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View of Tunis
Top left: Ibn Khaldoun Statue in Habib Bourguiba Avenue, Top middle: Rades La Goulette Bridge, Top right: Tunisia Planetarium Observatories and Science Centers, 2nd left: Al-Zaytuna Mosque, 2nd middle: Tunis Cartage, 2nd right: View of Habib Bourguiba Avenue, 3rd left: Rades Stadium, 3rd middle: View of Tunis and Belvedere Park, 3rd right: Hôtel de Ville Tunis, Bottom left: Bab El Bhar Gate, Bottom middle: Medina Alleys open-air market place, Bottom right: Tunis Municipal Theater
Flag of Tunis
Coat of arms of Tunis
Coat of arms
Tunis is located in Tunisia
Coordinates: 36°48′N 10°11′E﻿ / ﻿36.800°N 10.183°E﻿ / 36.800; 10.183Coordinates: 36°48′N 10°11′E﻿ / ﻿36.800°N 10.183°E﻿ / 36.800; 10.183
Country  Tunisia
Governorate Tunis
 • Mayor Seifallah Lasram
 • City 212.63 km2 (82.10 sq mi)
Population (01-01-2013)[2]
 • City 651 183[1]
 • Density 9,406.01/km2 (24,361.5/sq mi)
 • Metro 2 321 227
Demonym Tunisian
Time zone CET (UTC+1)
Tunis as viewed from space

Tunis (Arabic: تونسTūnis; Amazigh: Tunes, ⵜⵓⵏⴻⵙ) is the capital of Tunisia. It is Tunisia's largest city, with a population of 651,183 as of 2013. The greater metropolitan area holds some 2,300,000 inhabitants.

Situated on a large Mediterranean Sea gulf (the Gulf of Tunis), behind the Lake of Tunis and the port of La Goulette (Halq al Wadi), the city extends along the coastal plain and the hills that surround it. At the centre of more modern development (from the colonial era and later) lies the old medina. Beyond this district lie the suburbs of Carthage, La Marsa, and Sidi Bou Said.

The medina is found at the centre of the city: a dense agglomeration of alleys and covered passages, full of intense scents and colours, boisterous and active trade, and a surfeit of goods on offer ranging from leather to plastic, tin to the finest filigree, tourist souvenirs to the works of tiny crafts shops.

Just through the Sea Gate (also known as the Bab el Bahr and the Porte de France) begins the modern city, or Ville Nouvelle, transversed by the grand Avenue Habib Bourguiba (often referred to by popular press and travel guides as "the Tunisian Champs-Élysées"), where the colonial-era buildings provide a clear contrast to smaller, older structures. As the capital city of the country, Tunis is the focus of Tunisian political and administrative life; it is also the centre of the country's commercial activity. The expansion of the Tunisian economy in recent decades is reflected in the booming development of the outer city where one can see clearly the social challenges brought about by rapid modernization in Tunisia.


Tunis is the transcription of the Arabic name تونس which can be pronounced as "Tūnus", "Tūnas", or "Tūnis". All three variations were mentioned by the Greek-Syrian geographer al-Rumi Yaqout in his Mu'jam al-Bûldan (Dictionary of Countries).

Different explanations exist for the origin of the name Tunis. Some scholars relate it to the Phoenician goddess Tanith ('Tanit or Tanut), as many ancient cities were named after patron deities.[3][4] Some scholars claim that it originated from Tynes, which was mentioned by Diodoros and Polybius in the course of descriptions resembling present-day Al-Kasba; one of Tunis's suburbs.[5][6]

Another possibility is that it was derived from the Berber verbal root ens which means "to lie down" or "to pass the night".[7] Given the variations of the precise meaning over time and space, the term Tunis can possibly mean "camp at night", "camp", or "stop". There are also some mentions in ancient Roman sources of such names of nearby towns as Tuniza (currently El Kala), Thunusuda (currently Sidi Meskine), Thinissut (currently Bir Bouregba), and Thunisa (currently Ras Jebel). As all of these Berber villages were situated on Roman roads, they undoubtedly served as a rest-stations or stops.[8]



Main articles: Carthage and History of Carthage
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Site of Carthage
Name as inscribed on the World Heritage List
Ruines de Carthage.jpg
Type Cultural
Criteria ii, iii, vi
Reference 37
UNESCO region Arab States
Inscription history
Inscription 1979 (3rd Session)

The historical study of Carthage is problematic. Because its culture and records were destroyed by the Romans at the end of the Third Punic War, very few Carthaginian primary historical sources survive. While there are a few ancient translations of Punic texts into Greek and Latin, as well as inscriptions on monuments and buildings discovered in North Africa,[9] the main sources are Greek and Roman historians, including Livy, Polybius, Appian, Cornelius Nepos, Silius Italicus, Plutarch, Dio Cassius, and Herodotus. These writers belonged to peoples in competition, and often in conflict, with Carthage.[10] Greek cities contended with Carthage over Sicily,[11] and the Romans fought three wars against Carthage.[12] Not surprisingly, their accounts of Carthage are extremely hostile; while there are a few Greek authors who took a favourable view, these works have been lost.[13]

Recent excavation has brought much more primary material to light.[citation needed] Some of these finds contradict aspects of the traditional picture of Carthage, and much of the material is still ambiguous.[citation needed]

Early history[edit]

Artifacts from the siege of 149-146
Punic pillars unearthed in Carthage

The existence of the town is attested by sources dating from the 4th century BC.[14] In the 2nd millennium BC a town, originally named Tunes, was founded by Berbers and also over time occupied by Numidians. In 146 BC, the Romans destroyed Tunis (along with Carthage). However, the city was subsequently rebuilt under the rule of Augustus and became an important town under Roman control and the center of a booming agricultural industry. Situated on a hill, Tunis served as an excellent point from which the comings and goings of naval and caravan traffic to and from Carthage could be observed. Tunis was one of the first towns in the region to fall under Carthaginian control, and in the centuries that followed Tunis was mentioned in the military histories associated with Carthage. Thus, during Agathocles' expedition, which landed at Cape Bon in 310 BC, Tunis changed hands on various occasions.[citation needed]

When Agathocles died in 288 BC, a large company of Italian mercenaries who had previously been held in his service found themselves suddenly without employment.[citation needed] Rather than leave Sicily, they seized the city of Messana. Naming themselves Mamertines (or "sons of Mars"), they became a law unto themselves, terrorizing the surrounding countryside.[citation needed]

The Mamertines became a growing threat to Carthage and Syracuse alike. In 265 BC, Hiero II, former general of Pyrrhus and the new tyrant of Syracuse, took action against them.[citation needed] Faced with a vastly superior force, the Mamertines divided into two factions, one advocating surrender to Carthage, the other preferring to seek aid from Rome. As a result, embassies were sent to both cities.[citation needed]

While the Roman Senate debated the best course of action, the Carthaginians eagerly agreed to send a garrison to Messana. A Carthaginian garrison was admitted to the city, and a Carthaginian fleet sailed into the Messanan harbor. However, soon afterwards they began negotiating with Hiero. Alarmed, the Mamertines sent another embassy to Rome asking them to expel the Carthaginians.[citation needed]

Hiero's intervention had placed Carthage's military forces directly across the narrow channel of water that separated Sicily from Italy. Moreover, the presence of the Carthaginian fleet gave them effective control over this channel, the Strait of Messina, and demonstrated a clear and present danger to nearby Rome and her interests. The Roman Senate was unable to decide on a course of action and referred the matter to the people, who voted to intervene.[citation needed]

The Lady of Carthage mosaic, one of the major surviving pieces of Byzantine art in modern Tunisia

The Roman attack on the Carthaginian forces at Messana triggered the first of the Punic Wars. Over the course of the next century, these three major conflicts between Rome and Carthage would determine the course of Western civilization. The wars included a Carthaginian invasion led by Hannibal, which nearly prevented the rise of the Roman Empire.[citation needed] Eventual victory by Rome was a turning point which meant that the civilization of the ancient Mediterranean would pass to the modern world via Southern Europe instead of North Africa.[citation needed]

Shortly after the First Punic War, Carthage faced a major mercenary revolt which changed the internal political landscape of Carthage (bringing the Barcid family to prominence), and affected Carthage's international standing, as Rome used the events of the war to base a claim by which it seized Sardinia and Corsica.

During the Mercenary War, it is possible that Tunis served as a center for the native population of the area,[14] and that its population was mainly composed of peasants, fishermen, and craftsmen. Compared to the ancient ruins of Carthage, the ruins of ancient Tunis are not as large. According to Strabo, it was destroyed by the Romans during the Third Punic War. Both Tunis and Carthage were destroyed; Tunis, however, was rebuilt first.[15] The city is mentioned in the Tabula Peutingeriana as Thuni.[15] In the system of Roman roads for the Roman province of Africa, Tunis had the title of mutatio ("way station, resting place").[15] Tunis, increasingly Romanized, was also eventually Christianized and became the seat of a bishop. However, Tunis remained modestly sized compared to Carthage during this time.[16]

Islamic conquest[edit]

Following the final destruction of Carthage, it was not until the 7th century that Tunis achieved its own importance, under the control of Arab Muslims. The medina of Tunis, the oldest section of the city, dates from this period, during which the region was conquered by Arab troops led by the Ghassanid general Hassan Ibn Numan. The city had the natural advantage of coastal access, via the Mediterranean, to the major ports of southern Europe. Early on, Tunis played a military role; the Arabs recognized the strategic importance of its proximity to the Strait of Sicily. From the beginning of the 8th century Tunis was the chef-lieu of the area: it became the Arabs' naval base in the western Mediterranean Sea, and took on considerable military importance.[16] Under the Aghlabids, the people of Tunis revolted numerous times,[16] but the city profited from economic improvements and quickly became the second most important in the kingdom. It was briefly the national capital, from the end of the reign of Ibrahim II in 902, until 909[17] when the Shi'ite Berbers took over Ifriqiya and founded the Fatimid Caliphate.

Local opposition to the authorities began to intensify in September 945, when the Kharijite insurgents occupied Tunis, resulting in general pillaging.[16][18] With the rise of the Zirid dynasty Tunis gained importance, but the Sunni population tolerated Shi'ite rule less and less, and carried out massacres against the Shi'ite community.[18] In 1048 the Zirid ruler Al-Muizz ibn Badis rejected his city's obedience to the Fatimids and re-established Sunni rites throughout all of Ifriqiya. This decision infuriated the Shi'ite caliph Al-Mustansir Billah. To punish the Zirids, he unleashed the Banu Hilal Arab tribe on Ifriqaya; a large part of the country was put to fire, the Zirid capital Kairouan was razed in 1057, and only a few coastal towns, including Tunis and Mahdia, escaped destruction. Exposed to violence from the hostile tribes that settled around the city, the population of Tunis repudiated the authority of the Zirids and swore allegiance to the Hammadid prince El Nacer ibn Alennas, who was based in Béjaïa, in 1059. The governor appointed by Béjaïa, having reestablished order in the country, did not hesitate to free himself from the Hammadids to found the Khourassanid dynasty with Tunis as its capital. This small independent kingdom picked up the threads of trade and commerce with other nations, and brought the region back to peace and prosperity.

Historic map of Tunis by Piri Reis. The Walters Art Museum.


New capital of Tunisia[edit]

In 1159, the Almohad 'Abd al-Mumin took Tunis, overthrew the last Khourassanid leader and installed a new government in the kasbah of Tunis.[16] The Almohad conquest marked the beginning of the dominance of the city in Tunisia. Having previously played a minor role behind Kairouan and Mahdia, Tunis was promoted to the rank of provincial capital. In 1228, Governor Abu Zakariya seized power and, a year later, took the title of Emir and founded the Hafsid dynasty. The city became the capital of a Hafsid kingdom stretching towards Tripoli and Fez. Walls were built to protect the emerging principal town of the kingdom, surrounding the medina, the kasbah and the new suburbs of Tunis. In 1270 the city was taken briefly by Louis IX of France, who was hoping to convert the Hafsid sovereign to Christianity. King Louis easily captured Carthage, but his army soon fell victim to an outbreak of dysentery. Louis himself died before the walls of the capital and the army was forced out. At the same time, driven by the reconquest of Spain, the first Andalusian Muslims and Jews arrived in Tunis and would become of importance to the economic prosperity of the Hafsid capital and the development of its intellectual life.[16]

Ottoman Empire[edit]

The Ottoman Empire took nominal control of Tunis in 1534 when Barbarossa Hayreddin captured it from the Hafsid Sultan Mulai Hassan, who fled to the court of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain. Charles, suffering losses from the corsairs operating out of Djerba, Tunis, and Algiers, agreed to reinstate Mulai Hassan in exchange for his acceptance of Spanish suzerainty. A naval expedition led by Charles himself was dispatched in 1535, and the city was quickly recaptured. The victory against the corsairs is recorded in a tapestry at the Royal Palace of Madrid. The resulting protectorate lasted until the Ottomans retook Tunis in 1574. After 1591, the Ottoman governors (Beys) were relatively independent, and both piracy and trade continued to flourish.


Entry of Charles V into Tunis in 1535

Confronting the difficulties previously encountered, the Ottoman Uluç Ali Reis, at the head of an army of janissaries and Kabyles, retook Tunis in 1569. However, following the Battle of Lepanto in 1571, the Spanish succeeded in retaking the city and re-establishing the Hafsid sovereign. Following these conflicts, the city finally fell into Ottoman hands in August 1574. Having become an Ottoman province governed by a Pasha who was appointed by the Sultan based in Istanbul, the country was not slow to attain a certain autonomy (1591). Under the rule of deys and Moorish beys, the capital sprang into new life. Its population grew by additions from various ethnicities, among which were Moorish refugees from Spain, and economic activities diversified. To traditional industry and trade with distant lands was added the activity of the Barbary pirates, then in their golden age. Profits obtained from the trade in Christian slaves allowed the rulers to build sumptuous structures that revived the architectural heritage of the Middle Ages.[16]

Mustapha Khaznadar, Prime Minister of Tunis from 1837 to 1873.[19] and one of the most influential persons in modern Tunisian history.[20]

At the beginning of the 18th century, Tunisia entered into a new period in its history with the advent of the Husainid dynasty. Successive Husainid rulers made great progress in developing the city and its buildings. During this period, the city prospered as a centre of commerce. Taking advantage of divisions within the ruling house, Algerians captured Tunis in 1756 and put the country under supervision. At the beginning of the 19th century, Hammouda Bey faced bombardment by the Venetian fleet, and the city experienced a rebellion in 1811.[21] Under the reign of Hussein Bey II, naval defeats by the English (1826) and French (1827) saw the French become increasingly active in the city and in the economy.[22]


Development under the French Occupation[edit]

View of Tunis c. 1890-1900. Zaytuna Mosque is slightly right of center.
Urban evolution between 1890 and 1914

The French occupied the city from 1881 to 1956, having established a protectorate system of administration that recognized the nominal authority of local government. In those years there were huge European colonies (like the Tunisian Italians) in Tunis; half the population was European in origin.[25] The city expanded and created new boulevards and neighborhoods.

The creation of the French protectorate in 1881 was a turning point in Tunis's history, causing rapid redevelopment of the city in the span of two to three decades. The city rapidly spread out of its fortifications: it divided into a traditional Arab-populated old city, and a new city populated by immigrants, with a different structure from that of the traditional medina. Tunis also benefited from French construction of a water supply, natural gas and electricity networks, public transport services and other public infrastructure.


During World War II, Tunis was held by Axis forces from November 1942 to May 1943. It was their last base in Africa, as they escaped to Italy after being surrounded by Allied forces from Algeria in the west and from Libya in the east.[26] On 7 May 1943, at 15:30 in the afternoon, Tunis fell to troops and tanks of British 1st army who had defeated most of the German Fifth Panzer Army left guarding the city. At midday on 20 May 1943, the Allies held a victory parade on Avenue Maréchal Galliéni and Avenue Jules Ferry to signal the end of fighting in North Africa.[27] Having succeeded in driving the Axis powers out of Tunisia, the Allies used Tunis as a base of operations to stage assaults against the island of Pantelleria, then Sicily, and finally Italy.[28]


Growth since independence[edit]





The Palestine Liberation Organization also had its headquarters in Tunis, from 1970s to 2003. In 1985, the PLO's headquarters was bombed by the Israeli Air Force (F-15), killing approximately 60 people.



The city of Tunis is built on a hill slope down to the lake of Tunis. These hills contain the places, Notre-Dame de Tunis, Ras Tabia, La Rabta, La Kasbah, Montfleury and La Manoubia which altitudes beyond just 50 meters.[29] The city is located at the crossroads of a narrow strip of land between Lake Tunis and Séjoumi. The isthmus between them is what geologists call the "Tunis dome", which includes hills of limestone and sediments. It forms a natural bridge and since ancient times several major roads linking to Egypt and elsewhere in Tunisia have branched out from. The roads are also dependent with Carthage, emphasising its political and economic importance not only in Tunisia but in Africa in Roman Times.




Municipality Population (2004) Municipality Population (2004)
Ettadhamen-Mnihla 118,487 La Goulette 28,407
Ariana 97,687 La Manouba 26,666
La Soukra 89,151 Mornag 26,406
El Mourouj 81,986 Djedeida 24,746
La Marsa 77,890 Den Den 24,732
Douar Hicher 75,844 Tebourba 24,175
Ben Arous 74,932 Mégrine 24,031
Mohamedia-Fouchana 74,620 Kalâat el-Andalous 15,313
Le Bardo 70,244 Mornaguia 13,382
Le Kram 58,152 Sidi Thabet 8,909
Raoued 53,911 Sidi Bou Saïd 4,793
Oued Ellil 47,614 El Batan 5,761
Radès 44,857 Borj El Amri 5,556
Hammam Lif 38,401 Total 1,265,060
Carthage 28,407
Sources : National Institute of Statistics[2]


Former Carthaginian port
Tunis bay

Tunis has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification Csa),[30] characterized by a hot and dry season and a cool and rainy season. The local climate is also affected somewhat by the latitude of the city, the moderating influence of the Mediterranean sea and the terrain of the hills.


Climate data for Tunis
Record high °C (°F) 25.2
Average high °C (°F) 16.2
Daily mean °C (°F) 12.0
Average low °C (°F) 8.5
Record low °C (°F) −1.7
Precipitation mm (inches) 59.3
Avg. precipitation days 9 8 8 6 4 2 1 1 4 7 7 8 65
Mean monthly sunshine hours 145.7 165.3 198.4 225.0 282.1 309.0 356.5 328.6 258.0 217.0 174.0 148.8 2,808.4
Source #1: World Meteorological Organization,[33] Hong Kong Observatory for data of avg. precipitation days and sunshine hours[34]
Source #2: NOAA (extremes)[35]



Kasbah Square comprising the finance ministry and the prime ministry of Tunisia

Tunis has been the capital of Tunisia since 1159. Under Articles 43 and 24 of the Constitution of 1959,[36] Tunis and its suburbs host the national institutions: the Presidential Palace, which is known as Carthage Palace, residence of the President of Tunisia, the Chamber of Deputies and the Chamber of Advisors and parliament, the Constitutional Council and the main judicial institutions, the Bardo National Museum and various other government departments and public bodies.



City Hall

The City Council is composed of 60 members including 20 assistants elected by the council after taking office.[37] For the 2005–2010 term, the distribution of seats is as follows: 48 for the Democratic Constitutional Rally (the ruling party at national level), 4 for the Movement of Socialist Democrats, 4 for the Party of Popular Unity, 3 for the Unionist Democratic Union and 1 for the Social Liberal Party.[38]

The City Council meets four times a year but may meet by special request of the mayor. The council's regulatory responsibilities include the municipal budget, building development, and actions to be undertaken under the National Development Plan.[37] It also provides advice on all projects to be implemented by the state, the governorate or a public body.

Unlike other mayors in Tunisia, the mayor of Tunis is appointed by decree of the President of the Republic from among the members of the City Council. Abbes Mohsen is the current Mayor of Tunis, and has been in office since 2000 when he succeeded Mohamed Ali Bouleymane. He was re-elected and confirmed in his post after the municipal elections of 2005.[39]



The 2008 budget adopted by the City Council is structured as follows: 61.61 million dinars for the operation and 32,516 million dinars for investment.[40] It reflects the improved financial situation of the municipality, the year 2007 was a year registering a surplus in resources that allowed the settlement of debts of the municipality and the strengthening of its credibility with respect its suppliers and public and private partners.


Administrative divisions[edit]

Map of the arrondissements of Tunis

The city of Tunis, whose size has increased significantly during the second half of the 20th century, now extends over several governorates in the Tunis Governorate with the surrounding areas extending over parts of the governorates of Ben Arous, Ariana and Manouba.

The municipality of Tunis is divided into 15 municipal districts:[41] These include El Bab Bhar, Bab Souika, Cité El Khadra, Jelloud Jebel El Kabaria, El Menzah, El Ouardia, Ettahrir, Ezzouhour, Hraïria, Medina, El Omrane, El Omrane Higher Séjoumi, Sidi El-Bashir and Sidi Hassine.


Muslims in Tunis attend the mosque in 1899.
A souk shopkeeper
Year Municipality Metropolitan area
1891 114,121
1901 146,276
1911 162,479
1921 171,676 192,994
1926 185,996 210,240
1931 202,405 235,230
1936 219,578 258,113
1946 364,593 449,820
1956 410,000 561,117
1966 468,997 679,603
1975 550,404 873,515
Sources : Paul Sebag, Tunis. Histoire d'une ville, éd. L’Harmattan, 1998
Old man in Tunis

In the years following independence, the population of the metropolitan area continues to grow: the increase of 21.1% from 1956 to 1966 and by 28.5% from 1966 to 1975 (55.6% between 1956 and 1975).[42] This steady growth is accompanied by changes which affect the nature of the settlement of the capital. Decolonization led to the exodus of some minorities whose numbers are dwindling every year. The gaps created by their departure are abundantly filled by Tunisians who are emigrating to Tunis from other parts of the country.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the city of Tunis exceeds 2,000,000 inhabitants. After independence, the Tunisian government implemented a plan to cope with population growth of the city and country, a system of family planning, to attempt to lower the rate of population growth. However, between 1994 and 2004, the population of the governorate of Tunis grew more than 1.03% per annum. It represents, in the 2004 census, 9.9% of the total population of Tunisia.[43] As in the rest of Tunisia, literacy in the region of Tunis has evolved rapidly during the second half of the 20th century and reaches a level slightly higher than the national average. However education is only exceeded by the neighbouring governorate of Ariana which has many institutions of education.



The former headquarters of the Banque Internationale Arabe de Tunisie, now demolished.
TheAfrica Hotel in the heart of the city
Headquarters of Tunis channel


Because of the concentration of political command (headquarters of the central government, presidency, parliament, ministries and central government) and culture (festivals and mainstream media), Tunis is the only nationally ranking metropolis. Tunis is the heartland of the Tunisian economy and is the industrial and economic hub of the country, home to one third of Tunisian companies—including almost all the head offices of companies with more than fifty employees, with the exception of the Compagnie des Phosphates de Gafsa, headquartered in Gafsa—and produces a third of the national gross domestic product.[44] Tunis attracts foreign investors (33% of companies, 26% of investments and 27% of employment), excluding several areas due to economic imbalances. The urban unemployment rate of university graduates is increasing and the illiteracy rate remains high among the elderly (27% of women and 12% of men).[44] The number of people living below the poverty line, falling at the national level, remains higher in urban areas. In addition, unemployment is high in young people aged 18 to 24, with one in three unemployed as compared to one in six at the national level. In Greater Tunis, the proportion of young unemployed is at 35%.[44]


The economic structure of Tunis, as well as that of the country, is overwhelmingly tertiary industry. The city is the largest financial center in the country hosting the headquarters of 65% of financial companies - while the industrial sectors are gradually declining in importance.[44] However the secondary industry is still very represented and Tunis hosts 85% of industrial establishments in the four governorates, with a trend towards the spread of specialized industrial zones in the suburbs.

Primary industry such as agriculture, however, is active in specialized agricultural areas on the suburbs, particularly in the wine and olive oil industries. Indeed, thanks to a generally flat terrain and the two main rivers in Tunisia, the Medjerda to the north and the Milian to the south, soils are fertile.[45] Tunis has several large plains, the most productive are in Ariana and La Soukra (north), the plain of Manouba (west) and the plain of Mornag (south). In addition, groundwater is easily accessible through the drilling of deep wells, providing water for the different agriculture crops. The soils are heavy and contain limestone in the north but are lighter and sandy containing clay in the south.[46] There is much diversification in the municipality of Tunis, with Durum grown in Manouba, Olives and olive oil in Ariana and Mornag, wine (Mornag), and fruit, vegetable and legumes are grown in all regions.[47]

Architecture and landscape[edit]

Urban landscape[edit]

Statue of Ibn Khaldoun in Independence Square
Tunis - Ave. Habib Bourguiba as seen from Carlton Hotel
Finance museum in Money Square (city centre)
Avenue Mohamed V in the financial district
Overview of the city

The Médina, built on a gentle hill slope on the way down to the Tunis Lake, is the historical heart of the city and home to many monuments, including palaces, such as the Dar Ben Abdallah and Dar Hussein, the mausoleum of Tourbet El Bey or many mosques such as Zitouna Mosque. Some of the fortifications have now largely disappeared around it, and it is flanked by the two suburbs of Bab Souika to the north and Bab El Jazira to the south. Located near the Bab Souika, the neighborhood of Halfaouine which gained international attention through the dissemination of the film Halfaouine, l'enfant des terrasses.

But east of the original nucleus, first with the construction of the French Consulate, the modern city was built gradually with the introduction of the French protectorate at the end of the 19th century, on open land between the city and the lake. The axis to the structure of this part of the city is the Avenue Habib Bourguiba, designed to by the French to be a Tunisian form of Champs-Élysées in Paris with its cafes, major hotels, shops and cultural venues. On both sides of the tree lines avenue, north and south, the city was extended in various districts, with the northern end welcoming residential and business districts while the south receives industrial districts and poorer peoples.

North of the Bourguiba Avenue is the district of La Fayette, which is still home to the Great Synagogue of Tunis and the Habib Thameur Gardens, built on the site of the ancient Jewish cemetery which lies outside the walls. South-east, the district of La Petite Sicile (Little Sicily) is adjacent to the old port area and takes its name from its original population of workers from Italy. It is now the subject of a redevelopment project including the construction of the twin towers. North of it, is the long avenue Mohamed V, which leads to the Boulevard of 7 November through the neighborhood of the big banks where there are hotels and Abu Nawas Lake and the headquarters of the ruling party of Tunisia. It leads to the Belvedere area around the place Pasteur. This is where the Belvedere Park lies, the largest in the city and its zoo and the Pasteur Institute founded by Adrien Loir in 1893. By continuing to the north are the most exclusive neighborhoods of Mutuelleville which houses the French Lycée Pierre-Mendès-France, the Sheraton Hotel and some embassies.

Still further north of the Belvedere Park, behind the Boulevard of 7 November are the neighborhoods of El Menzah and El Manar now reaching the peaks of the hills overlooking the north of the town . They support a range of residential and commercial buildings. To the west of the park lies the district of El Omrane which holds the main Muslim cemetery in the capital and the warehouses of public transport. Heading east is the Tunis-Carthage International Airport and the neighborhoods of Borgel, giving his name to the existing Jewish and Christian cemeteries in the capital, and the neighbourhood of Montplaisir. Beyond that, several kilometers north-east, on the road to La Marsa, the Berges du Lac was built on land reclaimed from the north shore of the lake near the airport, which has holds offices of Tunisian and foreign companies, many embassies as well as shops.

Southwest of the Medina, on the crest of the hills across the Isthmus of Tunis, is the Montfleury district then on down to the foothills of Séjoumi, the poor neighborhood of Mellassine. Northwest of the latter, north of the National Route 3 leading to the west, is the city of Ezzouhour (formerly El Kharrouba), which spans more than three kilometers and is divided into five sections. It is still surrounded with farmland and vegetables are grown which supply many of the souks in the region.

The south of Tunis is made up of disadvantaged neighborhoods, especially due to the strong industry in this part of the metropolis. These include Jebel Jelloud, located in the south-east of Tunis, which concentrates on the heavy industry of cement production, the treatment plant of phosphate s, etc. .) .The main cemetery in Tunis, the Djellaz Cemetery dominates this part of town, perched on the slopes of a rocky outcrop.


El Menzeh-El Manar District
Roofs of the medina
Court of Dar Ben Abdallah
Court of Dar Soulaimania, once the boarding lodge of Zeitouna University


  • The Great Mosque (including the Muslim University and library)
  • The Dar-al-Bey, or Bey's Palace, comprises architecture and decoration from many different styles and periods and is believed to stand on the remains of a Roman theatre as well as the 10th-century palace of Ziadib-Allah II al Aghlab.



The northern end supports the football club of Esperance Sportive de Tunis while at the other end is the rival African Club. The Medina also has a social sectorization: with the neighborhood of El Bey Tourbet and the Kasbah district being aristocratic, with a population of judges and politicians, while the streets of Pacha often being military and bourgeois.

Founded in 698 is the Zitouna Mosque and the surrounding area which developed throughout the Middle Ages,[48] dividing Tunis into a main town in two suburbs, in the north (Bab Souika) and the south (Bab El Jazira). The area became the capital of a powerful kingdom during the Hafsid era, and was considered a religious and intellectual home and economic center for the Middle East, Africa and Europe. A great fusion of influences can be seen blending Andalusian styles with eastern influences, and Roman or Byzantine columns, and typical Arab architecture, characterized by the archways. The architectural heritage is also omnipresent in the homes of individuals and small palace officials as well as in the palace of the sovereign of Kasbah. Although some palaces and houses date back to the Middle Ages, a greater number of prestigious houses were built in the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries such as Dar Othman (early 17th century) Dar Ben Abdallah (18th century), Dar Hussein, Dar Cherif and other houses. The main palace beys are those of La Marsa, Bardo and Ksar Said. If we add the mosques and oratories (about 200), the Madrassah (El Bachia, Slimania, El Achouria, Bir El Ahjar, El Nakhla, etc..), The zaouias (Mahrez Sidi Sidi Ali Azouz, Sidi Abdel Kader, etc.) and Tourbet El Fellari, Tourbet Aziza Othman and Tourbet El Bey the number of monuments in Tunis approaches 600. Unlike Algiers, Palermo and Naples, its historical heart has never suffered from major natural disasters or urban radical interventions. The main conflicts and potentially destructive human behavior has been experienced in the city occurred relatively recently following the country's independence which it why it made into a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1979. At the beginning of the 21st century, the Medina is one of the best preserved urban locations in the Arab world.[49]

Furthermore, along the boulevards, the contribution of the architectural period 1850-1950 can be felt in the buildings, such as the government buildings of the nine ministries and the headquarters of the municipality of Tunis.

Other landmarks[edit]

  • The Bardo Museum was originally a 13th-century Hafsid palace, located in the (then) suburbs of Tunis. It contains a major collection of Roman empires and other antiquities of interest from Ancient Greece, Tunisia, and from the Arab period.
  • The ruins of Carthage are nearby, along the coast to the northeast, with many ancient ruins.


Medina Alleys

The souks are a network of covered streets lined with shops and traders and artisans ordered by specialty.[50] Clothing merchants, perfumers, fruit sellers, booksellers and wool merchants have goods at the souks, while fishmongers, blacksmiths and potters tend to be relegated to the periphery of the markets.[50]

Souk En Nhas with items of copper

North of the Zitouna Mosque is the Souk El Attarine, built in the early 18th century. It is known for its essences and perfumes. From this souk, there is a street leading to the Souk Ech-Chaouachya (Chechya). The main company that operates it is one of the oldest in the country and they are generally descendants of Andalusian immigrants expelled from Spain. Attached to El Attarine are two other souks: the first, which runs along the western coast of Zitouna Mosque, is the Souk El Kmach which is noted for its fabrics, and the second, the Souk El Birka, which was built in the 17th century and houses embroiderers and jewelers. Given the valuable items it sells, it is the only souk whose doors are closed and guarded during the night. In the middle there is a square where the former slave market stood until the middle of the 19th century.

Souk El Birka leads to Souk El Leffa, a souk that sells all kinds of carpets, blankets and other weavings, and extends with the Souk Es Sarragine, built in the early 18th century and specializing in leather. At the periphery are the souks Et Trouk, El Blat, El Blaghgia, El Kébabgia, En Nhas (copper), Es Sabbaghine (dyeing) and El Grana that sell clothing and blankets and was occupied by Jewish merchants.

Walls and gates[edit]

Walls and gates of the city in 1888

From the early days of its founding, Tunis has been considered an important military base. The Arab geographer El Yacoubi has written that in the 9th century Tunis was surrounded by a wall of brick and clay except the side of the sea where it was stone.[51] Bab El-Jazeera, perhaps the oldest gate of the south wall, opened onto the southern road. Bab Cartagena gave access to Carthage, important for bringing in construction materials needed for the city. Bab Souika (initially known as Bab El Saqqayin) had a strategic role to keep the roads to Bizerte, Béja and Le Kef. Bab Menara (initially known as Bab El Artha) opened onto the medina and on the suburb of El Haoua. As for El Bab Bhar, it allowed access to some fondouks where Christian merchants lived in Tunis.


Religious buildings[edit]

St. Louis Cathedral on the Byrsa hill at Carthage

As in the rest of Tunisia, a very large majority of the population of Tunis (around 99%) is Sunni Muslim. The capital is home to a large number of mosques in various architectural styles, signs of construction of their respective eras. The main and oldest of them, is the Zitouna Mosque, founded in 698 and built in 732 and is in the heart of the Medina. It was completely rebuilt in 864 and is a prestigious place of worship, and was long an important place of culture and knowledge with the Zitouna University on the premises until the independence of Tunisia. It still hosts the main ceremonies marking the dates on the Muslim calendar and is regularly attended by the president.

The medina contains most of the major mosques in the capital which were built before the advent of the French protectorate. The mosque in the Kasbah, was founded in 1230. Practicing the Hanafi rite since 1584, it is recognisable mainly by the dome as well as its minaret, similar to the Koutoubia in Marrakesh and is the highest in the city.[53] Ksar Mosque, also of the Hanafi rite, is located in front of Dar Hussein (Bab Menara) and was built in the 12th century.[53] The Hammouda Pasha Mosque, built in 1655, is the second mosque built by the Hanafi rite in Tunis.[53] Youssef Dey Mosque operated primarily as public speaking venue before becoming a real mosque in 1631.[53] Sidi Mahrez mosque is the largest mosque Hanafi mosque in terms of area but not the tallest. Built in 1692, it resembles the Ottoman Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul.[53] The Saheb Ettabaâ Mosque, built between 1808 and 1814 was the last mosque built by the Tunis Husseinites before the French occupation.[53]

The presence of modern churches in Tunis are also testimony to the French presence for half a century. Tunis is the seat of the Diocese of Tunis, with the seat located at the Cathedral of St Vincent de Paul, The church was built in 1897 on the site of the old Christian cemetery of Saint-Antoine.[53] This includes a network of Catholic buildings, including the Church of St. Joan of Arc, but also with the Protestant Reformed Church and the Anglican church Saint-Georges.[54]

Greeks used to enjoy an important presence in the city since ancient times. Tunis is the headquarters of the Greek Orthodox Holy Archdiocese of Carthage with jurisdiction over Algeria, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. It belongs to Patriarchate of Alexandria and All Africa and its Cathedral, small school and other buildings are in Central Tunis. In total, there are three Greek Orthodox and two Russian Orthodox parishes in Tunisia. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria also maintains jurisdiction in Tunisia [2]. The small Orthodox community is centred around the Greek Orthodox Church (1862), managed by the Greek Embassy and the Russian Orthodox Church (1957), reflecting the presence in Tunisia of a small colony of white Russian refugees and immigrants.[53]


Parks and greenery[edit]

Belvédère Park dominating the city





Bardo National Museum

Located in an old beylic palace (the palace of the Bey of Tunis since the end of the 18th century), the Bardo National Museum is the most important archaeological museum in the Maghreb, and has one of the richest Roman mosaic collections in the world. Its collections developed rapidly, thanks to numerous archaeological discoveries in the surrounding territory.


The Museum of the National Movement is situated in Dar Maâkal Az-Zaïm, which was the residence of nationalist Habib Bourguiba for the entirety of the fight for independence. After the advent of independence, a museum was built there to relate the details of the national struggle between 1938 and 1952.



Tunis holds some of the most prestigious musical institutions in the country.[citation needed] The group La Rachidia was founded there in 1934 to safeguard Arab music, and in particular to promote Tunisian music. The group is made up of 22 members (both instrument players and choral musicians).[57]

The Musical Troupe of the City of Tunis was created in 1954 by Salah El Mahdi. In 1955 he charged his student Mohamed Saâda to direct the ensemble, which at that time assembled the best artists, and later integrated the ensemble of Radio Tunis.[58] This group contributed to the rise to stardom of numerous Tunisian singers, including Oulaya.


Performing arts[edit]

Tunis Municipal Theatre

Tunis is a center of Tunisian culture. The Théâtre municipal de Tunis, upon creation on 20 November 1902, showcases opera, ballet, symphonic concerts, drama, etc. On the stage of this theater, many performances are regularly given by Tunisian, Arabic and international actors.[59] The National Theatre of Tunisia is an important public enterprise in Tunis,[60] and since 1988 been located in the Khaznadar palace (dating from the middle of the 19th century and situated in the Halfaouine quarter), renamed "Theater Palace." In 1993, it also took possession of the former movie theater Le Paris, with a 350-person seating capacity. During each "cultural season" (from October 1 to 30 June) the theater holds over 80 showings.[60] The Al Hamra theater was the second theater to be opened in Tunis, situated on El Jazira Road. Al Hambra was one of the most famous theaters in the capital during the 1930s and 1940s.[61] After being closed for fifteen years, it was turned into a small theater in 1986, and since 2001 has held the first Arab-African center for theater training and research.[61] One should also note the El Teatro and Étoile du Nord theater groups.


Film producers and cinema have long been present in the city of Tunis. Indeed, the first animated film was shown in Tunis by the Lumiere brothers as early as 1896.[62] The first screenings were held the following year and the first cinema, the Omnia Pathé, opened on October 1908. The first film club opened in Tunis in 1946 and the Globe, in 1965.

In 1990, Ferid Boughedir shot the notable film Halfaouine, l'enfant des terrasses in Halfaouine district. The films The English Patient (1996) and The Last Days of Pompeii (2003) were also shot in studios in Tunis.


The city holds several festivals each year, of which the largest is the Carthage International Festival which takes place in July and August with international attraction. Founded in 1964, much of the festival is held in an old amphitheater of Carthage (with a capacity of 7,500 seats), and hosts the performances of singers, musicians, actors, dancers and films on display on outdoor screens.


Faculty of the Human and Social Sciences

Tunis and its suburbs have many of the major Tunisian universities including the University of Tunis, Tunisia Private University, Zitouna University, the University of Tunis – El Manar, the University of Carthage and the Manouba University. It therefore has the highest concentration of students in Tunisia, with a student population of 75,597 as of 2006.[63]

Bourguiba High School


Among the high schools in the capital, the best-known are the Lycée de la Rue du Pacha (founded 1900), Lycée Bab El Khadhra, Lycée de la Rue de Russie, Lycée Bourguiba (formerly Lycée Carnot de Tunis), and the Lycée Alaoui. Until independence, Sadiki College (founded 1875) and Khaldounia (founded 1896) were also among the most recognized. A legacy of the French presence in the country remains, and the city retains many French schools, the most important being the Lycée Pierre Mendes-France at Mutuelleville.

Students can pursue language studies at small private schools such as Center Sidi Bou Said for Languages (Centre Sidi Bou Said de Langues et d'Informatique)in the picturesque Tunis suburb of Sidi Bou Said, next to the Sidi Bou Said TGM station that specializes in Arabic, offering classes in Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), classical Arabic, Tunisian Arabic and the various dialects of North Africa, the Gulf and the Levant.


National Library of Tunisia

Tunis has some of the most important libraries in Tunisia including the National Library of Tunisia which was first installed in 1924 in the Medina, in a building built in 1810 by Hammouda Bey to serve as barracks for troops and then a jail.[64] Now too small, the library moved to its current location on Boulevard 9 April in 1938. The new building contains a reading room, conference room, laboratories, an exhibition gallery, a block of technical and administrative services, a restaurant, a parking and green space areas.

Housed in a former home of a Hafsid scholar, the library of the Khaldounia was founded in 1896 along with the creation of the educational institution. After independence and following the consolidation of programs of education, the association ceased operations but the library is now linked to the National Library, which provides for its management.[65]



Public transport[edit]

Tunis railway station
Tunis-Marsa expressway
Tunis-Beja motorway


The Tunis area is served by the métro léger (Ar.: المترو الخفيف لمدينة تونس) and TGM (Tunis-Goulette-Marsa), as well as bus services, and is linked to other places in Tunisia by SNCFT, the national railways. The important transport authorities are the Société des Transports de Tunis (STT)[66] and the Ministry of Transport (Airports) [67] The A1 motorway connects Tunis with Sfax to the south, and the A3 with Oued Zarga and Béja to the west, while the A4 is the link with Bizerte.

The city has, as of the beginning of the 21st century, a public transportation system developed under the management of the Société des transports de Tunis (STT). In addition to some 200 bus routes, the first light rail line opened in 1985. The Métro léger de Tunis network has extended gradually since then to reach the suburbs. The capital is also linked to its northern suburbs by the railway line that crosses the lake, dividing the lake into two. In addition, a new mass transit is planned for the Greater Tunis in 2009. This is the RTS (rapid rail network), the local equivalent of the Paris RER, which will carry tens of thousands of travellers from the distant suburbs of Tunis to the centre by using either existing tracks or new tracks yet to be built.[68] It will be divided into lines whose priority will be based on certain criteria such as population density and the lack of coverage for a given area. Among the priorities are the following: Tunis-Borj Cédria (23 km) where modernization and electrification are already planned; Tunis-Mohamedia-Fouchana (19.4 km); Tunis-Manouba-Mnihla (19.2 km); Tunis-Ezzouhour-Sidi Hassine Séjoumi (13.9 km). In addition, the TGM will be integrated into the light-rail network and a new line built around Ayn Zaghouan and Bhar Lazrag (8.4 km). Such an operation would require the upgrading of the docks' TGM stations so that they becone suitable for light rail trains.[68] Among other projects are a line to the city of Ennasr (8.4 km) and the extension of the Tunis-Ettadhamen to Mnihla (1.7 km). For its part, the south light-rail line was extended in November 2008 to El Mourouj with a length of 6.8 kilometres (4.2 miles). The total length of the network will eventually be in the range of 84 km (52 mi).[68]


(Terminal 2)

Tunis is served by the Tunis-Carthage International Airport, located 8 kilometers (5.0 mi) northeast of downtown, which has been operational since 1940 under the name of Tunis El Aouina. The terminal had 4.4 million passengers (35.98% of total airport traffic in the country) in 2006. In 2007 that increased to 6 million passengers with a rise in tourism to the city. After independence, in the 1960s the National Board of Seaports, which supports all ports in the country, modernized the infrastructure of the port of Tunis.[69] In the 21st Century, the port of Tunis underwent further transformation with a marina as part of the redevelopment district of La Petite Sicily. Tunis is the central point in which the main roads and all highways that serve different parts of the country of Tunis originate. This city has a high density rate of traffic because the increase of vehicles is rising at a rate of 7.5% per year.[70] The capital is home to approximately 40% of the cars in Tunisia, with 700,000 cars on average used in the city per day.[70] In this context, major road infrastructure (bridges, interchanges, roads, etc..) were initiated in the late 1990s to decongest the main areas of the capital.[71] The main roads to other Tunisian cities include: Autoroute A1, Tunis-Sfax; Autoroute A3, Tunis-Oued Zarga; and Autoroute A4, Tunis-Bizerte. Also, as part of the major infrastructure project, the city's traffic lights were increased from 5,000 to 7,500. This caused many of the locals to stage protests by hanging beanie babies by nooses from the recently added traffic lights. The protests finally ended when the crowd ran out of beanie babies.


At the beginning of the 20th century a number of sports institutions were established in Tunis, particularly in school and college settings. In 1905 the Muslim Association of Tunisia brought together students from Lycée Alaoui and Sadiki College to organize gymnastics. A regional gymnastics competition was held in Tunis in 1912 with the participation of thousands of French gymnasts. Football made its appearance in the capital on 15 September 1904, followed by the formal creation of the country’s first league, the Racing Club Tunis, on 11 May 1905. It took some time to run properly but soon organized meetings between the teams in schools. The first took place on 9 June 1907, between teams from Lycée Alaoui and Lycée Carnot (1–1).

But football is not the only discipline to emerge. Between 1928 and 1955 the city competed for nine editions of the Grand Prix of Tunis, where notable drivers such as Marcel Lehoux, Achille Varzi, Tazio Nuvolari and Rudolf Caracciola took part. The Grand Prix of Tunis has re-emerged since 2000.[72] The city has also held the Mediterranean Games twice, in 1967 and 2001, and the intertational tennis tournament, the Tunis Open, which is included in the ATP Challenger Series. The 2005 World Championship final for men in team handball was played in Tunis, on 6 February. In total the governorate of Tunis registered 24,095 licences for various clubs in the municipal area in 2007.[73]

Club Stadium Foundation Championships
of Football
of volleyball
of handball
of basketball
Club Africain Stade El Menzah 1920 12 7 8 2
Espérance Sportive de Tunis Stade El Menzah 1919 20 15 24 3
Stade Tunisien Stade Chedli Zouiten 1948 4 0 0 0
Radès Stadium

The Esperance Sportive de Tunis (EST), Club Africain (CA), and Stade Tunisien are the major sports clubs in the city. A symbolic class difference is present between the EST's and the CA's supporters, despite their playing at the same stadium. The EST is supported by the majority of the masses, while the CA, a poorer club, is supported by the others.[74] The first true sports facilities were managed under the French protectorate, as illustrated by the development of the Ksar Said racecourse and construction of the Stade Chedli Zouiten in the neighborhood of Belvedere, which had long been the main stadium in the capital before being supplanted by the Olympic stadium, Stade El Menzah, where EST and CA play their football today. The Olympic stadium and village area was built to accommodate the Mediterranean Games in 1967. A 60,000-seat stadium was also built in Radès for the Mediterranean Games in 2001 at an estimated cost of 170 million dinars, with nearly half of the loans financed by South Korean businessmen. The Olympic village was financed by an investment estimated at 50 million dinars.[75] In 2008, the government announced the start of construction of a large sports complex that will include several sports academies, a 20,000-seat stadium, and a swimming centre. Known as Tunis Sports City, it will expand around the lake of Tunis, on the road to La Marsa.[76]

International relations[edit]

Twin towns and sister cities[edit]

Tunis is twinned with:[77]

See also[edit]


  1. ^ "Estimation de la population par commune au 1er janvier 2013". Ins.nat.tn. Retrieved 2013-12-27. 
  2. ^ a b (French) Census of 2004 information National Institute of Statistics
  8. ^ Paul Sebag, Tunis. Histoire d’une ville, éd. L’Harmattan, 1998, p. 54
  9. ^ Jongeling, K. (2005). "The Neo-Punic Inscriptions and Coin Legends". University of Leiden. Retrieved April 14, 2006. 
  10. ^ Carthage by B. H. Warmington p11
  11. ^ Herodotus, V2. 165–7
  12. ^ Polybius, World History: 1.7–1.60
  13. ^ Warmington, B. H. Carthage, p.11.
  14. ^ a b Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 60
  15. ^ a b c Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 70
  17. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 87
  18. ^ a b Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 88
  19. ^ Morsy, Magali (1984). North Africa, 1800–1900: a survey from the Nile Valley to the Atlantic. Longman. p. 185. ISBN 0-582-78377-1. "Mustafa Khaznadar became Prime Minister in 1837, a position he maintained under three successive beys, more or less continuously until 1873." 
  20. ^ Ziadeh, Nicola A. (1969). Origins of nationalism in Tunisia. Librarie du Liban. p. 11. OCLC 3062278. "Mustafa Khaznadar was of Greek origin (b. 1817), and proved to be one of the most influential persons Tunisia saw in her modern history. He took the interest of his master and the country to heart and did all he could to prevail on Ahmad Bey to see that Tunisia acquired as much as she could" 
  21. ^ Mohamed Sadek Messikh, op. cit., p. 32
  22. ^ Mohamed Sadek Messikh, op. cit., p. 34
  23. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 280
  24. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 261
  26. ^ Rolf, David, The Bloody Road to Tunis: Destruction of the Axis Forces in North Africa, November 1942 – May 1943. London: Greenhill Books, ISBN 978-1-85367-445-7
  27. ^ Atkinson, Rick (2002), An Army at Dawn: The War in North Africa, 1942–1943. New York: Henry Holt, ISBN 978-0-8050-6288-5
  28. ^ Atkinson, Rick (2007), The Day of Battle: The War in Sicily and Italy, 1943–1944. New York: Henry Holt, ISBN 978-0-8050-6289-2
  29. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 18
  30. ^ http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pics/kottek_et_al_2006.gif
  31. ^ (French) Imen Haouari, « Pluies torrentielles sur la capitale », La Presse de Tunisie, 25 septembre 2007
  32. ^ (French) Mongi Gharbi, « Trombes d’eau sur Tunis et certains gouvernorats du pays », La Presse de Tunisie, 14 octobre 2007
  34. ^ "Climatological Information for Tunis, Tunisia". Hong Kong Observatory. 
  35. ^ "TUNIS-CARTHAGE Climate Normals 1961-1990". National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. Retrieved November 6, 2012. 
  36. ^ (French) Constitution de la République tunisienne (Jurisite Tunisie)
  37. ^ a b (French) Conseil municipal (Municipalité de Tunis)
  38. ^ (French) Conseillers élus 2005-2010 (Municipalité de Tunis)
  39. ^ (French) Maire de Tunis (Municipalité de Tunis)
  40. ^ a b (French) Budget de la municipalité de Tunis pour l’année 2008 (Municipalité de Tunis)
  41. ^ (French) Plan d’ensemble (Municipalité de Tunis).
  42. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p. 608
  43. ^ (French) Population, répartition proportionnelle et taux d’accroissement par gouvernorat (Institut national de la statistique)
  44. ^ a b c d (French) Stratégie de développement de la ville de Tunis (Municipalité de Tunis).
  45. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p.13.
  46. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p.40.
  47. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit, pp.41-42.
  48. ^ a b (French) Fiche de présentation de la médina (Association de sauvegarde de la médina de Tunis).
  49. ^ (French) Entretien avec Jamila Binous sur la médina de Tunis (TV5).
  50. ^ a b (French) Promenade de Marie-Ange Nardi et Lotfi Bahri dans les souks de Tunis (TV5)
  51. ^ Mohamed Sadek Messikh, op. cit., p. 41.
  52. ^ Mohamed Sadek Messikh, op. cit., p. 46
  53. ^ a b c d e f g h (French) Lieux de culte (Municipalité de Tunis)
  54. ^ Cette dernière est construite sur ordre du souverain Romdhane Bey en 1696 pour y inhumer la dépouille de sa mère d’origine italienne et de culte protestant. Elle est gérée par l’ambassade du Royaume-Uni à Tunis.
  55. ^ (French) Sami Yassine Turki et Imène Zaâfrane Zhioua, « Analyse de la répartition spatiale et de l’aménagement des espaces verts programmés par les documents d’urbanisme dans le Grand Tunis », Actes du séminaire « Étapes de recherches en paysage », n°8, éd. École nationale supérieure du paysage, Versailles, 2006, p. 24 PDF (355 KB)
  56. ^ Sami Yassine Turki et Imène Zaâfrane Zhioua, op. cit., p. 28
  57. ^ (French) Musique et conservatoires (Municipalité de Tunis)
  58. ^ (French) Musique et conservatoires (Municipalité de Tunis)
  59. ^ (French) Théâtres (Municipalité de Tunis)
  60. ^ a b c (French) Théâtres (Municipalité de Tunis)
  61. ^ a b (French) Théâtres (Municipalité de Tunis)
  62. ^ (French) Filming in Tunisia (CTV Services)
  63. ^ (French) Statistiques officielles (Ministère de l’éducation nationale)
  64. ^ a b (French) Bibliothèques (Municipalité de Tunis)
  65. ^ (French) Bibliothèques (Municipalité de Tunis)
  66. ^ "e-Market place |". Snt.com.tn. 2012-11-13. Retrieved 2013-03-12. 
  67. ^ http://www.oaca.nat.tn/ OACA
  68. ^ a b c Chokri Gharbi, La métamorphose d’une capitale au cœur de la Méditerranée, La Presse de Tunisie
  69. ^ Paul Sebag, op. cit., p.659.
  70. ^ a b (French) « Le grand Tunis en chantier », Webmanagercenter, 1
  71. ^ (French) Chokri Ben Nessir, « Une véritable requalification routière », La Presse de Tunisie.
  72. ^ (French) « Grand Prix historique de Tunis : un rendez-vous magique », Turbo, M6, 23 novembre 2007
  73. ^ (French) Statistiques du sport en Tunisie (Ministère de la jeunesse, des sports et de l’éducation physique)
  74. ^ Franck Moroy, Football et politique. Le derby tunisois Espérance sportive de Tunis - Club Africain, éd. Institut d’études politiques, Aix-en-Provence, 1997
  75. ^ (French) Abdelaziz Barrouhi, Combien ça coûte ? , Jeune Afrique
  76. ^ Modélisation de la future Tunis Sports City (Mosaïque FM)
  77. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Cooperation Internationale" (in French). © 2003-2009 City of Tunis Portal. Retrieved 2009-07-31. [dead link]


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External links[edit]