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John van Rijn



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites



Any part of this publication may be reproduced or translated provided that the source and author are fully
Edition 2004.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Table of Contents:


Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Every industry has to
comply with the law

Labour act not always clear

or accommodating
Gap between reality and
Options to close the gap

Objective of paper


Like any industry, the construction industry has to operate in

compliance with existing labour laws, acts and other related legal
documents. Many construction works are carried out by or under
direct supervision of government officials. It is therefore unfortunate
that in many low and middle-income countries the construction
industry does not comply with these laws, acts, directives and other
legal documents.
In most of these countries, the construction industry complains that
the labour act itself is not clear and unambiguous or does not
facilitate common practices in the industry.
In short, there is often a gap between the act and reality.
To close the gap between the act and reality, the government can
take several measures. The first measure is to clarify the scope of the
labour act. This activity involves clarifying, supplementing and stating
as precisely as possible the scope of the law and the employment
relationships. The act preferably would contain provisions about
definitions of the different employment relationships and the criteria,
tests and legal constructs to recognise it. Furthermore the labour acts
would include all possible employment relations. In many countries
there are different acts for different employers. In other countries the
acts only cover certain employees and often the self-employed are
not covered. Another way of reducing the gap between reality and the
labour acts are compliance and enforcement.
This document intends to provide background information about the
construction industry in low and middle-income countries and the
reasons why it often does not comply with the labour laws.
Furthermore, it provides some guidelines to governments, trade
unions and contractor associations for improving the situation on
construction sites.


Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Construction industry
differs from most other

The clients

Clients involvement differs



The construction industry is in some ways different from many other

industries. First of all it are often the clients who take the initiative to
procure certain constructions. Many constructions are designed for a
specific client. Secondly the government or semi-government
institutions are large consumers of constructions and infrastructure.
Thirdly the client may construct the goods/assets themselves or may
contract activities out to a third party, usually the private sector.
Fourthly almost all constructions are unique and special projects were
formed to design and construct them.
The nature of the clients is in particular of interest. More than in any
other industry it is felt that these clients have to be social responsible.
After all the government procures many of the constructions and the
government has their own engineering units, which design and
construct the goods and assets. And the government of course has to
set the right example. In addition the construction industry is known
for its high number of accidents.
However it should be noted that not only governments procure
constructions. There are also clients who only once in a live time do
so, e.g. a family that has engaged a contractor to build their house.
All related acts should take into account the different nature of the
Furthermore, the involvement of the clients in the actual design and
construction process varies also considerably. Clients may be at the
same time be the producer of the works and do everything
themselves, like people who build their own house. Another example
is the so-called self-help project, where a group of people receives
funding or other assistance to create a particular construction or
infrastructure. The people working on the project are not working for
any employer, but are working for their own benefit. The labour act is
usually not applicable to these constructions. There are also clients
who build the construction themselves but with assistance of their
employees. The client has a number of workers and under its
management the workers produce the construction. The client is the
direct employer of the workers. The workers may be permanently
employed, employed for a fixed duration or employed for a specific
task. The labour act is clearly applicable in these situations. However
when the client is the government, other laws may prevail. In some
countries, however these temporary workers of the government are
not covered under any law. In the third situation, nowadays the most
common one, the client engages specialised companies to design,
construct the goods and assets. These companies, contractors and
consultants, usually have employees to carry out the necessary
tasks. During construction, the client often engages another body
(e.g. a consultant) to supervise the performance of the contractors.
Clients who procure many construction works, e.g. the government


Community contractors

Legal documents for

construction industry

Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

and real estate agents, usually have there own engineering staff,
which designs the constructions. Most governments contract the
actual construction activities out to the private sector. The
government staffs only supervise the performance of the contractors.
The labour act is usually applicable to the relationship between the
owner of the company and their employees/workers. However in
some countries, like in the Philippines the clients are liable for the
actions of their contractors. This system is perhaps unfair to clients
who only occasionally engage contractors. These clients are often not
commercial producers but merely consumers who want to procure a
construction for private purposes. It is very unlikely that these clients
have the expertise and knowledge to correctly guide and supervise
the performance of the contractors. They usually rely on the goodwill
and qualifications of their contractor or supervising consultants.
Clients who on the other hand are often involved in construction
activities like the government and real estate agents have indeed the
knowledge and capacity to control the contractors. Joint liability may
provide incentives to the client to enforce compliance of the labour act
upon their contractors.
In many low and middle-income countries, governments may contract
communities to carry out construction works. Sometimes the
communities are just treated as temporary employees of the
government, or the community is treated like any other contractor, but
more common the community is considered a self-help group. In most
cases the community contractors are financially awarded, although
the amount and mode of payment varies considerably.
There are different views if construction and maintenance works for a
community can be considered self-help. Some may argue against it,
because not every community member has selected the project or will
benefit from its fruits. School-buildings only serve the families with
children. Furthermore some communities may have a high turn over
of people moving in and out the neighbourhood. Those who argue in
favour, state that it can be seen as form of tax payment and when
properly organised and not too demanding it could be accepted.
Others will argue that such a tax is only acceptable if the community
concerned benefits directly from the project and the project meet the
specific needs of the community. However the fact that a community
has an interest in the created assets does not automatically imply that
any individual from the community has to contribute, given that all
people have their own personal interests.
In most countries the government developed legal documents that
formalise the correct rules of conduct in the construction industry.
Often these rules are binding for public works and only give guidance
to private construction activities. Examples of such documents are
public work directives, building codes and standard contract
documents and standard specifications. These documents may refer
to labour acts or even give more specific details about correct
application of the labour laws in the construction industry. It may
describe the precise roles, responsibilities, liabilities and authorities
with regard to the correct application. It is not really necessary to


Need for coordination

between acts

Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

replicate the labour law in these documents. Although many

contractors and subcontractors are not familiar with the labour act,
the contract documents could require the contractor to maintain a
copy of the labour acts on site.
The labour act and all these other related documents preferably
would accommodate common situations in the construction industry.
It should be clear to all parties when the different acts apply and when
not. It is important that all the acts together accommodate all common
practices and that they do not contradict. In other words it is
necessary to coordinate the contents of the different acts.

Subcontractors and Labour


Contractors and to a lesser extend community contractors often

contract a part of the works out to subcontractors. In many low and
middle-income countries so-called labour subcontractors employ a
large portion of the workers. They may just supply the workers and
taking commission for these services or operate as real
subcontractors, often assigned to the more labour-intensive works.
However the principal contractor usually supplies its labour
subcontractors with all the necessary equipment and it may also
provide the management to the workers. The latter case is more
common if the labour subcontractor only operates as a temporary
employment agency.

Triangular employment

When a (labour) subcontractor employs the labourers there is a

triangular employment relationship. The labourer employed by
subcontractor (the providing company) performs work for the main
contractor (the user company). The main contractor directly or
indirectly manages the performance of the workers and even may be
responsible for the protection of the workers against accidents.
Without clear agreements between all parties, this relationship may
result in a lack of protection for the workers. In many low and middleincome countries the contractor and their subcontractors only have
verbal agreements. Both assuming that the other party will take care
for certain protective measures for the workers.

Triangular employment
relationship in the legal

Although triangular employment relationships are very common in

most countries, still many labour acts do not accommodate them.
However in the construction industry acts, codes, e.g. public works
directives or standard contract agreements, is commonly stated that
the contractor may subcontracts part of the works, but that none of
the subcontract releases the contractor for its formal and overall
responsibilities to the workers on site, technical quality of the work,
environment and other considerations. The contractor is either fully or
jointly liable if the subcontractor defaults. This requires that the
contractor should have the right to inspect and review the records of
the subcontractor, in particular so when non-compliance is suspected.

Informal economy

Many of the labour contractors are members of the so-called informal

sector. The owners of these companies never registered their
companies nor do they pay taxes. Registration is still cumbersome in
many countries and many smaller companies do not see the benefits


Benefits of the informal


Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

or registering and paying taxes. The expenditures for registration fees

and taxes are higher than the bribes they have to pay to operate in an
informal economy. Furthermore many small companies are not able
to provide the bond, as specified in the different laws. In addition,
within the informal economy they have to subscribe to all laws,
increasing the cost of its operations.
Increasing cost makes any company less attractive to their clients.
Furthermore many unregistered companies do not see any benefits
for registering their company. Although registering would allow them
to bid for works themselves, but the risks of not being awarded any
contract is often perceived to be to high. This risk perception is
strongly influenced by the bid award system that may favour existing
and experienced companies.
New companies usually win contracts by bidding with lower prices,
compensating for their lack of experience. However many clients in
low and middle-income countries had bad experiences with new
companies and therefore look for options for quality control. They
may fix the contract price and select the most qualified bidder. Or
they select the most qualified bidder, which price does not exceed the
clients budget. Smaller companies are more successful in winning
contracts, when bids are first technically screened and subsequently
financially ranked. Screening of the technical proposal means that the
proposal is either accepted or rejected. Only the bids of which the
technical proposal is accepted the financial proposal will be
evaluated. Financial proposals that are unrealistic or exceeding the
upper limit of the budget are rejected. Usually the lowest acceptable
financial proposal is selected.
Most small companies prefer to be associated with larger companies,
which give them a higher guarantee of regular jobs and therefore
turnover. Due to the fact that most labour subcontractors are
unregistered companies and due to mutual convenience of both
parties, the labour subcontractor and their principal contractor often
only sign verbal agreements with a handshake. Most of these verbal
agreements do not include specific clauses with regard to protection
of the workers, health and safety standards and other particulars.



The workers in the construction industry have different

characteristics, on basis of their skill, origin, sex and other economic
Roughly it is possible to classify the workers of any industry in four
groups according to the skills:
1. Unskilled
2. Semi-skilled
3. Skilled
4. Management
The construction industry is characterised by its high numbers of
unskilled workers.


Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Unskilled workers & other

economic activities

Many of the unskilled workers in the construction industry in low and

middle-income countries are also active in the agricultural sector.
Some of them have their own farms; others may work as labourers for
farmers during the labour-intensive harvest and sowing seasons.

Entering employment in the

construction industry

The required level to enter the construction industry varies from

unskilled to skilled, from informal to formal economy and from country
to country. Employers that are part of the informal economy recruit
their unskilled workers often on relationships with existing workers.
Skilled workers more and more need the correct educational and
professional background, even in the informal economy. Contractors
mostly employ the skilled labour force and tend to recruit their
workers on basis of their qualifications. Regardless the employer,
new entrances are first taken on board as apprentices and attached
to experienced artisans. Thus they start as unskilled workers and
learn the profession on the job. When the portfolio of the employer
expands, they may be asked to take up similar jobs themselves.
However in many countries only male workers are able to develop
their career this way. It should equally be noted that the construction
industry is highly male dominated. For example, in Kenya and the
Philippines only men are working in this industry. In other countries
the female contribution of the workers is seldom higher than 20%.
Some countries, like Nepal, try to stimulate contractors and
community contractors to employ a larger female workforce.
Public notices are still very rare in the industry. In South Africa only
21% of the jobs were advertised at gates or in newspapers or other
forms of media. This figure is very high in comparison with many
other low and middle-income countries in Africa and Asia. In
particular in countries were many construction workers are illiterate,
such form of recruiting is inappropriate.

Technical training institutes

In more and more countries technical training institutes provide

training to artisans and technicians. Certificates of these training
institutes are often considered as an entry ticket for a position in the
formal economy.
Many of these artisans and site foremen (in Thailand, Nepal and the
Philippines) aspire to start their own (unregistered) company.

Mobility among workers

The mobility among the workers to switch employers is in general not

very high. Many workers depend on their relationship with their
employer for future jobs and income. However in particular when the
worker is not employed permanently, the worker may develop similar
relationships with several employers.
Migration of men and women in search for employment in the
construction industry is extensive. Seasonal migration is predominant.
Lack of work during the slack agricultural season, low wage rates and
lack of other income opportunities force large numbers of workers to
migrate towards the urban centres and towards the infrastructure
projects in the rural areas. Many employers in the construction
industry prefer to work with their own workforce that migrates from



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

project to project. For the employer it is the best method to control the
quality of the works. The employer knows these workers and the
long-term relationship motivates the workers to perform well. The
workers from the direct vicinity of the project are often less attractive
to the employers. There is not an existing relationship between the
employer and the workers. In addition, due to all kind of events like
marriages and funerals, local workers are reported to be more absent
in comparison to the migrating workforce.
Self-employed and daily

A large portion of the workforce in the construction industry is

employed as a daily or self-employed worker. This means that they
do not have a written or verbal contract. In practicable terms it also
means that the employers assume that the workers will pay taxes and
insure themselves against accident.

Self-employed, daily
workers and additional

Any industry needs some kind of flexible work force. This flexible
workforce may be needed for simple and unskilled jobs, but also for
specialised inputs from skilled workers. The construction industry is
no exception. It relies heavily on large temporary workforce of
unskilled workers. However many of these so-called daily workers are
employed for long durations by their employers and should be given a
contract for a fixed duration or for the delivery of a particular product
or service. In the more economic advanced countries the daily
workers are often obtained from specialised agencies. These socalled employment agencies make it their business to provide daily
workers to the different industries. Although the workers are not full
time employed they do receive all kinds of benefits, like paid leave,
pension, health insurance etc. In low and middle-income countries
labour subcontractors operate similar, to employment agencies, with
the exceptions that they often operate as subcontractors and do not
provide their workers with addition benefits. Besides daily workers,
the industry also uses self-employed workers. They often do the
same work as the daily workers, but their status is different. The selfemployed operate as a freelance contractor. When skilled, the selfemployed have its own little workshop, when unskilled the selfemployed worker tends to sell his/her services at pick up points. The
more advanced economies also work with self-employed construction
workers, e.g. plumbers who are engaged to fix a leakage in a house.
The client pays the freelance contractor a fee for his/her services or
delivery of a product. The freelance contractor is expected to pay for
all the costs, including insurances and taxes. Therefore the freelance
contractor usually charges a fee that is higher than the wage level.
However in many low and middle-income countries the self-employed
workers do not receive higher fees for their services than the workers
with fixed duration or permanent employment contracts. Even if they
do receive higher wages, it is questionable if the difference does
compensate the additional costs for taxes, tools, protective gear,
insurance, etc. In addition it should be noted that wage levels are still
low and that (health) insurance schemes of any kind are often very
inaccessible for these self-employed workers.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Many of the daily workers are engaged for the whole duration or a
large part of the project. They may actually work for the same
employer for years. Thus many workers are treated as self-employed
workers, meaning the workers may be laid of any time, the employer
does not insure the workers or pay any of the benefits to which
permanent employees are entitled to.
The labour acts often do not define when a workers is to be
considered self-employed or has to be employed. Perhaps in practical
terms workers at pick-up centres could be considered to be selfemployed. Workers that are recruited by and associated with their
(labour sub) contractor should not be considered to be self-employed
but daily worker. The employers of the daily workers have a moral
obligation to provide the additional benefits and pay the taxes.
Labour-subcontractors should either operate as a subcontractor or
operate as a temporary employment agency in its dealing with

Capacity to bear the costs

Government objectives


Employers and clients often complain that the labour act only
increase the costs of the construction. It therefore may have a
negative impact on the economic situation of the industry as a whole.
The International Labour Organisation argues that improved labour
conditions results in increased productivity. The real costs or benefits
of improved labour conditions are often unknown. Prior improving the
working conditions governments need to analyse whether the clients
of the construction industry are able to bear these additional costs, if
any. A big client of the construction industry is the government itself,
which procures buildings for education, administration, health and
other services, or procures infrastructure to transport goods, water,
sewerage, electricity etc.
Ideally the government would like to provide these services to all their
citizens and not only to the rich. This means that it has to keep the
cost of construction and maintenance of their assets as low as
possible. Governments therefore balance their interests. It wants to
construct and maintain its assets to provide services to its citizens
without exploiting the people who do the actual work. Governments
would therefore do well by analysing the financial situation of different
sectors. The road transport sector in Thailand generates a surplus
where the same sector in Nepal has cash deficits. Thus the road
sector in Thailand can afford to pay more for improvements of
working conditions, where the road sector in Nepal can only do so
with additional financial subsidies.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Capacity of the labour

Civil engineers and labour


Private works



In most low and middle-income countries the number of labour

inspectors and their geographical location is far from adequate to
inspect all the construction sites. Most of their labour inspectorates
have adopted policies to focus only on certain industries and the
construction industry is not one of them. However if complaints are
filed the labour inspectorate will take action even in the non-priority
In the Netherlands, civil engineers are trained in analysing the labour
acts and building codes and translating these into their designs and
construction methods. Contractors are expected to make risk
assessments of construction sites and propose mitigating measures
to reduce the risk of accidents. Supervisors on construction sites
have the obligation to assess the occupational safety and health
hazards and instruct the contractor to take mitigating measures if
In most countries, governments engineering units will supervise the
technical quality and progress of the public works. Supervisors on
construction sites usually have ample time to carry out additional
activities. Although it will require additional training, most supervisors
have the time to provide a helping hand in monitoring the compliance
of some crucial clauses of the labour act, like health and safety, wage
payments and insurance provisions. When the public works are
implemented under administration the government is the direct
employer of the workers and therefore its engineering units shall have
to comply with the labour or related acts.
Not always a qualified technician is appointed to supervise the
construction works for the private sector. Friends, relatives and the
client itself may supervise the construction of private properties.
Not all constructions of private properties are contracted out. It is also
possible that the client employs the workers directly. Thus expansion
of the roles of the technical supervisors is not always an option on
private owned construction sites. Local governments however can
assist the labour inspectors with their task of monitoring the labour

Informal monitoring

Public meetings and role of

the client

On some donor projects, e.g. food for work projects in Nepal, you will
find notice boards erected on site. These notice boards provide
information about the work rules, wages and benefits. It may also
contain information about addresses where workers can file
complaints if they feel that their employer mistreats them.
On these projects, the workers, their employer (community
contractor) and the client (government representatives and donor
representatives) meet to discuss issues of common interest. It is also
a forum where workers can file a complaint when they feel that they
are mistreated (not paid on time or not paid enough). This system has



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

some successes. However it should be noted that the presence and

influence of the client is very important. The client had to act as a
guarantee to the workers, who are afraid for repercussions from the
employer. Not all clients, of the private sector, may be willing or able
to carry out this task.
Filing complaints

Many labour acts have clauses about filing of complaints against their
employer. These clauses are often based on practices in high-income
countries where workers have legal protection against repercussions
from their employers. However in many low and middle-income
countries the legal system is less solid and most workers are very
hesitant to file a complaint against their employer unless it can be
done anonymously.

Enabling environment for


Monitoring and supervision activities always require the proper

attitude and organisation culture and incentives. Without these,
supervision of any kind will be of inferior quality, affecting the



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites



This chapter runs through a number of issues that are usually

addressed in labour acts, often formulated in separate clauses. It also
gives a description of common practices in the construction industry
in low and middle-income countries. These descriptions are based on
studies in Nepal, Thailand and the Philippines and literature review of
studies in Kenya and South Africa.

Womens participation in
the construction industry
remains low.

Positive steps towards

attaining better gender mix


Many governments want to promote the equal position of women and

men in society. However it has been recognised that if special efforts
are not taken, womens participation in infrastructure works remains
low. The construction industry is highly and sometimes solely male
dominated (Kenya and the Philippines). In other countries female
participation is solely restricted to unskilled jobs or jobs that are
perceived to be unskilled (Nepal and Thailand). In many countries
female workers receive less pay for the same value of work than their
male colleagues.
Some countries (Nepal) have taken positive steps towards attaining
gender mix on construction sites. It requires community contractors to
employ a minimum percentage of female construction workers on
site. However due to cultural barriers this is not always acceptable to
all communities. In the Philippines the construction industry itself has
taken some steps to attract women to take up specific construction
activities, like welding. The construction industry needed qualified
welders and was not satisfied about the performance of the male
workers. At the same time female workers who had gained working
experiences in the construction industry in other countries returned
back to the Philippines and were willing to continue their profession in
their own country. The female workers operate in urban areas, where
it is easier to hide in anonymity.

Equal pay

As stated earlier female workers are often paid less for the same
value of work than their male colleagues. Governments may take
some special steps to overcome this deficit. First of all it can demand
that all employers erect special notice boards with all relevant
information to their workers, including wage rates and contact
address for complaints. However notice boards will not be very useful
to illiterate workers, unless the text is presented verbally to them.
Supervisors of public works may take up this task. Secondly they can
strictly monitor the wage payments while evaluating the requests for

Female workers are often

denied skill development

Another issue on the agenda of the female workers is that they are
often excluded from skill development opportunities. The
governments engineer departments can set up special programs to
upgrade the skills of female construction workers. These programs



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

should not only provide training to female workers but also

guarantees job opportunities, e.g. a special contract clause could
specify the number/percentage of female skilled construction workers
that should be employed during construction. This program needs to
run at least a decade, if it would become successful. Upgrading the
skills of female construction workers is merely a cultural issue rather
than a technical issue. Changing any culture requires time.

Wage setting

Net and gross wages


Time based


Limitations to productivity
based remuneration

Factors affecting production


Non-working days


Most countries have developed a system of minimum wages for

different levels of skills and knowledge. When such a system is not
available, the cost of ordinary labour could be estimated on the
assumption that in rural areas, the workers would otherwise earn the
minimum agricultural revenues and workers in the urban settlements
would work in low wage level industries.
The minimum wages may vary in different parts of the country. The
wage levels for the self-employed, fixed term employed and
permanent employed ideally would differ in height. The self-employed
are assumed to pay their taxes and insurances. Like the fixed term
employees they also are expected to be underemployed during parts
of the year. In other words the self-employed should receive the gross
wage, where the other employees should receive the net wage. In all
cases the wage levels should respect the minimum wage levels.
The wage system also influences the wage level. Basically there are
three systems:
1. Time based
2. Piece work
3. Task work
Time based remuneration systems have the major advantage that
bookkeeping is easy. However productivity may fluctuate
considerably and supervision of the workers is continuously required
to maintain high productivity.
With piecework and task work the payment is related to productivity of
the workers. The main difference is that under the piecework system
the output per labourer/gang can fluctuate, whereby the payment and
output is always the same in the task work system. Task work has
two main advantages over piecework:
1. It is easier to control the progress of the works
2. It is more suitable to women.
Piecework and task work are productivity-based remuneration
systems. Such remuneration can only be used when the productivity
of each individual can be measured and they are able to influence the
productivity autonomously. When the productivity is determined by
equipment, productivity-based remuneration cannot be used.
Productivity will be influenced by regular job rotation, varieties in the
to be shaped, used or tilled materials. Furthermore, required precision
degree and the risk of exogenous effects resulting in unworkable
situations influence productivity.
Because during unworkable situations (heavy rain, typhoon, etc)
these workers cannot produce and therefore not earn, the risk is



Protection of wages

Instalments to contractor

Record keeping

Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

considerable that they actually earn less than the minimum wage.
Note that many daily workers in low and middle-income countries are
also not paid when the work is stopped due to rain or any other
reason. Governments may consider setting separate minimum wage
levels for the construction industry to mitigate this habit. Of course
contractors have always the option to allocate the workforce to other
activities that are not influenced by the weather conditions (which are
in general indoors).
Regardless the remuneration system, it is very important that
labourers are paid on time. When labourers are not paid on time, they
are very likely to be forced to look for jobs elsewhere or organise
strikes. After all, the labourers belong to the poorest segment of the
society. This will hamper the constructions progress. The delays may
result in additional costs as the overheads and facilities are still to be
continued regardless the productivity. The quality may go down as
well because workers and supervisors lose their motivation.
Sometimes problems with wage payment can be traced to their
employers not being paid by their contracting agencies. In particular
smaller companies will have difficulties to pay their workers, when
they are not paid themselves.
Whatever the basis, form or level of wages, useful and correct
records must be kept to pay the wages on time and properly. Workers
should be paid as close both in time and in location to the work for
which they are being paid. Governments would preferable develop a
standard with regard to payment records, for easy verification from
their site.

Labour camps for migrating


If migrant labourers are employed, the project will have to make

provisions for the transportation and housing of the labourers. The
International Labour Organisation provides some generic guidelines
about the design and location of these camps.
They should be located on high and well draining land. It should be
located at least 200 metres from the site and within a range of 3 km.
Use as general guideline 5m2 per person. It should be near a source
of good water. It should be easily accessible to project vehicles.
Certainly when these vehicles are stored during the night in the camp
or when they have to collect the workers. Off course the camps
should have sufficient pit latrines of at least three meters deep and
located at least 25 meters away from the camp. The camp will also
require sufficient energy for cooking and lightning.
Female workers in Nepal were very concerned about separate
sanitation and bathing facilities. The water supply and sanitation
conditions in the camps were also reported to influence the number of
sick days due to diarrhoea.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Often there seems to be an increased risk of HIV/AIDS when migrant

labourers are employed. It may not be within the scope of the project
to educate all in the project area. However some simple and cheap
interventions can help to reduce the risk of HIV/AIDS.
Make condoms available where they are needed
Provide awareness signals about the risks of unsafe sex and
proper use of condoms where sexual action takes place
Inform sex workers, about behaviour of the new clients
Arrange sessions about the subject in schools and other public

Working hours clause often

Preference of workers


Paid Leave


Most labour acts include clauses on working hours, overtime and

leave arrangements. In both Nepal and the Philippines almost all
construction workers in the rural areas work 7 days a week and
sometimes twelve hours a day, clearly not respecting the labour act.
In Thailand the situation is a little better, but still about 20% of the
construction workers were reported to work 7 days per week.
Because construction workers are often paid on basis of productivity
or on a daily basis and their salaries are low, many prefer to work
seven days per week and long hours. There have been reports about
Thai construction workers taking amphetamines to work double shifts.
It is easy to monitor the working days when construction is stopped
during rest days and periods. However in many countries,
construction activities continue, even 24 hours per day. In such
situations the supervisors could check the administration with regard
to proper allocation of working time.
Paid leave is very uncommon in the construction industry. Only
permanent employed workers are able to take paid leave. Temporary
employment agencies in the high-income countries usually include
leave compensation in the daily wage for temporary workers.



Child labour is not very common on construction sites in Asia. Child

labour is reported to be more common in the supplying industries, like
stone quarries and brick kilns.

The construction industrys

Roles and responsibility


The construction industry is characterised for its high incidence of

accidents. Although it is difficult to include specific safety and health
clauses in the labour act, it is not uncommon to include specific
clauses in public works directives, contract documents, specifications
and building codes.
Due to the triangular relationship it is important to formalise the
responsibilities with regard to occupational safety and health. Who
provides the protective gear; who ensures that the provided tools and
equipment are in good condition; who ensures that the site is safe?
Who provides the workers with clean drinking water and proper
sanitation facilities?


Client versus contractor

Specific health and safety


Defaulting the health and

safety regulations

Example from Thailand

Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

In most countries the principal employer, but not the client is made
responsible and liable for the occupation health and safety situation.
Thus the contractor is responsible for the actions of its
subcontractors. And in most countries the client can instruct the
contractor to improve the occupation health and safety conditions.
The building code and standard contract documents and
specifications may contain specific requirements with regard to
occupation health and safety. In Thailand and the Philippines,
contractors are required to prepare health and safety risk
assessments and propose mitigating measures to the client.
However it has been recognised that many of the health and safety
standards are not followed. Many contractors try to reduce the costs
of their operations and win contracts through savings on safety and
health provisions. The bill of quantities often does not contain a
specific cost item for occupation health and safety measures. It is
assumed that these costs are already included in the work items.
Clients have difficulties checking if the costs for health provisions are
correctly estimated. In theory this should not be necessary, because
the client can always instruct the contractor to take mitigating
measures and if the law or contract documentation provide details
concerning health and safety provisions the contractor and the
subcontractors are obliged to follow them. In some countries like the
Philippines there is a specific cost item for health and safety
measures in the bill of quantities. However if the client accepts bids
that do not include any costs on this work item, the contractors feel
motivated to default on these provisions.
In Thailand the contractors have to assess the health and safety risks
and propose mitigating measures. This health and safety program
forces the contractors to take the matter more seriously. They are
obliged to employ a health and safety officer, who assesses the
situation, but also provide information to the workers.
Improved health and safety conditions often will result in higher
productivity of the workers. However there is not yet enough data to
make productivity assessments on basis of health and safety
conditions on construction sites.
When accidents occur, the contractor is seldom held accountable,
either financially or in person. Insurance schemes, at least in theory,
pay compensation to the workers or their families. Contractors with a
high incidence of accidents do not have to pay higher insurance fees
than well performing contractors. No claim policies are not common
for this purpose and perhaps correctly so. Employers may decide not
to report accidents in order to obtain or sustain a no claim situation.
It is also seldom that a court case is filed against the contractor when
an accident occurred due to neglect of the employer.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

The acts

Covering fluctuating

Many workers not insured

Self employed workers


In most countries the employers have to insure their employees or

workers. Some countries have special acts with regard social security
provisions, e.g. the Philippines and Thailand. However it is not always
clear if daily workers are included in this provision. In Thailand
employees who work occasionally or seasonally are not covered
under their Social Security Act. Ideally the act, precisely describes the
responsibilities of the employer and the minimum coverage of the
schemes. In addition not all companies have to insure their workers.
Often small companies are exempted. In Nepal contractors have to
provide in joint names (client and themselves) insurances. Officially
the contractor has to submit a copy of the insurance scheme prior
commencement of the works to their client. If the contractor fails to
insure the workers the client may insure the workers on his behalf
and deduct the costs from the contractors fee.
The bill of quantities may have a special cost item for insurance or it
may be assumed that the costs are included in the work items.
Because insurance costs are direct expenditures, it is
recommendable to include this cost item in the bill of quantities. The
contractor ideally would submit evidence of the insurance with his
request for instalments.
One of the problems of the construction industry is its fluctuating
workforce. One day 40 unskilled workers are on site; the next day
only 20 unskilled workers. It is therefore more difficult to have
individual insurance policies for the workers. Many contractors in low
and middle-income countries therefore only provide insurance to the
fixed term and permanent employees and expect the daily workers to
cover their own insurance However many insurance companies sell
policies accommodating this specific phenomena. Furthermore
contractors can reduce the fluctuation of the workforce by balancing
the work inputs.
Despite all the legal documents and procedures, still many
construction workers in low and middle-income countries are not
insured and depend completely on the goodwill of their employer with
regard to compensation for medical expenditures and other costs
related to accidents.
In high-income countries the self-employed workers are assumed to
insure themselves. However in low and middle-income countries, it is
often difficult and expensive for this category of workers to insure
themselves. Furthermore their wages are usually low and they often
prefer to take the cash home to paying insurance companies. If
countries want to provide insurance to these workers, it rather obliges
contractors and other employers to include these workers in their
insurance policies.



Translating Labour Policies into Practices on Construction Sites

Job security major concern
of workers

Value and use of

appointment letters


Job security is one of the most important concerns of the construction

workers in low and middle-income countries. Some labour acts
require that employers provide their workers with employment
contracts or appointment letters. In other countries verbal agreements
are enough.
Regardless the official rules and regulations, the majority of the
construction workers never see or sign appointment letters. They rely
on verbal information about the duration of their job. This is partly
acceptable to the workers because they usually rely on their employer
for other jobs in the future. Most construction workers also accept
short notice periods. Usually contractors do not prepare detailed
resource plans or make any effort to balance the resources during
construction and are therefore not able to give adequate information
about the duration of employment. Many employers do not realise
that resource plans are usually optimistic. They therefore do not have
to be not afraid that they need to lay off workers earlier than
expected. Resource plans also help contractors to optimise the
efficiency on site.



Most labour acts contain clauses about (temporary) discontinuation of

employment relationships for a while due to slack seasons or any
other reason. These clauses are very relevant in the construction
industry, where the labour demand continuously seem to fluctuate.
Many construction workers work for certain duration are subsequently
laid of and later employed by the same employer. According to some
labour laws, the employer is required to provide severance payments
to the workers. However this is seldom practiced in the construction
industry in low and middle-income countries.