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Concourse 2

Functions: the essentials


This brief guide has three main purposes:

  1. to explain what is meant by function in language
  2. to identify some of the main functions
  3. to suggest some ways in which functions can be introduced, taught and practised in the classroom


What is meant by function

Unfortunately, as with many things in ELT, there are two accepted meanings of the term function:

  1. Grammatical function
    This refers to what a word or phrase is doing in a sentence rather than what it looks like.  For example
    1. In
          Smoking is bad for you
      it is clear that smoking is a form of a verb.  However, its grammatical function in that sentence is a noun.  Compare, for example:
          Fat is bad for you
          Sugar is bad for you
    2. This change in word class happens with all sorts of words in English.  What is often a noun can act as a verb:
          I bank in town at that bank there (a verb and a noun)
      and what is usually an adjective can become a noun:
          One absolute essential is to start on time; it really is essential that we do that (the word essential is firstly a noun and then an adjective)
    3. Grammatical function can also apply to a phrase or even a whole clause.  For example, in:
          That he wrote me such as rude letter surprised me
      the clause That he wrote me such as rude letter is acting as a noun and is the subject of the verb surprise.
  2. Communicative function
    This refers to the communicative value of what we say and write, rather than the grammatical form that we happen to select.  For example:
    1. I could use a cup of tea
      is a simple statement but it acts as a request in many cases
    2. Is that your car in the street?
      may be a question but it could easily also be a demand to move it
    3. Get away!
      looks like an imperative (an order) but is, in fact, often an expression of surprise.

In this guide, we are concerned with communicative rather than grammatical function.

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What are the main communicative functions in languages

Notice that the heading contains 'in languages' not 'in English'.  Functions are, of course, common across all languages and the mismatch we saw above between the form and what it actually means in context is a phenomenon that occurs in all languages, too.  But functions are often differently expressed, of course.

There are usually considered to be three types of function in languages but the categories may overlap.  They are:

  1. The descriptive function:
    This refers to giving and understanding factual information.  For example:
        Can you tell me where the station is?
        It's getting late
        I'm taking the train home
        I can't help you

  2. The expressive function:
    This concerns the relaying and understanding of information about the speaker's feelings, preferences and ideas.  For example:
        I'm not feeling well
        I really don't like that man
        I am not even going to try

  3. The social function:
    This refers to establishing and maintaining social relationships, especially roles and power structures.  For example:
        Can I help you, madam?
        Anything else?
        Good morning officer.  How can I help you?

Here's a list of the main functions by the categories used in the Council of Europe's Modern Language Project in the 1970s and 1980s:

Area Function Example exponents
  1. imparting and seeking factual information


identifying This is my friend, John
My name is ...
reporting (describing and narrating) I went to the museum
It was a hot day
The trip was interesting
correcting No, that's not true
I never do that
asking Do you have any fruit?
When / Where / Why / What is that etc.
  1. expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes


expressing agreement and disagreement Yes, that's true
No that's not the right way
It isn't a good idea
enquiring about agreement or disagreement What do you think?
Do you agree?
denying I haven't got it
I didn't do it
I never go to the cinema
expressing knowledge or its lack I (don't) know
I think that's ...
asking whether someone knows or does not know something Do you know ...
Don't you understand ...
accepting an offer or invitation Yes, please
Thank you
declining an offer or invitation No, thank you
inquiring about offers and invitations Will you come?
offering to do something Can I help?
Shall I go?
expressing memory and forgetfulness I (don't) remember that
I have forgotten my passport
enquiring about memory and forgetfulness Do you remember the book?
Have you forgotten to write?
expressing ability and inability The man can(not) do it
It's not possible to do that
This can be repaired
inquiring about ability and inability Is it possible to get this changed?
Aren't you able to help?
expressing deduction So that's her brother
She must be the teacher
inquiring about deduction Is that necessarily the case?
What do you think it must be?
expressing certainty and uncertainty Positive: The house is 200 years old
Intermediate: I think the house is very old
Weak: Perhaps the house is old
Negative: I don't think (that) the house is very old
inquiring about certainty and uncertainty Are you sure about that?
Is that true?
expressing (lack of) obligation I must get the next bus
I don't have to be here
inquiring about obligation Do I have to be here?
Do you have to take an examination?
asking for and giving permission May I / Can I go now?
Yes, that's OK
All right
inquiring about permission Are you allowed to do that?
withholding permission Please don't take that
  1. expressing and finding out emotional attitudes


expressing pleasure and liking That's nice
I like the weather (very much)
expressing displeasure and dislike This is not very nice
I don't like the hotel
inquiring about liking and disliking Do you like the town?
expressing surprise I'm surprised that it isn't here
Fancy her being so kind
expressing hope I hope he comes
I hope so, too
expressing satisfaction This is very good
expressing dissatisfaction I don't like this
inquiring about satisfaction and dissatisfaction Is this what you wanted?
expressing disappointment What a pity / shame
expressing fear or worry I'm concerned that he will get hurt
inquiring about fear or worry Are you afraid he'll be angry?
expressing preference I'd prefer the blue one
I'd like the fish
expressing gratitude Thanks
expressing sympathy I'm sorry to hear that
expressing intention I'm going to talk to him
enquiring about intention Are you going to see her?
expressing want and desire I'd like an ice cream, please
May I have the coffee with cream?
inquiring about want and desire Would you like / Do you want another cup?
  1. expressing moral attitudes


apologising I'm (very) sorry
granting forgiveness That's OK
expressing approval Good
expressing disapproval You shouldn't talk like that
inquiring about approval or disapproval Do you think this is OK?
expressing appreciation It's very good
expressing regret What a shame
expressing indifference I don't care
It doesn't matter to me
  1. Getting things done (suasion)


requesting others to do something (hortation) Please, take this to my room
inviting others to do something What about going to the park?
advising others You should / ought to go to the doctor
warning Be careful
Look out
Don't do that
instructing and directing Take this to the post office
offering help Can I help you?
requesting help Can you help me, please?
making suggestions Let's go to the pizza house
  1. socialising


greeting Hello
Good morning (etc.)
when meeting How are you
I'm fine, thanks
introducing people This is Mary
How do you do
Pleased to meet you
taking leave Goodbye
attracting attention Excuse me
proposing a toast Cheers
beginning a meal Bon appetit

As you can see, the 68 functions that we need are unlikely to have changed since they were written although how we express some of these functions will change all the time.

The theory is that if you can do all these things in a foreign language, you will be able to communicate successfully.  How well you can do them will determine how successfully you communicate.

The right-hand column is headed Example exponents.  An exponent of a function is the language which is used to realise it in use.  For example, if I have a function of offering, I may choose two structural exponents:
    Would you like ... ?
    Can I tempt you to ... ?

and a range of vocabulary items that will do the job for me such as:
    some more
    one of these
    a bit more

Putting them together, I have a range of exponents for the function of offering.


The relationship between form and function

We saw above that what we say is not necessarily what we mean.  Here are some more examples of this.

and so on.

All is not lost because very often the form and function are closely aligned.  For example,
    Please tell me your name
is unlikely to be anything but an inquiry about a fact and
    I can't do this crossword
is unlikely to be anything but an expression or personal inability (although it could be a plea for help).

However, there is, in no language, a consistently simple one-to-one relationship between the form of what is said or written and its communicative function.

As a short exercise, can you identify some of the functions that could be fulfilled by the examples in this table?
Click on the eye open when you have some ideas.

Do you have a minute?
eye open
This looks like a question asking for information but, in fact, it often functions as a statement of desire, something like:
I would like to talk to you
It may also, of course, be a request for help and mean something like:
If you aren't busy, can you help me?
The restaurant closes in half an hour.
eye open
This looks like a simple statement of fact but could mean:
Hurry up, we'll be late!
Please finish your meal
It will soon be time to go home so cheer up
depending on who is talking to whom, the setting and the intentions.
That cake looks delicious.
eye open
This looks like a statement of opinion but could equally mean:
Let's buy some
Can I have some?
Well done


If you would like to learn more about form and function, try this guide.
Now we have laid the groundwork, if you like, you can go on to a more practical guide to teaching functional language.