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Food additive
food processing

Natural colorants

Most natural colorants are extracts derived from plant tissues. The use of these extracts in the food industry has certain problems associated with it, including the lack of consistent colour intensities, instability upon exposure to light and heat, variability of supply, reactivity with other food components, and addition of secondary flavours and odours. In addition, many are insoluble in water and therefore must be added with an emulsifier in order to achieve an even distribution throughout the food product.

Natural food colorants
chemical class colour plant source pigment products
*Plus other similar compounds.
**Many carotenoids used as food colorants are chemically synthesized.
anthocyanins red strawberry (Fragaria species) pelargonidin 3-glucoside* beverages, confections, preserves, fruit products
blue grape (Vitis species) malvidin 3-glucoside* beverages
betacyanins red beetroot (Beta vulgaris) betanin dairy products, desserts, icings
carotenoids** yellow/orange annatto (Bixa orellana) bixin dairy products, margarine
yellow saffron (Crocus sativus) crocin rice dishes, bakery products
red/orange paprika (Capsicum annuum) capsanthin soups, sauces
orange carrot (Daucus carota) beta-carotene bakery products, confections
red mushroom (Cantharellus cinnabarinus) canthaxanthin sauces, soups, dressings
phenolics orange/yellow turmeric (Cuycuma longa) curcumin dairy products, confections

Synthetic colorants

Synthetic colorants are water-soluble and are available commercially as powders, pastes, granules, or solutions. Special preparations called lakes are formulated by treating the colorants with aluminum hydroxide. They contain approximately 10 to 40 percent of the synthetic dye and are insoluble in water and organic solvents. Lakes are ideal for use in dry and oil-based products. The stability of synthetic colorants is affected by light, heat, pH, and reducing agents. A number of dyes have been chemically synthesized and approved for usage in various countries. These colorants are designated according to special numbering systems specific to individual countries. For example, the United States uses FD&C numbers (chemicals approved for use in foods, drugs, and cosmetics), and the European Union (EU) uses E numbers.

Synthetic food colorants
common name United States European Union products
allura red AC FD&C red no. 40 gelatin, puddings, dairy products, confections, beverages
brilliant blue FCF FD&C blue no. 1 E133 beverages, confections, icings, syrups, dairy products
erythrosine FD&C red no. 3 E127 maraschino cherries
fast green FCF FD&C green no. 3 beverages, puddings, ice cream, sherbet, confections
indigo carmine FD&C blue no. 2 E132 confections, ice cream, bakery products
sunset yellow FCF FD&C yellow no. 6 E110 bakery products, ice cream, sauces, cereals, beverages
tartrazine FD&C yellow no. 5 E102 beverages, cereals, bakery products, ice cream, sauces

All synthetic colorants have undergone extensive toxicological analysis. Brilliant Blue FCF, Indigo Carmine, Fast Green FCF, and Erythrosine are poorly absorbed and show little toxicity. Extremely high concentrations (greater than 10 percent) of Allura Red AC cause psychotoxicity, and Tartrazine induces hypersensitive reactions in some persons. Synthetic colorants are not universally approved in all countries.


The flavour of food results from the stimulation of the chemical senses of taste and smell by specific food molecules. Taste reception is carried out in specialized cells located in the taste buds. The five basic taste sensations—sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami—are detected in regions of the tongue, mouth, and throat. Taste cells are specific for certain flavour molecules (e.g., sweeteners).

In addition to the basic tastes, the flavouring molecules in food stimulate specific olfactory (smell) cells in the nasal cavity. These cells can detect more than 10,000 different stimuli, thus fine-tuning the flavour sensation of a food.

A flavour additive is a single chemical or blend of chemicals of natural or synthetic origin that provides all or part of the flavour impact of a particular food. These chemicals are added in order to replace flavour lost in processing and to develop new products. Flavourings are the largest group of food additives, with more than 1,200 compounds available for commercial use. Natural flavourings are derived or extracted from plants, spices, herbs, animals, or microbial fermentations. Artificial flavourings are mixtures of synthetic compounds that may be chemically identical to natural flavourings. Artificial flavourings are often used in food products because of the high cost, lack of availability, or insufficient potency of natural flavourings.

Flavour enhancers are compounds that are added to a food in order to supplement or enhance its own natural flavour. The concept of flavour enhancement originated in Asia, where cooks added seaweed to soup stocks in order to provide a richer flavour to certain foods. The flavour-enhancing component of seaweed was identified as the amino acid l-glutamate, and monosodium glutamate (MSG) became the first flavour enhancer to be used commercially. The rich flavour associated with l-glutamate was called umami.

Other compounds that are used as flavour enhancers include the 5′-ribonucleotides, inosine monophosphate (IMP), guanosine monophosphate (GMP), yeast extract, and hydrolyzed vegetable protein. Flavour enhancers may be used in soups, broths, sauces, gravies, flavouring and spice blends, canned and frozen vegetables, and meats.

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