the correlation kernel, that appears in the Fredholm determinant formula for the multi-point distribution of the particles in the Weyl chamber. Then they showed convergence to the fixed point.	725	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,058	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
Let h ( t , x → → ) denote a height function of some probabilistic model with ( t , x → → ) ∈ ∈ R × × R d denoting space-time. So far only the case for d = 1 , also noted as ( 1 + 1 ) , was deeply studied, therefore we fix this dimension for the rest of the article. In the KPZ universality class exist two equilibrium points or fixed points, the trivial Edwards-Wilkinson (EW) fixed point and the non-trivial KPZ fixed point. The KPZ equation connects them together.	467	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,059	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
The KPZ fixed point is rather defined as a height function h ( t , x → → ) and not as a particular model with a height function.	128	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,060	4	2,024	8	10	54	33
The KPZ fixed point ( h ( t , x ) ) t ≥ ≥ 0 , x ∈ ∈ R is a Markov process, such that the n-point distribution for x 1 < x 2 < ⋯ ⋯ < x n ∈ ∈ R and t > 0 can be represented as	173	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,061	5	2,024	8	10	54	33
where a 1 , … … , a n ∈ ∈ R and K is a trace class operator called the extended Brownian scattering operator and the subscript means that the process in h ( 0 , ⋅ ⋅ ) starts.	174	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,062	6	2,024	8	10	54	33
The KPZ conjecture conjectures that the height function h ( t , x → → ) of all models in the KPZ universality at time t fluctuate around the mean with an order of t 1 / 3 and the spacial correlation of the fluctuation is of order t 2 / 3 . This motivates the so-called 1:2:3 scaling which is the characteristic scaling for the KPZ fixed point. The EW fixed point has also a scaling the 1:2:4 scaling. The fixed points are invariant under their associated scaling.	463	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,063	7	2,024	8	10	54	33
The 1:2:3 scaling of a height function is for ε ε > 0	53	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,064	8	2,024	8	10	54	33
where 1:3 and 2:3 stand for the proportions of the exponents and C ε ε is just a constant.	90	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,065	9	2,024	8	10	54	33
The strong conjecture says, that all models in the KPZ universality class converge under 1:2:3 scaling of the height function if their initial conditions also converge, i.e.	173	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,066	10	2,024	8	10	54	33
with initial condition	22	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,067	11	2,024	8	10	54	33
where c 1 , c 2 , c 3 are constants depending on the model.	59	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,068	12	2,024	8	10	54	33
If we remove the growth term in the KPZ equation, we get	56	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,069	13	2,024	8	10	54	33
which converges under the 1:2:4 scaling	39	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,070	14	2,024	8	10	54	33
to the EW fixed point. The weak conjecture says now, that the KPZ equation is the only Heteroclinic orbit between the KPZ and EW fixed point.	141	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,071	15	2,024	8	10	54	33
If one fixes the time dimension and looks at the limit	54	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,072	16	2,024	8	10	54	33
then one gets the Airy process ( A ( x ) ) x ∈ ∈ R which also occurs in the theory of random matrices.	102	KPZ_fixed_point	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point	102,073	17	2,024	8	10	54	33
Boronization is a wall conditioning technique for fusion machines (such as tokamaks), where a thin film of boron is deposited on the walls of the vacuum vessel in order to reduce the impurity content (for example oxygen) which can be deleterious for fusion plasma operation.	274	Boronization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization	102,074	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
This technique can be seen as a plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition of boron. The typical workflow involves performing a glow discharge and injecting a gas containing boron into the vacuum vessel chamber.	210	Boronization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization	102,075	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
Boronization as a wall conditioning technique was first developed for the TEXTOR tokamak at the Forschungszentrum Jülich. It is now a well-established technique and is widely used in many tokamaks in the world.	210	Boronization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization	102,076	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
This physics -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.	80	Boronization	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization	102,077	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
Cosmic ray astronomy is a branch of observational astronomy where scientists attempt to identify and study the potential sources of extremely high-energy (ranging from 1 MeV to more than 1 EeV) charged particles called cosmic rays coming from outer space. These particles, which include protons (nucleus of hydrogen), electrons, positrons and atomic nuclei (mostly of helium, but potentially of all chemical elements), travel through space at nearly the speed of light (such as the ultra-high-energy " Oh-My-God particle ") and provide valuable insights into the most energetic processes in the universe. Unlike other branches of observational astronomy, it uniquely relies on charged particles as carriers of information.	722	Cosmic_ray_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy	102,078	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
Astronomers use ground-based detectors, high-altitude research balloons, artificial satellites and other methods to detect cosmic rays. Ground-based detectors, often spread over large areas (for example, the Pierre Auger Observatory is an array of detectors spread over 3,000 square kilometers), identify and analyze the secondary particles (electrons, positrons, photons, muons, etc.) produced in a chain reaction of particle interactions triggered by the collision of cosmic rays and Earth's atmosphere. The properties of the original cosmic ray particle, such as arrival direction and energy, are inferred from the measured properties of the extensive air shower, which is the cascade of secondary particles collectively showering down through the atmosphere. There are two kinds of ground-based detectors: Surface detector arrays analyze the air shower at a unique altitude, whereas air fluorescence detectors record the shower development in the atmosphere, based on the interactions of air shower particles with nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere. Modern "hybrid" detectors, such as the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina and the Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory in Sichuan, China, take advantage of the complementary nature of these two. Moreover, scientific balloons (such as the one used in Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment) and satellites (such as China's Dark Matter Particle Explorer or DAMPE telescope) can also be used to observe pure cosmic rays at very high altitudes and in outer space.	1,527	Cosmic_ray_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy	102,079	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
By studying the energy, direction, and composition of cosmic rays, scientists can uncover the sources and acceleration mechanisms behind these particles, which reveal astrophysical processes such as supernova explosions, black hole accretion, and galactic magnetic fields. Observations of cosmic rays led to the discovery of subatomic particles beyond the proton, neutron, and electron, including the positron and the muon, laying the groundwork for modern particle physics. It reveals the nucleosynthetic processes leading to the origin of the elements. By measuring cosmic rays, scientists discovered the presence of magnetic fields and radiation in the Solar System. Some cosmic rays originate from beyond the Solar System or galaxy, allowing scientists to estimate the amount and composition of matter in the universe, providing crucial information about its makeup. Cosmic rays are generated in extreme astrophysical environments such as exploding stars, black holes, and galactic collisions and provide a rare window into these processes. Energetic cosmic rays can interact with objects traveling through space, altering their isotopic composition. By studying these isotopes in meteorites, scientists can determine when they formed and fell on Earth, providing insights into the history of the Solar System. Cosmic rays have practical applications, including monitoring soil moisture for agriculture and irrigation practices and carbon-14 dating, which helps determine the ages of archaeological artifacts and geological formations.	1,539	Cosmic_ray_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy	102,080	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
Historical milestones in cosmic ray astronomy inclue Victor Hess 's discovery of cosmic rays during balloon flights in 1912; the identification of new subatomic particles like the positron and muon in the 1930s, expanding our understanding of particle physics; Pierre Victor Auger 's discovery of extensive particle showers from cosmic ray collisions high in the atmosphere; ground-based detectors measuring cosmic ray flux and energy spectrum in the 1940s-1950s; the establishment of the Volcano Ranch cosmic ray observatory in the 1960s, initiating large-scale experiments; the discovery of cosmic ray anisotropy (the fact that cosmic rays do not arrive uniformly from every region of the sky) in the 1960s, unveiling variations in flux and direction; the emergence of high-energy gamma-ray telescopes in the 1980s-1990s, enabling observations of gamma rays produced by cosmic ray interactions; the advent of space-based detectors like AMS-02 on the International Space Station in the 2000s, providing insights from space; and recent progress in multi-messenger astronomy in the 2010s, integrating cosmic ray observations with other astrophysical signals for a more complete view of cosmic phenomena.	1,202	Cosmic_ray_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy	102,081	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
With advancements in technology and the development of more sensitive detection systems, astronomers anticipate making new discoveries about the sources, acceleration mechanisms, and propagation of cosmic rays. These insights will contribute to a deeper understanding of the underlying physics governing the cosmos. Future cosmic ray observatories, such as the Cherenkov Telescope Array, will use advanced techniques to detect gamma rays produced by cosmic ray interactions in Earth's atmosphere. Since these gamma rays will be the most sensitive means to study cosmic rays near their source, these observatories will enable astronomers to study cosmic rays with unprecedented precision. Cosmic ray astronomy faces difficulty in identifying the exact sources of cosmic rays because charged particles are deflected by magnetic fields in space, and as a result tracing the paths of cosmic rays back to their origins require sophisticated modeling techniques and multi-messenger observations to infer their source locations. Moreover, due to the high-energy nature of these rays, the need for full-sky exposure, minimization of deflection by magnetic fields and elimination of background from distant sources present technical challenges.	1,235	Cosmic_ray_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy	102,082	4	2,024	8	10	54	33
In gas dynamics, the Landau derivative or fundamental derivative of gas dynamics, named after Lev Landau who introduced it in 1942, refers to a dimensionless physical quantity characterizing the curvature of the isentrope drawn on the specific volume versus pressure plane. Specifically, the Landau derivative is a second derivative of specific volume with respect to pressure. The derivative is denoted commonly using the symbol Γ Γ or α α and is defined by	458	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,083	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
where	5	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,084	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
Alternate representations of Γ Γ include	40	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,085	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
For most common gases, Γ Γ > 0 , whereas abnormal substances such as the BZT fluids exhibit Γ Γ < 0 . In an isentropic process, the sound speed increases with pressure when Γ Γ > 1 ; this is the case for ideal gases. Specifically for polytropic gases (ideal gas with constant specific heats), the Landau derivative is a constant and given by	341	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,086	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
where γ γ > 1 is the specific heat ratio. Some non-ideal gases falls in the range 0 < Γ Γ < 1 , for which the sound speed decreases with pressure during an isentropic transformation.	182	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,087	4	2,024	8	10	54	33
This physics -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.	80	Landau_derivative	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative	102,088	5	2,024	8	10	54	33
Data-driven astronomy (DDA) refers to the use of data science in astronomy. Several outputs of telescopic observations and sky surveys are taken into consideration and approaches related to data mining and big data management are used to analyze, filter, and normalize the data set that are further used for making Classifications, Predictions, and Anomaly detections by advanced Statistical approaches, digital image processing and machine learning. The output of these processes is used by astronomers and space scientists to study and identify patterns, anomalies, and movements in outer space and conclude theories and discoveries in the cosmos.	649	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,089	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
In 2007, the Galaxy Zoo project was launched for morphological classification of a large number of galaxies. In this project, 900,000 images were considered for classification that were taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) for the past 7 years. The task was to study each picture of a galaxy, classify it as elliptical or spiral, and determine whether it was spinning or not. The team of Astrophysicists led by Kevin Schawinski in Oxford University were in charge of this project and Kevin and his colleague Chris Linlott figured out that it would take a period of 3–5 years for such a team to complete the work. There they came up with the idea of using Machine Learning and Data Science techniques for analyzing the images and classifying them.	756	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,090	1	2,024	8	10	54	33
The data retrieved from the sky surveys are first brought for data preprocessing. In this, redundancies are removed and filtrated. Further, feature extraction is performed on this filtered data set, which is further taken for processes. Some of the renowned sky surveys are listed below:	287	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,091	2	2,024	8	10	54	33
The size of data from the above-mentioned sky surveys ranges from 3 TB to almost 4.6 EB. Further, data mining tasks that are involved in the management and manipulation of the data involve methods like classification, regression, clustering, anomaly detection, and time-series analysis. Several approaches and applications for each of these methods are involved in the task accomplishments.	390	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,092	3	2,024	8	10	54	33
Classification is used for specific identifications and categorizations of astronomical data such as Spectral classification, Photometric classification, Morphological classification, and classification of solar activity. The approaches of classification techniques are listed below:	283	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,093	4	2,024	8	10	54	33
Regression is used to make predictions based on the retrieved data through statistical trends and statistical modeling. Different uses of this technique are used for fetching Photometric redshifts and measurements of physical parameters of stars. The approaches are listed below:	279	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,094	5	2,024	8	10	54	33
Clustering is classifying objects based on a similarity measure metric. It is used in Astronomy for Classification as well as Special/rare object detection. The approaches are listed below:	189	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,095	6	2,024	8	10	54	33
Anomaly detection is used for detecting irregularities in the dataset. However, this technique is used here to detect rare/special objects. The following approaches are used:	174	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,096	7	2,024	8	10	54	33
Time-Series analysis helps in analyzing trends and predicting outputs over time. It is used for trend prediction and novel detection (detection of unknown data). The approaches used here are:	191	Data-driven_astronomy	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy	102,097	8	2,024	8	10	54	33
Andre Dekker is a Dutch medical physicist, author, and academic who is a Professor and Head of Clinical Data Science at Maastricht University (UM), Maastricht UMC+ and Maastro Clinic. He also holds the position of Chief Scientific Officer at Medical Data Works.	261	Andre_Dekker	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Dekker	102,098	0	2,024	8	10	54	33
Dekker's research centers on federated FAIR data infrastructures, AI for health outcome prediction models, and applying AI to enhance patient and citizen health. He has written of 250 articles and is the co-author of the book Fundamentals of Clinical Data Science.	264	Andre_Dekker	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Dekker	102,099	1	2,024	8	10	54	33

Environmental radioactivity has been monitored in Germany since the 1950s. Until 1986, this was carried out by various authorities that did not coordinate with each other. Following the confusion during the Chernobyl reactor disaster in April 1986, measurement activities were pooled in the IMIS (Integrated Measurement and Information System) project, an environmental information system for monitoring radioactivity in Germany. Previously, the measuring equipment was affiliated to the warning offices under the name WADIS ("Warning service information system").

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The aim of the CONCERT (European Joint Programme for the Integration of Radiation Protection Research) project is to establish a joint European program for radiation protection research in Europe in 2018, based on the current strategic research programs of the European research platforms MELODI (radiation effects and radiation risks), ALLIANCE (radioecology), NERIS (nuclear and radiological emergency response), EURADOS (radiation dosimetry) and EURAMED (medical radiation protection).

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The REWARD (Real time wide area radiation surveillance system) project was established to address the threats of nuclear terrorism, missing radioactive sources, radioactive contamination and nuclear accidents. The consortium developed a mobile system for real time wide area radiation monitoring based on the integration of new miniaturized solid state sensors. Two sensors are used: a cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe) detector for gamma radiation and a high efficiency neutron detector based on novel silicon technologies. The gamma and neutron detectors are integrated into a single monitoring device called a tag. The sensor unit includes a wireless communication interface to remotely transmit data to a monitoring base station, which also uses a GPS system to calculate the tag's position.

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The Nuclear Emergency Support Team (NEST) is a US program for all types of nuclear emergencies of the National Nuclear Security Administration (NNSA) of the United States Department of Energy and is also a counter-terrorism unit that responds to incidents involving radioactive materials or nuclear weapons in US possession abroad. It was founded in 1974/75 under US President Gerald Ford and renamed the Nuclear Emergency Support Team in 2002. In 1988, a secret agreement from 1976 between the USA and the Federal Republic of Germany became known, which stipulates the deployment of NEST in the Federal Republic. In Germany, a similar unit has existed since 2003 with the name Central Federal Support Group for Serious Cases of Nuclear-Specific Emergency Response (ZUB).

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As early as 1905, the Frenchman Viktor Hennecart called for special legislation to regulate the use of X-rays. In England, Sidney Russ (1879-1963) suggested to the British Roentgen Society in 1915 that it should develop its own set of safety standards, which it did in July 1921 with the formation of the British X-Ray and Radium Protection Committee. In the United States, the American X-Ray Society developed its own guidelines in 1922. In the German Reich, a special committee of the German X-Ray Society under Franz Maximilian Groedel (1881-1951), Hans Liniger (1863-1933) and Heinz Lossen (1893-1967) formulated the first guidelines after the First World War. In 1953, the employers' liability insurance associations issued the accident prevention regulation "Use of X-rays in medical facilities" based on the legal basis in § 848a of the Reich Insurance Code (RVG). In the GDR, the Occupational Safety and Health Regulation (ASAO) 950 was in effect from 1954 to 1971. It was replaced by ASAO 980 on April 1, 1971.

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The European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) was founded on March 25, 1957, by the Treaty of Rome between France, Italy, the Benelux countries and the Federal Republic of Germany, and remains almost unchanged to this day. Chapter 3 of the Euratom Treaty regulates measures to protect the health of the population. Article 35 requires facilities for the continuous monitoring of soil, air and water for radioactivity. As a result, monitoring networks have been set up in all Member States and the data collected is sent to the EU's central database (EURDEP, European Radiological Data Exchange Platform). The platform is part of the EU's ECURIE system for the exchange of information in the event of radiological emergencies and became operational in 1995. Switzerland also participates in this information system.

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In Germany, the first X-ray regulation (RGBl. I p. 88) was issued in 1941 and originally applied to non-medical companies. The first medical regulations were issued in October 1953 by the Main Association of Industrial Employer's Liability Insurance Associations as accident prevention regulations for the Reich Insurance Code. Basic standards for radiation protection were introduced by directives of the European Atomic Energy Community (EURATOM) on February 2, 1959. The Atomic Energy Act of December 23, 1959 is the national legal basis for all radiation protection legislation in the Federal Republic of Germany (West) with the Radiation Protection Ordinance of June 24, 1960 (only for radioactive substances), the Radiation Protection Ordinance of July 18, 1964 (for the medical sector) and the X-ray Ordinance of March 1, 1973. Radiation protection was formulated in § 1, according to which life, health and property are to be protected from the dangers of nuclear energy and the harmful effects of ionizing radiation and damage caused by nuclear energy or ionizing radiation is to be compensated. The Radiation Protection Ordinance sets dose limits for the general population and for occupationally exposed persons. In general, any use of ionizing radiation must be justified and radiation exposure must be kept as low as possible even below the limit values. To this end, physicians, dentists and veterinarians, for example, must provide proof every five years - by Section 18a (2) X-ray Ordinance. in the version dated April 30, 2003 - that their specialist knowledge in radiation protection has been updated and must complete a full-day course with a final examination. Specialist knowledge in radiation protection is required by the Technical Knowledge Guideline according to X-ray Ordinance. - R3 for persons who work with baggage screening equipment, industrial measuring equipment and interfering emitters. Since 2019, the regulatory areas of the previous X-ray and radiation protection ordinances have been merged in the amended Radiation Protection Ordinance.

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The Radiation Protection Commission (SSK) was founded in 1974 as an advisory body to the Federal Ministry of the Interior. It emerged from Commission IV "Radiation Protection" of the German Atomic Energy Commission, which was founded on January 26, 1956. After the Chernobyl nuclear disaster in 1986, the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection was established in the Federal Republic of Germany. The creation of this ministry was primarily a response to the perceived lack of coordination in the political response to the Chernobyl disaster and its aftermath. On December 11, 1986, the German Bundestag passed the Precautionary Radiation Protection Act (StrVG) to protect the population, to monitor radioactivity in the environment, and to minimize human exposure to radiation and radioactive contamination of the environment in the event of radioactive accidents or incidents. The last revision of the X-Ray Ordinance was issued on January 8, 1987. As part of a comprehensive modernization of German radiation protection law, which is largely based on Directive 2013/59/Euratom, the provisions of the X-Ray Ordinance have been incorporated into the revised Radiation Protection Ordinance.

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Among many other measures, contaminated food was withdrawn from the market on a large scale. Parents were strongly advised not to let their children play in sandboxes. Some of the contaminated sand was replaced. In 1989, the Federal Office for Radiation Protection was incorporated into the Ministry of the Environment. On April 30, 2003, a new precautionary radiation protection law was promulgated to implement two EU directives on the health protection of persons against the dangers of ionizing radiation during medical exposure. The protection of workers from optical radiation (infrared radiation (IR), visible light (VIS) and ultraviolet radiation (UV)), which falls under the category of non-ionizing radiation, is regulated by the Ordinance on the Protection of Workers from Artificial Optical Radiation of 19 July 2010. It is based on the EU Directive 2006/25/EC of April 27, 2006. On March 1, 2010, the "Act on the Protection of Humans from Non-Ionizing Radiation" (NiSG), BGBl. I p. 2433, came into force, according to which the use of sunbeds by minors has been prohibited since August 4, 2009, in accordance with

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§ 4 NiSG [Network and Information Systems Security Ordinance – NIS Ordinance] (in German) A new Radiation Protection Act came into force in Germany on October 1, 2017.

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In Germany, a radiation protection officer directs and supervises activities to ensure radiation protection when handling radioactive materials or ionizing radiation. Their duties are described in

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§ 31-33 StrlSchV (in German) of the Radiation Protection Ordinance and

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§ 13-15 RöV (in German) of the X-Ray Ordinance. They are appointed by the radiation protection officer, who is responsible for ensuring that all radiation protection regulations are observed.

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Since 2002, an x-ray pass is a document in which the examining physician or dentist must enter information about the x-ray examinations performed on the patient. The main aim was to avoid unnecessary repeat examinations. According to the new Radiation Protection Ordinance (StrlSchV), practices and clinics are no longer obliged to offer their patients X-ray passports and to enter examinations in them. The Radiation Protection Ordinance came into force on December 31, 2018, together with the Radiation Protection Act (StrlSchG) passed in 2017, replacing the previous Radiation Protection Ordinance and the X-ray Ordinance. The Federal Office for Radiation Protection (BfS) continues to advise patients to keep records of their own radiation diagnostic examinations. On its website, the BfS provides a downloadable document that can be used for personal documentation.

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In Switzerland, institutionalized radiation protection began in 1955 with the issuance of guidelines for protection against ionizing radiation in medicine, laboratories, industry and manufacturing plants, although these were only recommendations. The legal basis was created by a new constitutional article (Art. 24), according to which the federal government issues regulations on protection against the dangers of ionizing radiation. On this basis, a corresponding federal law entered into force on July 1, 1960. The first Swiss ordinance on radiation protection entered into force on May 1, 1963. On October 7, 1963, the Federal Department of Home Affairs (EDI) issued the following decrees to supplement the ordinance:

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Another 40 regulations followed. The monitoring of such facilities took many years due to a lack of personnel. From 1963, dosimeters were to be used for personal protection, but this met with great resistance. It was not until 1989 that an updated radiation protection law was passed, accompanied by radiation protection training for the people concerned.

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The legal basis for radiation protection in Austria is the Radiation Protection Act (BGBl. 277/69 as amended) of June 11, 1969. The tasks of radiation protection extend to the fields of medicine, commerce and industry, research, schools, worker protection and food. The General Radiation Protection Ordinance, Federal Law Gazette II No. 191/2006, has been in force since June 1, 2006. Based on the Radiation Protection Act, it regulates the handling of radiation sources and measures for protection against ionizing radiation. The Optical Radiation Ordinance (VOPST) is a detailed ordinance to the Occupational Safety and Health Act (ASchG).

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On August 1, 2020, a new radiation protection law came into force, which largely harmonized the radiation protection regulations for artificial radioactive substances and terrestrial natural radioactive substances. They are now enshrined in the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020. Companies that carry out activities with naturally occurring radioactive substances are now subject to the licensing or notification requirements pursuant to Sections 15 to 17 of the Radiation Protection Act 2020, unless an exemption provision pursuant to Sections 7 or 8 of the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020 applies. Cement production including maintenance of clinker kilns, production of primary iron and tin, lead and copper smelting are included in the scope. If a company falls within the scope of the General Radiation Protection Ordinance 2020, its owner must commission an officially authorized monitoring body. The mandate includes dose assessment for workers who may be exposed to increased radiation exposure and, if necessary, determination of the activity concentration of residues and radioactive substances discharged with the air or waste water.

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Wikipedia is an encyclopedia anyone can edit. As a result, medical information on Wikipedia is not guaranteed to be true, correct, precise, or up-to-date! Wikipedia is not a substitute for a doctor or medical professional. None of the volunteers who write articles, maintain the systems or assist users can take responsibility for medical advice, and the same applies for the Wikimedia Foundation.

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If you need medical assistance, please call your national emergency telephone number, or contact a medical professional (for instance, a qualified doctor/physician, nurse, pharmacist/chemist, and so on) for advice. Nothing on Wikipedia.org or included as part of any project of Wikimedia Foundation Inc., should be construed as an attempt to offer or render a medical opinion or otherwise engage in the practice of medicine.

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Please see the article Wikipedia:Medical disclaimer for more information.

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Sufi Zafar is a physicist and electrical engineer known for her research on CMOS -based biosensors. She has a 1991 PhD in physics from Syracuse University, and works as a researcher for IBM Research at the Thomas J. Watson Research Center.

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Zafar was elected as a Fellow of the American Physical Society (APS) in 2007, after a nomination from the APS Forum on Industrial & Applied Physics, "for her contribution to the understanding of electrical degradation and charge transport mechanisms in high permittivity and SiO2 dielectric thin films, with a focus on advanced CMOS and memory device applications". She was elected as an IEEE Fellow in 2023, "for contributions to CMOS-compatible biosensors and high permittivity field effect transistor reliability models".

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In 2021 she received the 2021 FIAP Career Lectureship Award of the APS, "for contributions to semiconductor device-based biosensors with applications in biology, healthcare and Internet of Things (IoT)". She was a Distinguished Lecturer of the APS for 2022.

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Colored Symmetry is a book by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov and published by Pergamon Press in 1964. The book contains translations of materials originally written in Russian and published between 1951 and 1958. The book was notable because it gave English-language speakers access to new work in the fields of dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry.

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The book is divided into two parts. The first part is a translation into English of A.V. Shubnikov's book Symmetry and antisymmetry of finite figures (Russian: Симметрия и антисимметрия конечных фигур) originally published in 1951. As the editor says in his preface, this book rekindled interest in the field of antisymmetry after a break of 20 years. The book defines symmetry elements, operations and groups; it then introduces the concept of antisymmetry, and derives the full set of dichromatic three-dimensional point groups. A paper entitled Antisymmetry of textures is appended to part 1; it analyzes the antisymmetry of groups containing infinity-fold axes.

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The second part, entitled Infinite groups of colored symmetry, consists of translations of six papers by N.V. Belov and his co-workers in the new field of polychromatic symmetry. These papers cover the derivation of the 42 magnetic Bravais lattices and the 1651 magnetic space groups, the 46 dichromatic plane groups, mosaics for the 46 dichromatic plane groups, one-dimensional infinite crystallographic groups, polychromatic plane groups, and three-dimensional mosaics with colored symmetry.

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The book is written for crystallographers, mathematicians and physics researchers who are interested in the application of color symmetry to crystal structure analysis and physics experiments involving magnetic or ferroelectric materials.

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The book had a mixed reception from reviewers. Allen Nussbaum in American Scientist praised the editor for constructing a consistent story from the original works, but criticised the papers in part two for being difficult to read. G.S. Pawley in a review for Science Progress gave credit to the editor for adding the international notation next to the authors' "retrograde personal notation". However, he criticised claims that the book is a "valuable reference book" as being "optimistic". Martin Buerger in an extensive review for Science also offered both praise and criticism. He stated that previous work in the field by William Barlow and H.J. Woods is not given sufficient credit by the authors and is largely missing from the, otherwise full, bibliography. He praised Shubnikov's book (part 1) as being "very clearly written, well illustrated, and easy to understand", but criticised Belov's papers in part 2 because they "lack a central unifying theme." R.J. Davis in a brief review in Mineralogical Magazine said "this book is therefore unique in English and forms an essential introduction to modern developments in symmetry theory."

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In later reviews of the literature by R.L.E. Schwarzenberger and by Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns the work of the Russian color symmetry school led by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov was put into its proper historical context. Schwarzenberger, and Grünbaum and Shephard, give credit to Shubnikov and Belov for relaunching the field of color symmetry after the work of Heinrich Heesch and H.J. Woods in the 1930s was largely ignored. However, they criticise Shubnikov and Belov for taking a crystallographic rather than a group-theoretic approach, and for using their own confusing notation rather than adopting the international standard Hermann–Mauguin notation for crystallographic symmetry elements.

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Symmetry in Science and Art is a book by A.V. Shubnikov and V.A. Koptsik published by Plenum Press in 1974. The book is a translation of Simmetrija v nauke i iskusstve (Russian: Симметрия в науке и искусстве) published by Nauka in 1972. The book was notable because it gave English-language speakers access to Russian work in the fields of dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry.

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The book is divided into two parts. The first part is an updated version of A.V. Shubnikov's 1940 book Symmetry: laws of symmetry and their application in science, technology and applied arts (Russian: Симметрия : законы симметрии и их применение в науке, технике и прикладном искусстве). The following types of classical (one-color) and dichromatic (two-color) symmetries are covered in the first part of the book: one-sided rosettes, figures with a singular point, one-sided bands, two-sided bands, rods, network patterns, layers and space groups.

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The second part consists of three new chapters written by V.A. Koptsik covering the following subjects: group theory, crystallographic groups, antisymmetry, colored symmetry, symmetry in science and art, and conservation laws.

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The book is written for crystallographers, mathematicians and physicists who are interested in the application of color symmetry to crystal structure analysis and physics experiments involving magnetic or ferroelectric materials. Werner Nowacki in his review of the book for Science stated: "This is an extraordinary book, dealing with symmetry in all its aspects and written for the nonspecialist as well as the specialist (crystallographer and physicist) in this domain of natural sciences."

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The book had a mixed reception from contemporary reviewers. Marc H. Bornstein in a review for Leonardo praised the book: "Shubnikov and Koptsik, I find, should stand beside Weyl's classic treatise, Symmetry ". Werner Nowacki wrote a positive review: "This clearly written, beautifully illustrated book will become a standard work for all who are interested in unifying branches of natural sciences and of art, and we must be grateful to the translator, the editor, and the publisher for having produced such a precious publication."

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However, Herbert Callen in American Scientist, criticised the book:"The book remains as it was in its original edition - an exhaustive classification of symmetry groups for systems with particular types of symmetry operations, now updated by Koptsik. The larger philosophical and aesthetic extensions, however, do not meet Western standards of critical accuracy, rigour, or precision of statement; they are not pursued in any depth, and they draw on no currents of thought outside the Soviet Union."

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Tony Crilly, when reviewing Jaswon and Rose's Crystal symmetry, theory of colour crystallography in The Mathematical Gazette in 1984 commented: "The beginning student would find Symmetry in Science and Art (by A. V. Shubnikov and V. A. Koptsick, 1974) a stimulating introduction to the ideas worked out in technical detail by Jaswon and Rose." István and Magdolna Hargittai in the preface to their book Symmetry through the eyes of a chemist remarked: "We would like especially to note here two classics in the literature of symmetry which have strongly influenced us: Weyl 's Symmetry and Shubnikov and Koptsik's Symmetry in Science and Art ".

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In later reviews of the literature by R.L.E. Schwarzenberger and by Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns the work of the Russian color symmetry school led by A.V. Shubnikov and N.V. Belov was put into its proper historical context. Schwarzenberger, and Grünbaum and Shephard, give credit to Shubnikov and Belov for relaunching the field of color symmetry after the work of Heinrich Heesch and H.J. Woods in the 1930s was largely ignored. However, they criticise Shubnikov and Koptsik for taking a crystallographic rather than a group-theoretic approach, and for continuing to use their own confusing notation rather than adopting the international standard Hermann–Mauguin notation for crystallographic symmetry elements.

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Color and Symmetry is a book by Arthur L. Loeb published by Wiley Interscience in 1971. The author adopts an unconventional algorithmic approach to generating the line and plane groups based on the concept of "rotocenter" (the invariant point of a rotation). He then introduces the concept of two or more colors to derive all of the plane dichromatic symmetry groups and some of the polychromatic symmetry groups.

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The book is divided into three parts. In the first part, chapters 1–7, the author introduces his "algorismic" (algorithmic) method based on "rotocenters" and "rotosimplexes" (a set of congruent rotocenters). He then derives the 7 frieze groups and the 17 wallpaper groups.

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In the second part, chapters 8–10, the dichromatic (black-and-white, two-colored) patterns are introduced and the 17 dichromatic line groups and the 46 black-and-white dichromatic plane groups are derived.

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In the third part, chapters 11–22, polychromatic patterns (3 or more colors), polychromatic line groups, and polychromatic plane groups are derived and illustrated. Loeb's synthetic approach does not enable a comparison of colour symmetry concepts and definitions by other authors, and it is therefore not surprising that the number of polychromatic patterns he identifies are different from that published elsewhere.

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Unusually, the author does not state the target audience for his book; his publisher, in their dust jacket blurb, say " Color and Symmetry will be of primary interest on the one hand to crystallographers, chemists, material scientists, and mathematicians. On the other hand, this volume will serve the interests of those active in the fields of design, visual and environmental studies and architecture."

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Only a school-level mathematical background is required to follow the author's logical development of his argument. Group theory is not used in the book, which is beneficial to readers without this specific mathematical background, but it makes some of the material more long-winded than it would be if it had been developed using standard group theory.

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Michael Holt in his review for Leonardo said: "In this erudite and handsomely presented monograph, then, designers should find a rich source of explicit rules for pattern-making and mathematicians and crystallographers a welcome and novel slant on symmetry operations with colours."

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The book had a generally positive reception from contemporary reviewers. W.E. Klee in a review for Acta Crystallographica wrote: " Color and Symmetry will surely stimulate new interest in colour symmetries and will be of special interest to crystallographers. People active in design may also profit from this book." D.M. Brink in a review for Physics Bulletin published by the Institute of Physics said: "The book will be useful to workers with a technical interest in periodic structures and also to more general readers who are fascinated by symmetrical patterns. The illustrations encourage the reader to understand the mathematical structure underlying the patterns."

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J.D.H. Donney in a review for Physics Today said: "This book should prove useful to physicists, chemists, crystallographers (of course), but also to decorators and designers, from textiles to ceramics. It will be enjoyed, not only by mathematicians, but by all lovers of orderliness, logic and beauty." David Harker in a review for Science said: "It may well be that this work will become a classic essay on planar color symmetry"

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The author's idiosyncratic approach was not adopted by researchers in the field, and later assessments of Loeb's contribution to color symmetry were more critical of his work than earlier reviewers had been. Marjorie Senechal said that Loeb's work on polychromatic patterns, whilst not wrong, imposed artificial restrictions which meant that some valid colored patterns with three or more colors were excluded from his lists.

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R.L.E. Schwarzenberger in 1980 said: "The study of colour symmetry has been bedevilled by a lack of precise definitions when the number of colours is greater than two... it is unfortunate that this paper was apparently ignored by Shubnikov and Loeb whose books give incomplete and unsystematic listings." In a 1984 review paper Schwarzenberger remarks: "... these authors [including Loeb] confine themselves to a restricted class of colour group... for N > 2 the effect is to dramatically limit the number of colour groups considered."

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Branko Grünbaum and G.C. Shephard in their book Tilings and patterns gave an assessment of previous work in the field. Commenting on Color and Symmetry they said:"Loeb gives an original, interesting and satisfactory account of the 2-color groups... unfortunately when discussing multicolor patterns, Loeb restricts the admissible color changes so severely that he obtains a total of only 54 periodic k -color configurations with k ≥ 3." Later authors determined that the total number of k -color configurations with 3 ≤ k ≤ 12 is 751.

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WonderFest is an American fan convention focusing on science fiction and horror, held annually since 1992 after two years as a predecessor event. "One of the biggest hobby events in the country," it takes place in Louisville, Kentucky, and is the site of the annual presentation of the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards.

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WonderFest originated in 1990 as the hobbyist club The Scale Figure Modelers Society's Louisville Plastic Kit & Toy Show, held at a Ramada Inn hotel. The club had been founded the year before by Irwin Severs and Larry Johnson. In 1992, the convention changed its name to WonderFest, and was held at a larger venue. Four years later, it relocated to its current home, the hotel Crowne Plaza, formerly Executive West. The convention formally split off from the hobbyist club after the 1997 show. The edition originally scheduled for May 30–31, 2020, and then October 24–25, 200, was canceled because of the COVID-19 pandemic.

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Guests throughout the years have included filmmakers / TV producers Joe Dante, D. C. Fontana, Nicholas Meyer, Greg Nicotero, and George Romero, genre-film actors and actresses Dirk Benedict, Martine Beswick, Veronica and Angela Cartwright, Joanna Cassidy, Yvonne Craig, Claudia Christian, Denise Crosby, Sybil Danning, Keir Dullea, Anne Francis, Marta Kristen, Gary Lockwood, Kevin McCarthy, Lee Meriwether, Caroline Munro, Robert Picardo, Linnea Quigley, and Brinke Stevens, special effects artists Ray Harryhausen, Tom Savini, and Chris Walas, comics and children's-book writers / artists Frank Cho, Basil Gogos, Joe Jusko, Michael Kaluta, Mark Schultz, William Stout, and Bernie Wrightson, and horror scions Sara Karloff and Vanessa Harryhausen. It also features cosplayers.

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WonderFest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest

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Events there include the annual presentation of the Rondo Hatton Classic Horror Awards and the WonderFest Model Contest, hosted by Amazing Figure Modeler magazine. Charitable outreach has included raffles to benefit the Pediatric AIDS Foundation and the WHAS Crusade for Children.

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In 2014, three Louisville, Kentucky-based podcasters attempted to set a Guinness World Record at WonderFest for the Longest Uninterrupted Webcast (now called now Longest Audio-Only Live Stream), Tower of Technobabble, to raise money for a local animal organization's spay and neuter program. They set the then-record of 41 hours.

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WonderFest

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest

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The CEO as of 2004 was Dave Hodge. As of 2022, its CEO was Melina Angstrom.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WonderFest

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In probability theory, the KPZ fixed point is a Markov field and conjectured to be a universal limit of a wide range of stochastic models forming the universality class of a non-linear stochastic partial differential equation called the KPZ equation. Even though the universality class was already introduced in 1986 with the KPZ equation itself, the KPZ fixed point was not concretely specified until 2021 when mathematicians Konstantin Matetski, Jeremy Quastel and Daniel Remenik gave an explicit description of the transition probabilities in terms of Fredholm determinants.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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All models in the KPZ class have in common, that they have a fluctuating height function or some analogue function, that can be thought of as a function, that models the growth of the model by time. The KPZ equation itself is also a member of this class and the canonical model of modelling random interface growth. The strong KPZ universality conjecture conjectures that all models in the KPZ universality class converge under a specific scaling of the height function to the KPZ fixed point and only depend on the initial condition.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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Matetski-Quastel-Remenik constructed the KPZ fixed point for the ( 1 + 1 ) -dimensional KPZ universality class (i.e. one space and one time dimension) on the polish space of upper semicontinous functions (UC) with the topology of local UC convergence. They did this by studying a particular model of the KPZ universality class the TASEP („Totally Asymmetric Simple Exclusion Process“) with general initial conditions and the random walk of its associated height function. They achieved this by rewriting the biorthogonal function of the correlation kernel, that appears in the Fredholm determinant formula for the multi-point distribution of the particles in the Weyl chamber. Then they showed convergence to the fixed point.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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Let h ( t , x → → ) denote a height function of some probabilistic model with ( t , x → → ) ∈ ∈ R × × R d denoting space-time. So far only the case for d = 1 , also noted as ( 1 + 1 ) , was deeply studied, therefore we fix this dimension for the rest of the article. In the KPZ universality class exist two equilibrium points or fixed points, the trivial Edwards-Wilkinson (EW) fixed point and the non-trivial KPZ fixed point. The KPZ equation connects them together.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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The KPZ fixed point is rather defined as a height function h ( t , x → → ) and not as a particular model with a height function.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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The KPZ fixed point ( h ( t , x ) ) t ≥ ≥ 0 , x ∈ ∈ R is a Markov process, such that the n-point distribution for x 1 < x 2 < ⋯ ⋯ < x n ∈ ∈ R and t > 0 can be represented as

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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where a 1 , … … , a n ∈ ∈ R and K is a trace class operator called the extended Brownian scattering operator and the subscript means that the process in h ( 0 , ⋅ ⋅ ) starts.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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The KPZ conjecture conjectures that the height function h ( t , x → → ) of all models in the KPZ universality at time t fluctuate around the mean with an order of t 1 / 3 and the spacial correlation of the fluctuation is of order t 2 / 3 . This motivates the so-called 1:2:3 scaling which is the characteristic scaling for the KPZ fixed point. The EW fixed point has also a scaling the 1:2:4 scaling. The fixed points are invariant under their associated scaling.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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The 1:2:3 scaling of a height function is for ε ε > 0

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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where 1:3 and 2:3 stand for the proportions of the exponents and C ε ε is just a constant.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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The strong conjecture says, that all models in the KPZ universality class converge under 1:2:3 scaling of the height function if their initial conditions also converge, i.e.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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with initial condition

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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where c 1 , c 2 , c 3 are constants depending on the model.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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If we remove the growth term in the KPZ equation, we get

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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which converges under the 1:2:4 scaling

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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to the EW fixed point. The weak conjecture says now, that the KPZ equation is the only Heteroclinic orbit between the KPZ and EW fixed point.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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If one fixes the time dimension and looks at the limit

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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then one gets the Airy process ( A ( x ) ) x ∈ ∈ R which also occurs in the theory of random matrices.

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KPZ_fixed_point

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KPZ_fixed_point

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Boronization is a wall conditioning technique for fusion machines (such as tokamaks), where a thin film of boron is deposited on the walls of the vacuum vessel in order to reduce the impurity content (for example oxygen) which can be deleterious for fusion plasma operation.

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Boronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization

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This technique can be seen as a plasma-assisted chemical vapor deposition of boron. The typical workflow involves performing a glow discharge and injecting a gas containing boron into the vacuum vessel chamber.

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Boronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization

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Boronization as a wall conditioning technique was first developed for the TEXTOR tokamak at the Forschungszentrum Jülich. It is now a well-established technique and is widely used in many tokamaks in the world.

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Boronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization

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This physics -related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.

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Boronization

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boronization

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Cosmic ray astronomy is a branch of observational astronomy where scientists attempt to identify and study the potential sources of extremely high-energy (ranging from 1 MeV to more than 1 EeV) charged particles called cosmic rays coming from outer space. These particles, which include protons (nucleus of hydrogen), electrons, positrons and atomic nuclei (mostly of helium, but potentially of all chemical elements), travel through space at nearly the speed of light (such as the ultra-high-energy " Oh-My-God particle ") and provide valuable insights into the most energetic processes in the universe. Unlike other branches of observational astronomy, it uniquely relies on charged particles as carriers of information.

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Cosmic_ray_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy

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Astronomers use ground-based detectors, high-altitude research balloons, artificial satellites and other methods to detect cosmic rays. Ground-based detectors, often spread over large areas (for example, the Pierre Auger Observatory is an array of detectors spread over 3,000 square kilometers), identify and analyze the secondary particles (electrons, positrons, photons, muons, etc.) produced in a chain reaction of particle interactions triggered by the collision of cosmic rays and Earth's atmosphere. The properties of the original cosmic ray particle, such as arrival direction and energy, are inferred from the measured properties of the extensive air shower, which is the cascade of secondary particles collectively showering down through the atmosphere. There are two kinds of ground-based detectors: Surface detector arrays analyze the air shower at a unique altitude, whereas air fluorescence detectors record the shower development in the atmosphere, based on the interactions of air shower particles with nitrogen molecules in the atmosphere. Modern "hybrid" detectors, such as the Pierre Auger Observatory in Argentina and the Large High Altitude Air Shower Observatory in Sichuan, China, take advantage of the complementary nature of these two. Moreover, scientific balloons (such as the one used in Cosmic Ray Energetics and Mass Experiment) and satellites (such as China's Dark Matter Particle Explorer or DAMPE telescope) can also be used to observe pure cosmic rays at very high altitudes and in outer space.

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Cosmic_ray_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy

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By studying the energy, direction, and composition of cosmic rays, scientists can uncover the sources and acceleration mechanisms behind these particles, which reveal astrophysical processes such as supernova explosions, black hole accretion, and galactic magnetic fields. Observations of cosmic rays led to the discovery of subatomic particles beyond the proton, neutron, and electron, including the positron and the muon, laying the groundwork for modern particle physics. It reveals the nucleosynthetic processes leading to the origin of the elements. By measuring cosmic rays, scientists discovered the presence of magnetic fields and radiation in the Solar System. Some cosmic rays originate from beyond the Solar System or galaxy, allowing scientists to estimate the amount and composition of matter in the universe, providing crucial information about its makeup. Cosmic rays are generated in extreme astrophysical environments such as exploding stars, black holes, and galactic collisions and provide a rare window into these processes. Energetic cosmic rays can interact with objects traveling through space, altering their isotopic composition. By studying these isotopes in meteorites, scientists can determine when they formed and fell on Earth, providing insights into the history of the Solar System. Cosmic rays have practical applications, including monitoring soil moisture for agriculture and irrigation practices and carbon-14 dating, which helps determine the ages of archaeological artifacts and geological formations.

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Cosmic_ray_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy

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Historical milestones in cosmic ray astronomy inclue Victor Hess 's discovery of cosmic rays during balloon flights in 1912; the identification of new subatomic particles like the positron and muon in the 1930s, expanding our understanding of particle physics; Pierre Victor Auger 's discovery of extensive particle showers from cosmic ray collisions high in the atmosphere; ground-based detectors measuring cosmic ray flux and energy spectrum in the 1940s-1950s; the establishment of the Volcano Ranch cosmic ray observatory in the 1960s, initiating large-scale experiments; the discovery of cosmic ray anisotropy (the fact that cosmic rays do not arrive uniformly from every region of the sky) in the 1960s, unveiling variations in flux and direction; the emergence of high-energy gamma-ray telescopes in the 1980s-1990s, enabling observations of gamma rays produced by cosmic ray interactions; the advent of space-based detectors like AMS-02 on the International Space Station in the 2000s, providing insights from space; and recent progress in multi-messenger astronomy in the 2010s, integrating cosmic ray observations with other astrophysical signals for a more complete view of cosmic phenomena.

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Cosmic_ray_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy

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With advancements in technology and the development of more sensitive detection systems, astronomers anticipate making new discoveries about the sources, acceleration mechanisms, and propagation of cosmic rays. These insights will contribute to a deeper understanding of the underlying physics governing the cosmos. Future cosmic ray observatories, such as the Cherenkov Telescope Array, will use advanced techniques to detect gamma rays produced by cosmic ray interactions in Earth's atmosphere. Since these gamma rays will be the most sensitive means to study cosmic rays near their source, these observatories will enable astronomers to study cosmic rays with unprecedented precision. Cosmic ray astronomy faces difficulty in identifying the exact sources of cosmic rays because charged particles are deflected by magnetic fields in space, and as a result tracing the paths of cosmic rays back to their origins require sophisticated modeling techniques and multi-messenger observations to infer their source locations. Moreover, due to the high-energy nature of these rays, the need for full-sky exposure, minimization of deflection by magnetic fields and elimination of background from distant sources present technical challenges.

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Cosmic_ray_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_ray_astronomy

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In gas dynamics, the Landau derivative or fundamental derivative of gas dynamics, named after Lev Landau who introduced it in 1942, refers to a dimensionless physical quantity characterizing the curvature of the isentrope drawn on the specific volume versus pressure plane. Specifically, the Landau derivative is a second derivative of specific volume with respect to pressure. The derivative is denoted commonly using the symbol Γ Γ or α α and is defined by

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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where

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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Alternate representations of Γ Γ include

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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For most common gases, Γ Γ > 0 , whereas abnormal substances such as the BZT fluids exhibit Γ Γ < 0 . In an isentropic process, the sound speed increases with pressure when Γ Γ > 1 ; this is the case for ideal gases. Specifically for polytropic gases (ideal gas with constant specific heats), the Landau derivative is a constant and given by

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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where γ γ > 1 is the specific heat ratio. Some non-ideal gases falls in the range 0 < Γ Γ < 1 , for which the sound speed decreases with pressure during an isentropic transformation.

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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Landau_derivative

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landau_derivative

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Data-driven astronomy (DDA) refers to the use of data science in astronomy. Several outputs of telescopic observations and sky surveys are taken into consideration and approaches related to data mining and big data management are used to analyze, filter, and normalize the data set that are further used for making Classifications, Predictions, and Anomaly detections by advanced Statistical approaches, digital image processing and machine learning. The output of these processes is used by astronomers and space scientists to study and identify patterns, anomalies, and movements in outer space and conclude theories and discoveries in the cosmos.

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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In 2007, the Galaxy Zoo project was launched for morphological classification of a large number of galaxies. In this project, 900,000 images were considered for classification that were taken from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) for the past 7 years. The task was to study each picture of a galaxy, classify it as elliptical or spiral, and determine whether it was spinning or not. The team of Astrophysicists led by Kevin Schawinski in Oxford University were in charge of this project and Kevin and his colleague Chris Linlott figured out that it would take a period of 3–5 years for such a team to complete the work. There they came up with the idea of using Machine Learning and Data Science techniques for analyzing the images and classifying them.

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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The data retrieved from the sky surveys are first brought for data preprocessing. In this, redundancies are removed and filtrated. Further, feature extraction is performed on this filtered data set, which is further taken for processes. Some of the renowned sky surveys are listed below:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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The size of data from the above-mentioned sky surveys ranges from 3 TB to almost 4.6 EB. Further, data mining tasks that are involved in the management and manipulation of the data involve methods like classification, regression, clustering, anomaly detection, and time-series analysis. Several approaches and applications for each of these methods are involved in the task accomplishments.

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Classification is used for specific identifications and categorizations of astronomical data such as Spectral classification, Photometric classification, Morphological classification, and classification of solar activity. The approaches of classification techniques are listed below:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Regression is used to make predictions based on the retrieved data through statistical trends and statistical modeling. Different uses of this technique are used for fetching Photometric redshifts and measurements of physical parameters of stars. The approaches are listed below:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Clustering is classifying objects based on a similarity measure metric. It is used in Astronomy for Classification as well as Special/rare object detection. The approaches are listed below:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Anomaly detection is used for detecting irregularities in the dataset. However, this technique is used here to detect rare/special objects. The following approaches are used:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Time-Series analysis helps in analyzing trends and predicting outputs over time. It is used for trend prediction and novel detection (detection of unknown data). The approaches used here are:

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Data-driven_astronomy

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-driven_astronomy

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Andre Dekker is a Dutch medical physicist, author, and academic who is a Professor and Head of Clinical Data Science at Maastricht University (UM), Maastricht UMC+ and Maastro Clinic. He also holds the position of Chief Scientific Officer at Medical Data Works.

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Dekker

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Dekker's research centers on federated FAIR data infrastructures, AI for health outcome prediction models, and applying AI to enhance patient and citizen health. He has written of 250 articles and is the co-author of the book Fundamentals of Clinical Data Science.

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Andre_Dekker

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andre_Dekker

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