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Republic of Peru
Flag Coat of arms
"Firm and Happy for the Union"
Anthem: Himno Nacional del Perú  (Spanish)
National Anthem of Peru
National seal:
Gran Sello de la República del Perú.svg
Gran Sello del Estado  (Spanish)
Great Seal of the State
and largest city
12°2.6′S 77°1.7′W﻿ / ﻿12.0433°S 77.0283°W﻿ / -12.0433; -77.0283
Official languagesa Spanish (official) 84.1% Quechua (official) 13% Aymara (official) 1.7% (2007 Census)
Ethnic groups (2013[1])
Demonym Peruvian
Government Unitary presidential constitutional republic
 -  President Ollanta Humala
 -  Prime Minister Ana Jara
Legislature Congress
Independence from the Kingdom of Spain
 -  Declared 28 July 1821 
 -  Consolidated 9 December 1824 
 -  Recognized 2 May 1866 
 -  Total 1,285,216 km2 (20th)
496,225 sq mi
 -  Water (%) 0.41
 -  2014 estimate 30,814,175 (40th)
 -  2007 census 28,220,764
 -  Density 23/km2 (191st)
57/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2014 estimate
 -  Total $376.736 billion[2]
 -  Per capita $11,988[2]
GDP (nominal) 2014 estimate
 -  Total $208.188 billion[2]
 -  Per capita $6,625[2]
Gini (2012) positive decrease 45.3[3]
medium · 35th
HDI (2014) Steady 0.737[4]
high · 82nd
Currency Nuevo sol (PEN)
Time zone PET (UTC−5)
Date format (CE)
Drives on the right
Calling code +51
ISO 3166 code PE
Internet TLD .pe







An alternative history is provided by the contemporary writer Inca Garcilasco de la Vega, son of an Inca princess and a conquistador. He says the name Birú was that of a common Indian happened upon by the crew of a ship on an exploratory mission for governor Pedro Arias de Ávila, and goes on to relate many more instances of misunderstandings due to the lack of a common language.[12]

The Spanish Crown gave the name legal status with the 1529 Capitulación de Toledo, which designated the newly encountered Inca Empire as the province of Peru.[13] Under Spanish rule, the country adopted the denomination Viceroyalty of Peru, which became Republic of Peru after independence.


Main article: History of Peru

Prehistory and Pre-Columbian period

Main article: Ancient Peru
Sculpted Chavin head embedded in one of the walls of the temple of Chavín de Huantar.
A Moche ceramic vessel from the 5th century depicting a man's head

The earliest evidences of human presence in Peruvian territory have been dated to approximately 9,000 BC.[14] Andean societies were based on agriculture, using techniques such as irrigation and terracing; camelid husbandry and fishing were also important. Organization relied on reciprocity and redistribution because these societies had no notion of market or money.[15] The oldest known complex society in Peru, the Norte Chico civilization, flourished along the coast of the Pacific Ocean between 3,000 and 1,800 BC.[16] These early developments were followed by archaeological cultures that developed mostly around the coastal and andean regions throughout Peru. The Cupisnique culture which flourished from around 1000 to 200 BC[17] along what is now Peru's Pacific Coast was an example of early pre-Incan culture. The Chavín culture that developed from 1500 to 300 BC was probably more of a religious than a political phenomenon, with their religious centre in Chavin de Huantar.[18] After the decline of the Chavin culture around the beginning of the Christian millennium, a series of localized and specialized cultures rose and fell, both on the coast and in the highlands, during the next thousand years. On the coast, these included the civilizations of the Paracas, Nazca, Wari, and the more outstanding Chimu and Mochica. The Mochica who reached their apogee in the first millennium AD were renowned for their irrigation system which fertilized their arid terrain, their sophisticated ceramic pottery, their lofty buildings, and clever metalwork. The Chimu were the great city builders of pre-Inca civilization as loose confederation of cities scattered along the coast of northern Peru and southern Ecuador, the Chimu flourished from about 1150 to 1450. Their capital was at Chan Chan outside of modern-day Trujillo. In the highlands, both the Tiahuanaco culture, near Lake Titicaca in both Peru and Bolivia, and the Wari culture, near the present-day city of Ayacucho, developed large urban settlements and wide-ranging state systems between 500 and 1000 AD.[19]

The citadel of Machu Picchu, an iconic symbol of pre-Columbian Peru.


Conquest and Colonial period

The Viceroyalty of Peru in 1818
Main façade of the Cathedral of Lima and the Archbishop's palace

Atahualpa, the last Sapa Inca became emperor when he defeated and executed his older half-brother Huascar in a civil war sparked by the death of their father, Inca Huayna Capac. In December 1532, a party of conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro defeated and captured the Inca Emperor Atahualpa in the Battle of Cajamarca in 1532. The Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire was one of the most important campaigns in the spanish colonization of the Americas. After years of preliminary exploration and military conflicts, it was the first step in a long campaign that took decades of fighting but ended in Spanish victory and colonization of the region known as the Viceroyalty of Peru with Lima as its capital which became known as "The City of Kings". The conquest of the Inca Empire led to spin-off campaigns throughout the viceroyalty as well as expeditions towards the Amazon Basin as in the case of Spanish efforts to quell Amerindian resistance. The last resistance was suppressed when the Spaniards took hold of the last Inca stronghold of Vilcabamba in 1572.

The indigenous population dramatically collapsed due to exploitation, socioeconomic change and epidemic diseases introduced by the Spanish. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo reorganized the country in the 1570s with gold and silver mining as its main economic activity and Amerindian forced labor as its primary workforce.[24] With the discovery of the great silver and Gold lodes at Potosí (present-day Bolivia) and Huancavelica, the viceroyalty flourished as an important provider of mineral resources. Peruvian bullion provided revenue for the Spanish Crown and fueled a complex trade network that extended as far as Europe and the Philippines.[25] Because of lack of available work force, African slaves were added to the labor population. The expansion of a colonial administrative apparatus and bureaucracy paralleled the economic reorganization. With the conquest started the spread of Christianity in South America, most people were forcefully converted to Catholicism taking only a generation to convert the population. They built churches in every city and replaced some of the Inca temples into churches such as the Coricancha in the city of Cusco. The church employed the Inquisition making use of torture to make sure that newly converted Catholics do not stray to other religions or believes. Peruvian Catholicism follows the syncretism found in many Latin American countries, in which religious native rituals have been integrated with Christian celebrations.[26] In this endeavor, the church came to play an important role in the acculturation of the natives, drawing them into the cultural orbit of the Spanish settlers.

By the 18th century, declining silver production and economic diversification greatly diminished royal income.[27] In response, the Crown enacted the Bourbon Reforms, a series of edicts that increased taxes and partitioned the Viceroyalty.[28] The new laws provoked Túpac Amaru II's rebellion and other revolts, all of which were suppressed.[29] As a result of these and other changes, the Spaniards and their creole successors came to monopolize control over the land, seizing many of the best lands abandoned by the massive native depopulation. However, the Spanish did not resist the Portuguese expansion of Brazil across the meridian. The Treaty of Tordesillas was rendered meaningless between 1580 and 1640 while Spain controlled Portugal. The need to ease communication and trade with Spain led to the split of the viceroyalty and the creation of new viceroyalties of New Granada and Rio de la Plata at the expense of the territories that formed the viceroyalty of Peru which reduced the power, prominence and importance of Lima as the viceroyal capital and shifted the lucrative Andean trade to Buenos Aires and Bogotá, while the fall of the mining and textile production accelerated the progressive decay of the Viceroyalty of Peru.



The Battle of Ayacucho was decisive in ensuring Peruvian independence.
Map of the Republic of Peru back in the mid 1820s




San Martín proclaiming the independence of Peru




19th century to present


Between 1932 and 33, Peru was engulfed in the Year-Long War with Colombia over a territorial dispute involving the Amazonas department and its capital Leticia. Later in 1941, Peru became involved in the Ecuadorian-Peruvian War , afterwards the Rio Protocol sought to formalize the boundary between those two countries. Internal struggles after the war were followed by a period of stability under the Civilista Party, which lasted until the onset of the authoritarian regime of Augusto B. Leguía. The Great Depression caused the downfall of Leguía, renewed political turmoil, and the emergence of the American Popular Revolutionary Alliance (APRA).[35] The rivalry between this organization and a coalition of the elite and the military defined Peruvian politics for the following three decades. A final peace treaty in 1929, signed between Peru and Chile called the Treaty of Lima returned Tacna to Peru. In a military coup on 29 October, Gen. Manuel A. Odria became president. Odría's presidency was known as the Ochenio. Momentarily pleasing the oligarchy and all others on the right, but followed a populist course that won him great favor with the poor and lower classes. A thriving economy allowed him to indulge in expensive but crowd-pleasing social policies. At the same time, however, civil rights were severely restricted and corruption was rampant throughout his régime. Odría was succeeded by Manuel Prado Ugarteche. However, widespread allegations of fraud prompted the Peruvian military to depose Prado and install a military junta, led by Ricardo Pérez Godoy. Godoy ran a short transitional government and held new elections in 1963, which were won by Fernando Belaúnde Terry who assumed presidency until 1968. Belaúnde was recognized for his commitment to the democratic process. In 1968, the Armed Forces, led by General Juan Velasco Alvarado, staged a coup against president Fernando Belaunde. Alvarado's regime undertook radical reforms aimed at fostering development, but failed to gain widespread support. In 1975, General Francisco Morales Bermúdez forcefully replaced Velasco, paralyzed reforms, and oversaw the reestablishment of democracy.



On 28 July 2006 former president Alan García became President of Peru after winning the 2006 elections. In May 2008, Peru became member of the Union of South American Nations.

On 5 June 2011, Ollanta Humala was elected President.

Government and politics

Main article: Politics of Peru
Congress sits in the Palacio Legislativo in Lima.


Main article: Government of Peru

Peru is a Presidential representative democratic republic with a multi-party system. Under the current constitution, the President is the head of state and government; he or she is elected for five years and can only seek re-election after standing down for at least one full term and during his term.[37] The President designates the Prime Minister and, with his advice, the rest of the Council of Ministers.[38] Congress is unicameral with 130 members elected for a five-year term.[39] Bills may be proposed by either the executive or the legislative branch; they become law after being passed by Congress and promulgated by the President.[40] The judiciary is nominally independent,[41] though political intervention into judicial matters has been common throughout history and arguably continues today.[42]

The Peruvian government is directly elected, and voting is compulsory for all citizens aged 18 to 70.[43] Congress is currently composed of Gana Perú (47 seats), Fuerza 2011 (37 seats), Alianza Parlamentaria (20 seats), Alianza por el Gran Cambio (12 seats), Solidaridad Nacional (8 seats) and Concertación Parlamentaria (6 seats).[44]

Foreign relations


Peruvian foreign relations have been dominated by border conflicts with neighboring countries, most of which were settled during the 20th century.[45] Recently, Peru disputed its maritime limits with Chile in the Pacific Ocean.[46] Peru is an active member of several regional blocs and one of the founders of the Andean Community of Nations. It is also a participant in international organizations such as the Organization of American States and the United Nations. Javier Pérez de Cuéllar served as UN Secretary General from 1981 to 1991. Former President Fujimori’s tainted re-election to a third term in June 2000 strained Peru's relations with the United States and with many Latin American and European countries, but relations improved with the installation of an interim government in November 2000 and the inauguration of Alejandro Toledo in July 2001 after free and fair elections.

Peru is planning full integration into the Andean Free Trade Area. In addition, Peru is a standing member of APEC and the World Trade Organization, and is an active participant in negotiations toward a Free Trade Area of the Americas (FTAA).

Military & Law Enforcement

Main article: Peruvian Armed Forces

The Peruvian Armed Forces are the military services of Peru, comprising independent Army, Navy and Air Force components. Their primary mission is to safeguard the independence, sovereignty and territorial integrity of the country. As a secondary mission they participate in economic and social development as well as in civil defense tasks.[47] Conscription was abolished in 1999 and replaced by voluntary military service.[48] The armed forces are subordinate to the Ministry of Defense and to the President as Commander-in-Chief.

The National Police of Peru is often classified as a part of the armed forces. Although in fact it has a different organisation and a wholly civil mission, its training and activities over more than two decades as an anti-terrorist force have produced markedly military characteristics, giving it the appearance of a virtual fourth military service with significant land, sea and air capabilities and approximately 140,000 personnel. The Peruvian armed forces report through the Ministry of Defense, while the National Police of Peru, through the Ministry of Interior.


Peru is divided into 25 regions and the province of Lima. Each region has an elected government composed of a president and council that serve four-year terms.[49] These governments plan regional development, execute public investment projects, promote economic activities, and manage public property.[50] The province of Lima is administered by a city council.[51] The goal of devolving power to regional and municipal governments was among others to improve popular participation. NGOs played an important role in the decentralisation process and still influence local politics.[52]



Main article: Geography of Peru



The combination of tropical latitude, mountain ranges, topography variations, and two ocean currents (Humboldt and El Niño) gives Peru a large diversity of climates. The coastal region has moderate temperatures, low precipitations, and high humidity, except for its warmer, wetter northern reaches.[57] In the mountain region, rain is frequent during summer, and temperature and humidity diminish with altitude up to the frozen peaks of the Andes.[58] The Peruvian Amazon is characterized by heavy rainfall and high temperatures, except for its southernmost part, which has cold winters and seasonal rainfall.[59] Because of its varied geography and climate, Peru has a high biodiversity with 21,462 species of plants and animals reported as of 2003, 5,855 of them endemic.[60]


Main article: Economy of Peru

The economy of Peru is classified as upper middle income by the World Bank[61] and is the 39th largest in the world.[62] Peru is, as of 2011, one of the world's fastest-growing economies owing to the economic boom experienced during the 2000s.[63] It has a high Human Development Index of .752 based on 2011 data; Historically, the country's economic performance has been tied to exports, which provide hard currency to finance imports and external debt payments.[64] Although they have provided substantial revenue, self-sustained growth and a more egalitarian distribution of income have proven elusive.[65] According to 2010 data, 31.3% of its total population is poor, including 9.8% that lives in extreme poverty.[66] Inflation in 2012 was the lowest in Latin America at only 1.8%, but increased in 2013 as oil and commodity prices rose; as of 2014 it stands at 2.5%.[67] The unemployment rate has fallen steadily in recent years, and as of 2012 stands at 3.6%.


Despite these results, most reforms were not reversed until the 1990s, when the liberalizing government of Alberto Fujimori ended price controls, protectionism, restrictions on foreign direct investment, and most state ownership of companies.[69] Reforms have permitted sustained economic growth since 1993, except for a slump after the 1997 Asian financial crisis.[70]

Services account for 53% of Peruvian gross domestic product, followed by manufacturing (22.3%), extractive industries (15%), and taxes (9.7%).[71] Recent economic growth has been fueled by macroeconomic stability, improved terms of trade, and rising investment and consumption.[72] Trade is expected to increase further after the implementation of a free trade agreement with the United States signed on 12 April 2006.[73] Peru's main exports are copper, gold, zinc, textiles, and fish meal; its major trade partners are the United States, China, Brazil, and Chile.[74]



Ethnic groups

Peru is a multiethnic nation formed by the combination of different groups over five centuries. Amerindians inhabited Peruvian territory for several millennia before Spanish Conquest in the 16th century; infectious diseases, famine, war and exploitation decreased their population from an estimated 9 million in the 1520s to around 600,000 in 1620.[75] Spaniards and Africans arrived in large numbers under colonial rule, mixing widely with each other and with indigenous peoples. After independence, there has been gradual immigration from England, France, Germany, Italy, and Spain.[76] Chinese arrived in the 1850s as a replacement for slave workers and have since become a major influence in Peruvian society.[77]


With about 29.5 million inhabitants, Peru is the fifth most populous country in South America.[78] Its demographic growth rate declined from 2.6% to 1.6% between 1950 and 2000; population is expected to reach approximately 42 million in 2050.[79] As of 2007, 75.9% lived in urban areas and 24.1% in rural areas.[80] Major cities include Lima (home to over 8 million people), Arequipa, Trujillo, Chiclayo, Piura, Iquitos, Cusco, Chimbote, and Huancayo; all reported more than 250,000 inhabitants in the 2007 census.[81] There are 15 uncontacted Amerindian tribes in Peru.[82]


Main article: Languages of Peru

According to the Peruvian Constitution of 1993, Peru's official languages are Spanish and, Amerindian languages such as Quechua, Aymara and other such indigenous languages in areas where they predominate. The language percentage of the country is Spanish, spoken by 84.1% of the population, Quechua-13%, and other languages while other languages make up 2.9% of the languages in the country.[62]

Spanish is used by the government and is the mainstream language of the country which is used by the media and in educational systems and commerce. Amerindians who live in the Andean highlands speak Quechua and Aymara and are ethnically distinct from the diverse indigenous groups who live on the eastern side of the Andes and in the tropical lowlands adjacent to the Amazon basin. Peru's distinct geographical regions are mirrored in a language divide between the coast where Spanish is more predominant over the Amerindian languages, and the more diverse traditional Andean cultures of the mountains and highlands. The indigenous populations east of the Andes speak various languages and dialects. Some of these groups still adhere to traditional indigenous languages, while others have been almost completely assimilated into the Spanish language. There has been an increasing and organized effort to teach Quechua in public schools in the areas where Quechua is spoken. In the Peruvian amazon, various indigenous languages are also spoken such as Asháninka, Bora, Aguaruna and many more.[83]


Main article: Religion in Peru

In the 2007 census, 81.3% of the population over 12 years old described themselves as Catholic, 12.5% as Evangelical, 3.3% as of other denominations such as Protestantism, Judaism, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), and Jehovah's Witness, and 2.9% as non-religious.[84] Literacy was estimated at 92.9% in 2007; this rate is lower in rural areas (80.3%) than in urban areas (96.3%).[85] Primary and secondary education are compulsory and free in public schools.[62][86]

Amerindian religious traditions also play a major role in the beliefs of Peruvians. Catholic festivities like Corpus Christi or holy week and Christmas sometimes blend with Amerindian traditions which show the unification of the indigenous peoples' impression with the Christian faith. Amerindian festivities which were celebrated since pre-Columbian times are also widespread throughout the nation. Inti Raymi, which is an old Inca festival, is still celebrated.

The majority of towns, cities and villages have its own official cathedral or church and patron saint.


Main article: Culture of Peru
Anonymous Cuzco School painting, 18th century

Peruvian culture is primarily rooted in Amerindian and Spanish traditions,[87] though it has also been influenced by various Asian, African, and other European ethnic groups. Peruvian artistic traditions date back to the elaborate pottery, textiles, jewelry, and sculpture of Pre-Inca cultures. The Incas maintained these crafts and made architectural achievements including the construction of Machu Picchu. Baroque dominated colonial art, though modified by native traditions.[88]

During this period, most art focused on religious subjects; the numerous churches of the era and the paintings of the Cuzco School are representative.[89] Arts stagnated after independence until the emergence of Indigenismo in the early 20th century.[90] Since the 1950s, Peruvian art has been eclectic and shaped by both foreign and local art currents.[91]

Peruvian literature is rooted in the oral traditions of pre-Columbian civilizations. Spaniards introduced writing in the 16th century; colonial literary expression included chronicles and religious literature. After independence, Costumbrism and Romanticism became the most common literary genres, as exemplified in the works of Ricardo Palma.[92] The early 20th century's Indigenismo movement was led by such writers as Ciro Alegría[93] and José María Arguedas.[94] César Vallejo wrote modernist and often politically engaged verse. Modern Peruvian literature is recognized thanks to authors such as Nobel laureate Mario Vargas Llosa, a leading member of the Latin American Boom.[95]

Ceviche is a popular lime marinated seafood dish which originated in Peru

Peruvian cuisine blends Amerindian and Spanish food with strong influences from Chinese, African, Arab, Italian, and Japanese cooking.[96] Common dishes include anticuchos, ceviche, and pachamanca. Peru's varied climate allows the growth of diverse plants and animals good for cooking.[97] Peru's diversity of ingredients and cooking techniques is receiving worldwide acclaim.[98]

Peruvian music has Andean, Spanish, and African roots.[99] In pre-Hispanic times, musical expressions varied widely in each region; the quena and the tinya were two common instruments.[100] Spaniards introduced new instruments, such as the guitar and the harp, which led to the development of crossbred instruments like the charango.[101] African contributions to Peruvian music include its rhythms and the cajón, a percussion instrument.[102] Peruvian folk dances include marinera, tondero, zamacueca, diablada and huayno.[103]

See also


  5. ^ Quechua name used by government of Peru is Perú (see Quechua-language version of Peru Parliament website and Quechua-language version of Peru Constitution [1]), but common Quechua name is Piruw
  11. ^ (Spanish) El nombre del Perú [2]
  13. ^ Raúl Porras Barrenechea, El nombre del Perú, p. 87.
  16. ^ Haas, Jonathan, Creamer, Winifred and Ruiz, Alvaro (2004). "Dating the Late Archaic occupation of the Norte Chico region in Peru". Nature 432: 1020–1023. doi:10.1038/nature03146. PMID 15616561. 
  17. ^ [3]
  18. ^ UNESCO Chavin (Archaeological Site). Retrieved 27 July 2014
  19. ^ Peru Pre-Inca Cultures. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  21. ^ Peru The Incas
  22. ^ The Inca – All Empires
  23. ^ "The Inca." at the Wayback Machine (archived 10 November 2009) The National Foreign Language Center at the University of Maryland. 29 May 2007. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  26. ^ a b Conquest and Colony of Peru.[4]. Retrieved 28 July 2014
  30. ^ Peru Peru. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  31. ^ Gootenberg (1991) p. 12.
  33. ^ Gootenberg (1993) pp. 5–6.
  34. ^ Gootenberg (1993) p. 9.
  35. ^ Klarén, pp. 262–276.
  36. ^ The Economist, Peru. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  37. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 112.
  38. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 122.
  39. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 90.
  40. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 107–108.
  41. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Articles N° 146.
  42. ^ Clark, Jeffrey. Building on quicksand. Retrieved 24 July 2007.
  43. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 31.
  53. ^ Andes Handbook, Huascarán. 2 June 2002.
  62. ^ a b c Peru. CIA, The World Factbook
  63. ^ BBC, Peru country profile. Retrieved on 1 October 2011.
  64. ^ Thorp, p. 4.
  65. ^ Thorp, p. 321.
  67. ^ "Peru and the IMF". International Monetary Fund. 
  68. ^ Thorp, pp. 318–319.
  82. ^ "Isolated Peru tribe threatened by outsiders". 31 January 2012
  83. ^ (Spanish) – Aboriginal languages of Peru
  86. ^ Constitución Política del Perú, Article N° 17.
  88. ^ Bailey, pp. 72–74.
  89. ^ Bailey, p. 263.
  96. ^ Custer, pp. 17–22.
  97. ^ Custer, pp. 25–38.
  98. ^ Embassy of Peru in the United States, The Peruvian
  99. ^ Romero, Raúl "Andean Peru", p. 385–386.


  • Constitución Política del Perú. 29 December 1993.
  • Ley N° 27178, Ley del Servicio Militar Nuvola-inspired File Icons for MediaWiki-fileicon-doc.pngDOC. 28 September 1999.

Further reading


External links