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Oppenheimer met Einstein for the first time in January 1932 when the latter visited Caltech as part of his round-the-world trip during 1931-32.
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In 1939, Einstein published a paper that argued against the existence of Black holes. Einstein used his own general theory of relativity to arrive at this conclusion. A few months after Einstein rejected the existence of Black holes, Oppenheimer and his student Hartland Snyder published a paper that revealed, for the first time, using Einstein's general theory of relativity, how Black holes would form. Though Oppenheimer and Einstein later met, there's no record of them having discussed Black holes.
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When in 1939, the general public became aware of the Einstein–Szilard letter that urged the US government to initiate the Manhattan project, for the development of nuclear weapons, Einstein was credited for foreseeing the destructive power of the atom with his mass–energy equivalence formula. Einstein played an active role in the development of US nuclear weapons by being an advisor to the research that ensued; this was in contrast to the common belief that his role was limited to only signing a letter. During this time, the public linked Einstein with Oppenheimer, who then happened to be the scientific director of the Manhattan project.
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In 1945, when Oppenheimer and Pauli were being considered for a professorial position at an institute, Einstein and Hermann Weyl wrote a letter that recommended Pauli over Oppenheimer.
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After the end of World War II, both Einstein and Oppenheimer lived and worked in Princeton at the Institute for Advanced Study, Einstein became a professor there while Oppenheimer its director and a professor of physics from 1947 to 1966. They had their offices down the hall from each other. Einstein and Oppenheimer became colleagues and conversed with each other occasionally. They saw each other socially, with Einstein once attending dinner at the Oppenheimers in 1948. At the Institute, Oppenheimer considered general relativity to be an area of physics that wouldn't be of much benefit to the efforts of physicists, partly due to lack of observational data and due to conceptual and technical difficulties. He actively prohibited people from taking up these problems at the institute. Furthermore he forbade Institute members from having contacts with Einstein. For one of Einstein's birthdays, Oppenheimer gifted him a new FM radio and had an antenna installed on his house so that he may listen to New York Philharmonic concerts from Manhattan, about 50 miles away from Princeton. Oppenheimer did not provide an article to the July 1949 issue of Reviews of Modern Physics, which was dedicated to the seventieth birthday of Einstein.
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In October 1954, when an honorary doctorate was to be conferred to Einstein at Princeton, Oppenheimer made himself unavailable at the last moment (despite being "begged" to attend the event); he informed the convocation committee that he had to be out of town on the day of convocation. Earlier, in May 1954 when the Emergency Civil Liberties Committee decided to honour Einstein on his seventy-fifth birthday, the American Committee for Cultural Freedom, concerned about the Communist ties of the honouring committee requested Oppenheimer to stop Einstein from attending the event lest it may cause people to associate Judaism with Communism, and think of scientists as naive about politics. Oppenheimer, who was then busy with his security clearance hearings, persuaded Einstein to dissociate with the honouring committee.
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In January 1935, Oppenheimer visited Princeton University as a visiting faculty member on an invitation. After staying there and interacting with Einstein, Oppenheimer wrote to his brother Frank Oppenheimer in a letter thus, "Princeton is a madhouse: its solipsistic luminaries shining in separate & helpless desolation. Einstein is completely cuckoo.... I could be of absolutely no use at such a place, but it took a lot of conversation & arm waving to get Weyl to take a no”. Oppenheimer's initial harsh assessment was attributed to the fact that he found Einstein highly skeptical about the quantum field theory. Einstein never accepted the quantum theory; in 1945 he said: "The quantum theory is without a doubt a useful theory, but it does not reach to the bottom of things. I never believed that it constitutes the true conception of nature". Oppenheimer also noted that Einstein became very much a loner in his working style.
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After the death of Einstein in April 1955, in a public eulogy Oppenheimer wrote that "physicists lost their greatest colleague". He noted that of all the great accomplishments in Physics, the theory of general relativity is the work of one man, and it would have remained undiscovered for a long time had it not been for the work of Einstein. He ascertained that the public image of Einstein as a simple and kindhearted man “with warm humor,... wholly without pretense” was indeed right, and remembered what Einstein once said to him before his death, "You know, when it once has been given to a man to do something sensible, afterwards life is a little strange." Oppenheimer wrote that it was given to Einstein to do "something reasonable". He stated that general theory of relativity is "perhaps the single greatest theoretical synthesis in the whole of science". Oppenheimer wrote that more than anything, the one special quality, that made Einstein unique was “his faith that there exists in the natural world an order and a harmony and that this may be apprehended by the mind of man”, and that Einstein had given not just an evidence of that faith, but also its heritage.
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Oppenheimer was less graceful about Einstein in private. He said Einstein had no interest in or did not understand modern physics and wasted his time in trying to unify gravity and electromagnetism. He stated that Einstein's methods in his final years had in "a certain sense failed him". Einstein in his last twenty-five years of life focused solely on working out the unified field theory without considering its reliability nor questioning his own approach. This led him to lose connections with the wider physics community. Einstein's urge to find unity had been constant throughout his life. In 1900, while still a student at ETH, he wrote in a letter to his friend Marcel Grossmann that, "It is a glorious feeling to recognize the unity of a complex of phenomena, which appear to direct sense perceptions as quite distinct things." In 1932, when questioned about his goal of work, Einstein replied, "The real goal of my research has always been the simplification and unification of the system of theoretical physics. I attained this goal satisfactorily for macroscopic phenomena, but not for the phenomena of quanta and atomic structure." And added, "I believe that despite considerable success, the modern quantum theory is still far from a satisfactory solution of the latter group of problems." Einstein was never convinced with quantum field theory, which Oppenheimer advocated. Oppenheimer noted that Einstein tried in vain to prove the existence of inconsistencies in quantum field theory, but there were none. In the 1960s Oppenheimer became skeptical about Einstein's general theory of relativity as the correct theory of gravitation. He thought Brans–Dicke theory to be a better theory. Oppenheimer also complained that Einstein did not left any papers to the institute (IAS) in his will despite the support he received from it for twenty-five years. Instead, all of Einstein's papers went to Israel.
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In December 1965, Oppenheimer visited Paris on an invitation from UNESCO to speak at the tenth anniversary of Einstein's death. He spoke on the first day of the commemoration as he had known Einstein for more than thirty years and at the IAS, they "were close colleagues and something of friends". Oppenheimer made his views of Einstein public there. He praised Einstein for his stand against violence and described his attitude towards humanity by the Sanskrit word " Ahimsa ". The speech received considerable media attention, New York Times reported the story headlined “Oppenheimer View of Einstein Warm But Not Uncritical”. However, after the speech, in an interview with the French magazine L'Express, Oppenheimer said, "During all the end of his life, Einstein did no good. He worked all alone with an assistant who was there to correct his calculations... He turned his back on experiments, he even tried to rid himself of the facts that he himself had contributed to establish... He wanted to realize the unity of knowledge. At all cost. In our days, this is impossible." But nevertheless Oppenheimer said, he was "convinced that still today, as in Einstein’s time, a solitary researcher can effect a startling discovery. He will only need more strength of character". The interviewer concluded asking Oppenheimer if he had any longing or nostalgia, to which he replied "Of course, I would have liked to be the young Einstein. This goes without saying."
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Einstein appreciated Oppenheimer for his role in the drafting and advocacy of the Acheson–Lilienthal Report, and for his subsequent work to contain the nuclear arms race between the United States and Soviet Union. At the IAS, Einstein acquired profound respect for Oppenheimer on his administration skills, and described him as an “unusually capable man of many sided education”.
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A semifictional account of the relationship between Albert Einstein and J. Robert Oppenheimer was portrayed in the feature film Oppenheimer directed by Christopher Nolan.
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Electrofreezing is the tendency of a material to solidify upon being exposed to an external electric field. Electrofreezing was initially introduced by Dufour in 1892. Examples are the electrofreezing of liquid ammonia supposed to be naturally occurring during electrical storms in Jupiter -like planets, and ice χ supposedly being a form of high pressure ice.
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Depending on the material, freezing occur only at certain field intensities, above which electric fields are strong enough to induce chemical reactions.
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Cothenius Medal awardees, 1864-1953 is a list of Cothenius Medal awardees for the period between 1864 and 1953.
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Cothenius_Medal_awardees,_1864-1953
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Carole Deumié is a French physicist and the Director of Centrale Méditerranée, a leading French Grande école located in Marseille, France, and the President of the Association of Grandes écoles Région Sud, federating 20 schools with a total student population over 22,000 and 1,500 staff.
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Carole Deumié received a B.S and a M.S from Centrale Méditerranée (formerly École Nationale Supérieure de Physique de Marseille) in 1993, and a Ph.D. in physics from Aix-Marseille University in 1997. She became a lecturer at Centrale Méditerranée in 1998. Since 2012 she is also the lead of the DiMaBio team Équipe DIMABiO - Institut Fresnel at Fresnel Institute. In 2019, she became the Director of Centrale Méditerranée.
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Symmetries of Culture: Theory and Practice of Plane Pattern Analysis is a book by anthropologist Dorothy K. Washburn and mathematician Donald W. Crowe published in 1988 by the University of Washington Press. The book is about the identification of patterns on cultural objects.
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Symmetries_of_Culture:_Theory_and_Practice_of_Plane_Pattern_Analysis
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The book is divided into seven chapters. Chapter 1 reviews the historical application of symmetry analysis to the discovery and enumeration of patterns in the plane, otherwise known as tessellations or tilings, and the application of geometry to design and the decorative arts.
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Chapters 2 to 6 describe how to identify and classify patterns on cultural objects such as ceramics, textiles and surface designs. Chapter 2 establishes the mathematical tools required to perform the symmetry analysis of patterns. Chapter 3 introduces the concept of color symmetry, for two-colored and multicolored patterns. Chapters 4 and 5 describe the one-dimensional (frieze) designs and the two-dimensional (plane) designs respectively; flow charts are used to help the reader to identify patterns. Chapter 6 describes finite designs, for example circular designs, which are those without translations or glide refections. Chapter 7 discusses problems that may arise in symmetry classification, for example pattern irregularities.
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The benefit of the flow charts is that they allow the reader to analyse the design of any cultural object in order to assign it to a specific pattern. The number of distinct patterns in one or two dimensions, with one or two colors, is shown in the table.
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The book, which was 10 years in development, has over 500 illustrations, and includes a mathematical appendix, a 270-entry bibliography, and an index.
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The authors describe their book as a "handbook for the non-mathematician" of the theory and practice of plane pattern analysis.
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Reviewers of the book identified the audience for the book in various ways. Roger Neich writing in Man said "[The authors'] aim is to make symmetry analysis accessible to all researchers, regardless of any mathematical training, and in this aim they succeed admirably, provided the reader is prepared to invest some considerable effort."
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Doris Schattschneider writing in The American Mathematical Monthly commented: "[The book] was written for archaeologists, anthropologists, and art historians, but the authors have taken care in their presentation of the geometry of symmetry and color symmetry analysis." H.C. Williams reviewing the book for The Mathematical Gazette said: "This interesting book is written by a mathematician and an anthropologist and is aimed primarily at the non-mathematician. That said, it is well worth the attention of mathematicians, particularly teachers, who have an interest in pattern."
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Contemporary reviews of the book were mostly positive. The book was reviewed by journals in the fields of anthropology, archaeology, the arts, and mathematics.
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Mary Frame in African Arts said: "a solid and attractive book that takes the reader in logical stages toward an understanding of the symmetrical basis of pattern repeats." [...] "I believe that Symmetries of Culture is a landmark work that will furnish the impetus and method for many studies in this fertile area." Owen Lindauer in American Anthropologist commented: "Question-answer flowcharts enable the reader to correctly classify designs using a standard notation. The book is extensively illustrated with carvings, textiles, basketry, tiles, and pottery, which are used as examples of various symmetry patterns."
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Dwight W. Read in Antiquity : " Symmetries of Culture is an impressive book - both in terms of its physical appearance and its content. [...] will undoubtedly become the major reference on the analysis of patterns in terms of symmetry properties." Jon Muller writing in American Antiquity : "... a fine book that achieves its goals in a straight-forward and clear fashion. It presents a set of methods that can be applied consistently and usefully in looking at symmetrical plane designs." and Roger Neich in Man : "... wide use of this book will certainly contribute to a great improvement in the systematic study of material culture."
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The reviewer in African Arts pointed out the existence of cultural patterns, such as in ancient Peruvian art, that are not included in the crystallographic symmetry approach to patterns used in the book. This criticism was echoed by the reviewer in American Antiquity who had some reservations about the potential dangers of limiting design analysis to certain convenient classes of design.
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George Kubler, an art historian writing in Winterthur Portfolio criticised the book: "The authors' present method is non-historical. The objects illustrated are mostly undatable, and nowhere is concern shown for their seriation or place in time." Kubler criticises the authors' entire approach as being non-historical, because it analyses each object individually rather than considering them in chronological order.
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In 2021 the book was praised by Palaguta and Starkova in Terra Artis. Art and Design. In their review, they stated that the problem of creating a basis for systematizing patterns on the principles of symmetry was solved in Symmetries of Culture. They give three reasons for continuing to value the book: firstly, despite the passage of time, the book is still valid and useful; secondly, since the release of the book, the authors have done a great deal to attract new workers into the field; and thirdly, in recent years, interdisciplinary research on symmetry and ornamentation has increased, and the interest in this topic has grown among both anthropologists and art historians, which greatly broadens the readership of the book.
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The Fresnel Institute (French : Institut Fresnel) is a research laboratory dedicated to optics and photonics located in Marseille, France. It is a joint research unit (UMR 7249) between the French National Centre for Scientific Research (CNRS), Aix-Marseille Université and Centrale Méditerranée, created on 1 January 2000.
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The institute currently brings together about 200 researchers, lecturer-researchers, and doctoral students divided into 14 research teams. Its dominant scientific themes relate to optics and imaging, more specifically in the fields of photonics, electromagnetism, image processing, signal processing, metamaterials, random waves, advanced imaging, biophotonics, biomedical imaging, nanophotonics, plasmonics, optical components, damage, and laser processes. It has an annual budget in of about 13M €.
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The institute plays a role in some aspects of the Erasmus Mundus EUROPHOTONICS program, which is coordinated by Aix-Marseille University and shared with partners around the world including Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, the Autonomous University of Barcelona, Tampere University, Vilnius University and others.
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The Fresnel Institute was born in 1999, and officially recognized as a French unité mixte de recherche (UMR) on 1 January 2000. The first director was Claude Amra [ d ].
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The institute is named after French scientist Augustin-Jean Fresnel, whose research on the wave theory of light led to its near unanimous acceptance.
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Various improvements have been realized to the institute's infrastructure since its founding. This includes for example the inauguration of the Éspace Photonique (Photonic Platform) in 2014–2015.
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The institute comprises 14 research groups. These include:
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The institute's present and former directors are listed below in reverse chronological order:
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This article about an organization or institute connected with physics is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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Geometric symmetry is a book by mathematician E.H. Lockwood and design engineer R.H. Macmillan published by Cambridge University Press in 1978. The subject matter of the book is symmetry and geometry.
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The book is divided into two parts. The first part (chapters 1-13) is largely descriptive and written for the non-mathematical reader. The second part (chapters 14-27) is more mathematical, but only elementary geometrical knowledge is assumed.
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In the first part the authors describe and illustrate the following topics: symmetry elements, frieze patterns, wallpaper patterns, and rod, layer and space patterns. The first part also introduces the concepts of continuous, dilation, dichromatic and polychromatic symmetry.
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In the second part the authors revisit all of the topics from the first part; but in more detail, and with greater mathematical rigour. Group theory and symmetry are the foundations of the material in the second part of the book. A detailed analysis of the subject matter is given in the appendix below.
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The book is printed in two colours, red and black, to facilitate the identification of colour symmetry in patterns.
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In the preface the authors state: "In this book we attempt to provide a fairly comprehensive account of symmetry in a form acceptable to readers without much mathematical knowledge [...] The treatment is geometrical which should appeal to art students and to readers whose mathematical interests are that way inclined." However, Joseph H. Gehringer in a review in The Mathematics Teacher commented "Clearly not intended as a popular treatment of symmetry, the style of the authors is both concise and technical [...] this volume will appeal primarily to those devoting special attention to this field,"
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The reception of the book was mixed.
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Symmetry aspects of M. C. Escher's periodic drawings is a book by crystallographer Caroline H. MacGillavry published for the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr) by Oosthoek in 1965. The book analyzes the symmetry of M. C. Escher's colored periodic drawings using the international crystallographic notation.
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In 1959, MacGillavry met Escher. His work, the regular tiling of the plane, showed obvious links with the symmetry principles of crystallography. After seeking approval from the organisers (Joseph and Gabrielle Donnay), MacGillavry asked Escher to exhibit his lithographic works at the IUCr Congress in Cambridge, U.K. in 1960. The exhibition was a success, and as a consequence the IUCr commissioned MacGillavry to write the book under its auspices.
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The book has three chapters. In the first chapter, entitled Patterns with Classical Symmetry, the author introduces the concepts of motif, symmetry operations, lattice and unit cell, and uses these to analyze the symmetry of 13 of Escher's tiling designs.
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In the second chapter, Patterns with Black-white Symmetry, the antisymmetry operation (indicated by a prime ') is introduced. The chapter analyzes 22 of Escher's design in terms of black-white symmetry and assigns each a symbol in the international notation describing its symmetries.
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In the third chapter, Patterns with Polychromatic Symmetry, the analysis is extended to 7 of Escher's design possessing three or more colors. The book is printed in full color to facilitate the recognition of color symmetries in the images.
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The publication of the book was sponsored by the IUCr and the original target audience was crystallography students learning the principles of symmetry, particularly color symmetry. In the introduction to the book the author states "Although the book is meant primarily for undergraduate students, I hope that many people who are simply amused and intrigued by Escher's designs will be interested to see how they illustrate the laws of symmetry".
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The reception of the book was positive. Robert M. Mengel in Scientific American wrote "[the author] has organized this unique and beautiful book from the corpus of marvelous spacefilling periodic drawings made over two decades by the artist Maurits C. Escher. Adding a few specially drawn for this work, Escher has here given us the classical crystal groups in the plane, and a good many more that exploit the latest extensions to color symmetry, foreseen by the artist before mathematicians had officially recognized and classified them."
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F. I. G. Rawlins in Acta Crystallographica wrote "Under [the author's] sure guidance the reader is skilfully conducted through such regions of the theory of symmetry as are necessary for a tolerable grasp of the full significance of these patterns, several of them produced in full colour."
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J. Bohm reviewed the book in Kristall Und Technik. Bohm acknowledged the special value of Escher's art as crystallographic teaching material. He praised the author for preparing the material in a detailed, crystallographically valid and didactically appealing way. Overall he stated that the book was a successful collaboration between the artist, author, publisher and the IUCr.
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In 1976 an announcement in the IUCr's journals stated that the book was "extremely popular" and this had a necessitated a reprint in both the Netherlands and the U.S.A. In an obituary of the author it is stated that the publication of the book helped to popularise M. C. Escher's work in the U.S.A. MacGillavry's book inspired further work on the symmetry analysis of M. C. Escher's work, particularly by Doris Schattschneider in M. C. Escher: Visions of Symmetry.
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The Joint Evaluated Fission and Fusion (JEFF) organization is an international collaboration for the production of nuclear data. It consists of members of the Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
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JEFF produces the Joint Evaluated Fission and Fusion Nuclear Data Library, which is in the universal ENDF format.
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This nuclear physics or atomic physics –related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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This organization-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.
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M. C. Escher: Visions of Symmetry is a book by mathematician Doris Schattschneider published by W. H. Freeman in 1990. The book analyzes the symmetry of M. C. Escher's colored periodic drawings and explains the methods he used to construct his artworks. Escher made extensive use of two-color and multi-color symmetry in his periodic drawings. The book contains more than 350 illustrations, half of which were never previously published.
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The book is divided into five chapters. Before the main text there is a foreword and a preface, and the book is concluded with a concordance, afterword (in the second edition only), bibliography and four indexes.
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The first chapter, 'The Route to Regular Division', describes Escher's early artistic development, and how Escher first became intrigued by the problem of filling the plane with interlocking shapes (tessellation). This work came to dominate his art from 1937. He was also encouraged, by a half-brother who was a professor of geology, to study papers on symmetry by Pólya and other mathematicians in the Zeitschrift für Kristallographie. These helped launch Escher into his own detailed investigations of the rules for generating the allowable patterns for tiling the plane.
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The second chapter 'The 1941–1942 Notebooks' presents, for the first time, the complete set of numbered drawings from the two 1941–1942 notebooks which summarize Escher's theory of the regular divisions of the plane, and details the classification system Escher used to organize his drawings.
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The third chapter 'The Regular Division Drawings' is the longest in the book at 118 pages. It reproduces all of the known drawings (numbers 1 to 137) and the known periodic designs (A1 to A14) from Escher's 1938–1941 notebooks together with his notes on their symmetry type.
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The fourth chapter 'The Use of Regular Division' explains that Escher regarded his periodic drawings as a means to an end rather than as finished works of art in their own right. The periodic drawings were the solutions to the question of what was possible when tiling the plane using the rules that Escher had established. Escher used the periodic drawings as a basis for developing his completed artworks.
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The fifth chapter 'Notes on the drawings' provides additional information of each of the drawings in chapter 3. For each drawing the following information is given: number, title, place drawn, medium, dimensions, Escher system type, symmetry group, previous publication, and notes.
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The book concludes with a concordance which gives a complete tabulation of the symmetry groups represented by Escher's periodic drawings and an afterword, in the second edition only, which outlines the developments in the subject between 1990 and 2004.
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In her preface, the author's stated objective for the book is to answer the question "How did he do it?". The audience for the book is any person who admires, or is interested in, M. C. Escher's periodic drawings and would like to understand his methods for designing and executing his artworks. As no prior mathematical knowledge is assumed by the author to understand the material presented in the book, it is appropriate for a general audience. As Michele Emmer comments in his review: "It is important that, with this beautiful volume, artists and scientists can look at Escher's original notebooks."
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The book was widely reviewed and its reception was very positive. Alan L. Mackay in a full-page review for Nature wrote: "This book contains very many colour reproductions of the periodic drawings and analyses the 1941–42 notebooks which show Escher's development [...] Taking Doris Schattschneider's beautiful volume with earlier books, especially that by Bruno Ernst, documentation of Escher's life, intellectual development and corpus must now be almost complete." Roger Goodwin writing in The British Journal of Aesthetics said "This book, the product of more than fifteen years of research by its mathematician author, provides the definitive account of how Escher produced his renowned interlocking drawings, based on the regular division of the plane." Michele Emmer reviewing the book in Leonardo wrote: "Escher's theory, recorded in the notebooks of 1941–1942, has never been completely published before. All the 150 color drawings of interlocking patterns that he produced from 1937 to 1941 are reproduced in the book. It is, of course, the most essential part of the volume." Marjorie Senechal wrote the entry for Mathematical Reviews : "The development of Escher's ideas is carefully traced, the influence of his work on others, and vice versa, is discussed, and all of the notebook drawings are presented in full color. Doris Schattschneider has written the Escher book for mathematicians."
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John Galloway reviewing the book for New Scientist said: "Many books have been written about Escher's art. None has approached Visions of Symmetry for its scope, scale and sumptuousness. The sheer beauty and ingenuity of the pictures keep you turning the pages as though the book were a collection of detective stories whose plots are brilliantly organised patterns." In an extensive review in The American Mathematical Monthly Douglas Dunham said: "For the Escher fan, Visions of Symmetry fills a gap in the literature by showing all of his notebook patterns, answering the question "how did he do it?", and relating the patterns to his prints. For the person interested in tilings and patterns, Visions of Symmetry provides many beautiful examples (which illustrate the theory expounded in Grünbaum and Shepard's Tilings and patterns [1987])." J. Kevin Colligan reviewing the book for The Mathematics Teacher wrote: "This book sits on the boundary between mathematics and art, as did Escher. In fact, this book supports the argument that no such boundary exists; rather, the two disciplines coexist and intermingle, enriching both." Paul Garcia writing in The Mathematical Gazette writes: "I recommend the book highly to anyone - the price is small compared to the scope and interest of the work. Doris Schattschneider has done us all a tremendous favour by compiling this book."
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David Topper writing of the second edition in Choice said "This beautiful book remains one of the essential studies of this most popular artist." Gerald L. Alexanderson writing in MAA Reviews said "It's an impressive piece of scholarship that is extraordinarily beautiful as well. This book is an old friend and it's good to welcome it back in such an elegant and sumptuous form." Laurence Goldstein reviewing the second edition in Print Quarterly said: "... the reader is enabled to glimpse the process through which the artist struggled towards the finished works of art that Hofstadter (and, of course, many others) find so sensuously gratifying. There is also a wealth of biographical information concerning the mathematical and artistic influences on Escher's work, and on the creative process as witnessed by people close to him and as perceived by the artist himself." A brief, unsigned review in Science said: "Escher's periodic tilings have made the artist a favorite of mathematicians and scientists. In her classic 1990 book, Schattschneider analyzed his art and notebooks to explain how Escher created his colorful, puzzle-like regular divisions of the plane [...] This new edition adds a short survey of reflections of his work in mathematics, computer graphics, the Internet, and contemporary art." An unsigned review in the Epsilon Pi Tau Journal of Technology Studies said: "A revision of a classic book that appeared in 1990, this is the most penetrating study of Escher's work in existence and the one most admired by scientists and mathematicians. It deals with one powerful obsession that preoccupied Escher: what he called the 'regular division of the plane', the puzzle-like interlocking of birds, fish, lizards, and other natural forms in continuous patterns. Schattschneider explores how he succeeded at this task by meticulously analyzing his notebooks."
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Valerie K. Otero is an American physics educator known for her work incorporating trained undergraduate learning assistants into university physics education and studying the effects of doing this on the preparation of future physics teachers. She is a professor of physics education research at the University of Colorado Boulder, executive director of the university's Learning Assistant Program, and co-director of its Center for STEM Learning.
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Otero grew up in Albuquerque, New Mexico, the daughter of Hispanic grocers without a college education. She majored in physics at the University of New Mexico, graduating in 1991. She earned a master's degree in geophysics from the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) in 1995, and completed her Ph.D. in 2001 in physics education research jointly through UCSD and San Diego State University.
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She joined the University of Colorado Boulder as an assistant professor of science education in 2001, was promoted to associate professor in 2008, and promoted to full professor in 2014. She became the co-founder and director of the Colorado Learning Assistant Program in 2003, chair of the Department of Math and Science in the university's School of Education in 2010, executive director of the International Learning Assistant Alliance in 2010, and co-founder and co-director of the Center for STEM Learning in 2013.
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Otero was a recipient of the 2019 Excellence in Physics Education Award of the American Physical Society (APS). She was named a Fellow of the American Physical Society in 2021, after a nomination from the APS Forum on Education, "for the creation and broad dissemination of innovative physics curricular materials, pioneering contributions to physics teacher education and professional development, and for the development, implementation, and wide dissemination of the Learning Assistant Model across diverse institutions".
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She and her colleague Noah Finkelstein were the joint recipients of the 2023 Svend Pedersen Lecture Award of Stockholm University.
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The history of radiation protection begins at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries with the realization that ionizing radiation from natural and artificial sources can have harmful effects on living organisms. As a result, the study of radiation damage also became a part of this history.
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While radioactive materials and X-rays were once handled carelessly, increasing awareness of the dangers of radiation in the 20th century led to the implementation of various preventive measures worldwide, resulting in the establishment of radiation protection regulations. Although radiologists were the first victims, they also played a crucial role in advancing radiological progress and their sacrifices will always be remembered. Radiation damage caused many people to suffer amputations or die of cancer. The use of radioactive substances in everyday life was once fashionable, but over time, the health effects became known. Investigations into the causes of these effects have led to increased awareness of protective measures. The dropping of atomic bombs during World War II brought about a drastic change in attitudes towards radiation. The effects of natural cosmic radiation, radioactive substances such as radon and radium found in the environment, and the potential health hazards of non-ionizing radiation are well-recognized. Protective measures have been developed and implemented worldwide, monitoring devices have been created, and radiation protection laws and regulations have been enacted.
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In the 21st century, regulations are becoming even stricter. The permissible limits for ionizing radiation intensity are consistently being revised downward. The concept of radiation protection now includes regulations for the handling of non-ionizing radiation.
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In the Federal Republic of Germany, radiation protection regulations are developed and issued by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation, Nuclear Safety and Consumer Protection (BMUV). The Federal Office for Radiation Protection is involved in the technical work. In Switzerland, the Radiation Protection Division of the Federal Office of Public Health is responsible, and in Austria, the Ministry of Climate Action and Energy.
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The discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen (1845-1923) in 1895 led to extensive experimentation by scientists, physicians, and inventors. The first X-ray machines produced extremely unfavorable radiation spectra for imaging with extremely high skin doses. In February 1896, John Daniel and William Lofland Dudley (1859–1914) of Vanderbilt University conducted an experiment in which Dudley's head was X-rayed, resulting in hair loss. Herbert D. Hawks, a graduate of Columbia University, suffered severe burns on his hands and chest during demonstration experiments with X-rays. Burns and hair loss were reported in scientific journals. Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) was one of the first researchers to explicitly warn of the potential dangers of X-rays in the Electrical Review on May 5, 1897 - after initially claiming them to be completely harmless. He suffered massive radiation damage after his experiments. Nevertheless, some doctors at the time still claimed that X-rays had no effect on humans. Until the 1940s, X-ray machines were operated without any protective safeguards.
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Röntgen himself was spared the fate of the other X-ray users by habit. He always carried the unexposed photographic plates in his pockets and found that they were exposed if he remained in the same room during the exposure. So he regularly left the room when he took X-rays.
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The use of X-rays for diagnostic purposes in dentistry was made possible by the pioneering work of C. Edmund Kells (1856-1928), a New Orleans dentist who demonstrated them to dentists in Asheville, North Carolina, in July 1896. Kells committed suicide after suffering from radiation-induced cancer for many years. He had been amputated one finger at a time, later his entire hand, followed by his forearm and then his entire arm.
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Otto Walkhoff (1860-1934), one of the most important German dentists in history, took X-rays of himself in 1896 and is considered a pioneer in dental radiology. He described the required exposure time of 25 minutes as an "ordeal". Braunschweig's medical community later commissioned him to set up and supervise a central X-ray facility. In 1898, the year radium was discovered, he also tested the use of radium in medicine in a self-experiment using an amount of 0.2 grams of radium bromide. Walkhoff observed that cancerous mice exposed to radium radiation died significantly later than a control group of untreated mice. He thus initiated the development of radiation research for the treatment of tumors.
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The Armenian-American radiologist Mihran Krikor Kassabian (1870-1910), vice president of the American Roentgen Ray Society (ARRS), was concerned about the irritating effects of X-rays. In a publication, he mentioned his increasing problems with his hands. Although Kassabian recognized X-rays as the cause, he avoided making this reference so as not to hinder the progress of radiology. In 1902, he suffered a severe radiation burn on his hand. Six years later, the hand became necrotic and two fingers of his left hand were amputated. Kassabian kept a diary and photographed his hands as the tissue damage progressed. He died of cancer in 1910.
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Many of the early X-ray and radioactivity researchers went down in history as "martyrs for science." In her article, The Miracle and the Martyrs, Sarah Zobel of the University of Vermont tells of a 1920 banquet held to honor many of the pioneers of X-rays. Chicken was served for dinner: "Shortly after the meal was served, it could be seen that some of the participants were unable to enjoy the meal. After years of working with X-rays, many of the participants had lost fingers or hands due to radiation exposure and were unable to cut the meat themselves". The first American to die from radiation exposure was Clarence Madison Dally (1845-1904), an assistant to Thomas Alva Edison (1847-1931). Edison began studying X-rays almost immediately after Röntgen's discovery and delegated the task to Dally. Over time, Dally underwent more than 100 skin operations due to radiation damage. Eventually, both of his arms had to be amputated. His death led Edison to abandon all further X-ray research in 1904.
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One of the pioneers was the Austrian Gustav Kaiser (1871-1954), who in 1896 succeeded in photographing a double toe with an exposure time of 1½-2 hours. Due to the limited knowledge at the time, he also suffered severe radiation damage to his hands, losing several fingers and his right metacarpal. His work was the basis for, among other things, the construction of lead rubber aprons. Heinrich Albers-Schönberg (1865-1921), the world's first professor of radiology, recommended gonadal protection for testicles and ovaries in 1903. He was one of the first to protect germ cells not only from acute radiation damage but also from small doses of radiation that could accumulate over time and cause late damage. Albers-Schönberg died at the age of 56 from radiation damage, as did Guido Holzknecht and Elizabeth Fleischman.
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Since April 4, 1936, a radiology memorial in the garden of the of Hamburg's St. Georg Hospital has commemorated the 359 victims from 23 countries who were among the first medical users of X-rays.
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In 1896, the engineer Wolfram Fuchs, based on his experience with numerous X-ray examinations, recommended keeping the exposure time as short as possible, staying away from the tube, and covering the skin with Vaseline. In 1897, Chicago doctors William Fuchs and Otto Schmidt became the first users to have to pay compensation to a patient for radiation damage.
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In 1901, dentist William Herbert Rollins (1852-1929) called for using lead-glass goggles when working with X-rays, for the X-ray tube to be encased in lead, and for all areas of the body to be covered with lead aprons. He published over 200 articles on the potential dangers of X-rays, but his suggestions were long ignored. A year later, Rollins wrote in despair that his warnings about the dangers of X-rays were not being heeded by either the industry or his colleagues. By this time, Rollins had demonstrated that X-rays could kill laboratory animals and induce miscarriages in guinea pigs. Rollins' achievements were not recognized until later. Since then, he has gone down in the history of radiology as the "father of radiation protection. He became a member of the Radiological Society of North America and its first treasurer.
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Radiation protection continued to develop with the invention of new measuring devices such as the chromoradiometer by Guido Holzknecht (1872-1931) in 1902, the radiometer by Raymond Sabouraud (1864-1938) and Henri Noiré (1878–1937) in 1904/05, and the quantimeter by Robert Kienböck (1873-1951) in 1905, which made it possible to determine maximum doses at which there was a high probability that no skin changes would occur. Radium was also included by the British Roentgen Society, which published its first memorandum on radium protection in 1921.
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Since the 1920s, pedoscopes have been installed in many shoe stores in North America and Europe, more than 10,000 in the U.S. alone, following the invention of Jacob Lowe, a Boston physicist. They were X-ray machines used to check the fit of shoes and to promote sales, especially to children. Children were particularly fascinated by the sight of their footbones. X-rays were often taken several times daily to evaluate the fit of different shoes. Most were available in shoe stores until the early 1970s. The energy dose absorbed by the customer was up to 116 rads, or 1.16 grays. In the 1950s, when medical knowledge of the health risks was already available, pedoscopes came with warnings that shoe-buyers should not be scanned more than three times a day and twelve times a year.
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By the early 1950s, several professional organizations issued warnings against the continued use of shoe-mounted fluoroscopes, including the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, the American College of Surgeons, the New York Academy of Medicine, and the American College of Radiology. At the same time, the District of Columbia enacted regulations requiring that shoe-mounted fluoroscopes be operated only by a licensed physical therapist. A few years later, the state of Massachusetts passed regulations stating that these machines could only be operated by a licensed physician. In 1957, the use of shoe-mounted fluoroscopes was banned by court order in Pennsylvania. By 1960, these measures and pressure from insurance companies led to the disappearance of the shoe-mounted fluoroscope, at least in the United States.
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In Switzerland, there were 1,500 shoe-mounted fluoroscopes in use, 850 were required to be inspected by the Swiss Electrotechnical Association by a decree of the Federal Department of Home Affairs on October 7, 1963. The last one was decommissioned in 1990.
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In Germany, the machines were not banned until 1976. The fluoroscopy machine emitted uncontrolled X-rays, which continuously exposed children, parents, and sales staff. The all-wood cabinet of the machine did not prevent the X-rays from passing through, resulting in particularly high cumulative radiation levels for the cashier when the pedoscope was placed near the cash register. The all-wood cabinet of the machine did not prevent the X-rays from passing through, resulting in particularly high cumulative radiation levels for the cashier when the pedoscope was placed near the cash register. It is clear that the machine was not designed with proper safety measures in place, leading to dangerous levels of radiation exposure. The well-established long-term effects of X-rays, including genetic damage and carcinogenicity, suggest that the use of pedoscopes worldwide over several decades may have contributed to health effects.The well-established long-term effects of X-rays, including genetic damage and carcinogenicity, suggest that the use of pedoscopes worldwide over several decades may have contributed to health effects. However, it cannot be definitively proven that they were the sole cause. For example, a direct link has been discussed in the case of basal cell carcinoma of the foot. In 1950, a case was published in which a shoe model had to have a leg amputated as a result.
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