Radiation, ionization, and detection in nuclear medicine

Uploaded on


  • Full Name Full Name Comment goes here.
    Are you sure you want to
    Your message goes here
    Be the first to comment
No Downloads


Total Views
On Slideshare
From Embeds
Number of Embeds



Embeds 0

No embeds

Report content

Flagged as inappropriate Flag as inappropriate
Flag as inappropriate

Select your reason for flagging this presentation as inappropriate.

    No notes for slide


  • 1. Nuclear Radiation, Ionization,and Radioactivity 1Contents1.1 Introduction ............................................................................... 21.2 Ionizing Radiation and Consequences ................................................... 31.3 Visual Demonstration of Radiation ...................................................... 41.4 Deﬁnition .................................................................................. 51.4.1 Roentgen ......................................................................... 51.4.2 Fluence ........................................................................... 71.4.3 Quality Factor .................................................................... 81.4.4 Radiation Dose .................................................................. 81.4.5 Rem .............................................................................. 91.4.6 Energy ............................................................................ 91.4.7 Relationship Between Kerma, Exposure, and Absorbed Dose ................ 101.4.8 Radioactivity ..................................................................... 111.4.9 Radioactive Decay ............................................................... 111.4.10 Positron .......................................................................... 131.5 Sources of Nuclear Radiation ............................................................. 151.5.1 Alpha (a) Particle ................................................................. 151.5.2 Beta (b) Particles .................................................................. 171.5.3 Gamma (g) Rays .................................................................. 201.6 Attenuation Coefﬁcient of g-Rays ........................................................ 211.7 Half-Value Layer .......................................................................... 221.8 Neutrons ................................................................................... 231.9 Neutron Scattering ........................................................................ 251.9.1 Elastic Scattering .................................................................. 251.9.2 Energy Distribution of Elastically Scattered Neutrons .......................... 251.9.3 Inelastic Scattering ................................................................ 261.10 The Cross-Section Concept ............................................................... 271.11 Thermal Neutrons ......................................................................... 271.12 Neutron Sources ........................................................................... 281.13 Neutron Shielding ......................................................................... 281.14 X-Rays ..................................................................................... 291.14.1 Production and Properties of X-Ray ............................................ 311.14.2 Beam Quality .................................................................... 341.15 Interactions of X-Rays .................................................................... 371.16 Photoelectric Effect ....................................................................... 401.17 Pair Production ............................................................................ 41T.K. Gupta, Radiation, Ionization, and Detection in Nuclear Medicine,DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-34076-5_1, # Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 20131
  • 2. 1.18 Use of Natural Forces for the Material Improvement of Mankind ...................... 431.19 Radionuclides ............................................................................. 441.20 Production of Radionuclides .............................................................. 441.20.1 Cyclotron ......................................................................... 451.20.2 Reactor ........................................................................... 461.21 Developments and Uses of Radionuclides ............................................... 471.22 Summary .................................................................................. 51References ........................................................................................ 521.1 IntroductionThe history of nuclear medicine—a branch of medicine dealing with radioactivematerials and chemicals/die—is rich with the contributions from gifted scientistsacross different disciplines: physics, chemistry, engineering, and medicine [1–5].The multidisciplinary nature of nuclear medicine makes it difﬁcult for medicalhistorians to determine the birth date of nuclear medicine. Many historians, how-ever, consider the discovery of artiﬁcially produced radioisotopes, used for nuclearradiation therapy, which is a part of nuclear radiation physics as the most signiﬁ-cant milestone in nuclear medicine. Indeed, nuclear radiation physics made adramatic entry into medicine with the discovery of X-rays and natural radioactivitymore than a century ago, and the potential for medical imaging and therapy basedon these discoveries was very quickly recognized [6]. Nuclear radiation associatedwith nuclear energy is referred to as ionizing radiation. Figure 1.1 shows theschematic of nonionizing radiation and ionizing radiation and their uses in differentﬁelds.All nuclear radiations are ionizing radiations, but the reverse is not true. As forexample, X-ray is included among ionizing radiations even though it does notoriginate as a result of the disintegration of the atomic nuclei. On the other hand,during various nuclear processes, electromagnetic radiation is emitted from atomicnucleus [7]. Ionizing radiation, even though very small in energy compared tononionizing radiation, is very damaging to life. As for example, both gamma raysand X-rays are ionizing radiation, and they can do great damage to cells in livingorganisms, disrupting cell function. Microwave, on the other hand, cannot causeionization and cannot break atoms or molecular bonds typical of the moleculesfound in living things, but can excite the movements of atoms and molecules whichis equivalent to heating the samples. Theoretical calculation shows that 1.5 millionjoules of nonionizing radiation will be required to kill a man. On the other hand,ionizing radiation like gamma rays and X-rays will be able to kill a man with a doseof only 300 J.Everything on Earth is exposed to some sort of radiation either natural or man-made. 85.5 % of the total radiation (natural and artiﬁcial) is made up of 71 %telluric radiation and about 14.5 % cosmic radiation. Radiation particularlyassociated with nuclear medicine and the use of nuclear energy, along withX-rays, is ionizing. However, all the radiation sources do not have sufﬁcient energy2 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 3. to interact with matter, especially the human body, and produce ions. Table 1.1shows some of the rays that human beings encountered.1.2 Ionizing Radiation and ConsequencesThe ionizing radiation, which has sufﬁcient energy to interact with matter, espe-cially in the human body is capable of producing ions, that is, it can eject an electronfrom an atom of the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) [8–11]. As a result, the bondingTable 1.1 Different radiation sources with respective frequencies and energiesRadiation Typical frequency (sÀ1) Typical energy (kJ/mol)Alpha (a) particles 4.1 Â 108Electromagnetic radiationCosmic rays 6 Â 1021sÀ12.4 Â 109ionizing radiationGamma (g) rays 3 Â 1020sÀ11.2 Â 108ionizing radiationX-rays 3 Â 1017sÀ11.2 Â 105Ultraviolet (UV) 3 Â 1015sÀ11,200 nonionizing radiationVisible 5 Â 1014sÀ1200 nonionizing radiationInfrared (IR) 3 Â 1013sÀ112 nonionizing radiationMicrowaves 3 Â 109sÀ11.2 Â 10À3nonionizing radiationRadio waves 3 Â 107 sÀ11.2 Â 10À5nonionizing radiationNon-ionizing IonizingUltravioletX-rayMicrowaveRadio InfraredExtremelylowfrequencyNon-thermal Thermal OpticalGamma raysBroken bondsDamagesDNAExciteselectronsInduces highcurrentsInduces lowcurrents??? Heating Photo-chemicaleffectsMedicalx-raysTanningboothHeatlampStaticfieldPowerlineAMradioFM radioTVMicrowaveovenVisiblelightFig. 1.1 The schematic of nonionizing and ionizing radiation (Courtesy: EPA, US)1.2 Ionizing Radiation and Consequences 3
  • 4. properties of the DNA atom change, causing a physical change of the DNA.Figure 1.2 shows the damaged molecule of DNA that regulates vital cell process.Thus the activity or the radioactivity of an ionizing radiation is very damaging tolife. Therefore, the biological impact of terrestrial cosmic rays has been studiedprimarily to evaluate the damage to human body in air and space travel [12, 13].Indeed, the detection of the ionizing radiation in nuclear medicine had been theprimary goal of the research community since the discovery of artiﬁcial radioactiv-ity in 1934 and the production of radionuclides in 1946.1.3 Visual Demonstration of Radiation1. Spark Chamber: An ideal instrument for visual demonstration of the electri-cally charged particles from ionizing radiation is a spark chamber. The deviceis used mostly in particle physics for detecting electrically charged particles.It consists of metal plates placed in a sealed box ﬁlled with helium or neon orthe mixture of the two. As charged particle moves through detector, it ionizesthe gas between the plates. However, ionization remains invisible until ahigh voltage is applied between the plates. The high voltage creates a sparkalong the trajectory taken by the cosmic ray. Figure 1.3 shows a proton–an-tiproton interaction at 540 GeV. The picture shows particle tracks inside aspark chamber.2. Bubble Chamber: Bubble chamber, invented by Donald Glaser, is a device todemonstrate the interactions of the charged particles received from an invisibleradiation source. It is basically a vessel ﬁlled with superheated liquid. Thetrajectories of the energetic particles passing through the superheated liquidcan be made visible and photographed [14]. Figure 1.4 shows the schematic ofa simple bubble chamber conception.3. Cloud Chamber: Another early invention to demonstrate the electricallycharged particle track through a supersaturated gas of water or alcohol is thecloud chamber or the C.T.R. Wilson chamber. Energetic particles like alpha andSingle Strand BreakGC3´5´3´5´AAA AAATTTTTTGCCCCCCCGGGGGGDouble Strand BreakFig. 1.2 The damaged molecules of DNA that regulates vital cell process (Courtesy: CanadianNuclear Association Canada)4 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 5. beta when interact with supersaturated gas to form ions. A small electrostaticgradient is provided to sweep out ions between gas expansions. The apparatus inthe modiﬁed form makes tracks of visible nuclear bullets in the form of cloud;hence, it is called a cloud chamber (shown in Fig. 1.5).1.4 Definition1.4.1 RoentgenRoentgen (R) is deﬁned as the energy dissipated by ionizing radiation in air. Itis equivalent to the dissipation of 87.6 ergs per gram of dry air, which resultsin the generation of one electrostatic unit of charge per 0.001293 g (1 cm3STP) of air.Fig. 1.3 A proton–antiproton interaction at 540 GeV, showing particle tracks inside a sparkchamber (Photo courtesy: Wikimedia Commons)1.4 Definition 5
  • 6. The exposure value is expressed in coulomb per kilogram (C/kg), and the unitroentgen (R) is related to exposure as1 R ¼ 2:58 Â 10À4C=kg (1.1)Therefore, we can say that the exposure is the effect of a given ﬂux of gamma(g) rays on a test volume of air. It is a function of the intensity of the source,geometry between the source and the test volume, and attenuation of the gammarays that may take place between the two. The exposure of X-rays and g-rays ismeasured on the assumptions that (a) the source is very small, (b) there is noattenuation in air between the source and the measured point, and (c) there isnegligible scattering. When all of these conditions are satisﬁed, we can write therate (dQ/dt) asdQdt¼ Gdad2(1.2)where Gd is deﬁned as the exposure rate constant for the speciﬁc radioisotope ofinterest, a is the activity of the source and d is the distance in centimeter betweenStainless steel pressure vesselDiaphragmWaterTrifluoro-IodomethaneVideo cameraQuartzVesselPropylene gylcolPressureControlUnitFig. 1.4 The schematic of a simple bubble chamber conception (Courtesy: Fermi Lab. Chicago, IL.)6 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 7. the source and the measuring point, and the subscript d applies to the energy ofeither that of the X-rays or g-rays emitted by the source which has sufﬁcientpenetration energy [15]. The unit of exposure rate constant is expressed in(R∙cm2)/(h∙mCi). The value of Gd for some common isotope gamma-ray sourcesfor d ¼ 0 is given in Table FluenceNext we want to establish a relation between ﬂuence and dose [17, 18]. Theeffective dose equivalent (Heq) can be written asFig. 1.5 The cloud-chamberphotograph of very fastelectron colliding with astationary one (Courtesy:WIKI)Table 1.2 Exposure rateconstant for someradioisotope gamma-raysourcesNuclide G0Antimony (Sb124) 9.8Cesium (Cs137) 3.3Cobalt (Co57) 0.9Cobalt (Co60) 13.2Iodine (I125) ~0.7Iodine (I131) 2.2Manganese (Mn54) 4.7Radium (Ra226) 8.25Sodium (Na22) 12.0Sodium (Na24) 18.4Technetium (Te99m) 1.2Zinc (Zn65) 2.7Source: Ref. [16]1.4 Definition 7
  • 8. Heq ¼ heq’ (1.3)where ’ ¼ N/4pd2. N is the number of photons or neutrons emitted by the source, dis the distance from the source, and heq is the ﬂuence to dose equivalent factor.However, the International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) in itsreport 60 has introduced the deﬁnition of equivalent dose as HT,R which relates tothe absorbed dose (DT,R) averaged over a tissue or organ T due to radiation Rmultiplied by a radiation weighting factor WR and can be expressed asHT;R ¼ WR Â DT;R (1.4)If there is a mixed radiation, then the total equivalent dose HT is given byHT ¼ SR HT;R ¼ SR WR Â DT;R (1.5)And the effective dose can be expressed in terms of equivalent dose HT andweighting factor asEeff ¼ S WT Â HT (1.6)1.4.3 Quality FactorQuality factor (QF) is deﬁned as the relative damage per each radiation. Mathemat-ically, it can be expressed asQF ¼¼ fSievert ðSvÞg=fGray ðGyÞg (1.7)The SI unit of rad is gray (Gy), which is equivalent to 100 rads, and 1 Sv is equal to100 rem. In nuclear medicine, 1 rad is equivalent to 100 ergs of energy per absorbedper gram of tissue. Different types of radiation do different amounts of biologicaldamage, and we do need to know the effectiveness of an absorbed dose. The valuesfor the Q-factors recommended by the International Commission on RadiologicalProtection (ICRP) are given in Table II [19].1.4.4 Radiation DoseIt is a measure of how much energy is deposited in a material from a source ofradiation. The unit of dose is called rad. However, meaning of dose in nuclearmedicine is different from the dose we mean during radiation, because in the formercase, it records radiation emitting from within the body rather than radiation that isgenerated by external source.8 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 9. 1.4.5 RemIn order to account for the differences in biological damage and risk amongdifferent types of radiation, a measurement unit called rem is established. Rem isdeﬁned as the amount of biological damage caused by ionization in human body.One rem of alpha (a) exposure is qualitatively same as 1 rem of beta (b) or gamma(g) radiation. A committed dose equivalent (in rem) considers all of the doseequivalents caused by a radionuclide during 50 years of following intake. Acommitted dose equivalent is deﬁned as a dose, which has occurred and willcontinue to occur because of radioactive material that has been taken into thebody [20].The other unit of ionizing radiation measurement is called curie (Ci), which is ameasure of the number of atomic disintegration (3.7 Â 1010) in a unit time. In otherway, it can be deﬁned as the activity of 1 g of pure radium (226Ra). However, the SIunit becquerel (Bq) is a more convenient practical unit used in the literature insteadof curie (1 Bq ¼ 2.073 Â 10À11Ci).1.4.6 EnergyThe radiation energy is measured in electron volt (eV). It is deﬁned as the kineticenergy gained by an electron by its acceleration through a potential difference of1 V. The SI unit of energy is expressed in joule (J).One joule is equivalent to 6.241 Â 1018eV. The energy of radiation (E) can berelated to wavelength (l) of the photon asE ¼ ð1:240 Â 10À6=lÞ (1.8)where l is in meters and E is in eV. Table 1.3 presents the quality factors ofdifferent radiation and adsorbed dose.Table 1.4 presents the SI units of ionizing radiation, their conversion units, andthe equivalence.Table 1.3 For the Q-factorsTypes of radiationQualityfactorAdsorbed dose equalto a unit dose equivalentX-ray or gamma rays 1 1Beta particles 1Neutrons and protons of unknown energy 10 0.1Singly charged particles of unknown energy with rest massgreater than 1 amu10Alpha particle 20 0.05Particles of multiple or unknown charge of unknownenergy201.4 Definition 9
  • 10. 1.4.7 Relationship Between Kerma, Exposure, and Absorbed DoseKerma in medical science is deﬁned as the kinetic energy which is released in themedium [21]. Or in other words, it is the ratio of the sum of the initial kinetic energy(KE) dE of all the charged ionizing particles (electrons and positrons) to theliberated by uncharged particles (photons) in a material of mass m. Mathematically,we can express kerma asKerma ðkÞ ¼ ðdE=dmÞ (1.9)The kerma (k) is again related to the ﬂuence (’) of the photons and is expressedmathematically asK ¼ ’ ðm=rÞ (1.10)where ðm=rÞ is the mass energy transfer coefﬁcient for the medium averaged overthe energy ﬂuence spectrum of photons.The exposure (Χr) [22] is deﬁned as the ionization equivalent of the collisionkerma (K) in air, and these two quantities are related asXr ¼ ðKÞairðe= EÞ (1.11)where e is the electronic charge (1.602 Â 10À19J) and E is the mean energyrequired to produce an ion pair in dry air. The SI unit of Xr is coulomb (C) perkilogram (kg) (Xr ¼ C/kg) and the special unit is roentgen (R), where 1 R ¼ 2.58Â 10À4(C/kg).Next, we want to ﬁnd out a relation between the absorbed dose D and the ﬂuenceand hence to kerma. The dose D is closely approximated byD ¼Z En0DcEðL=rÞcol:DdE (1.12)where cE is the differential distribution of ﬂuence (’) and is equal to (dcE/dE)and (L/r)col.D is the restricted mass collision stopping power of a material[23, 24].Table 1.4 Conversion unitSI unit Conversional unit EquivalenceBecquerel (Bq) Curie (Ci) 1 Bq ¼2.703 Â 10À11Gray (Gy) Rad 1 Gy ¼100 radCoulombs per kilogram (C/kg) Roentgen (R) 1 C/kg ¼ 3.9 Â 103RSievert (Sv) Rem 1 Sv ¼ 100 rem10 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 11. 1.4.8 RadioactivityNuclear radiation can occur when a radioactive substance with unstable nucleusdisintegrates. The nucleus is supposed to contain proton A and (A–Z) electrons andneutrons. Protons are positively charged, while the electrons are negativelycharged. However, the nucleus cannot be composed of protons alone, since A isalways equal to Z. Therefore, there must be some new particles, which together withprotons constitute the nucleus. These particles are called neutrons, and they areneutral, having masses equal to 2.5me, where me is the mass of an electron.Neutrons are heavier than protons and 1.5me heavier than the sum of the massesof proton and electron.The discovery of neutrons and the investigation of its interaction with matter ledto one of the most signiﬁcant achievements in nuclear physics. In nuclear medicine,the ionizing radiation, which can damage the living tissues, is cleverly applied todiagnose (medical imaging) and damage (nuclear therapy) the cancerous cellswithout damaging the healthy tissues [25, 26].All nuclei contain two types of elementary particles or nucleons, namely,protons and neutrons. A nuclide is a nucleus, which contains speciﬁed numbersof neutrons and protons. Therefore, nuclides are composite particles of nucleons.Nuclides that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutronsare called isotopes. Certain combinations of neutrons and protons are unstable andbreak up spontaneously, a process referred to as radioactive decay. Such nuclidesare called radionuclides or radioisotopes [27].1.4.9 Radioactive DecayAll unstable nuclei, as well as nuclei in excited states, undergo spontaneoustransformations leading to a change in their composition and/or internal energy ofthe nucleus. Such spontaneous nuclear processes are called radioactive processessince the radioactive decay [28] is governed by a fundamental law and is expressedmathematically asðdN=dtÞ ¼ ÀðlNÞ (1.13)where (dN/dt) is differential equation of the number of radioactive nuclei N withtime t in second and l is the decay constant. The decay of a given isotope may leadto a daughter product. The average lifetime t of a radioactive nucleus is thereciprocal of the disintegration constant l [29].Another unit called as speciﬁc activity is also used to deﬁne the activity of aradioactive source per unit mass. It is expressed asSpecific activity ¼ fðlNÞðAvÞ=ðNMÞg ¼ ðlAvÞ=ðMÞ (1.14)1.4 Definition 11
  • 12. where M is molecular weight of the sample, Av is Avogadro’s number (¼6.02 Â 1023nuclei/mol), and l is radioactive decay constant (¼(ln 2)/(half-life)).Figure 1.6 shows the arrangements of protons (positively charged, red), neutrons(neutral, blue), and electrons (negatively charged, outside circle) in a helium atom.Helium atom (4He2) has 4 nucleon numbers (protons and neutrons together) and2 nuclear charge number (proton number).The radioactive nucleus or the radioisotope (or radionuclide, a speciﬁc nucleuswith given mass number A and electric charge Z, is sometimes called nuclide)normally decays by spontaneous emission of a particle from the nucleus. The emissionmay be alpha (a) particle, in which case we call it a-decay or the emission may emitan electron and we refer the case as b-decay. All these decays are statistical incharacter (Fig. 1.7).In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the radioisotopes utilized werenaturally occurring ones, such as radium-226 (226Ra), radium-224 (224Ra), radon-222 (222Rn), polonium-210 (210Po), tritium (hydrogen-3), and carbon-14 (14C).Joseph Hamilton was the ﬁrst to use radioactive tracers to study circulatoryphysiology in the year 1937, and then in 1939 iodine-131 (131I) was used asradioisotope in nuclear medicine followed by technetium-99m (99mTc). In 1940,the ﬁrst particle accelerator was built, and a number of radioisotopes wereavailable.All atomic nuclei can be broadly divided into two groups as stable and unstableor radioactive nuclei. The excess of neutrons in heavy nuclei 20882 Pb; 22688 Ra; 23892 UÀ Ácan be explained by Coulomb repulsion of protons. For b-stable nuclei, the relationbetween Z and A is described by the empirical formulaFig. 1.6 The arrangementsof protons, neutrons, andelectrons (outside the orbit) ina helium atom (4He2)12 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 13. Z ¼ fðAÞ=ð1:98 þ 0:015 A2=3Þg (1.15)where Z is the charge number and A is the atomic number of the element. Nucleus inwhich this relation is violated is called a b-radioactive element. A b-radioactiveelement in course of time can decay a beta particle (an electron, bÀ, or a positron,b+). Neutron-rich nuclei, on the other hand, can emit an electron while proton richnuclei can emit a positron [30].1.4.10 PositronPositrons are antiparticles of electrons with identical mass and charge. It can alsobe identiﬁed as positively charged electron (b+). An unstable nucleus of someradioisotopes can emit positron due to excess number of protons and a positivecharge, and then it can stabilize itself through the conversion of a proton to aneutron. Figure 1.8 shows a schematic of a positron-emitting radioisotope.When a positron comes in contact with an electron, the two particles annihilateand the mass of the two particles turned into two 511-keV gamma rays (g-rays), andthey are emitted on the two sides of the event (Fig. 1.9). One of the attractiveaspects of e+–eÀannihilation is the relative simplicity of the interaction. The two-body system decays into two back-to-back photons, each carrying an energy mec2.This feature has provided the basis of medical imaging techniques called positronemission tomography (PET). In PET, a positron-emitting radioisotope is introducedusually by injection, which promptly combines with a nearby electron resulting inthe simultaneous emission of two identiﬁable gamma (g) rays in oppositedirections. These two gamma rays are detected in a PET camera.According to quantum theory, the annihilation of positrons with electrons canproduce high-energy photons—gamma quanta. Annihilation can take place directlyor via the formation of positronium I, a state in which an electron and a positronElectricαβγNuclearFig. 1.7 The schematic ofradioactive decay1.4 Definition 13
  • 14. form a light hydrogen atom bound by Coulomb attraction [31, 32]. In condensedmatter, the interactions between positronium and the substrate can provide infor-mation about the details of the substrate structure via the effects on the momentumdistribution at the instant of annihilation [33].Figure 1.9 shows the conversion of two light energy photons in the form of g-rays. The g-rays on two opposite sides can easily escape from the human body andcan be recorded by external detector/s [34]. Compact gamma (g)-ray imager basedon a silicon drift detector (SDD) coupled to a single scintillator crystal is very muchin use in medical imaging system [35].Fig. 1.8 A schematic of a positron-emitting radioisotope (Photo courtesy: Tutorial UCLA, CA)Fig. 1.9 The schematic ofthe 511-keV gamma raysemitted at 180to each other(Photo courtesy TutorialUCLA, CA)14 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 15. In medical imaging system, radiation detectors are used to diagnose cancerouscell. The beneﬁt of a medical imaging examination in terms of its ability to yield anaccurate diagnosis depends upon the quality of both the image acquisition and theimage interpretation [36]. The special branch of the science dealing with medicalimaging [37] and the diagnosis of the cancerous cells is called radiology, and thetreatment for curative or adjuvant cancer treatment with radiation is called radio-therapy [38]. During the past century, both radiology and radiotherapy have growntremendously due to the advances in image detector systems and computer tech-nology [39].1.5 Sources of Nuclear RadiationNuclear radiation arises from hundreds of different kinds of unstable atoms, andmany of them exist in nature. As a matter of fact, in major cases under certainconditions, nuclear radiation is observed during nuclear reactions. Indeed, ionizingradiation, which damages living tissues, is emitted during the spontaneous decay ofdifferent kinds of atoms [40]. The principal kinds of ionizing radiation are (1) alpha(a) particles, (2) beta (b) particles, (3) gamma (g) rays, and (4) X-rays.1.5.1 Alpha (a) ParticleAlpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together into ahelium particle identical to a helium nucleus, which is produced in the process ofalpha decay. It has a very large mass (more than 700 times the mass of betaparticle), charge, a very short range (less than a tenth of a millimeter inside thebody), and a great destructive power of damaging fast-growing membrane andliving cells [41]. Alpha decay is a radioactive process, which occurs in very heavyelements such as uranium (U), thorium (Th), and radium (Ra). The nuclei of theseatoms are very neutron rich that make the emission of the alpha particle possible.When an atom emits an alpha particle during alpha decay, the mass number of theatom is decreased by four due to loss of the four nucleons in the alpha particle. Theatomic number of the atom goes down exactly by two, as a result of the loss of twoprotons, and the atom becomes a new element. In contrast to beta decay, thefundamental interactions responsible for alpha decay are a balance between theelectromagnetic force and nuclear force. Alpha decay results from Coulomb repul-sion between alpha particle and the rest of the nucleus. Figure 1.10 shows alphadecay with two protons and two neutrons from a parent nucleus.Heavy nuclei are energetically unstable against spontaneous emission of analpha (a) particle (or 4He nucleus). The decay process proceeds asAXZ ! AÀ4YZÀ2 þ 4a2 (1.16)1.5 Sources of Nuclear Radiation 15
  • 16. where X and Y are the initial and ﬁnal nuclear species; A, the atomic number; and Z,the atomic weight. For each distinct transition between initial and ﬁnal nucleus, aﬁxed energy difference (Eb–Ee, where Eb is binding energy of the incident particleand Ee is the binding energy of escaping—particles relative to the compoundnucleus) or Q-value characterizes the decay.It has been found that there is a strong correlation between alpha (a) particleenergy and half-life of the parent isotope and the particle with the shortest half-lifehas the highest energy. The most common calibration source of a-particle isamericium-241 (241Am). Monoenergetic a-particle sources are prepared in verythin layers, because a-particle loses energy very rapidly in materials.Alpha particles, like helium nuclei, have a net spin of zero and have a classicaltotal energy of about 5 MeV. These particles are highly ionized and have lowpenetration depth. Currently alpha (a)-emitting radioisotopes are ﬁnding muchinterest in nuclear medicine for radiotherapy and imaging [42] (Table 1.5). Isotopeemitting alpha particle causes more damage to the body cells compared to the otherionizing particles due to their high relative biological effectiveness.The binding energy of a-particle is variable and can go from zero to as high as28.3 MeV. This contrasts with the binding energy of helium-3 (3He) which is only8.0 MeV. Because of its high mass and energy, it interacts with the matter veryheavily, and thus it has the shortest range among the three main particles (a, b, andg) which are of importance in the ﬁeld of nuclear medicine.Figure 1.11 shows the penetrating capabilities of different radiation sources. FromFig. 1.11, it is clear that g-particle has the highest penetrating power. In order toprevent unwanted nuclear radiation, shielding materials are very frequently used [43].Shielding materials that are frequently used to protect from nuclear radiation arelead (Pb), concrete, and steel [44, 45]. Lead has the highest atomic number (82) andhas highest density (11.32 g/cm3) among the shielding materials that are frequently4U-235Parent nucleusTh-231DaughterNucleus2αFig. 1.10 Radiation of alpha particle16 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 17. used. It is mostly used in the form of rectangular blocks in the construction of gamma-ray shielding. Solid-shaped lead cast can also be used as shielding material. However,these solid cast materials sometimes contain voids and are not suitable for shielding.Ordinary lead normally contains signiﬁcant amount of natural activity due tolow-level contaminants. Therefore, lead is specially reﬁned to use as shieldingmaterial. Even when it is reﬁned, it shows detectable radioactivity due to impuritiesfrom natural fallout. Sometimes lead mixed with plastic or epoxy compositions isused as shielding material. The photoelectric absorption cross section predominatesup to gamma-ray energies as high as 0.5 MeV.Iron or steel shielding is also used when lead shielding alone becomes expensive.In such circumstances, lead with a steel outer lining is used. However, the densityand atomic number of iron is lower than lead (Pb). As a result, to make steel or ironshielding as effective as lead, the thickness of the steel shielding is made severaltens of centimeters thicker than lead.Concrete is also used as a shielding material. Because of its low cost, outer liningof concrete with inner lining of lead or steel is used. A special formulation of theconcrete known as barytes concrete is preferably used as the material is much moreeffective in gamma-ray shielding. Table 1.6 shows the absorption coefﬁcients of theradiation sources used in nuclear medicine. The absorption coefﬁcients of theradiated sources are calculated on the basis of 511-keV photons [46].1.5.2 Beta (b) Particlesb-particles are just high-energy electrons ejected from the nucleus. Because of itshigher energy than the energy of alpha (a) particle, it penetrates more inside thebody tissue compared to the equal mass of a-particle. Beta (b) emission isaccompanied by the emission of electron antineutrino which shares the momentumTable 1.5 Alpha-emitting radioisotopes of current interestRadioisotopeEnergy of theemitting a-particle (MeV) Half-life Production methodTerbium-149 (149Tb) 3.9 4.1 h AcceleratorAstatine-211 (211At) 6.8 7.2 h AcceleratorBismuth-212 (212Bi) 7.8 60.5 min Decay of lead-212 (212Pb)Bismuth-213 (213Bi) 5.8 45 min Decay of actimium-225 (225Ac)α-particle Body-tissueAl-foil Concrete Lead-sheetβ-particleγ-particleFig. 1.11 The penetrating capabilities of different radiation sources1.5 Sources of Nuclear Radiation 17
  • 18. and energy of the decay. The emission of the electron’s antiparticle, the positron, isalso called beta decay. The bÀ-decay can be represented byAXZ ! AYZþ1 þ bÀþ nÀ(1.17)where X is the mother nucleus, Y is the ﬁnal nucleus, and nÀis the antineutrino [47,48]. The neutrinos and antineutrinos are extremely small, and their interactionprobability with matter is undetectable. The recoil nucleus Y passes almost zeroenergy, and the total energy is shared between the beta (b) particle and the invisibleneutrino with no mass and charge. The b-particle, on the other hand, changes itsenergy from decay to decay, which can range from zero to the end-point energy. Aﬁxed decay energy or Q-value characterizes each speciﬁc b-decay.b-decay is relatively a slow process and may lead to population of the excitedstate in the daughter nucleus having a shorter average lifetime. The excited daugh-ter nucleus can come down to the ground state (non-excited state) throughthe emission of gamma-ray (g-ray) photon whose energy is essentially equal tothe difference in energy between the initial and ﬁnal nuclear states. The fact thatb-decay involves emission of electrons, that is, particles constituting the atom, fromthe nucleus stems has been established from the following considerations:(a) The mass and charge of bÀ-particles are identical to those of atomic electrons.(b) b+-particles are annihilated by the atomic electrons.(c) Atomic electrons are captured by the nuclei.(d) Pauli’s exclusion principle is valid for mixed ensemble of particles containsatomic electrons and bÀ-particles.Figure 1.12 shows the decay of cobalt-60 (60Co27) to nickel-60 (60Ni28). Anotherexample of gamma (g)-ray radiation is the formation of neptunium-237 (237Np) fromamericium-241 (241Am) during a-decay. In some cases, the g-emission spectrum issimple, for example, 60Co/60Ni. But in 241Am/237Np and 192Ir/192Pt, the g-emissionspectra are complex, and they reveal the existence of a series of nuclear energylevels. The fact that an a-spectrum can have a series of different peaks with differentenergies reinforces the idea that several nuclear energy levels are possible. But it iscompletely different when g-ray is accompanied by b-particle emission [49, 50]. Ithas been found that the b-spectrum never shows a sharp peak, because a b-decay isaccompanied by the emission of a neutrino, which carries away the energy(Fig. 1.13) [51, 52]. The transmission curve for b-particles emitted by a radioisotopediffers signiﬁcantly because of continuous distribution of their energies.The absorption coefﬁcient (a) of a speciﬁc absorber is deﬁned asðI=I0Þ ¼ exp ðÀatÞTable 1.6 Absorptioncoefficients of the radiationsources used in nuclearmedicineShielding material a (cmÀ1) b (cmÀ1) g (cmÀ1)Lead 1.7772 À0.5228 0.5457Concrete 0.1539 À0.1161 2.0752Steel 0.5704 À0.3063 0.632618 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 19. orðÀaÞ ¼ ð1=tÞ log ðI=I0Þ (1.18)where I is the initial counting rate, I0 the ﬁnal counting rates with absorber, and t thethickness of the absorber in g/cm2. It has been found that the value of a correlatesvery well with the end-point energy of the b-emitter for a speciﬁc absorber. Theenergy deposited within the absorber can be represented mathematically byDE ¼ fðÀdE=dxÞavggt (1.19)where (ÀdE/dx) is the linear stopping power averaged over the energy of theparticle and t is the thickness of the absorber. If the energy loss within the absorberis small, the stopping power does not change much; otherwise, it is difﬁcult toobtain a properly weighted (ÀdE/dx)avg value directly from the data. On the otherhand, the stopping time (tstop) required to stop the charged particles within anabsorber can be written as60Co2760Ni282.5051.332β-γ1γ2γ1 = 1.1173 MeV (100 %)γ2 = 1.332 MeV (100 %)Fig. 1.12 Decay of cobalt-60 (60Co27)baRelativeprobabilityEbEmaxRelativeprobabilityEnergyFig. 1.13 (a) The peak of an alpha spectrum and (b) beta spectrum without a sharp peak1.5 Sources of Nuclear Radiation 19
  • 20. tstop ¼ ðR=< v >Þ ¼ ðR=KcÞ ðmc2=2EÞ1=2(1.20)where m is the mass of the particle, v is the initial velocity of the particle, <v> is theaverage velocity, c is the velocity of light, E is the kinetic energy in MeV, R is therange is in meters, and K is a constant and equal to (<v>/v). The linear stoppingpower (S) of a charged particle in a given absorber is deﬁned as the differentialenergy loss (ÀdE) of the charged particle within a speciﬁc differential length (dx).Mathematically, the expression can be represented asS ¼ ðÀdE=dxÞ ¼ ð4p e4Z2Þ=ðm0v2ÞÈ ÉNBÂ Ã(1.21)where Z is the atomic number, N the density of the absorber, e the electronic charge,m0 the rest mass, and B ¼ Z{ln (2m0v2/I)– ln (1 À v2/c2) À (v2/c2)}, where I is theaverage excitation and ionization potential of the absorber. The expression for Bshows that it varies slowly with particle energy.1.5.3 Gamma (g) RaysGamma (g) ray is a short wavelength electromagnetic radiation of nuclear origin,having energy varying from 10 keV to 5 MeV. It is the spontaneous emission ofgamma (g) quanta by the nucleus and was discovered by a French chemist andphysicist, Paul Ulrich Villard, in 1900. The g-quanta emitted by the nucleus duringtransition to a lower energy state may carry different angular momenta.The g-rays are the highest range of energetic form of electromagnetic radiationand are more energetic than alpha (a) and beta (b) radiation but less than the energypossessed by an ionizing radiation. They damage the body tissues and skin, similarto that caused by X-rays, such as burns, cancer, and genetic mutation. Gamma raysare produced by the nuclear transitions, while X-rays are produced by energytransitions due to accelerating electrons. Both of these rays are used in nuclearmedicine for diagnosis and therapy of the abnormal cells.The major interactions of g rays with matter that play an important role in themeasurements of radiation are photoelectric effect, Compton effect, and pair produc-tion. Photoelectric effect is due to the low-energy interactions of g-rays with theabsorber material of high atomic number (Z). The photoelectric effect is the dominantenergy transfer mechanism for X-rays and g-rays with photon energies below 50 keV.The Compton effect, on the other hand, is the principal absorption mechanism for g-rays in the intermediate energy ranges between 100 keV and 10 MeV. The interactionprocess of Compton effect is due to the interaction between the incident gamma-ray (g)photon andthe electron of the absorbing material. Novel X-ray imaging methodrelyingon Compton effect depends on a tracking detector like germanium (Ge).The method employs a two-dimensional segmentation, pulse shape analysis, andtracking of Compton scattered g-rays. The radiological imaging method is appliedin single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and positron emission20 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 21. tomography (PET) processes. Another area of application is security inspection [53,54]. It is the most predominant interaction mechanism for g-ray energies typical ofradioisotope sources.The third interaction—the pair production—is energetically possible when theenergy of the gamma-ray photon goes in excess of the equivalent rest mass of anelectron (1.02 MeV).Figure 1.14 shows the interactions that occur when powerful gamma rays from aradioactive source are being focused on a sodium iodide scintillation detector. Thepowerful nature of gamma (g) rays is useful for sterilization of medical equipment(to kill bacteria), to treat some kind of cancers, in Gamma Knife surgery, fordiagnostic purpose in nuclear medicine.1.6 Attenuation Coefficient of g-RaysWhen a monoenergetic g-ray passes through an absorber, a portion of the energy istransferred to the absorber, and thus the energy of g-ray photons is attenuated [55,56]. The amount of attenuation can be expressed mathematically asðI=I0Þ ¼ exp ðÀmtÞ ¼ exp ðÀm=rÞ rt (1.22)where I is the number of transmitted photons, I0 the number without an absorber,(Àm) the linear attenuation coefﬁcient, t the thickness of the absorber, and rt the massthickness of the absorber. The mean free path l of the g-ray photon is deﬁned asAnodeDynode (secondary electron emission)Photoelectron (emitted from cathode)Lead X-RayNaI (crystal)PhotocathodeCompton back scattering photonRadioactive sourceLead shieldingFig. 1.14 The interactions that occur when powerful gamma rays from a radioactive source arebeing focused on a sodium iodide scintillation detector1.6 Attenuation Coefficient of g-Rays 21
  • 22. l ¼Z /0x exp ðÀmxÞ dx& =Z /0exp ðÀmxÞ dx& ¼ ð1=mÞ (1.23)The mean free path (1/m) of a material increases as photon energy increases [57]. Ithas been observed that computed tomography (CT) with higher-energy gamma ray(g-ray) can produce a good contrast for a large-scale system [58].1.7 Half-Value LayerThe half-value layer (HVL) is deﬁned as the thickness of an absorber of speciﬁedcomposition required to attenuate the intensity of the beam to half to the originalvalue [59]. In medical science, the quality of an X-ray beam is quantiﬁed in terms ofhalf-value layer (HVL) and the peak voltage (keV) [60, 61].Although all beams can be described in terms of HLV, the quality of gamma (g)-ray beam is usually stated in terms of the energy of the g-rays or its nuclide of originwhich has a known emission spectrum. In case of low-energy X-ray beam (belowmegavoltage), it is customary to describe the quality in terms of HVL togetherwith kVp, although HVL alone is adequate to for most clinical applications [62, 63].On the other hand, in megavoltage X-ray range, the quality is speciﬁed by the peakenergy and rarely by HVL, because the beam is heavily ﬁltered through thetransmission target and the ﬂattening ﬁlter.Combination of ﬁlters containing plates of aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), and tin(Sn) has been designed to increase the resulting HVL of orthovoltage beamswithout reducing the intensity of the beam. Such ﬁlters are called Thoraeus (Th)ﬁlters and are designated as Th I (0.2-mm Sn, 0.2-mm Cu, and 1-mm Al), Th II(0.4-mm Sn, 0.2-mm Cu, and 1-mm Al), and Th III (0.5-mm Sn, 0.2-mm Cu, and1-mm Al).In diagnostic and superﬁcial X-ray energy range, primarily aluminum (Al) ﬁltersare used to harden the beam. In orthovoltage range, combination of ﬁlters is used toobtain HVL layers in the range of about 1- to 4-mm Cu. For cesium (Ce) and cobalt(Co) therapy, ﬁlters are not needed because of the monochromatic nature of thebeam [64].HVL is inversely proportional to linear attenuation coefﬁcient (m) (HVL ¼0.693/m), and it increases with increasing ﬁlter thickness as beam becomes increas-ingly harder, that is, contains a greater proportion of higher energy of photons.Now we can write the linear attenuation coefﬁcient m in terms of the ratio of thenumber of photons I to the number of photons without an absorber I0 asðI=I0Þ ¼ eÀmx(1.24)The above Eq. (1.24) can be rearranged as22 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 23. ðI=I0Þ ¼ exp ðÀmrÞ ðrxÞ (1.25)where r is the density of the medium and the product (rx) is known as the massthickness of the absorber, which is an important parameter that determines thedegree of attenuation of the absorber. The thickness of the absorber is measured interms of mass thickness rather than physical thickness (x), and it is more appropriatein radiation measurements. The mass thickness is also a useful concept whendiscussing the energy loss of charged particles and fast electrons.1.8 NeutronsNeutron is a neutral particle (Z ¼ 0) with a spin equal to half and a negativemagnetic moment. Since neutrons have no charge, it can easily enter into a nucleusand cause reaction. Neutrons interact primarily with the nucleus of an atom, exceptin special case of magnetic scattering where the interaction involves the neutronspin and the atomic magnetic moment. These uncharged particles are detectedindirectly via scattering against a charged particle or via nuclear reactions creatingcharged particles or gamma (g) rays. Neutron scattering is therefore an importantpart of neutron detection [65].The interaction of a neutron may be one of the two major types: (1) scatteringand (2) absorption (Fig. 1.15). When a neutron is scattered by a nucleus, its speedand direction change but the nucleus is left with the same number of protons andneutrons it had before the interaction.After the interaction with a matter, the nucleus will have some recoil velocity,and it may be left in an excited state that will lead to the eventual release ofradiation. On the other hand, when a neutron is absorbed by a nucleus, a widerange of radiation can be emitted or ﬁssion can be induced.In the Fig. 1.16, M1 is the mass of the neutron with energy E1 which collides witha target nucleus having mass M2 and energy (E2 ¼ 0) at room temperature,resulting in the emission of the outgoing particle (mass M3 and energy E3) andthe residual recoiling nucleus (mass ¼ M4 and energy E4). Using the conservationScatteringElastic(n, n) (n, n´) (n, p) (n, 2n) (n, f)(n, 3n)(n, 4n)(n, d)etc. etc.(n, γ)(n, α)Non-elastic Electromagnetic Charged Neutral FissionAbsorptionFig. 1.15 The interaction of neutron with matter and the consequences1.8 Neutrons 23
  • 24. of total energy and linear momentum, and nonrelativistic kinematics, we can set upa mathematical equation as follows:ðE1 þ M1c2Þ þ M2c2¼ ðE3 þ M3c2Þ þ ðE4 þ M4c2Þ (1.26)Now the momentum p1 ¼ p3 + p4 where p24 ¼ ðp1 À p3Þ2¼ p12 þ p32 À 2p1p3andcos y ¼ 2M4E4, and we can recall the reaction equation Q as [66]Q ¼ ðM1 þ M2 À M3 À M4Þ c2¼ E3 þ E4 À E1 (1.27)Finally we can writeQ ¼ E3f1 þ ðM3=M4Þg À E1f1 À ðM1=M4ÞgÀ f2=M4ðM1M3E1E3Þ1=2cos y (1.28)The above equation is independent of the mechanism of reaction. The kineticenergies E1 and E3 of the product particle and the angle y can be measured in thelaboratory coordinates.In the case of elastic scattering, there is no excitation of the nucleus and we canassume Q ¼ 0, and we further assume that whatever energy lost by the neutron isgained by the recoiling target nucleus. Let us assume M1 ¼ M3 ¼ m (Mn) andM2 ¼ M4 ¼ M ¼ Am. Then the above Q equation becomesE3f1 þ ð1=AÞg À E1f1 À 1=AÞg À fð2=AÞ ðE1 E3Þ1=2cos y (1.29)Now for all ﬁnite y, E3 has to be less than E1. It is also true that the maximumenergy loss by the neutron occurs at y ¼ p , which corresponds to backscattering,E3 ¼ aE1; (1.30)where a ¼ {(A À 1)/(A + 1)}M1 M2,M3E3M4XθϕYE4E1E2Fig. 1.16 The collision between incident particle 1 and target particle, which is at rest, leading tothe emission of third particle at an angle y and a fourth recoiling particle24 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 25. 1.9 Neutron Scattering1.9.1 Elastic ScatteringScattering events in neutron can be subdivided into elastic and inelastic scatter-ing. In elastic scattering [67, 68], the total kinetic energy of the neutron isunchanged by the interaction. During the interaction, a fraction of the neutron’skinetic energy is transferred to the nucleus. For elastic scattering, we canestablish a relation between outgoing energy E3 and the angle of scattering, y,of neutron asðE3Þ1=2¼ f1=ðA þ 1Þg ðE1Þ1=2½cos y þ fA3 À sin2yg1=2 (1.31)1.9.2 Energy Distribution of Elastically Scattered NeutronsFrom Fig. 1.16, we can see that the neutron when it strikes a target can be scatteredthrough an angle y and recoils through an angle ’. The probability that the scatteredneutron P(Os) will be distributed in the two angular variables ’ and y whennormalized can be represented byZ 2p0d’sZ p0cos ys dys PðOsÞ ¼ 1 (1.32)where (Os) is a unit vector in angular space. Since there is a one-to-one relationbetween ys and E3, we can transform P(Os) dOs to obtain a probability distributionin the outgoing energy, E3. Now let us deﬁne the probability of the scattering angleys as G (ys), and by simply integrating P(Os) dOs, we getGðysÞ ¼Z 2p0d’ sin ys dysPðOsÞ ¼12sin ys dys (1.33)Now if we set the energy before collision E1 ¼ E and E3 ¼ E0, then theprobability distribution for energy E0which is the energy after collision, as F (E! E0), we can write the previous equation (1.33) asFðE ! E0Þ ¼ G ðysÞjðdys=dEÞj (1.34)Now we have E3 ¼ ½ E1 [(1 + a) + (1 À a) ys, and we have assumed E1 ¼ E andE3 ¼E0, so the Jacobian transformation gives rise toFðE ! E0Þ ¼ f1=½Eð1 À aÞg aEbE0bE (1.35)1.9 Neutron Scattering 25
  • 26. ¼ 0 otherwise (1.36)The distribution is sketched in Fig. 1.17. Now since F is a distribution, itsdimension will be the reciprocal of its argument—an energy. Knowing the proba-bility distribution of F, we can construct the energy differential cross sectionðdss=dE0Þ ¼ ssðEÞ F ðE ! E0Þ (1.37)such thatZdE0ðdss=dE0Þ ¼ sT (1.38)where sT is the total scattering cross section.1.9.3 Inelastic ScatteringIt is similar to elastic scattering except that the incoming neutron excites the targetnucleus so it leaves the ground state and goes to the excited state at an energy E*above the ground state. The total kinetic energy of the outgoing neutron and thenucleus is then the kinetic energy of the incoming neutron. Now part of the originalkinetic energy is used to place the nucleus into the excited state, and we can writethe Q equation as: Q ¼ ÀE* (E* > 0). Let us assume that the neutron mass is m,the target nucleus mass is M (ground state), and M* is its mass at excited state,where M* ¼ {M + (E*/c2)}. The negative sign in Q equation indicates that it is anendothermic process requiring energy to be supplied before the reaction can takeplace. On the other hand, in elastic scattering, the Q equation can giveÀ EÃ¼ ÀEthfðM4 À M1Þ=ðM4Þg (1.39)F (E E’){1/E(1-α)}αE E E’Fig. 1.17 The probabilitythat a neutron scatteredelastically at energy E willhave an energyin dE0about E026 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 27. or,Eth $ EÃðf1 þ ð1=AÞg (1.40)where Eth is the minimum value of E1.1.10 The Cross-Section ConceptWhen a large number of neutrons are emerging in a thin layer of interacting material,some may pass through with no interaction; some may be absorbed and may have someinteractions. The interactions of the neutrons with the material change their directionsand energies. The cross section for the neutrons being absorbed is the probability ofneutrons being absorbed divided by the real atom density. This type of cross sectiondescribes the probability of neutron interaction with a single nucleus. It is called themicroscopic cross section and can be represented by a symbol s. Depending on the typeof interaction, the cross section may be of different types, for example, total crosssection sT, total scattering cross section sSC, absorption or capture cross section sEL,and inelastic cross section si. The cross section has the dimensions of area, and crosssections can vary with neutron energy and the target nucleus [69].On the other hand, the concept of macroscopic cross section arises from thetransmission of a parallel beam of neutrons through a thick target sample. The thicksample may be thought of a series of atomic layers, and the intensity of theuncollided neutron beam isIðxÞ ¼ I0 exp ðNsxÞ (1.41)where I0 is the intensity of the beam before it enters the sample, N is the density ofthe atom, s is the cross section, and x is the depth of the sample. The equation isanalogous to the linear attenuation coefﬁcient for gamma (g) rays.1.11 Thermal NeutronsThermal neutrons are said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium, that is, the level ofkinetic energy (KE) possessed by the neutrons, and they are on an average similar tothe KE of the molecules at room temperature [70]. At room temperature, the KE ofthe average energy of a thermal neutron is around 0.025 eV (~ 4.0 Â 10À21J,2.4 mJ/kg, hence the speed is approximately 2.2 km/s). Thermal neutrons have amuch larger cross section than fast neutrons and can therefore be absorbed moreeasily by any atomic nuclei that they collide with, creating a heavier element similarto the unstable isotope of chemical element [71]. A comparative analysis ofdifferent kinds of neutrons and their respective energies is given below (Table 1.7):1.11 Thermal Neutrons 27
  • 28. 1.12 Neutron SourcesNuclei created with excitation energy greater than the neutron binding energy candecay by neutron emission. These highly excited states are produced as a result ofany convenient radioactive decay [72]. As for example, by mixing an a-emittingisotope with a suitable target material, it is possible to fabricate a small self-contained neutron source. Only two target nuclei 9Be and 2H are of practicalimportance for radioisotope phenomenon [73]. It has been found that beryllium(Be) is a good target for neutron source and the reaction of alpha (a) particle withBe target is as follows:1a2 þ 9Be412C6 þ 1n0 (1.42)which has a Q-value of +5.71 MeV.The free neutron (n0) is unstable and like photon it can ionize indirectly.However, unlike photon, interactions with atomic electrons are not signiﬁcant.So, only neutron–nucleus reactions need to be considered. When it is free, it candecay beta (b) particle and produces proton with an 11.7-min half-life. Duringelastic scattering, a neutron with energy of few hundred kilo-electron volt (keV)can excite a nucleus and can leave it albeit with a reduced energy. However, duringinelastic scattering, neutrons combine with the target during capture reactions anddecays by the emission of a gamma (g)-ray or charged particle (n, 2n).1.13 Neutron ShieldingThe shielding of neutrons is different from shielding of gamma rays [74, 75]. Theneutrons are quickly moderated to low energies where it can readily be captured inmaterials with high absorption cross section. The most effective moderators areelements with low atomic number. As for example, boron 10B (n, a) with parafﬁn isused as a moderator. But lithium 6Li (n, a) has been found to be a better material forneutron shielding, because lithium (Li) reaction proceeds directly to ground stateand no gamma rays are emitted after reaction. Cadmium (Cd) is also used as athermal neutron absorber as the material is opaque to thermal neutrons due to itsvery high cross section. But the subsequent reaction produces secondary gamma rayin the background.Table 1.7 Neutrons andtheir energiesNeutron Energy (eV)Fast >1Slow <0.4Hot 0.025–1Cold 5 Â 10À5to 0.025Thermal 0.02528 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 29. 1.14 X-RaysX-ray, or the roentgen ray, is a form of electromagnetic radiation [76]. Thewavelength of X-ray is in the range of 10–0.01 nm, frequencies in the range of30 peta hertz to 30 exahertz (3 Â 1016Hz to 3 Â 1019Hz), and energies in therange of 120 eV to 120 keV. The main difference between X-rays and gamma raysis that the electrons outside the nucleus emit the X-rays, whereas the gamma raysare emitted by the nucleus itself [77]. X-rays are primarily used for diagnosticradiography, medical imaging, crystallography, and high-energy physics.X-ray production typically involves bombarding a metal target inside an X-raytube with high-speed electrons (Fig. 1.18). The bombarding electrons can also ejectelectrons from the inner shell of the atoms of the metal target. As a result of theejection of electrons from the atom, vacancies will be created by the absence ofelectrons. These vacancies are quickly ﬁlled up by electrons dropping down fromhigher levels and will give rise to a sharp well-deﬁned X-ray.The energy liberated in the transition from excited states to the ground statetakes the form of a characteristic X-ray photon whose energy is given by the energydifference between the initial and ﬁnal states. The energy change during thetransitions is accompanied by electromagnetic radiation across a broad X-rayspectrum, which is continuous due to the nature of the production [78, 79].The X-ray exposure is proportional to the tube current (in milliampere) and alsoto the exposure time. In diagnostic radiography, the tube current and the exposuretime are selected to produce a high-quality radiograph with correct contrast and ﬁlmdensity. The X-ray spectrum for diagnostic purpose has an energy of 20–150 keV,and its wavelength can be calculated from the relation l ¼ (1.24/E), where E is theenergy in keV and l is the wavelength in nanometer (nm).X-raysCathode(emitter)Anode(target)High voltage supplye–e–e– e–Fig. 1.18 The generation of X-rays, due to the accelerated electrons from the hot cathode, when ahigh voltage is applied between the anode and the cathode1.14 X-Rays 29
  • 30. Body tissues and other substances are classiﬁed according to the degree to whichthey allow the passage of X-rays (radiolucency) or absorb X-rays (radiopacity).Bones and deposits of calcium salts are moderately radiopaque, whereas muscle,skin, blood, and cartilage and connective tissue have intermediate density. Bonesabsorb more X-rays than skin. As a result, silhouettes of the bones or teeth are lefton the X-ray ﬁlm when skin appears transparent. Figure 1.19 shows the X-raypicture of human teeth that show cavities, hidden dental structures (such as wisdomteeth), and bone loss that cannot be seen during visual examination. Therefore,during radiotherapy, the amount of X-ray dose is applied in a calculated way [80,81]. X-rays are also used to identify people in forensic dentistry [82, 83].Figure 1.20 shows the wavelength versus intensity of an X-ray spectrum pro-duced when 35-keV electrons strike molybdenum (Mo.) target. The energy of theX-ray emitted depends on the choice of the target materials. The vacancy created inthe K shell of an atom will liberate the characteristic K X-ray. On the other hand, ifthe electron comes from L shell, a Ka photon is produced. Likewise, if the ﬁllingelectron comes from M shell, then Kb photon will be produced (Fig. 1.20).For an atom in an excited state, the ejection of an Auger electron is a competitiveprocess to the emission of the characteristic of X-rays, and it is favored with low-Z(Z is atomic number) elements having small binding energies of the electrons.Auger electrons [84, 85] are roughly the analog of internal conversion electronswhen the excitation energy originates in the atom rather than in the nucleus [86].Auger electron spectroscopy is a powerful tool to obtain the chemical compositionof a solid surface (ranging from 5 to 20 A˚ near the surface). Auger electrons haveenergies from 100 eV to a few keV, and they are strongly absorbed by the specimenwithin few angstrom unit of the surface. Therefore, Auger spectroscopy is used forstudying surface of a specimen. Due to ionization, an incident high-energy electrongenerates a hole in the inner shell (here K shell). When the hole in the K shell isﬁlled by an electron from an outer shell (here L2), the superﬂuous energy isFig. 1.19 The X-ray imageof human teeth being taken bya dentist30 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 31. transferred to another electron which is subsequently ejected (here from L3 level) asAuger electron (Fig. 1.21).Alpha (a) particle excitation avoids the complication of bremsstrahlungassociated with electron excitation and is therefore capable of generating a rela-tively clean characteristic X-ray spectrum [87]. Figure 1.22 shows the X-ray pictureof Wilhelm Rontgen’s (1845–1923) wife Anna’s hand, taken on December 22nd,1895. The picture is presented to Professor Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut,University of Freiburg, on January 1896.1.14.1 Production and Properties of X-RayGlass has been the primary X-ray tube envelope, but recent commercial systemsalso use metal ceramic X-ray tube envelopes. The metal ceramic tubes haveseveral advantages over glass, for example, less scattered electrons, improvedheat conduction, and less problem with the vaporized tungsten from the anodedisk. The anode disk is made of an alloy of molybdenum (Mo), titanium (Ti), andzirconium (Zr).A wide variety of X-ray detectors is available in the market, some count singlephotons, some provide only measurements of count rate of total ﬂux, and othersmeasure energy, position, and/or incidence time of each X-ray [88]. Table 1.8CharacteristicX-raysBrehmsstrahlungcontinuumRelativeintensity321Wavelength (nm).02 .04 .06 .08 .10 .12X-rays from amolybdenumtarget at 35 kVKβKαFig. 1.20 The X-rayspectrum produced bymolybdenum target at 35 keV1.14 X-Rays 31
  • 32. shows typical values for useful energy range, energy resolution, dead time perevent, and maximum count rate capability for X-ray detectors that are being usedtoday.The manufacturing of X-ray tube started in the year 1915, and the developmentof the sophisticated tube manufacturing with modern computer controlled system isgoing to be unabated. In the year 2005, the mobile C-arm and anode-grounded tubewith dual support dynamic systems were developed.Auger electron Ejected electronE = ΔE –EnVacuumConduction bandValence bandL3EL3EL2EL1Incident electron beamEnergy E0EKEnergy of the electron after loosing its initial energy (E0): E = (E0 - ΔE)KL2L1Fig. 1.21 The sketch of emission of Auger electron due to ionization32 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 33. The power of a typical X-ray tube is fed from a typical generator. The alternatingcurrent (AC) is converted into a direct current (DC) by using rectiﬁers, and thepower is fed into the X-ray tube. The voltage fed to the X-ray tube is about 150 kVwith maximum current of 30 mA. The exposure timing and the switching areprovided on the low-voltage circuit. Timers are mainly electronic. Currentequipments available in the market do not rely on the timer mechanism for haltingthe exposure, and it is accomplished by feedback from an ionization chamberplaced in the X-ray beam.The principal criteria involved in the selections of X-ray are the maximum tubevoltage, current rating, focal spot size, and the thermal loadability for short,medium, and long exposure time. Loadability is deﬁned as the duration of time ofthe applied power (workload) that can be applied without rapid rise of temperatureof the focal spot [89].Ion chambers are commonly provided with automatic exposure control (AEC)for maintaining optimum ﬁlm density for each kV and mA setting and are used inFig. 1.22 The X-ray pictureof a hand of WilhelmRontgen’s (1845–1923) wifeAnna1.14 X-Rays 33
  • 34. ﬂuoroscopy, conventional radiography, and digital subtraction angiography (DSA)(Fig. 1.23) [90, 91]. On the other hand, mammography uses a special balanceddetector system behind the cassette [92]. Recently, molybdenum (Mo) or rhodium(Rh) anodes are used to produce ﬁltered X-ray spectra which are much moreoptimally tailored for high image quality with low exposure [93].In general for radiography in dentistry or for small mobile applications, only ashort-term loadability is recommended. On the other hand, chest radiographyuses high power and short-time loadability. However, since the source to imagedistance (SID) is large, the focal spot is kept large for safety issue [94]. Whenboth radiography and ﬂuoroscopy are combined, high tube loadability is usedparticularly when the SID is long. However, for under table work where short SIDsare used, the anode angle becomes critical for a practical ﬁeld of view. On the otherhand, both cine-cardiography and angiography require series loadability. In computertomography (CT) where long-term loadability is of prime importance, the X-ray tube iscooled during operation to avoid overheating and malfunctioning. However, in mam-mography anode heating is not a limiting factor [95, 96]. Figure 1.24 shows the pictureof an X-ray tube assembly in a computer tomography system.1.14.2 Beam QualityThe applied voltage controls the X-ray beam quality, and the beam quantity iscontrolled by the current in milliampere. In other words, one can say that the appliedvoltage actually controls the contrast of the image of the ﬁlm, and the current on theother hand controls the number of photons and the density of the radiograph [97, 98]We describe X-ray beam in terms of photon ﬂuence and energy ﬂuence. It is alsocharacterized by its ability to penetrate inside different materials of knownTable 1.8 Properties of common X-ray detectorsNomenclatureEnergy range(keV)DE/E @5.9 keV (%)Dead timeevent (ms)Maximum countrate (1/s)Gas ionization (currentmode)0.2–50 N/A N/A 1011Gas proportional 0.2–50 15 0.2 106Multi-wire and microstripproportional3–50 20 0.2 106/mm2Scintillator material (NaI) 3–10,000 40 0.25 2 Â 105Energy-resolvingsemiconductor1–10,000 3 0.5–30 2 Â 105Surface barrier (currentmode)0.1–20 N/A N/A 108Avalanche photodiode 0.1–50 20 0.001 108CCD 0.1–70 N/A N/A N/ASuperconducting 0.1–4 <0.5 100 5 Â 103Image plate 4–80 N/A N/A N/A34 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 35. composition. Thus the ideal way to describe the quality of an X-ray beam is tospecify its special distribution that is the energy ﬂuence in each energy interval.Health risk to human and nonhuman biota to radiation-hardened devices to low-dose ionizing radiation remains ambiguous due to both gap junction intercellularcommunication and oxidative metabolism. They have shown to mediate adaptiveand bi-standard effects in mammalian cells exposed in vitro to low-dose/low-ﬂuenceionizing radiation [99]. Therefore, for various purposes (irradiation protection aroundhigh-energy accelerators, shielding calculations, aircrew dose assessment, radiationtherapy, and space activity), conversion coefﬁcients for higher energies and otherkinds of radiation are needed [100–102]. Different methods have been applied tocalculate the relation between dose and ﬂuence [103, 104]. The relation betweenﬂuence and effective dose can be presented mathematically [100] asfE ðEÞ ¼ fE ðEÞg=’ ðEÞg (1.43)AECchamberDAPmeterX-ray tubeImageGridAmpIifierAECHighvoltageGeneratorCollimatoraFig. 1.23 (a). The circuit diagram of an X-ay image system with an automatic exposurecontroller (AEC) (Courtesy: Vacu. Tech) and (b). The picture of an automatic exposurecontrolled X-ay unit (Courtesy: Dotop S&T, Beijing, China)1.14 X-Rays 35
  • 36. where E (ϵ) is the effective dose and is a function of particle energy for variouskinds of radiation and ’ (ϵ) is the ﬂuence of primary particle of energy (ϵ).The ﬂuence and the effective dose conversion coefﬁcient fE (ϵ) is calculated interms of effective dose per unit ﬂuence and is expressed in Sv cm2. The scientiﬁcunit of measurement of radiation dose commonly referred to as effective dose in themillisievert (mSv).The X-ray produced at anode passes through a variety of materials, starting fromthe glass envelope of the X-ray tube, before emerging from the machine as theuseful beam. The glass envelope, the surrounding oil, and the exit window of thetube housing attenuate the energy of the X-ray spectrum, because of ﬁltering whichis called the inherent ﬁltration. In most X-ray tubes, the inherent ﬁltration isapproximated to an equivalent attenuation of a 1-mm aluminum (Al) foil. In casebFig. 1.23 (continued)36 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 37. of a standard X-ray tube, the inherent ﬁltration is approximately 0.5 mm Al, and inspecial purpose tubes, such as those for mammography, it may be as low as 0.1 mmAl. Materials purposely introduced into the incoming X-ray beam to further reducethe presence of low-energy X-rays relative to high-energy X-rays (hardening of thebeam) are often referred to as added ﬁltration. Filtration, the process of attenuatingand hardening an X-ray beam, is traditionally quantiﬁed in units of mm Al or thethickness of aluminum (Al) ﬁlters that would the same effect on the beam.1.15 Interactions of X-RaysWhen a beam of X-rays passes through a media, a part of its energy is attenuated.Figure 1.25 (a) shows the incident beam is being attenuated by the aluminum foilbefore it hits a radiation detector [105]. The interaction of the beam of X-rays withthe electrons of the foil will give rise to scattering of the electrons in all directions asis shown in Fig. 1.25 (b).Let us assume:(a) The wavelength l of the X-rays is small compared to the characteristicdimensions of the atom, (b) energy of a quantum of the X-rays is large comparedto the binding energy of atomic electrons, and (c) the quantum energy (hn) of theX-rays is small compared to rest mass of the electron.From the above assumptions, we can establish a relation between the incidentradiation intensity I with the average energy density r asFig. 1.24 The picture of anX-ray tube assemblycommonly used in computertomography (CT) (Courtesy:K.A. University, SA)1.15 Interactions of X-Rays 37
  • 38. I ¼ r v (1.44)where v is the volume in cm3. Again, the average energy emitted in all directionsper second by the electron s is proportional to I, and their relation can be expressedmathematically ass ¼ sT I (1.45)where sT ¼ {(8p/3) (e2/mc2)} is called the Thomson cross section of the electron.If the above assumptions (a) and (b) are satisﬁed, the problem is trivial because eachof the Z electrons of the atom scatters X-rays independently, the total intensityscattered by the atom is Z times the intensity scattered by a single electron, andEq. (1.45) will transform intos ¼ ZsT I (1.46)Now ZsT ¼ ssa ¼ scattering cross section per atom. Thus the differential scatteringcross section per atom will give rise to a mathematical form asðd ssa=dOÞ ¼ ðZ dsT=dOÞ (1.47)By integrating (dssa/dO) over all solid angles, the predicted value of the scatteringcross section per atom ssa is obtained as an expression involving the electron densityr(r). As long as the wavelength of the X-rays is greater than 0.2 Â 10À8cm, theresults of the scattering cross section are reasonably in good agreement with theexperiment. In fact, calculations of the cross section for Compton scattering haveIncident beam (X-rays)abA1-foilAttenuated beamDetectorRecoil electronScattered photonθϕIncident photonFig. 1.25 (a) The attenuated incident beam of X-rays being received by the detector and (b) thedeﬂection of the incident photon38 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 39. been carried out in 1928 by Klein and Nishina, who used Dirac relativistic theory ofquantum mechanics. The differential cross section for Compton scattering can bewritten (following Klein–Nishina) mathematically as [106]ðdss=dOÞ ¼ ðdsT=dOÞ ðf1=ð1 þ 2asin2y=2Þgf1 þ ½ð4a 2sin4y=2Þ=ð1þ cos2yÞð1 þ 2asin2y=2Þg (1.48)where ss ¼ sT {3 (1 + a)/4a}[ {(2 + 2a)/(1 + 2a)} – {ln ((1 + 2a)/a}]À¾[(1 + 3a)/(1 + 2a)2À ln ((1 + 2a)/2a] and a ¼ (hn)/mc2¼ (quantum energy/elec-tron rest mass)From the above equation, the differential scattering cross sections for Comptonscattering from a free electron having different values of a and the scattering crosssection for Compton scattering from a free electron are plotted in Figs. 1.26 and 1.27.The scattered X-ray suffers an energy loss (ignoring binding effects) which isgiven byðE0=EÞ ¼ ½1=f1 þ k ð1 À cos yÞg (1.49)or, in terms of wavelength shift,ðl0À lÞ ¼ lc ð1 À cos yÞ (1.50)where lc ¼ (h/mc) ¼ 2.426 Â 10À12m. The kinetic energy of the recoil electron(Fig. 1.25b) is just the energy lost by the photon in this approximation:Ee ¼ E½fk ð1 À cos yÞg=f1 þ k ð1 À cos yÞg (1.51)where k ¼ E/mc2, the photon energy measured in units of electron rest energy.1.00.500° 30° 60° 90°Θ120° 150°α = 1α = 10α = 0.1α = 0180°inunitsofdσsdΩ()e22mc2Fig. 1.26 The differential scattering cross section for Compton scattering from a free electronhaving different values of a (Adopted from, Eisberg, Wiley)1.15 Interactions of X-Rays 39
  • 40. 1.16 Photoelectric EffectIn photoelectric effect, the quantum energy of the X-rays is very small compared tothe electron rest mass. As a result, the incident quantum is completely absorbed bythe atom. The complete absorption of the incident quantum in the photoelectriceffect does not violate energy–momentum conservation and allows the nucleus toparticipate because in this process the atomic electron concerned is not essentiallyfree, but instead is bound by electrostatic forces to the massive nucleus. However,when the quantum energy is smaller than the binding energy of the electron, theprobability of photoelectric absorption on that electron abruptly drops to zero. Thisbehavior has been observed in the measured cross section of 82Pb atoms.The effect of photoelectric absorption is the liberation of a photoelectron and isan ideal process for the measurement of energy of the original radiation. Theprobability for photoelectric absorption is expressed in terms of a photoelectriccross section per atom sPEa and is deﬁned in terms of A, the average number ofquanta absorbed by this process per second per atom in a beam of I quanta persecond per square centimeter. Mathematically, it can be expressed asA ¼ I sPEa (1.52)The predicted cross section per atom for photoelectric absorption on a K shellelectron is1. 0.1 1ασSinunitsofσT10 100 1,000Fig. 1.27 The scattering cross section for Compton scattering from a free electron (From Eisberg[106], p 504)40 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 41. sPEa ¼ sT4p2 ð1=137Þ4Z5ðmc2=hvÞ7=2(1.53)1.17 Pair ProductionWhen the quantum energy of the incident radiation is in excess of two times theelectron rest mass energy, one can observe a photoelectric effect where the radiationenergy will be completely absorbed during interaction with matter. The process isknown as pair production, which involves complete disappearance of a quantumand the subsequent materialization of part of its energy hn into rest mass energy of apair production.Pair production cannot take place in free space because disappearance of aquantum, followed by the appearance of an electron and positron, cannot conserveboth total relativistic energy and momentum. The pair production process iscomplicated by the fact that the positron is not a stable particle. Once its kineticenergy (KE) becomes very low (comparable to the thermal energy of normalelectrons in the interacting material), the positron will annihilate or combine witha normal electron in the absorbing medium (interacting material). The cross sectionper atom for the absorption of radiation energy by pair production process can bededucted by following Dirac theory and can be written mathematically assPRa ¼ sT ð3=pÞ ðZ2=137Þ fðaÞ (1.54)where a  (hn/mc2). Z is the atomic number, Z2is the dependence of the pairproduction cross section per atom, and sPRa is the manifestation of the fact that therequired momentum transferring interactions between the nucleus and the pair ofcharged particles is more readily achieved for atoms of large Z. The function f(a)has much the same form for all atoms (Fig. 1.28).It has been noticed that in most of the cases, the effective energy of amonoenergetic X-ray shows typically one-third to one-half the peak energy. Asthe total ﬁltration of an X-ray tube increases, meff decreases, and effective energyincreases. An X-ray beam with lower energy spectrum is most likely to be absorbedin a thick attenuator. As a result, the transmitted energy through the attenuator onlyhas a beam of higher energy, which is technically termed as beam hardening. Thebeam hardening is dependent on the characteristics of the absorber. Higher Zabsorbers (e.g., bone (calcium) and iodine) cause more beam hardening per unitthickness than soft tissues, partially due to higher density (Compton scattering) andpartially due to the Z3/E3dependency of photoelectric absorption.A single X-ray beam when positioned to a distant detector produces divergingbeam with distributed point sources, each producing its own view of object. Thegeometry of the beam results geometric blurring and causes a loss of objectresolution. Geometric blurring can be reduced with less magniﬁcation or with asmaller focal spot. In computer tomography (CT), magniﬁcation is the ﬁrst criterionof the system geometry, and the moving detector array needs to be located at a safe1.17 Pair Production 41
  • 42. distance from the patient. Moreover, for CT, higher focal spot size is required due tothe higher beam current and long duration of the CT scan.The intensity of the X-ray beam has to be balanced during general diagnosticimaging [107], where the technologist has the ﬂexibility to orient the X-ray tube. Forexample, it is prudent to orient the long axis of the X-ray tube parallel to the spine,with anode side of the ﬁeld directed toward the apex of the lungs, but for diagnosticimaging of the slice thickness, the direction of the beam is not so critical [108].Compton scattering rather than photoelectric absorption in soft tissues and boneis largely responsible for the subject contrast. The amount of scattering increaseswith object thickness and the scattering to primary ratio (S/P) is reduced by a factor10810710610510410–2410–2310–22σsaσPEaσPRaσa10–21Crosssectionsperatom(cm2)10–2010–19Leadhv (ev)Fig. 1.28 Scattering, photoelectric absorption, pair production, and total cross section per atomfor lead (82Pb) (Eisberg [106], p 510)42 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 43. equal to {1/[1 + (S/P)]}, which is known as contrast reduction factor. Typical (S/P) ratios encountered in diagnostic radiology depend upon the thickness of theobject, the ﬁeld size, and thickness. Scattering with conventional CT scanning isnot a signiﬁcant problem, because the volume of the patient irradiated at anyinstant is small, and the scattering is small due to light collimation (slice thick-ness). However, collimation in the slice thickness direction is increased toaccommodate larger multi-row detector arrays that provide multi-slice acquisi-tion capability. Nevertheless, scattering will become a greater problem that willaffect the image quality of the computer tomography (CT) images. Scattering canbe reduced either by using smaller ﬁeld size or by using anti-scatter grids, orimplementing air gaps between the object and the detector. Each of the methodshas its pros and cons.In g-ray imaging system [109], scattering is generally rejected with the use ofenergy discrimination windows tuned to the g-ray photon [53]. On the other hand,X-ray detectors are energy integrators and have the ability to reject scattering basedon its energy due to the polyenergetic spectrum (broad X-ray spectrum) used forX-ray and CT, but mostly due to extremely high X-ray photon ﬂuence.1.18 Use of Natural Forces for the Material Improvementof MankindBy far the most important application of nuclear radiation for the material improve-ment of mankind is in the ﬁeld of nuclear medicine or radiation oncology. Nuclearmedicine or radiation oncology is a special branch of medical science and medicalimaging that uses the nuclear properties of matter to diagnose the abnormality ofcells or tissues and treatment of the abnormal cells or tissues by radiation therapy[110, 111]. More speciﬁcally, nuclear medicine is a part of molecular imaging ormedical imaging, which produces images of the biological processes at the cellularand subcellular levels [112].Medical imaging, on the other hand, refers to the techniques and processesused to create images of the creatures including human body (or parts thereof) forclinical purposes [113]. It can be said that it was a part of biological imagingsystem with the concepts that incorporate radiology, radiological sciences,endoscopy (medical), thermography, medical photography, and microscopy[114]. A recent study shows that 95 % of radiation oncologists use advancedimaging techniques such as ﬂuoroscopy, computer tomography (CT), positronemission tomography (PET), single-photon emission tomography (SPECT), PETand SPECT combined, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and ultrasound[115–117].In clinical ﬁeld, medical imaging is being used to diagnose some abnormality of anormal tissue, cells, or an organ or a part of the organ of a living animal [118]. Thus itcan be said that medical imaging is a special subbranch of biological engineering ormedical physics depending on the context [119–121]. The procedures involved innuclear medicine use pharmaceuticals that have been labeled with radionuclides1.18 Use of Natural Forces for the Material Improvement of Mankind 43
  • 44. [122]. The major radionuclides that are frequently used are iodine (I)-131, techne-tium (Tc)-99, cobalt (Co)-60, iridium (Ir)-192, americium (Am)-241, and cesium(Cs)-137. However, some of the radionuclides like Co-60, Cs-137, Am-241, and I-131 are particularly vulnerable for the environment.In the ﬁeld of internal radionuclide therapy, a small radiation source isadministered or planted (e.g., iodine-131 is commonly used to treat thyroidcancer), which is usually a beta (b) or gamma (g) emitter, in the target area. Anew ﬁeld called targeted alpha (a) therapy (TAT) or alpha radio-immunotherapyhas emerged in the ﬁeld of nuclear medicine very recently. Cancer and heartdiseases are the number one killers, approaching 90 % of all deaths in the UnitedStates of America. Improved image quality to diagnose the abnormality of thecells/tissues is essential. Indeed, shorter examination time, shift to outpatienttesting, and noninvasive imaging are becoming the primary concern for theoncologists [123].1.19 RadionuclidesRadionuclide is an atom with an unstable nucleus and is referred to by chemistsand physicists as radioactive isotope or radioisotope. Radionuclides with suit-able half-lives are used for diagnosis, treatment, and research in nuclear medi-cine. The radionuclide can be a natural one or an artiﬁcial one, produced in alaboratory.In the ﬁeld of nuclear medicine and biological research, almost 20 radionuclidesare used. Among the radionuclides that are used very much in nuclear medicine arephosphorus (P)-32, technetium (Tc)-99m, thallium (Tl)-201, iodine (I)-131, iodine(I)-125, cobalt (Co)-60, iridium (Ir)-192, cesium (Cs)-137, strontium (Sr)-90,krypton (Kr)-85, tritium (Tr), and plutonium (Pu). The radiation energy fromthese radionuclides can change the metabolic and physicochemical properties ofliving beings.Different nuclides with their half-lives and decay times used in medical therapyare presented in Table 1.9. The meanings of the different notations that are used inthe Table 1.5 are as follows: (1) l is the decay constant, (2) EC means electroncapture, (3) IC means internal conversion, (4) n is neutron, (5) f is ﬁssion, and (6) dmeans decay (second column). In the second column, the metal with atomic numberindicates target atom, and within parenthesis the ﬁrst letter indicates bombardingparticle and the second one indicates emitted particle.1.20 Production of RadionuclidesRadioisotopes are used in medical imaging, diagnosis, and treatment of the abnor-mal tissues and cells and high-energy physics [124, 125]. Radioactive nuclides areprepared by a wide variety of particle accelerators and nuclear reactors.44 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 45. 1.20.1 CyclotronIn cyclotron, charged particles such as protons, deuterons, and alpha (a) particlesare bombarded to the target nuclei. Unfortunately, the bombardment with the targetin cyclotron does not produce an isotropic product. As a result, after chemicalseparations, a product of high speciﬁc activity is obtained [126]. Figure 1.29 showsthe picture of a modern cyclotron.A second mode of operation in reactors is by ﬁssion process itself as the majorityof the ﬁssion products are radioactive and cover a wide range of atomic numbers ofvarying abundance. Fission process is accompanied by the generation of 2–3neutrons, g-rays, and two ﬁssion fragments, and they are unstable and radioactive.The half-lives of ﬁssion fragments can vary from a fraction of a second to severalyears. The long-lived ﬁssion products built up during the operation of a reactor canTable 1.9 Different nuclides that are used in nuclear medicineNuclideProductionmethod targetatom(bombardingparticle,emittedparticle)Half-lifeDecaymodeEbavgkeVg-protonenergiesDecayproductHalf-life decayproductkeV abundance99mTc 99Mo–99mTc 6 h IC, l – 140 0.88 99Tc 2.1 Â 105year67Ga 68Zn (d, n)67Ga78 h EC, l – 93 0.38 67Zn Stable185 0.20300 0.17393 0.05111In 109Ag (a, 2n) 67 h EC, l – 172 0.90 11Cd Stable245 0.94131I 235U (n, f) 131I 8 day bÀ, l 284 364 0.83 131Xe Stable123I 121Sb (a, 2n)123I13 h EC, l – 159 0.83 123Te 1.2 Â 1013year133Xe 235U (n, f)133Xe5 day (bÀ, l) 110 81 0.37 133Cs Stable201Tl 203Tl (d, 2n)201Pb72 h EC, l – X-ray;70–800.93 200Hg Stable57Co 56Fe (d,n) 57Co 270 day EC, l – 122 0.86 57Fe Stable89Sr 88Sr (d, p) 89Sr 51 day bÀ, l 583 909 100 89Y Stable32P 32S (n, p) 32P 14 day bÀ735 32S Stable18F 18O (p, n) 109 min b+242 18O Stable15O 14N (d, n) 15O 124 s b+735 15N Stable13N 10B (a, n) 13N 10 min b+491 13C Stable11C 11B (p, n) 11C 20 min b+385 11B Stable82Rb 82Sr-82Rb 76 s b+1,409 82Kr Stable1.20 Production of Radionuclides 45
  • 46. have billions of curie of radioactivity per second. The radiation ﬁelds due to g-raysand neutrons produced during ﬁssion as well as radiation emitted by the built-upﬁssion products may reach 106to 108Gy/h inside the reactor core.The third mode of production of radionuclides is as daughters of parentactivities, made either by cyclotron or reactor irradiation. Among the threemodes, which one will be adopted depends on the length of time for production,separation and puriﬁcation processes, and the time from production to shipping.1.20.2 ReactorThe reactor instruments can be divided into two groups, in-core boiling waterreactor (BWR) and out-of-core pressurized water reactor (PWR). The BWR hasthree systems called source, intermediate, and power range monitors. The sourcesystem typically consists of four in-core ﬁssion chambers operating in pulse mode,which provides good discrimination against gamma (g) rays. Figure 1.30 shows theschematic of a boiling water reactor (BWR).In PWR three sets of sensors with overlapping operating ranges are used to coverthe entire power range of the reactor. At intermediate power level pulse modeoperation is possible because of the excessive neutron exchange rate. But when theinstrument is operated at its full operating range, the neutron ﬂux is very large andCryopump Dee tuning stubsBeam line #2Extractor #2Magnetic coilsRf transmissionconnectionYoke hydrauliclitting jacks (4)Ion source valveAccess pitIon sourceBeamline #1Extractor #1CombinationmagnetTurbo pumpFig. 1.29 The picture of a modern cyclotron (Courtesy: IAEA, Vienna, Austria, Tech. Rept. 468)46 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 47. gamma-induced currents within ion chambers are no longer signiﬁcant, and theuncompensated ion chambers are commonly used as principal neutron sensor. Themajority of the neutron sensors are of gas-ﬁlled type because of its inherent gamma-ray discrimination properties. The gas-ﬁlled chambers, whether they are ionization orproportional counters, can be operated mainly in two modes (either pulse mode orcurrent mode). When ﬂux levels become high enough so that pulse mode operation isno longer possible, neutron detectors are often operated in current mode.1.21 Developments and Uses of RadionuclidesThe ongoing research in the development of medical radioisotopes, their productionand processing, the development of new radionuclide generator systems, the designand evaluation of new pharmaceuticals for applications in nuclear medicine, oncol-ogy, and interventional cardiology has been focused as number one prioritythroughout the world for further preclinical testing and clinical evaluation ofagents. The development of high ﬂux isotope reactor (HFIR) in the USA providesa maximum steady-state thermal neutron ﬂux of about 2.3 Â 1015neutrons persquare centimeter per second. The instrument is a key resource for production ofradioisotope used in nuclear medicine [127, 128]. A key example of HFIRproduction is rhenium-188 (188Re) from the parent nucleus tungsten-188(188W).n; g186W !n; g187 W !b188W ! 188Re (1.55)12345 1412 16 131811109876171 reactor vessel2 fuel core element3 control rod element4 circulation pumps5 control rod motors6 steam7 inlet circulation water8 high pressure turbine9 low pressure turbine10 electric generator11 electrical generator exciter12 steam condenser13 cold water for condenser14 pre-warmer15 water circulation pump16 condenser cold water pump17 concrete chamber18 connection to electricity grid15Fig. 1.30 The schematic of a boiling water reactor (BWR) (Courtesy: WIKI)1.21 Developments and Uses of Radionuclides 47
  • 48. 188Re is used in clinical radioisotope for bone pain palliation (hydroxyethylidene, HEDP), restenosis therapy (after percutaneous transluminal coronaryangioplasty, PTCA), bone marrow ablation, and therapies for liver cancer, lungtumor, and radiation synovectomy/joint diseases. The 188Re-labeled a-melanotropin peptide analog Re-CCMSH (cytochrome C-type biogenesis proteinCCMH precursor) shows promise for melanoma therapy [129].Figure 1.31 shows scintigraphic biodistribution of 188Re (P2045 peptide) as afunction of time in a melanoma-bearing mouse. Recent research also includes produc-tion of alpha (a)-emitting radioisotope actinium-225 (225Ac), which is used in radio-therapy of cancer. Actinium is routinely extracted from 229-thorium (229Th) [130].226Ra ð3n; gÞ ! 229Ra ðbÀÞ ! 299Th ! 225Ac (1.56)Actinium can be produced by any one of the following processes:1. Extraction from uranium-233 (233U)2. Reactor production from radium-226 (226Ra)3. Direct production from radium-226 (226Ra)4. Decay method of thorium-229 (229Th)Figure 1.32 shows the production of actinium and thorium by a- and b-decays fromthe mother element uranium. It also shows the half-life value of the individuals.Figure 1.33, on the other hand, shows the range of electrons in soft tissue.The following Table 1.10 gives some of the radioactive materials (radioisotopes)that are being used in our daily lives.Table 1.11 gives the comparisons of effective X-ray dose with backgroundradiation exposure for several radiological procedures:3 min 8 h 24 hFig. 1.31 Scintigraphic biodistribution of 188Re as a function of time (Courtesy: F.F. (Russ),Knap Jr.)48 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 49. 225Ra 14.8 d 225Ac 10.0 d221Fr 4.8 m217At 32 ms213Bi 45.6 m209TI 2.2 m217Rn 0.5 ms213Po 4.2 μs209Pb 3.3 h 209Bi stableββββ (97.8%)β (0.01%)α (99.99%)α (2.2%)αααααα229TH 7,430 y223U 1.6 × 105yFig. 1.32 The production of actinium and thorium by a- and b-decays and the half-life of theindividuals (Courtesy, Dr. F.F. (Russ) Knap, Jr.)0.10.001Range(mm)0.010.11100.2 1 2Electron energy (MeV)Sn-117m (CE)Sm-153Re-188Y-90Lu-177Re-186 P-3210Fig. 1.33 The range of electrons in soft tissue (maximum b-energy) (Courtesy, Dr. F.F. (Russ)Knap, Jr.)1.21 Developments and Uses of Radionuclides 49
  • 50. Table 1.10 Radioactive materials and their frequent use in daily life*Radioactivematerials UsesAmericium-241 Used in smoke detectors, to measure toxicity of lead paint, and source tocalibrate radiationCadmium-109 To analyze metal alloysCalcium-47 To study cell function and bone formationCalifornium-252 To inspect explosives and moisture content in soilsCarbon-14 To ensure that potential new drugs are metabolized without forming harmfulproducts and radiocarbon datingCesium-137 To treat cancer, to measure dose of pharmaceuticals, to measure oil ﬂow in apipe line, and calibration sourceChromium-51 To study red blood cells’ survivalCobalt-51 Standard radioactive source (SRS), as radionuclides, radio-imaging todiagnosis diseases (e.g., anemia)Cobalt-60 As SRS, to sterilize surgical instruments, to improve safety and reliability offuel oil burners, and to preserve foodsCopper-60 Injected with monoclonal antibodies into a cancer patientCurium-244 Used in mining to analyze drilled materialsIodine-123 To diagnosis thyroid disordersIodine-129 Used to check some radioactivity countersIodine-131 To diagnose thyroid disordersIridium-192 To test the integrity of pipeline welds, boilers, and aircraft partsIron-55 To analyze electroplating solutionsKrypton-85 Used in indicator lights, to gauge the thickness of metal and plastics, and tomeasure dust and pollutant levelsNickel-63 Used to detect explosives and as voltage regulators and current surge protectorsPhosphorus-32 Used in molecular biology and genetic researchPlutonium-147 Fissionable isotope and to power air space craftPolonium-210 To reduce static charge in photographic ﬁlms and phonograph recordsPromethium-147 Used in electric blanket, to gauge thickness of thin sheets of plastics, rubber,textiles, etc.Radium-226 Makes lightning rods more effective, to standardize the radioactive source(curie)Selenium-75 Used in protein studies in life science researchSodium-24 Used to study and locate leaks in pipelinesStrontium-85 Used to study bone formation and metabolismTechnetium-99m The mostly used radioisotope for diagnostic studies in nuclear medicineThallium-204 To measure dust pollutant and thickness of thin sheetsThallium-201 To diagnostic studies of coronary artery disease and location of lymphomasThorium-229 Helps ﬂuorescent lights to last longerThorium-230 Provides coloring and ﬂuorescenceTritium Use for life science and drug metabolism studiesUranium-234 Used in dental ﬁxtureUranium-235 Used in ﬁssion and chain reaction, power plants, and naval propulsion systemXenon-133 Used in nuclear medicine for lung ventilation and blood ﬂow studies*adopted from different sources50 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 51. 1.22 SummaryAll materials on Earth are constantly exposed to radiation. The radiation can benonionized or ionized according to their energy. The classiﬁcation of radiation asionizing is essentially a statement that has enough quantum energy to eject anelectron. The ionizing radiation can produce a number of physiological effects,such as those associated with risk of mutation or cancer, which nonionizing radia-tion cannot directly produce at that intensity. The mechanism of interactions of theTable 1.11 Comparative analysis between the effective radiation dose and background radiationfor different radiological proceduresProcedure Radiation doseNatural backgroundradiationComputer tomography (CT)—abdomen 10 mSv 3 yearsComputed tomography (CT)—body 10 mSv 3 yearsComputed tomography (CT)—colonography5 mSv 20 monthsIntervenous pyelogram (IVP) 1.6 mSv 6 monthsRadiography—lower GI Tract 4 mSv 16 monthsRadiography—upper GI Tract 2 mSv 8 monthsBone:Radiography—spine 1.5 mSv 6 monthsRadiography—extremity 0.001 mSv Less than 1 dayGeneral nervous system:Computed tomography (CT)—head 2 mSv 8 monthsComputed tomography—spine 10 mSv 3 yearsMyelography 4 mSv 16 monthsChest:Computed tomography (CT)—chest 8 mSv 3 yearsRadiography—chest 0.1 mSv 10 daysChildren’s imaging:Voiding cystourethrogram 5–10 years old: 6 mSv 6 monthsInfant: 0.8 mSv 3 monthsFace and neck:Computed tomography (CT)—sinuses 0.6 2 monthsHeart:Cardiac CT for calcium scoring 2 mSv 8 monthsMen’s imaging:Bone densitometry (DEXA) 0.01 mSv 1 dayWomen’s imagingBone densitometry (DEXA) 0.01 mSv 1 dayGalactography 0.7 mSv 3 monthsHysterosalpingography 1 mSv 4 monthsMammography 0.7 mSv 3 months1.22 Summary 51
  • 52. ionizing radiation in the form of X-rays and gamma rays includes the photoelectriceffect, Compton scattering, and at high enough energies electron–positron pairproduction.Occupational exposures to nuclear radiation also come from industries, medical,educational, and research establishments. Several factors combine to heighten thepublic anxiety about both short-range and long-range effects of radiation. Becauseliving tissue contains 70–90 % water by weight, the dividing line between radiationand that excites electrons and radiation that forms ion is often assumed to be equalto the ionization of water. However, the good side of the radiation is the use ofnuclear radiation (mostly neutrons, the X-ray, and the gamma rays) in radiationtherapy and medical imaging to diagnose the cancerous cells or the abnormaltissues.In radiation therapy, different radioisotopes are used. As a result, the research inthe development of medical isotopes, their production and processing, and thedevelopment of new nuclide generator systems has become part and parcel ofmedical research. On the other hand, in the ﬁeld of preclinical testing, clinicalevaluation of the agents, and evaluation of new pharmaceuticals for applications innuclear medicine, oncology and interventional cardiology have been focused asnumber one priority.Utmost care is being taken during medical examination and treatment so that thenormal tissues and the cells are not unnecessarily exposed to radiation dose. Inorder to prevent the unnecessary exposure during diagnosis and radiation therapy,different kinds of shielding are used.Both gamma (g) rays and X-rays are used for medical purposes. Both of thesepenetrating rays not only exhibit wavelike properties but they also exhibit discreteparticle characteristics. However, unlike discrete energies of g-rays emitted fromradioactive materials, the X-ray beam consists of a spectrum of energies over anenergy range determined by the peak kilovoltage (kVp), the generator waveform,and the amount of inherent and added ﬁltration. Most of the time, measurement ofthe spectral distribution of X-rays and the relative penetrability or the quality of theX-rays is useful instead of the measurements of the X-ray spectrum. Transmissionmeasurements of the intensity of X-rays through a series of attenuator (e.g.,aluminum foil) are useful to characterize the beam in terms of half-value layer(HVL).References1. Gupta TK, Antonuk LE et al (2012) Investigation of active matrix ﬂat-panel imagers(AMFPIs) employing thin layers of polycrystalline HgI2 photoconductor for mammographicimaging. SPIE Proceedings, San Diego, 4–9 Feb 2012 and also Gupta TK et al (2004) LuI3:Ce-a new scintillator for gamma ray spectroscopy. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci NS-51 (2302–2305)and also Gupta TK et al (1999) High speed X-ray imaging camera using structured CsI (Tl)scintillator. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 46(3):232–23652 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 53. 2. Gupta TK et al (2002) RbGd2Br7:Ce, scintillators for gamma ray and thermal neutrondetection. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci NS-49:1655 and also Gupta TK et al (2004) High resolutionscintillator spectrometer. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 51(5):23953. Gerardin S, Paccagnella A (2010) Present and future non-volatile memories for space. IEEETrans Nucl Sci 57(6):30164. Qu W (2012) Preparation and characterization of L-[5-11C]-Glutamine for metabolic imagingof tumers. J Nucl Med 53(1):98 and also Guerra AS (2004) Ionizing radiation detectors formedical imaging. World Scientiﬁc, Singapore5. Vanderhoek M, Berlman SB, Jeraj R (2012) Impact of the deﬁnition of peak standardizeduptake value on quantiﬁcation of treatment response. J Nucl Med 53(1):46. Curry H (2009) Most radiation oncologists utilizes advanced medical imaging techniques.JACR. 25 Nov 2009 and also Bushberg JT, Siebert JA, Leidholdt EM, Boone JM (2002)Essential physics of medical imaging. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Philadelphia7. Mukhin KN (1987) Experimental nuclear physics, vols I and II. Mir Pub, Moscow and alsoShultis JK, Faw RE (2007) Fundamentals of nuclear science and engineering, 2nd edn. CRCPress, Boaca Raton, Fl8. Rogers EM (1960) Physics for the inquiring mind. Princeton University Press, Princeton,Chap. 43, p 682 and also Kahn J (1996) From radioisotopes to medical imaging, history ofnuclear medicine written at Berkeley, 9 Sept 1996, Science Articles Archive, Berkeley9. National Research Council (2008) Radiation source use and replacement. The NationalAcademy Press, Washington10. da EN, Andrade C (1956) The birth of the nuclear atom. Sci Am 195(5):93–107, and alsoBuddemeier B (2003) CHP, understanding radiation and its effect, U. Calif. LawrenceLivermore Nat. Lab., Under auspices of the DOE Contract # W-7405-Eng-48, June (3-6-2003), UCRL-Pres-149818-Rev-211. Stanev T (2010) Ultra high energy cosmic rays: origin and propagation. Mod Phys Lett A 25(18):1467 and also Lehnerst S (2007) Biomolecular action and ionizing radiation. Institute ofPhysics, Lehnerst, United Kingdom12. Shaviv NJ (2002) Cosmic ray diffusion from Galatic spiral arms. Phys Rev Lett 89(5):051102and Fermi E (1974) Nuclear physics. University of Chicago, Chicago Chichester; (2004)Springer, Chichester13. Ionizing radiation fact book, EPA, USA, EPA 402-F-05-061, March 2008 and also Kume T(2006) Application of radiation in agriculture. Proceedings of international workshop onbiotechnology in agriculture, Nong Lam University, Ho Chi Min City, 20–21 Oct 200614. Ouellette J (2011) Discovery news, NASA, 1 Nov 2011, Thirty years of bubble chamberphysics, CERN courier, July/Aug 2003, p 1915. Glen GF (2000) Radiation detection and measurements, 3rd edn. Wiley, New York, Chap. 216. Shleien B, Terpilak MS (1984) The Health Physics and Radiological Health Handbook.Nucleon Lectern Associates, Olney17. Iwai S et al (2005) Calculation of ﬂuence to dose conversion coefﬁcients in partial exposure.Appl Radiat Isot 63(5–6):63918. Tack D et al (2007) Dose from adult and pediatric multidetector computer tomography.Springer, New York, p 14019. ICRP (2009) Relative biological effectiveness, quality factor (QF), and radiation weightingfactor, vol 3394. J. Valentin (ed) Annals of the ICRP Pub. 1992, Elsevier, pp 1–12120. (2000) Low-dose of ionizing radiation: biological effects and regulatory control. Int. Conf. inSeville, Spain, 17–21 Nov. 1997 (IAEA TEC.DOC. 976, Pub. Vienna)21. Vienot KG, Hertel NE (2007) Photon extremely absorbed dose and kerma conversioncoefﬁcients for calibration geometries. Health Phys 92(2):179, Lippincott Hagerstown, MD22. Beyer HE, Kluge HJ, Sherelko VP (1997) X-ray Radiation of Highly Charged Ions, Sept. 19,Springer, Berlin23. L’Annunziata MF et al (2003) Handbook of radioactivity. Academic, San Diego, p 116924. Dendy PP, Heaton B (1999) Physics for diagnostic radiology. CRC Press, Boca RatonReferences 53
  • 54. 25. National Research Council (US) (2007) Advancing nuclear medicine through innovation.National Academic Press, Washington, DC26. Noz ME, Maguire GQ Jr (1999) Radiation protection in health sciences. World Scientiﬁc,New York27. Mock WG (2005) Introduction to isotope hydrology. Taylor & Francis, New York28. Seife C (2000) Science 288(5471):156429. Hendee WR, Ritenour ER (2002) Medical imaging physics. Wiley, New York, p 2830. Bartusiak M et al (1994) A positron named Priscilla. National Academic Press, Washington, DC31. Murtagh DJ, Cook DA, Laricchia G (2009) Excited state positronium formation from heliumargon and xenon. Phys Rev Lett 102:13320232. Cassidy DB, Mills AP Jr (2007) The production of molecular positronium. Nature Lett449:19533. Boronski E (2006) Positron-electron annihilation rates in electron gas studied by variationalMonte Carlo simulation. Euro Phys Lett 75:47534. Gupta TK et al (2004) LuI3:Ce, a new scintillator for gamma ray spectroscopy. IEEE TransNucl Sci 51(5):230235. Gola C et al (2006) Gamma-ray imager for medical imaging. IEEE Nucl Sci Symp 6:358136. Henlee WR, Russell E (2002) Medical imaging. Wiley, Hoboken37. Webb S (1988) Physics of medical imaging. CRC Press, Boca Raton38. Mayles P, Nahum A, Rosenwald JC (2000) Hand book of radiotherapy physics. Taylor &Francis, New York39. Giger ML (2006) Computer aided diagnosis in medical imaging – a new era in imageinterpretation, business brieﬁng: next generation health care. University of Chicago, Chicago,p 7540. Turner JE (2007) Atoms, radiation and protection, 3rd edn. Wiley, Weinheim41. Cember H (1996) Introduction to health physics. McGraw Hill, New York42. Webb S (2001) The physics of three dimensional radiation therapy. Institute of Physics,London43. Kaplan MF (1999) Concrete radiation shielding. Longman Scientiﬁc, New York44. Shultis JK, Faw RE (1996) Radiation shielding. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliff, digitizedversion 200745. Jaeger RG (2007) Engineering compendium on radiation shielding. Springer, Berlin and alsoShapiro J (2002) Radiation protection, 4th edn. Harvard University Press, Cambridge46. Martin MC (2004) On fusion imaging and multimodalities. National symposium, Kansas,Fgeb, 18–2047. Mahn K (2009) Neutrino and antineutrino disappearance in booster neutrino beam line, APSmeeting, Denver, 2–5 May 200948. Giunti C, Kim CW (2007) Neutrino physics and astrophysics. Oxford University Press,Oxford49. Hanna SS, Lavier EC, Miclass C (1954) Beta- alpha correlation in the decay of lithium (Li)8.Phys Rev 95:11050. Ueza Y, Hashimoto T (2003) New aspects of time interval analysis method in the determina-tion of artiﬁcial alpha nuclides. J Rad Ann Nucl Chem 255(1):8751. L’Anunziata MF (2000) Radioactivity introduction and history. Elsevier, New York, p 12052. Kroeninge K, Pandola L, Tretyak V (2007) Feasibility study of the observation of theneutrino accompanied double beta decay of Ge-76. Ukr J Phys 52:103653. Ando S et al (2004) Neutron beta decay in effective ﬁeld theory. Phys Lett B 595(1–4):25054. Gerl J (2005) Gamma ray imaging exploiting the Compton effect. Nucl Phys A 752:688C55. Kemeny AA (2004) Gamma knife radio surgery, vol 148 (4), Acta neurochiorursgica.Springer, New York56. Cunha RM et al (2000) Two media method for gamma ray attenuation coefﬁcient measure-ment of archaeological ceramic samples. Appl Radiat Isot 53(6):101157. Khater AEM, Ebaid YY (2008) A simpliﬁed gamma ray self attenuation correction in bulksamples. Appl Radiat Isot 66(3):40754 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 55. 58. Tsoulfanides N (1981) Measurement and detection of radiation. Hemisphere PublishingCorporation, New York59. (2008) Mosby’s medical dictionary, 8th edn. Elsevier Health Sci. Elsevier, Amsterdam,Netherlands60. Khan FM (2003) The physics of radiation therapy. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, New York61. Shapiro J (2002) Radiation protection. Editorial UPR, p 4762. Kruger RL, McCollough CH, Zink FE (2000) Measurements of HVL in X-ray computedtomography. IEEE Proc Annu Conf Eng Med Biol 1(1):9863. Maria AF, Caldas LVE (2006) A simple method for evaluation of half value layer variation inCT equipment. Phys Med Biol 51:159564. Bomford CK, Kunkler IH, Walter J, Miller H (2003) Text book on radiotherapy. ElsevierHealth Sci, New York, p 15565. Liang L, Rinaldi R, Schober H (eds) (2009) Neutron scattering applications and techniques.Springer, New York66. Evans RD (1955) The atomic nucleus. McGraw Hill, New York, p 41167. Ramstrim E, Goransson PA (1977) Neutron elastic scattering cross section measurements atback angle. Nucl Phys A 284(3):46168. Bodansky D (2004) Nuclear energy principles, practice, and prospects. Springer, New York,p 12369. Banner TW, Slattery JC (1959) Non-elastic scattering cross section for 8-20 MeV neutrons.Phys Rev 113(4):108870. McNaught AD, Wilkinson A (1977) The gold book, 2nd edn. Blackwell Sci. Pub., Oxford71. Tremsin AS, Feller WB, Downing RG, Mildner DF (2005) The efﬁciency of thermal neutrondetection and collimation with microchannel plates of square and circular geometry. IEEETrans Nucl Sci 52(5):173972. Keimer B, Sackmann E, Whiters PJ (2002) The case of neutron sources. Science 298:54273. Park H, Kim J, Choi KO (2007) Neutron calibration facility with radioactive neutron sourcesat KRISS. Rad Prot Dosim 126(1–4):15974. Spratt JP, Aghara S, Fu B, Lichethan JD, Leadon R (2005) A conformal coating for shieldingagainst naturally occurring thermal neutrons. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 52(6):234075. Asano Y, Sugita T, Suzuki T, Hirose H (2005) Comparison of thermal neutron distributionswithin shield materials. Rad Prot Dosim 116(1–4):28476. Sharon S (2007) X-rays, the electromagnetic spectrum. NASA retrieved on 12 Mar 200777. Grupen C, Cowan G, Eidelman SD, Stroh T (2005) Astroparticle physics. Heidelberg,Germany, p 10978. Swinbourne R (2008) The X-ray tube and image intensiﬁer for present day application. AustRadiol 22(3):20479. Drenth J (1999) Principles of protein X-ray crystallography, 2nd edn. Springer, Heidelberg,Chap. 280. Metcafe P, Butson M, Quach K, Bengua G, Hoban P (2002) 22nd annual conference. IEEEEng Bio 4:292881. Butson MJ et al (2008) Measurement of radiotherapy superﬁcial X-ray dose under eye shieldswith radiochromic ﬁlms. Phys Med 24(1):2982. Jain AK, Chen H (2004) Matching of dental X-ray images for human identiﬁcation. PatternRecognit 37:151983. Pretty IA, Sweet D (2001) A look at forensic dentistry. Br Dent J 190(7):35984. Polok M (1995) Ion excited low energy Auger-electron emission from Ti and TiNi. J PhysCond Matt 7:527585. Mariani G, Bodel L, Adelstein SJ, Kassis AI (2000) Emerging roles for radiometabolictherapy of tumors based on Auger electron emission. J Nucl Med 41(9):151986. Choursia AR, Chopra DK (1997) Auger spectroscopy. In: Settle F (ed) Handbook ofinstrument techniques for analytical chemistry. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, Chap. 2References 55
  • 56. 87. Maeo S, Kramer M, Utaka T, Taniguchi K (2009) Development of microfocus spectrometerusing multiple target anode monochromatic X-ray sources. J X-Ray Spectrom 38(4):33388. Michel T et al (2009) Reconstruction of X-ray spectra with the energy sensitive photoncounting detector Medipix. Nuclr Instr Meth A 598(2):51089. Harding G (2005) Radiat Phys Chem 73(2):6990. Houston JD, Davis M, Davis M (2001) Fundamental of ﬂuoroscopy. W.B. Saunders Co.,Philadelphia, PA91. Cusma JT, O’Hara MD (2001) In: Balter S (ed) Interventional ﬂuoroscopy, technology andsafety. Wiley, New York92. Robson KJ (2001) A parametric method for determining mammographic X-ray tube outputand half value layer. Br J Radiol 74:33593. Schriene-Karoussou A (2007) Review of image quality standards to control digital X-raysystems. Radiat Prot Dosim 177(1–3):2394. Haring G, Thran A, David B (2003) Liquid metal anode X-ray tubes and their potential forhigh power operation. Radiat Phys Chem 67(1):795. Mskinley RL, Torani MP, Samei E, Bradshaw ML (2005) Initial study of past quasi-monochromatic X-ray beam performance for X-ray computed mammography. IEEE TransNucl Sci 52(5):124396. Seeram E (2001) Computed tomography: physical principles, clinical applications, andquality control. Saunders, Philadelphia97. Ren B et al (2008) The effect of Tomo-synthesis X-ray Pulse width on Measured BeamQuality. Proceedings of 9th international workshop on digital mammographic breast density,vol 5116, Tucson98. Graham DT, Cloke P (2001) Principles of radiological physics. Churchchill Livingstone,New York, p 28199. Azzam EI, DeToledo SM, Pandey BN, Venkatachalam P (2007) Mechanism underlying theexpression and propagation of low dose/low ﬂuence ionizing radiation. Int J Low Rad 4(1):61100. Pelliccianoni M (2000) Overview of ﬂuence to effective dose and ﬂuence to ambient doseequivalent conversion coefﬁcients for high energy radiation calculated using FLUKA code.Rad Prot Dosim 88:297101. Chen J (2006) Estimated ﬂuence to absorbed dose conversion coefﬁcients for use in radio-logical protection of embryo and foetus against external exposure to photons from 50 keV to10 GeV. Rad Prot Dosim 121(4):358102. Beck R, Latocha M, Dorman L, Pelliccioni M, Rollet S (2007) Measurements and simulationsof radiation exposure to air craft workplaces due to cosmic radiation in the atmosphere. RadProt Dosim 126(1–4):564103. Sihver L, Mancusi D (2008) Improved dose and ﬂuence calculations by using tabulated crosssections in PHITS. IEEE nuclear science symposium, Dresden, 19–25 Oct 2008104. Bozkurt A, Xu XG (2004) Fluence to dose conversion coefﬁcients for monoenergetic photonbeams based on the VIP-man anatomical model. Rad Prot Dosim 112(2):219105. Midgley SM (2005) Measurements of X-ray linear attenuation coefﬁcient for low atomicnumber, materials at energies 32–66 and 140 keV. Radiat Phys Chem 72(4):525106. Eisberg RM (1961) Fundamentals of modern physics. Wiley, New York107. Aichinger H, Dierker J, Barfuk SJ, Sabel M (2004) Radiation exposure and image quality inX-ray diagnostic radiology. Springer, Berlin108. Siebert JA, Boone JM (2005) X-ray imaging physics for nuclear medicine. J Nucl MedTechnol 33(1):3109. Orito R et al (2003) A novel design of the MeV gamma ray imaging detector with microTPC.Nucl Instrum Meth A 513(1–2):408110. Washington CM, Leaver DT, Leaver D (2003) Principles and practice of radiation therapy.Elsevier, London111. Bentel GC (1995) Radiation therapy planning, 2nd edn. McGraw Hill, New York56 1 Nuclear Radiation, Ionization, and Radioactivity
  • 57. 112. Khan FM (2004) Treatment, planning radiation oncology, 2nd edn. Lippincott Williams &Wilkins, New York113. Bushong SC (2008) Radiologic science for technologists: physics, biology, and protection.Mosby, Inc., St. Louis114. Graham DT, Cloke P (2003) Principles of radiological physics, 4th edn. ChurchillLivingstone, Edinburgh115. Sarkar S et al (2007) A Linogram/Sinogram cross-connection method for motion correctionin planar SPECT imaging. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 54(1):71–79116. Beyer T et al (2000) J Nucl Med 41(8):1369117. Nassalski A et al (2007) IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 54(1):3118. Seeram E (2008) Computed tomography: physical principles, clinical applications andquality control. W.B. Saunders Co., Boston119. Bushong SC (1993) X-ray interaction with matter, 5th edn. Mosby Year Book Inc., St. Louis120. Hollins M (2001) Medical physics, 2nd edn. Nelson Thrones, New York121. (2007) 11th mediterrian conference on medical and bioengineering, Ljubljana, Slovenia,26–30 June 2007, Vol.16, Springer Pub. NY122. Elgazzar AH, Silberstein EB (2004) Orthopedic nuclear medicine. Springer, New York123. Iniewski K (2009) Medical imaging principles, detectors and electronics. Wiley, Hoboken124. Kim J, Sung S, Kim J (2006) A study on industrial gamma ray CT with a single sourcedetector pair. Nucl Eng Technol 38(4):383125. Ruddy FH, Dullo AR, Siedal JG, Petrovi B (2009) Separation of alpha emitting radioisotopesactinium 225 and bismuth 213 from thorium 229 using alpha recoil method. Nucl InstrumMeth A B213:351126. IAEA (2009) Cyclotron produced radionuclides: principle and practice, vol 465, Tech-series.IAEA Publications, Vienna, Pergamon Press, London127. Glatstein E (2007) Radiotherapy in practice. In: Hoskid PJ (ed) Radio therapy. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford128. Santesmases MJ (2004) Peace propaganda and biomedical experimentation. J Hist Biol 39(4):765129. Subin YN (2001) Model calculations and evaluation of nuclear data for medical radioisotopesproduction. Radiochimica Acta 89(4–5):317130. Knap FF Jr (2003) New developments with unsealed sources for targeted therapy. Nuclearmedicine program. 41st annual meeting, German Society of Nuclear Medicine Essen,Germany, 2–6 April 2003References 57