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Modern science and technology

The question whether conservation should be included in sciences or not was answered by Argan, in 1938, when he recognized the various technical and humanistic skills required for conservation and restoration, and emphasized the critical approach to the appreciation of works of art. The conclusion from this is that sciences should be used as a 'tool' according to the requirements of the different tasks coming up in conservation. Conservation itself should not be considered a science, rather it forms a special modern discipline belonging to liberal arts - as Brandi has suggested (see Chapter 8). He has also insisted that a work of art is not a message in itself accordingly, it does not communicate, but it presents (Brandi, 1966.31). Nor is it only the physical phenomenon represented by its material its presence is in the human consciousness - as anticipated by Riegl who referred to art value as a present-day value. We can refer to Brandi who defines the work of art as a 'phenomenon...

No19 Lincolns Inn Holborn 1868

Goodhart-Rendel remarked that with Webb, the elevation exactly expresses the plan, the architectural features indicate the construction, the nature of materials dictate the forms they are made to assume, any irregular necessity is emphasised and as it were dramatised and f all that is not Gothic, what is Any sensitive architect must feel the awkward charm and the singularity of his work, but his ultimate importance in history is likely to derive less from what he built himseff than from the example that he set to others in his care for minute detail in design and in the process of workmanship. There is no real evidence thatWyatt, Salvin, Burn, or any but a very few of their predecessors or contemporaries, ever drew a bedroom chimney-piece of the back stair banisters in their lives. All matters of process, too, of the pointing of brickwork, or the tooling of stone, had customarily been controlled by a clerk of the works interpreting a conventional specification, until Webb, and, of...

The second large wave of Chinese influence on Japan

Occidental language has no adequate name for this experience of enlightenment, apparently unknown in the West, where there are no records of anyone having achieved mu-shin. Nor have any methods been devised with which enlightened masters may help their pupils to achieve such an experience. But although this experience remains almost impenetrable to the West, it forms the essence of Eastern-Asian spirituality. The reports of men and women who have attained enlightenment in India, China and Japan are legion. It is this tradition, this understanding of meditation, which represents Eastern Asia's greatest contribution to the development of human consciousness.

The preservation movement in the USA

Areas with a 'Disneyland syndrome' (G. McCue in Timmons, 1976 357). Such areas easily became targets for commercial tourism, producing an environment which was far from a living district. In due time, this tendency was counter-acted and the concept of architectural heritage was widened to include living historic areas. In 1972, 'historic districts' were defined by William J. Murtagh as 'areas that impact human consciousness with a sense of time and place' (Timmons, 1976 388).

Italian postwar developments

The development of modern Italian restoration approach owes much to the contribution of Benedetto Croce (1866-1952), an eminent philosopher, writer, teacher and historian as well as politician. Together with Henri Bergson, he has been identified as part of the 'contextualist' line in the modern philosophy of aesthetics. His scholarship, humour and common sense inspired the rebuilding of modern Italy, and he became the symbolic figure in the fight against Fascism. His thinking was based on the 'organistic' Hegelian school in classical Romantic philosophy. He contributed especially to the development of the modern concept of history, and modern historiography, conceiving History as the unique 'mediational' principle for all moments of human consciousness, which itself remained completely spontaneous, without a predetermined structure. He emphasized the quality of the whole of an object over the qualities of its details. He created a method of aesthetic appreciation, which was...

Creative process

In contrast with certain trends, tending to integrate human creativity in the general socioeconomic context, Brandi sustained the specificity of a work of art, claiming that it was the result of a unique, creative process. Consequently, also its perception required a critical process to reclaim its significance in human consciousness, a process that came to follow similar lines with the philosophy of Heidegger.29 This consciousness starts with a deep intention which progressively emerges, and, through various stages, finds its liberation in an image that is gradually formed in the artist's mind. The beginning of the creative process is the event when artistic 'intuition' first takes place. In the dialogue of Carmine o della Pittura, Brandi has described such an event in reference to painting a landscape Look, Carmine, if you approach a window and watch the panorama, an intuition of that panorama takes place quite suddenly due to the perception that immediately gets ordered in your...


Once the creative process has been concluded, the resulting work of art exists in the world as a presence in human consciousness. Restoration can then be contemplated, but every time it is undertaken, it must be based on a singular recognition of the work as a work of art, as a special product of humanity. Restoration will depend on this recognition. From his first definition of restoration, in 1948, Brandi identified two lines of thought one aimed at bringing common products of human activity back to efficiency, and the other referred to the restoration of special products, i.e., artistic objects. Due to its definition, a work of art can only be restored on the basis of an aesthetic approach to the work itself, not as a question of taste but as an issue related to the specificity of art. It is the work of art that must condition restoration - not the opposite. Taking the example of a historic building, we can understand that it is not just made of a certain amount of material, but...

Autonomy of form

Slopes, building process management and user requirements limit the profession's scope and opportunities. 'The architect lives in an atmosphere of fear produced by constant demands for efficiency and economy' (Dam, quoted in Leupen et al., 1990). People are much too ready to assume that in essence anything that is not quantifiable is unnecessary. Dam argues for a closer relationship between architecture and the arts. This means that people will have to learn to look, both in a technical and professional sense (learning to recognise and measure dimensional ratios, rhythm, structure, materials, light and colour) and in a cultural sense (to build up a mental stock of images, associations and interpretations). So a search for form should also be steered by principles such as 'form follows aesthetics' and 'form follows meaning'. Symbolism is a combination of perception and cognition. People's perceptions, expectations and interpretations are influenced by earlier aesthetic experiences,...

Jacob Burckhardt


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