Kublai Khan

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This article is about the Mongolian emperor. For other uses, see Kublai Khan (disambiguation).
Khubilai Khan
Khagan of the Mongol Empire
Founder and Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty
Portrait of Kublai Khan during the Yuan era.
Reign May 5, 1260 – February 18, 1294
Coronation May 5, 1260
Predecessor Möngke Khan
Successor Temür Khan
Consort Tegulen, Chabi, Nambui
Full name
Mongolian: Хубилай Сэцэн хаан
Setsen Khan (Цэцэн хаан)
Era dates
Dynasty Yuan
Father Tolui
Mother Sorghaghtani Beki
Born September 23, 1215
Died February 18, 1294 (aged 78)
Dadu (Khanbaliq)
Burial Burkhan Khaldun, Khentii Province

Kublai Khan (/ˈkblə ˈkɑːn/; Mongolian: Хубилай хаан, ᠬᠦᠪᠢᠯᠠᠢ ᠬᠠᠭᠠᠨ Xubilaĭ xaan; Middle Mongolian: Qubilai Qaγan, "King Qubilai"; September 23, 1215 – February 18, 1294),[1][2] born Kublai (Mongolian: Хубилай, Xubilaĭ; Middle Mongolian: Qubilai; Chinese: 忽必烈; pinyin: Hūbìliè; also spelled Khubilai) and also known by the temple name Shizu (Chinese: 元世祖; pinyin: Yuán Shìzǔ; Wade–Giles: Yüan Shih-tsu), was the fifth Khagan (Great Khan) of the Ikh Mongol Uls (Mongol Empire), reigning from 1260 to 1294, and the founder of the Yuan dynasty in Mongolia and China, a division of the Mongol Empire.

Kublai was the fourth son of Tolui (his second son with Sorghaghtani Beki) and a grandson of Genghis Khan. He succeeded his older brother Möngke as Khagan in 1260, but had to defeat his younger brother Ariq Böke in the Toluid Civil War lasting until 1264. This episode marked the beginning of disunity in the empire.[3] Kublai's real power was limited to China and Mongolia, though as Khagan he still had influence in the Ilkhanate and, to a far lesser degree, in the Golden Horde.[4][5][6] If one counts the Mongol Empire at that time as a whole, his realm reached from the Pacific to the Black Sea, from Siberia to modern day Afghanistan – one fifth of the world's inhabited land area.[7]

In 1271, Kublai established the Yuan dynasty, which ruled over present-day Mongolia, China, Korea, and some adjacent areas, and assumed the role of Emperor of China. By 1279, the Yuan forces had overcome the last resistance of the Southern Song dynasty, and Kublai became the first non-Han Emperor to conquer all of China. He was also the only Mongol Khan after 1260 to win new conquests.[8]

Early years[edit]




Victory in North China[edit]



In 1253, Kublai was ordered to attack Yunnan, and he asked the Kingdom of Dali to submit. The ruling Gao family resisted and killed Mongol envoys. The Mongols divided their forces into three. One wing rode eastward into the Sichuan basin. The second column under Subutai's son Uryankhadai took a difficult route into the mountains of western Sichuan.[13] Kublai went south over the grasslands and met up with the first column. While Uryankhadai travelled along the lakeside from the north, Kublai took the capital city of Dali and spared the residents despite the slaying of his ambassadors. Duan Xingzhi, the last king of Dali, was appointed by Möngke Khan as the first local ruler; Duan accepted the stationing of a pacification commissioner there.[14] After Kublai's departure, unrest broke out among certain factions. In 1255 and 1256, Duan Xingzhi was presented at court, where he offered Mengu, the Yuan Emperor Xienzhong, maps of Yunnan and counsels about the vanquishing of the tribes who had not yet surrendered. Duan then led a considerable army to serve as guides and vanguards for the Mongolian army. By the end of 1256, Uryankhadai had completely pacified Yunnan.[15]


The Taoists had obtained their wealth and status by seizing Buddhist temples. Möngke repeatedly demanded that the Taoists cease their denigration of Buddhism and ordered Kublai to end the clerical strife between the Taoists and Buddhists in his territory.[17] Kublai called a conference of Taoist and Buddhist leaders in early 1258. At the conference, the Taoist claim was officially refuted, and Kublai forcibly converted 237 Taoist temples to Buddhism and destroyed all copies of the Taoist texts.[18][19][20][21] Kublai Khan and the Yuan dynasty clearly favored Buddhism, while his counterparts in the Chagatai Khanate, the Golden Horde, and the Ilkhanate later converted to Islam at various times in history - Berke of the Golden Horde being the only Muslim during Kublai's era (his successor did not convert to Islam).

In 1258, Möngke put Kublai in command of the Eastern Army and summoned him to assist with an attack on Sichuan. As he was suffering from gout, Kublai was allowed to stay home, but he moved to assist Möngke anyway. Before Kublai arrived in 1259, word reached him that Möngke had died. Kublai decided to keep the death of his brother secret and continued the attack on Wuhan, near the Yangtze River. While Kublai's force besieged Wuchang, Uryankhadai joined him.[citation needed] The Song Dynasty minister Jia Sidao secretly approached Kublai to propose terms. He offered an annual tribute of 200,000 taels of silver and 200,000 bolts of silk, in exchange for Mongol agreement to the Yangtze River as the frontier between the states.[22] Kublai declined at first but later reached a peace agreement with Jia Sidao.

Enthronement and civil war[edit]

Main article: Toluid Civil War




Chagatayid Khan Alghu, who had been appointed by Ariq Böke, declared his allegiance to Kublai and defeated a punitive expedition sent by Ariq Böke in 1262. The Ilkhan Hulagu also sided with Kublai and criticized Ariq Böke. Ariq Böke surrendered to Kublai at Xanadu on August 21, 1264. The rulers of the western khanates acknowledged Kublai's victory and rule in Mongolia.[27] When Kublai summoned them to a new kurultai, Alghu Khan demanded recognition of his illegal position from Kublai in return. Despite tensions between them, both Hulagu and Berke, khan of the Golden Horde, at first accepted Kublai's invitation.[28][29] However, they soon declined to attend the kurultai. Kublai pardoned Ariq Böke, although he executed Ariq Böke's chief supporters.


Great Khan of the Mongols[edit]



Meanwhile, Kublai tried to stabilize his control over Korea by mobilizing another Mongol invasion after he appointed Wonjong (r. 1260–1274) as the new Goryeo king in 1259 in Kanghwa. Kublai forced two rulers of the Golden Horde and the Ilkhanate to call a truce with each other in 1270 despite the Golden Horde's interests in the Middle East and Caucasia.[37] Kublai called two Iraqi siege engineers from the Ilkhanate in order to destroy the fortresses of Song China. After the fall of Xiangyang in 1273, Kublai's commanders, Aju and Liu Zheng, proposed a final campaign against the Song Dynasty, and Kublai made Bayan the supreme commander.[38] Kublai ordered Möngke Temür to revise the second census of the Golden Horde to provide resources and men for his conquest of China.[39] The census took place in all parts of the Golden Horde, including Smolensk and Vitebsk in 1274–75. The Khans also sent Nogai to the Balkans to strengthen Mongol influence there.[40]






In 1279–80, Kublai decreed death for those who performed Islamic-Jewish slaughtering of cattle, which offended Mongolian custom.[48] When the Ahmad Teguder seized the throne of the Ilkhanate in 1282, attempting to make peace with the Mamluks, Abaqa's old Mongols under prince Arghun appealed to Kublai. After the execution of Ahmad, Kublai confirmed Arghun's coronation and awarded his commander in chief Buqa the title of chingsang.[citation needed]

Kublai's niece, Kelmish, who married a Khunggirat general of the Golden Horde, was powerful enough to have Kublai's sons Nomuqan and Kokhchu returned. Three leaders of the Jochids, Töde Möngke, Konchi, and Nogai, agreed to release two princes.[49] The court of the Golden Horde returned the princes as a peace overture to the Yuan Dynasty in 1282 and induced Kaidu to release Kublai's general. Konchi, khan of White Horde, established friendly relations with the Yuan and the Ilkhanate, and as a reward received luxury gifts and grain from Kublai.[50] Despite political disagreement between contending branches of the family over the office of Khagan, the economic and commercial system continued.[51][52][53][54]

Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty[edit]

The Yuan Dynasty, c. 1294

Kublai Khan considered China as his main base, realizing within a decade of his enthronement as Great Khan that he needed to concentrate on governing there.[55] From the beginning of his reign, he adopted Chinese political and cultural models and worked to minimize the influences of regional lords, who had held immense power before and during the Song Dynasty. Kublai heavily relied on his Chinese advisers until about 1276. He had many Han Chinese advisers, such as Liu Bingzhong and Xu Heng, and employed many Uyghur Turks, some of whom were resident commissioners running Chinese districts.[56]

Kublai also appointed Phagspa Lama his state preceptor (Guoshi), giving him power over all of the empire's Buddhist monks. In 1270, after Phagspa created the Square script, he was promoted to imperial preceptor. Kublai established the Supreme Control Commission under Phagspa to administer affairs of Tibetan and Chinese monks. During Phagspa's absence in Tibet, the Tibetan monk Sangha rose to high office and had the office renamed the Commission for Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs.[57][58] In 1286, Sangha became the dynasty's chief fiscal officer. However, their[who?] corruption later embittered Kublai, and he later relied wholly on younger Mongol aristocrats. Antong of the Jalayir and Bayan of the Baarin served as grand councillors from 1265, and Oz-temur of the Arulad headed the censorate. Borokhula's descendant, Ochicher, headed a kheshig (Mongolian imperial guard) and the palace provision commission.

In the eighth year of Zhiyuan (1271), Kublai officially created the Yuan Dynasty and proclaimed the capital to be Dadu (Chinese: 大都; Wade–Giles: Ta-tu, lit. "Great Capital", known as Daidu to the Mongols, at modern-day Beijing) the following year. His summer capital was in Shangdu (Chinese: 上都, "Upper Capital", also called Xanadu, near what today is Dolonnur). To unify China,[59] Kublai began a massive offensive against the remnants of the Southern Song Dynasty in 1274 and finally destroyed the Song Dynasty in 1279, unifying the country at last.

Chinese opera flourished during the Mongol rule of China.

Most of the Yuan domains were administered as provinces, also translated as the "branch Secretariat", each with a governor and vice-governor.[60] This included China proper, Manchuria, Mongolia, and a special Zhendong branch Secretariat that extended into the Korean Peninsula.[61][62] The Central Region (Chinese: 腹裏) was separate from the rest, consisting of much of present-day North China. It was considered the most important region of the dynasty and was directly governed by the Zhongshusheng (Chinese: 中書省, "Department of Central Governing") at Dadu. Tibet was governed by another top-level administrative department called the Xuanzheng Yuan (Chinese: 宣政院).



Kublai encouraged Asian arts and demonstrated religious tolerance. Despite his anti-Taoist edicts, Kublai respected the Taoist master and appointed Zhang Liushan as the patriarch of the Taoist Xuanjiao order.[68] Under Zhang's advice, Taoist temples were put under the Academy of Scholarly Worthies. Several Europeans visited the empire, notably Marco Polo in the 1270s who may have seen the summer capital Shangdu.

Relations with Muslims[edit]

The "Muslim trebuchet" (Hui-Hui Pao) used to breach the walls of Fancheng and Xiangyang.

Thirty Muslim high officials served the court of Kublai Khan. Eight of the dynasty's twelve administrative districts had Muslim governors appointed by Kublai Khan.[69] Among the Muslim governors was Sayyid Ajjal Shams al-Din Omar, who became administrator of Yunnan. He was a well learned man in the Confucian and Taoist traditions and is believed to have propagated Islam in China. Other administrators were Nasr al-Din (Yunnan) and Mahmud Yalavach (mayor of the Yuan capitol).

Kublai Khan patronized Muslim scholars and scientists, and Muslim astronomers contributed to the construction of the observatory in Shaanxi.[70] Astronomers such as Jamal ad-Din introduced 7 new instruments and concepts that allowed the correction of the Chinese calendar.


Muslim physicians organized hospitals and had their own institutes of Medicine in Beijing and Shangdu. In Beijing was the renown Guang Hui Si (Department of extensive mercy) where Hui medicine and surgery were taught, Ibn Sina's works were also published in China during that period.[71]

Muslim mathematicians introduced Euclidean Geometry, Spherical trigonometry and Arabic numerals in China.[72]


Warfare and foreign relations[edit]

A Yuan Dynasty hand cannon

Although Kublai restricted the functions of the kheshig, he created a new imperial bodyguard, at first entirely Chinese in composition but later strengthened with Kipchak, Alan (Asud), and Russian units.[74][75][76] Once his own kheshig was organized in 1263, Kublai put three of the original kheshigs under the charge of the descendants of Genghis Khan's assistants, Borokhula, Boorchu, and Muqali. Kublai began the practice of having the four great aristocrats in his kheshig sign jarliqs (decrees), a practice that spread to all other Mongol khanates.[77] Mongol and Chinese units were organized using the same decimal organization that Genghis Khan used. The Mongols eagerly adopted new artillery and technologies. Kublai and his generals adopted an elaborate, moderate style of military campaigns in South China. Effective assimilation of Chinese naval techniques allowed the Yuan army to quickly conquer the Song.


Invasions of Japan[edit]





Japanese samurai boarding Yuan ships in 1281.


Invasions of Vietnam[edit]

Kublai Khan also invaded Đại Việt (Vietnam) three times. The first incursion was in 1257, but the Trần Dynasty was able to repel the invasion and ultimately re-established the peace treaty among Yuan Mongol and Đại Việt in the 12th lunar month of 1257. When Kublai became the Great Khan in 1260, the Vietnamese Trần Dynasty sent tribute every three years and received a darughachi.[87][88] However, their kings soon declined to attend the Mongol court in person. The Great Khan sent his envoys to order the Trần king to open his land to allow the Yuan army to pass through to invade the kingdom of Champa, but the Đại Việt court refused. Kublai sent another envoy to the Đại Việt to demand that the Trần king surrender his land and his kingship. The Trần king assembled all his citizens, allowing all to vote on whether to surrender to the Yuan or to stand and fight for their homeland. The vote was a unanimous decision to stand and fight the invaders.





The Mongol naval fleet was totally destroyed and Omar was captured. At the same time, Đại Việt's army continuously attacked and smashed to pieces Toghan's army on its withdrawal through Lạng Sơn. Toghan risked his life to take a shortcut through thick forest in order to flee home. The crown prince was banished to Yangzhou for life by his father, Kublai Khan. Nevertheless, the Trần king accepted Kublai Khan's supremacy as the Great Khan in order to avoid more conflicts. In 1292, Temür Khan, Kublai Khan's successor, returned all detained envoys and settled for a tributary relationship with the Trần king, which continued to the end of the Yuan Dynasty.[88][90]

Southeast Asia and South Seas[edit]

Three expeditions against Burma, in 1277, 1283, and 1287, brought the Mongol forces to the Irrawaddy Delta, whereupon they captured Bagan, the capital of the Pagan Kingdom in Burma, and established their government.[91] Kublai had to be content with establishing a formal suzerainty, but Burma finally became a tributary state, sending tributes to the Yuan court until the Mongols were expelled from China in the 1360s.[92] The Khmer kingdom of Cambodia and small states of Malaya and South India submitted to Kublai's rule between 1278 and 1294. Mongol interests in these areas were commercial and tributary relationships.



Main articles: Marco Polo and Rabban Bar Sauma
Further information: Europeans in Medieval China
Kublai gives financial support to the Polo family.


Rabban Bar Sauma, ambassador of Great Khan Kublai and Ilkhan Arghun, travelled from Dadu to Rome, Paris, and Bordeaux to meet with European rulers in 1287–88.

Marco Polo, Niccolo Polo's son, accompanied his father and his uncle Maffeo Polo on their second trip to China starting in 1271. Marco Polo was probably the best-known foreign visitor to China and Mongolia. After reaching China in 1275, he spent the next 17 years (1275–92) under the administration and patronage of Kublai, including official service in the salt administration and trips through the provinces of Yunnan and Fukien.[citation needed]

The capital city of the Emperor[edit]

The White Stupa in Dadu (or Khanbalic)



Nayan's rebellion[edit]

During the conquest of the Jin, Genghis Khan's younger brothers received large appanages in Manchuria.[95] Their descendants strongly supported Kublai's coronation in 1260, but the younger generation desired more independence. Kublai enforced Ögedei Khan's regulations that the Mongol noblemen could appoint overseers and the Great Khan's special officials, in their appanages, but otherwise respected appanage rights. Kublai's son Manggala established direct control over Singan and Shansi in 1272. In 1274, Kublai appointed Lian Xixian to investigate abuses of power by Mongol appanage holders in Manchuria.[96] The region called Lia-tung was immediately brought under the Khagan's control, in 1284, eliminating autonomy of the Mongol nobles there.[97]

Romantic 19th-century view of Kublai's four elephants

Threatened by the advance of Kublai's bureaucratization, Belgutei's fourth generation descendant, Nayan (not to be confused with Temüge's descendant Nayan), instigated a revolt in 1287. Nayan tried to join forces with Kublai's competitor Kaidu in Central Asia.[98] Manchuria's native Jurchens and Water Tatars, who had suffered a famine, supported Nayan. Virtually all of the fraternal lines under Hadaan, a descendant of Hachiun, and Shihtur, a grandson of Hasar, joined Nayan's rebellion,[99] and because Nayan was a popular prince, Ebugen, a grandson of Genghis Khan's son Khulgen, and the family of Khuden, a younger brother of Güyük Khan, contributed troops for this rebellion.[100]

The rebellion was crippled by early detection and timid leadership. Kublai sent Bayan to keep Nayan and Kaidu apart by occupying Karakorum, while Kublai led another army against the rebels in Manchuria. Kublai's commander Oz Temür's Mongol force attacked Nayan's 60,000 inexperienced soldiers on June 14, while Chinese and Alan guards under Li Ting protected Kublai. The army of Chungnyeol of Goryeo assisted Kublai in battle. After a hard fight, Nayan's troops withdrew behind their carts, and Li Ting began bombardment and attacked Nayan's camp that night. Kublai's force pursued Nayan, who was eventually captured and executed without bloodshed, by being smothered under felt carpets, a traditional way of executing princes.[100] Meanwhile, the rebel prince Shikqtur invaded the Chinese district of Liaoning but was defeated within a month. Kaidu withdrew westward to avoid a battle. Kaidu defeated a major Yuan army in Khangai, however, and briefly occupied Karakorum in 1289. Kaidu had ridden away before Kublai could mobilize a larger army.[101]

Widespread but uncoordinated uprisings of Nayan's supporters continued until 1289; these were ruthlessly repressed. The rebel princes' troops were taken from them and redistributed among the imperial family.[102] Kublai harshly punished the darughachis appointed by the rebels in Mongolia and Manchuria.[103] This rebellion forced Kublai to approve the creation of the Liaoyang Branch Secretariat on December 4, 1287, while rewarding loyal fraternal princes.

Later years[edit]




Kublai's original choice of successor was his son Chinggim (pinyin: Zhenjin), who became the head of Zhongshusheng ("Department of Central Governing") and actively administered the dynasty according to Confucian fashion. Nomukhan, after returning from captivity in the Golden Horde, expressed resentment that Chinggim had been made heir apparent, but he was banished to the north. An official proposed that Kublai should abdicate in favor of Chinggim in 1285, a suggestion that angered Kublai, who refused to see Chinggim. Chinggim died soon afterwards in 1286, eight years before his father. Kublai regretted this and remained very close to his wife, Bairam (also known as Kokejin).



Longevity Hill in Beijing where Kublai Khan wrote his poem.

Kublai was well versed in Chinese poetry, though most of his works have not survived. Only one Chinese poem written by him is included in the Selection of Yuan Poetry (元詩選), titled 'Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain'. It was translated into Mongolian by the Inner Mongolian scholar B.Buyan in the same style as classical Mongolian poetry and transcribed into Cyrillic by Ya.Ganbaatar. It is said that once in spring Kublai Khan went to worship at a Buddhist temple at the Yiheyuan Garden in western Dadu (Beijing) and on his way back ascended the Wanshou Shan (萬寿山 - Longevity Hill, Tumen Nast Uul in Mongolian) where he was filled with inspiration and wrote this poem.[104]

Inspiration recorded while enjoying the ascent to Spring Mountain (陟玩春山記興)
時膺韶景陟蘭峰 Shí yīng sháo jǐng zhì lán fēng; Season Receive Beautiful Scenery Ascend Orchid Peak;
不憚躋攀謁粹容 Bú dàn jī pān yè cuì róng; Not Fear Rise Climb Visit Pure Countenance;
花色映霞祥彩混 Huā sè yìng xiá xiáng cǎi hùn; Flower Color Project Red-cloud Auspicious Hue Mingle;
壚煙拂霧瑞光重 Lú yān fú wù ruì guāng chóng; Earthy Smoke Brush-off Misty Propitious Light Layer;
雨霑瓊干巖邊竹 Yǔ zhān qióng gàn yán biān zhú; Rain Moisten Jade Trunk Rock Edge Bamboo;
風襲琴聲嶺際松 Fēng xí qín shēng lǐng jì sōng; Wind Beat Zither Sound Mountain-range Interval Cedar;
玉毫瞻禮罷 Jìng chà yù háo zhān lǐ bà; Clean Buddhist-temple Jade Hair See Ceremony Finish; ('jade hair' means Urna)
回程仙駕馭蒼龍 Huí chéng xiān jià yù cāng lóng; Return Journey Immortal Carriage Ride Blue Dragon;

This is translated:

Buyan's Mongolian translation:
Havar tsagiin nairamduu uliral dor anhilam uulnaa avirlaa
Halshralgui orgil deer garaad Altan Nüür dor baraalhchuhui
Hüis tsetseg tuyaaran myaralzaad ölziit öngö solongormui
Hülisiin utaa hüdenten tunaraad belegt gerel tsatsarmui
Hadan deerh has hulsnaa huriin dusal bömbölzönhön
Halil davaanii nogoon narsnaa serchigneh salhi högjimdmüi
Buddiin süm dor burhnii ömnö hüj örgön ayaarlaad
Butsah zamd süih teregnee höh luu hölöglöjühüi
English translation of Buyan's Mongolian version:
I ascended on Fragrant Hill in the friendly season of spring
Not discouraged I climbed to the peak and met the Golden Face
Flowers shone bright rays and auspicious colors gleamed like a rainbow
Incense smoke wafted like mist and a blessed light emanated


Chabi, Khatun of Kublai and Empress of the Mongol Empire


Kublai and his wives' children included:

  • Zhenjin was the father of Temür Khan, Kublai's successor.
  • Manggala was a viceroy in Shaanxi.
  • Nomukhan
  • Khungjil
  • Aychi
  • Saqulghachi
  • Qughchu
  • Toghan led Mongol armies into Burma and Vietnam.
  • Khulan-temur
  • Tsever
  • Khutugh beki married the king Chungnyeol and became the Empress of the Goryeo.[106]
  • and a further son and two daughters; names unknown.




Cultural references[edit]

  • Kublai and Shangdu or Xanadu are the subject of various later artworks, including the English Romantic Samuel Taylor Coleridge's poem "Kubla Khan", in which Coleridge makes Xanadu a symbol of mystery and splendour (written in October 1797 while under the influence of opium).
  • Kublai Khan and Xanadu are both mentioned in the song "Xanadu" by Canadian band Rush.
  • Kublai Khan is a playable leader of the Mongolian empire in Sid Meier's Civilization IV.
  • Kublai Khan is depicted in the Netflix original series Marco Polo.

In fiction[edit]


See also[edit]



  1. ^ Rossabi, Morris (1988). Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. University of California Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-520-06740-1. 
  2. ^ Rossabi, Morris (1988). Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times. University of California Press. pp. 227–228. ISBN 0-520-06740-1. 
  3. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 893. 
  4. ^ Marshall, Robert. Storm from the East: from Genghis Khan to Khubilai Khan. p. 224. 
  5. ^ Borthwick, Mark (2007). Pacific Century. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-4355-0. 
  6. ^ Howorth, H. H. The History of the Mongols II. p. 288. 
  7. ^ Man, John (2007). Kublai Khan. Bantam. ISBN 0-553-81718-3. 
  8. ^ Atwood, C. P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 457. 
  10. ^ Man, John. Kublai Khan. p. 37. 
  11. ^ Haw, Stephen G. Marco Polo's China. p. 33. 
  12. ^ Franke, Herbert; Twitchett, Denis; Fairbank, John King. The Cambridge History of China: Alien regimes and border states, 907–1368. p. 381. 
  13. ^ Man, John. Kublai Khan. p. 79. 
  14. ^ Atwood, C. P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongols. p. 613. 
  15. ^ Du Yuting; Chen Lufan (1989). "Did Kublai Khan's Conquest of the Dali Kingdom Give Rise to the Mass Migration of the Thai People to the South?" (free). Journal of the Siam Society (Siam Heritage Trust). JSS Vol. 77.1c (digital): image. Retrieved March 17, 2013. 
  16. ^ Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan. p. 186. 
  17. ^ Gazangjia. Tibetan Religions. p. 115. 
  18. ^ Sun Kokuan. Yu chi and Southern Taoism during the Yuan period, in China under Mongol rule. pp. 212–253. 
  19. ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. p. 502. 
  20. ^ Prabodh Chandra Bagchi. India and China. p. 118. 
  21. ^ Kalidas Nag. Greater India. p. 216. 
  22. ^ Mah, Adeline Yen. China. p. 129. 
  23. ^ Man, John. Kublai Khan. p. 102. 
  24. ^ Atwood, C. P. Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire. p. 458. 
  25. ^ Whiting, Marvin C. Imperial Chinese Military History: 8000 BC – 1912 AD. p. 394. 
  26. ^ Man, John. Ibid. p. 109. 
  27. ^ Weatherford, Jack. Genghis Khan and the making of the modern world. p. 120. 
  28. ^ Салих Закиров, Дипломатические отношения Золотой орды с Египтом 
  29. ^ al-Din, Rashid. Universal History. 
  30. ^ Rashid al-Din, ibid
  33. ^ Otsahi Matsuwo Khubilai Kan
  34. ^ Christopher P. Atwood - ibid
  35. ^ Michael Prawdin Mongol Empire and its legacy, p.302
  38. ^ René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p.294
  39. ^ G. V. Vernadsky, The Mongols and Russia, p.155
  41. ^ Rashid al-Din
  42. ^ John Man –Ibid, p.74
  43. ^ The history of Yuan Dynasty
  44. ^ Sh.Tseyen-Oidov – Ibid, p.64
  45. ^ The history of the Yuan Dynasty
  46. ^ John Man Kublai Khan, p. 207
  47. ^ the History of Yuan Dynasty
  48. ^ René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes, p.297
  49. ^ Thomas T. Allsen The Princes of the Left Hand: An Introduction to the History of the ulus of Orda in the Thirteenth and Early Fourteenth Centuries, p.21
  50. ^ Eurasia Archivum Eurasiae medii aevi, p.21
  51. ^ Jack Weatherford Genghis Khan, p.195
  52. ^ G. V. Vernadsky  The Mongols and Russia, pp. 344–366
  53. ^ Henryk Samsonowicz, Maria Bogucka A Republic of Nobles, p.179
  54. ^ G. V. Vernadsky A History of Russia: New, Revised Edition
  55. ^ Morris Rossabi Khubilai Khan: his life and times, p. 115
  56. ^ John Man Kublai Khan, p.231
  57. ^ J. R. S. Phillips The medieval expansion of Europe, p.122
  58. ^ René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia, p.304
  59. ^ Rossabi, M. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, p76
  60. ^ "The Mongols and Tibet - A historical assessment of relations between the Mongol Empire and Tibet"[dead link]
  61. ^ Rossabi, M. Khubilai Khan: His Life and Times, University of California Press, p.247, n62
  62. ^ The Branch Secretariats of the Yuan Empire
  63. ^ Cecilia Lee-fang Chien Salt and state, p.25
  64. ^ ^ Jack Weatherford, ibid p.176
  65. ^ A. P. Martinez  The use of Mint-output data in Historical research on the Western appanages, p.87-100
  66. ^ Jack Weatherford  The history of Money, p127
  67. ^ Igor de Rachewiltz In the service of the Khan: eminent personalities of the early Mongol-Yüan period, p.562
  68. ^ John Lagerwey Religion and Chinese society, p.xxi
  69. ^ http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/1001_Years_of_Missing_Martial_Arts%20.pdf
  70. ^ Saudi Aramco World : Muslims in China: The History
  71. ^ How to Prepare for SAT II: World history - Marilynn Giroux Hitchens, Heidi Roupp - Google Books
  72. ^ http://books.google.com.pk/books?id=ulSRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA197&dq=Chinese+muslim+Mathematician+hui&hl=en&sa=X&ei=x1AlVK6jAuPY7Abbs4HADw&ved=0CBoQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=Chinese%20muslim%20Mathematician%20hui&f=false
  74. ^ The New Encyclopædia Britannica, p.111
  75. ^ David M. Farquhar The Government of China Under Mongolian Rule: A Reference Guide p.272
  78. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.403
  80. ^ Colin Mackerras China's minorities, p.29
  81. ^ George Alexander Ballard The influence of the sea on the political history of Japan, p.21
  82. ^ Conrad Schirokauer A brief history of Chinese and Japanese civilizations, p.211
  83. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.434
  84. ^ Ж.Ганболд, Т.Мөнхцэцэг, Д.Наран, А.Пунсаг-Монголын Юань улс, хуудас 122
  86. ^ Nicolle, David The Mongol Warlords
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  90. ^ René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes, p.290
  91. ^ a b René Grousset The Empire of the Steppes, p.291
  92. ^ C. P. Atwood Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.72
  93. ^ Alfred Schinz The magic square, p.291
  94. ^ Kesar Lall A Nepalese miscellany, p.32
  95. ^ Paul Pelliot, Notes on Marco Polo, p.85
  96. ^ Anne Elizabeth McLaren, Chinese popular culture and Ming chantefables, p.244
  97. ^ E. P. J. Mullie, De Mongoolse prins Nayan, pp.9–11
  99. ^ René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, p.293
  100. ^ a b Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David Morgan, The Mongol empire and its legacy, p.33
  101. ^ René Grousset, The Empire of the Steppes, p.294
  102. ^ Rashid al-Din JT, I/2 in TVOIRA
  103. ^ Reuven Amitai-Preiss, David Morgan, The Mongol empire and its legacy, p.43
  105. ^ John Man (2004), p. 394
  106. ^ Cheong-Soo Suh An encyclopaedia of Korean culture, p.84
  107. ^ C. P. Atwood Ibid, p.611

Weatherford, Jack 'Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World' pg.210–211


External links[edit]

Kublai Khan
Born: 1215 Died: 1294Borjigit 1.png
Regnal titles
Preceded by
Möngke Khan
Great Khan of the Mongol Empire
Succeeded by
Temür Khan, Emperor Chengzong
Preceded by
Möngke Khan
(posthumously promoted)
Emperor of the Yuan Dynasty
Preceded by
Emperor Bing of Song Dynasty
Emperor of China