HF Communication

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					                     First Printing, May 1996
                     Copyright © 1996

  RADIO              By Harris Corporation
                     All rights reserved

IN THE DIGITAL AGE   Harris Corporation, RF Communications Division
                     Radio Communications in the Digital Age
                     Volume One: HF Technology

 VOLUME ONE :        Printed in USA
                     5/96 MG 25K
 HF TECHNOLOGY       B1006
                     © Harris Corporation

                          All Harris RF Communications products and systems included herein
                                        are trademarks of the Harris Corporation.

INTRODUCTION                    1    CHAPTER 7 SECURING
                                               COMMUNICATIONS                          61
                                               APPLICATIONS                            67
          HF PROPAGATION        17   CHAPTER 9 FUTURE DIRECTIONS                       83

CHAPTER 3 ELEMENTS IN AN HF          APPENDIX A STANDARDS                              86
          RADIO SYSTEM          28
                                     APPENDIX B GLOSSARY                               88
          INTERFERENCE          42   FURTHER READING                               101

          VIA HF RADIO       47

CHAPTER 6 ADAPTIVE RADIO             Note: Throughout this handbook, technical terms
          TECHNOLOGY            56         and acronyms shown in italics are defined
                                           in the Glossary, Appendix B.
                                                                     1901 in Newfoundland, Canada, he detected a telegraphic signal
                                                                     transmitted from Cornwall, England, 3,000 kilometers away. For
                                                                     an antenna, he used a wire 120 meters long, held aloft by a

INTRODUCTION                                                         simple kite.

                                                                       Marconi’s success stimulated an intensive effort to explain
                                                                     and exploit his discovery. The question of how radio waves could

                                                                     be received around the surface of the earth was eventually
                                                                     answered by Edward Appleton. It was this British physicist who
      here was a time when radio communication was one of            discovered that a blanket of electrically charged, or “ionized,”
      a few methods for instant communication across distances.      particles in the earth’s atmosphere (the ionosphere) were
We’ve all seen black-and-white wartime film clips of radio opera-    capable of reflecting radio waves. By the 1920s, scientists had
tors sending Morse code using bulky radio equipment. After           applied this theory and developed ways to measure and predict
World War II, the communications industry turned its attention       the refractive properties of the ionosphere.
to other technologies, leading to a period of slow growth in high-
frequency (HF) radio communications during the 1960s and 1970s.      Growth
However, HF, also known as short wave, is now undergoing an             In time, the characteristics of HF radio propagation became
exciting revival propelled by an infusion of new technology.         better understood. Operators learned, for example, that usable
                                                                     frequencies varied considerably with time of day and season.
  Modern radio technology had its birth with the publication           HF technology developed quickly. By World War II, HF radio
of James Clerk Maxwell’s Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism       was the primary means of long-haul communications for military
in 1873, setting forth the basic theory of electromagnetic wave      commanders because it provided communications with land, sea,
propagation.                                                         and air forces.

  But the first radio waves were actually detected 15 years later.      In the hands of a skilled operator, armed with years of experi-
In 1888, Heinrich Rudolph Hertz (the scientist for whom the unit     ence and an understanding of the propagating effects of the
of frequency is named) demonstrated that disturbances gener-         ionosphere, HF radio was routinely providing reliable, effective
ated by a spark coil showed the characteristics of Maxwell’s radio   links over many thousands of miles. Today, HF radio plays an
waves. His work inspired Guglielmo Marconi’s early experiments       important role in allowing emerging nations to establish a
with wireless telegraphy using Morse code. By 1896, Marconi          national communications system quickly and inexpensively.
had communicated messages over distances of a few kilometers.
  It was thought at the time that radio waves in the atmosphere        The advent of long-range communications by satellite in
traveled in straight lines and that they therefore would not be      the 1960s initiated a period of declining interest in HF radio.
useful for over-the-horizon communication. That opinion did not      Satellites carried more channels and could handle data
discourage Marconi, however, who became the first to demon-          transmission at higher speeds. Additionally, satellite links
strate the transmission of radio waves over long distances. In       seemed to eliminate the need for highly trained operators.

                                1                                                                     2
  As long-range communications traffic migrated to satellites,
HF was often relegated to a backup role. The result was user
preference for wider bandwidth methods of communication,
such as satellites, resulting in declining proficiency in HF as the
number of experienced radio operators decreased.                       PRINCIPLES OF RADIO
  It became clear over time, however, that satellites (for all their
advantages) had significant limitations. Military users became         COMMUNICATIONS
increasingly concerned about the vulnerability of satellites to
jamming and physical damage, and questioned the wisdom of
depending exclusively on them. Moreover, satellites and their
supporting infrastructure are expensive to build and maintain.

                                                                        D     eveloping an understanding of radio communications
                                                                              begins with the comprehension of basic electromagnetic
  In the last decade, we’ve seen a resurgence in HF radio.
Research and development activity has intensified, and a new             Radio waves belong to the electromagnetic radiation family,
generation of automated HF equipment has appeared. These               which includes x-ray, ultraviolet, and visible light — forms of
systems provide dramatic improvements in link reliability and          energy we use every day. Much like the gentle waves that form
connectivity, while eliminating the tedious manual operating           when a stone is tossed into a still lake, radio signals radiate
procedures required to use older generation equipment. Today’s         outward, or propagate, from a transmitting antenna. However,
adaptive HF radios are as easy to use as wireless telephones.          unlike water waves, radio waves propagate at the speed of light.

  Nonetheless, the perception that HF radio is an inherently              We characterize a radio wave in terms of its amplitude,
difficult medium continues to linger. This perception continues        frequency, and wavelength (Figure 1-1).
only because some communicators remember how HF used to be.
                                                                         Radio wave amplitude, or strength, can be visualized as its height
   As your interest in this book shows, however, HF is again           — the distance between its peak and its lowest point. Amplitude,
being recognized as a robust and highly competitive medium             which is measured in volts, is usually expressed by engineers in
for long-haul communications, offering myriad capabilities.            terms of an average value called root-mean-square, or RMS.
In this introduction to HF radio communications, we present infor-
mation that will help you understand modern HF radio technology.          The frequency of a radio wave is the number of repetitions or
We’ll cover the principles of HF radio, talk about specific applica-   cycles it completes in a given period of time. Frequency is
tions, and then, consider the future of HF radio communication.        measured in hertz (Hz); one hertz equals one cycle per second.
                                                                       Thousands of hertz are expressed as kilohertz (kHz), and millions
                                                                       of hertz as megahertz (MHz). You would typically see a frequency
                                                                       of 2,182,000 hertz, for example, written as 2,182 kHz or 2.182 MHz.

                                  3                                                                     4
                                                                                                                          Radio wavelength is the distance between crests of a wave.
                                                                                                                        The product of wavelength and frequency is a constant that is

                                            FREQUENCY = NUMBER OF CYCLES PER SECOND (Hz)
                                                                                                                        equal to the speed of propagation. Thus, as the frequency
                                                                                                                        increases, wavelength decreases, and vice versa.

                                                                                                                          Since radio waves propagate at the speed of light (300 million
                                                                                                                        meters per second), you can easily determine the wavelength
                                                                                                                        in meters for any frequency by dividing 300 by the frequency in
                                                                                                                        megahertz. So, the wavelength of a 10-MHz wave is 30 meters,
                                                                                                                        determined by dividing 300 by 10.

                                                                                                                        The Radio Frequency Spectrum

                                                                                                                           In the radio frequency spectrum (Figure 1-2), the usable
          TH (

                                                                                                                        frequency range for radio waves extends from about 20 kHz


                                                                                                                        (just above sound waves) to above 30,000 MHz. A wavelength

                                                                                                                        at 20 kHz is 15 kilometers long. At 30,000 MHz, the wavelength

                                                                                                                        is only 1 centimeter.

                                                                                                                          The HF band is defined as the frequency range of 3 to 30 MHz.

                                                                                           Properties of a Radio Wave
                                                                                                                        In practice, most HF radios use the spectrum from 1.6 to 30 MHz.
                                                                                                                        Most long-haul communications in this band take place between
                                                                                                                        4 and 18 MHz. Higher frequencies (18 to 30 MHz) may also be
                                                                                                                        available from time to time, depending on ionospheric conditions
                                                                                                                        and the time of day (see Chapter 2).

                                                                                                                          In the early days of radio, HF frequencies were called short
                                                                                                                        wave because their wavelengths (10 to 100 meters) were
                                                                                                                        shorter than those of commercial broadcast stations. The
                                                                                                                        term is still applied to long-distance radio communications.

                                                                                                                        Frequency Allocations and Modulation

                                                                                                                           Within the HF spectrum, groups of frequencies are allocated
                                                                                                                        to specific radio services — aviation, maritime, military,
                                                                                           Figure 1-1.

                                                                                                                        government, broadcast, or amateur (Figure 1-3). Frequencies are
                                                                                                                        further regulated according to transmission type: emergency,
                                                                                                                        broadcast, voice, Morse code, facsimile, and data. Frequency
                                                                                                                        allocations are governed by international treaty and national
                                                                                                                        licensing authorities.

                 5                                                                                                                                      6
    WAVELENGTH        1000 m                          100 m               10 m                                                  1m                0.3 m 0.1 m                0.01 m

    FREQUENCY         300 kHz 550 kHz 1650 kHz        3 MHz               30 MHz          88 MHz          108 MHz           300 MHz               1 GHz 3 GHz                30 GHz

            VLF, LF                    MF                            HF                             VHF                                 UHF                      SHF

                                       AM                                          LOW              FM                HIGH
                                      BAND                                         BAND            BAND               BAND

                               Amateur                     Amateur             TV Ch. 1-6                          TV Ch. 7-13        TV Ch. 14-83          Military Radar
                               Ship to Shore               Ship to Shore       Land Mobile                         Amateur            Land Mobile           Police Radar
                               Cordless Telephones         Int'l Broadcast     Cordless Phones                     Aircraft           Trunked Phones        Long Distance
                                                           CB                                                      Land Mobile        Cellular Phones       Phones
                                                                                                                   Marine                                   Satellite

                                       RADIO FREQUENCY SPECTRUM

              AUDIO                                                                                          LIGHT                       X-RAYS
                                 VLF   LF     MF      HF      VHF             MICROWAVES      INFRARED      VISIBLE   ULTRAVIOLET                       GAMMA RAYS

    10 0         10 2    10 3 10 4             10 6           10 8     10 9 10 10          10 12          10 14            10 16       10 18        10 20        10 22         10 24
    1 Hz                1 kHz                1 MHz                    1 GHz               1 THz                   1 PHz               1 EHz

                        (Kilo)               (Mega)                  (Giga)               (Tera)                  (Peta)               (Exa)

                                                                                    FREQUENCY - Hz

    Figure 1-2.                  Radio Frequency Spectrum







                                  2                    6                      10                   14                      18              22                   26               30

                                                                                                                                   Frequency in MHz

    Figure 1-3.                  HF Radio Spectrum Allocations
   The allocation of a frequency is just the beginning of radio
communications. By itself, a radio wave conveys no information.
It’s simply a rhythmic stream of continuous waves (CW).
                                                                                              MODULATING SIGNAL
  When we modulate radio waves to carry information, we
refer to them as carriers. To convey information, a carrier must be
varied so that its properties — its amplitude, frequency, or phase
(the measurement of a complete wave cycle) — are changed, or
modulated, by the information signal.

  The simplest method of modulating a carrier is by turning it on
and off by means of a telegraph key. On-off keying , using Morse
code, was the only method of conveying wireless messages in the
early days of radio.

   Today’s common methods for radio communications include                                          UNMODULATED
amplitude modulation (AM), which varies the strength of the                                           CARRIER
carrier in direct proportion to changes in the intensity of a source
such as the human voice (Figure 1-4a). In other words, informa-
tion is contained in amplitude variations.

  The AM process creates a carrier and a pair of duplicate
sidebands — nearby frequencies above and below the carrier
(Figure 1-4b). AM is a relatively inefficient form of modulation,
since the carrier must be continually generated. The majority of
the power in an AM signal is consumed by the carrier that
carries no information, with the rest going to the information-
carrying sidebands.

   In a more efficient technique, single sideband (SSB), the
carrier and one of the sidebands are suppressed (Figure 1-4c).
Only the remaining sideband, upper (USB) or lower (LSB), is
transmitted. An SSB signal needs only half the bandwidth of
an AM signal and is produced only when a modulating signal
is present. Thus, SSB systems are more efficient both in the use                             TIME
of the spectrum, which must accommodate many users, and of
transmitter power. All the transmitted power goes into the
                                                                       Figure 1-4a. Amplitude Modulation
information-carrying sideband.

                                 9                                                          10

                    LOWER                         SIDEBAND

     Figure 1-4b. Amplitude Modulation

                               CARRIER AND        UPPER
                                 LOWER            SIDEBAND


     Figure 1-4c.   Single Sideband
  One variation on this scheme, often used by military and
commercial communicators, is amplitude modulation equivalent
(AME), in which a carrier at a reduced level is transmitted with
the sideband. AME lets one use a relatively simple receiver to
detect the signal. Another important variation is independent
sideband (ISB), in which both an upper and lower sideband,
each carrying different information, are transmitted. This way,
for example, one sideband can carry a data signal and the other
can carry a voice signal.

  Frequency modulation (FM) is a technique in which the
carrier’s frequency varies in response to changes in the modu-
lating signal. For a variety of technical reasons, conventional FM                                      SKY WAVE
generally produces a cleaner signal than AM, but uses much
more bandwidth than AM. Narrowband FM, which is some-
times used in HF radio, provides an improvement in bandwidth
utilization, but only at the cost of signal quality.

  Other schemes support the transmission of data over HF                                             REFRACTED WAVE
channels, including shifting the frequency or phase of the
signal. We will cover these techniques in Chapter 5.

Radio Wave Propagation

                                                                        TRANSMITTING ANTENNA
   Propagation describes how radio signals radiate outward from

                                                                                                                              RECEIVING ANTENNA
a transmitting source. The action is simple to imagine for radio                                      DIRECT WAVE
waves that travel in a straight line (picture that stone tossed into
the still lake). The true path radio waves take, however, is often                                   SURFACE WAVE
more complex.
                                                                                               GRO                        E
  There are two basic modes of propagation: ground waves                                          UND
                                                                                                        REFL       D   WAV
and sky waves. As their names imply, ground waves travel                                                       ECTE
along the surface of the earth, while sky waves “bounce” back
to earth. Figure 1-5 shows the different propagation paths for HF
radio waves.

  Ground waves consist of three components: surface waves,
                                                                       Figure 1-5.             Propagation Paths
direct waves, and ground-reflected waves.

                                 13                                                                        14
  Surface waves travel along the surface of the earth, reaching        SUMMARY
beyond the horizon. Eventually, surface wave energy is absorbed        • Radio signals propagate from a transmitting antenna as waves
by the earth. The effective range of surface waves is largely deter-     through space at the speed of light.
mined by the frequency and conductivity of the surface over
which the waves travel. Absorption increases with frequency.           • Radio frequency is expressed in terms of hertz (cycles per
                                                                         second), kilohertz (thousands of hertz), or megahertz (millions
  Transmitted radio signals, which use a carrier traveling as a          of hertz).
surface wave, are dependent on transmitter power, receiver
sensitivity, antenna characteristics, and the type of path traveled.   • Frequency determines the length of a radio wave; lower
For a given complement of equipment, the range may extend from           frequencies have longer wavelengths and higher frequencies
200 to 250 miles over a conductive, all-sea-water path. Over arid,       have shorter wavelengths.
rocky, non-conductive terrain, however, the range may drop to
less than 20 miles, even with the same equipment.                      • Long-range radio communications take place in the high-
                                                                         frequency (HF) range of 1.6 to 30 MHz. Different portions of
  Direct waves travel in a straight line, becoming weaker as             this band are allocated to specific radio services under interna-
distance increases. They may be bent, or refracted, by the               tional agreement.
atmosphere, which extends their useful range slightly beyond
the horizon. Transmitting and receiving antennas must be               • Modulation is the process whereby the phase, amplitude, or
able to “see” each other for communications to take place, so            frequency of a carrier signal is modified to convey intelligence.
antenna height is critical in determining range. Because of this,
direct waves are sometimes known as line-of-sight (LOS) waves.         • HF radio waves can propagate as sky waves, which are
                                                                         refracted from the earth’s ionosphere, permitting communica-
  Ground-reflected waves are the portion of the propagated               tions over long distances.
wave that is reflected from the surface of the earth between
the transmitter and receiver.

   Sky waves make beyond line-of-sight (BLOS) communications
possible. At certain frequencies, radio waves are refracted (or
bent), returning to earth hundreds or thousands of miles away.
Depending on frequency, time of day, and atmospheric conditions,
a signal can bounce several times before reaching a receiver.

  Using sky waves can be tricky, since the ionosphere is
constantly changing. In the next chapter, we’ll discuss sky
waves in greater detail.

                                15                                                                     16

2                                                                            The angle at which sky waves enter the ionosphere is known
                                                                           as the incident angle (Figure 2-1). This is determined by wave-
                                                                           length and the type of transmitting antenna. Like a billiard ball
    THE IONOSPHERE                                                         the same angle it hits it. Thus, the incident angle is an important
                                                                           factor in determining communications range. If you need to
    AND HF RADIO                                                           reach a station that is relatively far from you, you would want the
                                                                           incident angle to be relatively large. To communicate with a
                                                                           nearby station, the incident angle should be relatively small.
                                                                             The incident angle of a radio wave is critical, because if it is too
                                                                           nearly vertical, it will pass through the ionosphere without being

     T     o understand sky wave propagation, you need to consider
           the effects of the ionosphere and solar activity on HF radio
                                                                           absorbed by the lower layers before reaching the more densely
                                                                           ionized upper layers. So, incident angle must be sufficient for
                                                                           bringing the radio wave back to earth yet not so great that it will
    propagation. You must also be familiar with the techniques used        lead to absorption.
    to predict propagation and select the best frequencies for a partic-
    ular link at a given time. Let’s start with some definitions.          Layers of the Ionosphere
                                                                              Within the ionosphere, there are four layers of varying ioniza-
    The Ionosphere, Nature’s Satellite                                     tion (Figure 2-2). Since ionization is caused by solar radiation,
      The ionosphere is a region of electrically charged particles or      the higher layers of the ionosphere tend to be more dense, while
    gases in the earth’s atmosphere, extending from approximately          the lower layers, protected by the outer layers, experience less
    50 to 600 km (30 to 375 miles) above the earth’s surface.              ionization. Of these layers, the first, discovered in the early 1920s
    Ionization, the process in which electrons are stripped from           by Appleton, was designated E for electric waves. Later, D and
    atoms and produces electrically charged particles, results from        F were discovered and noted by these letters. Additional iono-
    solar radiation. When the ionosphere becomes heavily ionized,          spheric phenomena were discovered through the 1930s and
    the gases may even glow and be visible. This phenomenon is             1940s, such as sporadic E and aurora. A, B, and C are still avail-
    known as Northern and Southern Lights.                                 able for further discoveries.
      Why is the ionosphere important in HF radio? Well, this                In the ionosphere, the D layer is the lowest region affecting HF
    blanket of gases is like nature’s satellite, actually making           radio waves. Ionized only during the day, the D layer reaches
    most BLOS radio communications possible. When radio waves              maximum ionization when the sun is at its zenith and dissipates
    strike these ionized layers, depending on frequency, some are          quickly toward sunset.
    completely absorbed, others are refracted so that they return to
    the earth, and still others pass through the ionosphere into outer       The E layer reaches maximum ionization at noon. It begins
    space. Absorption tends to be greater at lower frequencies, and        dissipating toward sunset and reaches minimum activity at
    increases as the degree of ionization increases.

                                    17                                                                      18
                                                         F2    F1     E       D




             ANGLE OF


                                                                                             F2 155-375 MILES

                                                                                  F1 90-155 MILES
                                    Incident Angle

                                                                    E 60-90 MILES

                                                              D 30-55 MILES
                                    Figure 2-1.

                                                     Figure 2-2.    Regions of the Ionosphere

             19                                                                       20
midnight. Irregular cloud-like formations of ionized gases occa-        Because there are fewer hours of daylight during autumn and
sionally occur in the E layer. These regions, known as sporadic E,    winter, less radiation reaches the D and E layers. Lower frequen-
can support propagation of sky waves at the upper end of the HF       cies pass easily through these weakly ionized layers. Therefore,
band and beyond.                                                      signals arriving at the F layer are stronger and are reflected over
                                                                      greater distances.
   The most heavily ionized region of the ionosphere, and there-
fore the most important for long-haul communications, is the             Another longer term periodic variation results from the 11-year
F layer. At this altitude, the air is thin enough that the ions and   sunspot cycle (Figure 2-3). Sunspots generate bursts of radiation
electrons recombine very slowly, so the layer retains its ionized     that cause higher levels of ionization. The more sunspots, the
properties even after sunset.                                         greater the ionization. During periods of low sunspot activity,
                                                                      frequencies above 20 MHz tend to be unusable because the E and
   In the daytime, the F layer consists of two distinct layers, F1    F layers are too weakly ionized to reflect signals back to earth. At
and F2. The F1 layer, which exists only in the daytime and            the peak of the sunspot cycle, however, it is not unusual to have
is negligible in winter, is not important to HF communications.       worldwide propagation on frequencies above 30 MHz.
The F2 layer reaches maximum ionization at noon and remains
charged at night, gradually decreasing to a minimum just                In addition to these regular variations, there is a class of unpre-
before sunrise.                                                       dictable phenomena known as sudden ionospheric disturbances
                                                                      (SID), which can affect HF communications as well. SIDs, random
   During the day, sky wave reflection from the F2 layer requires     events due to solar flares, can disrupt sky wave communication
wavelengths short enough to penetrate the ionized D and E             for hours or days at a time. Solar flares produce intense ionization
layers, but not so short as to pass through the F layer. Generally,   of the D layer, causing it to absorb most HF signals on the side of
frequencies from 10 to 20 MHz will accomplish this, but the same      the earth facing the sun.
frequencies used at night would penetrate the F layer and pass
into outer space. The most effective frequencies for long-haul          Magnetic storms often follow the eruption of solar flares within
nighttime communications are normally between 3 and 8 MHz.            20 to 40 hours. Charged particles from the storms have a scat-
                                                                      tering effect on the F layer, temporarily neutralizing its reflective
Factors Affecting Atmospheric Ionization                              properties.
  The intensity of solar radiation and therefore ionization varies
periodically. Hence, we can predict solar radiation intensity         Frequency and Path Optimization
based on time of day and the season, for example, and make               Because ionospheric conditions affect radio wave propagation,
adjustments in equipment to limit or optimize ionization effects.     communicators must determine the best way to optimize radio
                                                                      frequencies at a particular time. The highest possible frequency
  Ionization is higher during spring and summer because the           that can be used to transmit over a particular path under given
hours of daylight are longer. Sky waves are absorbed or weakened      ionospheric conditions is called the Maximum Usable Frequency
as they pass through the highly charged D and E layers, reducing,     (MUF). Frequencies higher than the MUF penetrate the ionosphere
in effect, the communication range of most HF bands.                  and continue into space. Frequencies lower than the MUF tend to
                                                                      refract back to earth.

                                21                                                                     22
                                                                                                                                          As frequency is reduced, the amount of absorption of the
                                                                                                                                        signal by the D layer increases. Eventually, the signal is
                                                                                                                                        completely absorbed by the ionosphere. The frequency at which

                               2 000
                                                                                                                                        “window” of usable frequencies, therefore, lies between the
                                                                                                                                        MUF and LUF.

                                                                                                                                          The Frequency of Optimum Transmission (FOT) is nominally 85

                                                                     High sunspot numbers mean better HF propagation.

                                                                                                                                        during the day. These frequencies are illustrated in Figure 2-4.

                                                                                                                                          In addition to frequency, the route the radio signal travels must
                                                                                                                                        also be considered in optimizing communications. A received
                                                                                                                                        signal may be comprised of components arriving via several

                                                                                                                                        path. The arrival times of these components differ because of
                                                                                                                                        differences in path length; the range of time differences is the

                                                                                                                                        multipath spread. The effects of multipath spread can be mini-
                                                                                                                                        mized by selecting a frequency as close as possible to the MUF.

                                                                                                                                        Propagation Prediction Techniques
                                                                                                                                           Since many of the variables affecting propagation follow repet-

                                                                                                                                        itive cycles and can be predicted, techniques for effectively
                                                                                                                                        determining FOT have been developed.

                                                                                                                        Sunspot Cycle

                                                                                                                                          A number of propagation prediction computer programs are
                                                                                                                                        available. One widely used and effective program is Ionospheric

                                                                                                                                        Communications Analysis and Prediction (IONCAP), which predicts
                                                                                                                                        system performance at given times of day as a function of frequency
                                                                                                                                        for a given HF path and a specified complement of equipment.

                                                                                                                                          Of course, since computerized prediction methods are based
                                                                                                                                        on historic data, they cannot account for present conditions
                                                                                                                        Figure 2-3.


            Sunspot Number                                                                                                              affecting communications, like ionospheric changes caused
                                                                                                                                        by random phenomena such as interference and noise (more
                                                                                                                                        about these later).

                   23                                                                                                                                                   24
                                                                                                      A more immediate automated prediction method involves
                                                                                                    ionospheric sounding. One system, the ChirpsounderTM, uses

                                                                                                    remote stations to transmit test signals (chirps) that sweep

                                                                                                    through all frequencies from 2 to 30 MHz. The receiver tracks

                                                                                                    the signal, analyzes its reception on assigned operating frequen-
                                                                                                    cies, and displays frequency ranges for optimum propagation.


                                                                                                      In addition, modern HF communications systems are increas-
                                                                                                    ingly making use of Link Quality Analysis (LQA) techniques.
                                                                                                    In these systems, transmitting and receiving stations cooperate
                                                                                                    to assess automatically the quality of the channels available to
                                                                                                    them. When the need to communicate arises, the LQA data is
                                                                                                    used to select the best frequency. We’ll take a closer look at this
                                                                                                    technique in Chapter 6.

                                                IN THE IONOSPHERE
                                                  ARE REFRACTED
                                                  BACK TO EARTH
                                                   IN THIS RANGE

                                                                    MUF, LUF, and FOT Frequencies



                       LOWER THAN

                         LUF ARE

                                                                    Figure 2-4.
                          BY THE

                                     25                                                                                             26
• The ionosphere is a region of electrically charged particles
  or gases in the earth’s atmosphere, extending from 50 to 600
  km (approximately 30 to 375 miles) above the earth’s surface.
• There are layers of varying electron density in the ionosphere
                                                                   ELEMENTS IN AN HF
  that absorb, pass, or reflect radio waves, depending on the
  density of the layer, the angle with which the radio waves       RADIO SYSTEM
  strike it, and the frequency of the signal.
• Ionization, caused by solar radiation, strips electrons from
  atoms, producing electrically charged particles.
• The density of ionospheric layers varies with the intensity
                                                                    N      ow that you have an overview of how radio waves
                                                                           propagate, let’s take a look at how they are generated.
  of solar radiation, which changes according to time of day,      The primary components in an HF radio system fall into three
  season, and sunspot cycle.                                       groups: transmitters, receivers, and antennas. In many modern
                                                                   radio sets, the transmitter and receiver are contained in a single
• The angle of radiation is determined by the wavelength of        unit called a transceiver. In large, fixed systems, transmitting
  a signal and the type of antenna used.                           stations and receiving stations are customarily at separate loca-
• Radio waves are absorbed as they pass through the ionosphere.    tions, often controlled from a remote third site.
  The absorption rate increases as frequency decreases.
                                                                   Transmitter Group
• Communications is best at the frequency of optimum trans-          Although transmitters may vary widely in their configuration,
  mission (FOT), nominally 85 percent of the maximum usable        they all consist of an exciter and power amplifier. A simplified
  frequency (MUF).                                                 diagram of a typical HF transmitter is shown in Figure 3-1.
• Sunspots increase and decrease in 11-year cycles. Higher
                                                                     The exciter synthesizes a carrier, which has one of its
  sunspot numbers increase ionization, lower sunspot numbers
                                                                   properties — amplitude, frequency, or phase — modified
  cause less ionization.
                                                                   (modulated) by a lower frequency signal derived from a source
• Solar flares cause sudden ionospheric disturbances (SIDs),       of information such as a microphone. The resulting signal is
  which can disrupt HF communications.                             converted to the frequency that is to be transmitted. The power
                                                                   amplifier boosts the output power of the signal to the desired
• Propagation prediction techniques, such as IONCAP, deter-        wattage for transmission before sending it through a cable to the
  mine the MUF, LUF, and FOT for a given transmission path         transmitting antenna.
  and time of day. Other methods include ionospheric sounding
  and Link Quality Analysis (LQA).                                   The transmitter may also contain filters that are used to “clean
                                                                   up” its output. A bandpass filter removes noise, spurious signals,
                                                                   and harmonics generated in the exciter, or output frequency

                               27                                                                  28
                                                                                                               harmonics coming from the power amplifier. This process

                                TO ANTENNA
                                 RF OUTPUT
                                                                                                               reduces interference with adjacent communications channels.

                                                                                                               Receiver Group

                                                                                                                  All modern HF receiving systems include an RF input filter/
                                                                                                               amplifier, a series of frequency converters and intermediate
                                                                                                               frequency (IF) amplifiers, a demodulator, and a local oscillator

                                                                                                               frequency synthesizer (see Figure 3-2). To function, the receiver
                                                                                                               selects a desired signal, amplifies it to a suitable level, and
                                                                                                               recovers the information through the process of demodulation,
                                                                                                               in which the original modulating signal is recovered from a

                                                                                                               modulating carrier. With contemporary radio equipment, many
                                                                                                               of these functions are performed digitally.

                                                                     Simplified Diagram of an HF Transmitter
                                                                                                                  In order to filter out noise and undesired signals, the RF input
                                                                                                               stage sometimes incorporates a tunable preselector (a bandpass

                                                                                                               filter). The filtered signal is then amplified and converted to
                                                                                                               another frequency for further processing.

                                                                                                                 But the filtering process does not end here. Typically, the
                                                                                                               received signal is filtered and amplified again at several
                                                                                                               different intermediate frequencies. The amplification provided in
                                                                                                               these stages is a variable that depends on the strength of the
                                                                                                               received signal.

                                                                                                                  In order to output voice or data, for example, the demodulator


                                                                                                               produces an audio-frequency (baseband) signal that interfaces

                                                                                                               with additional equipment. Also, because the strength of the
                                                                                                               input signal may not be constant, the demodulator stage
                                                                                                               produces a voltage proportional to the level of the RF input
                                                                                                               signal. To compensate for changes in the signal, the voltage
                                                                                                               is fed back to the RF and IF amplifiers for automatic gain control

                                                                                                               (AGC), to maintain a constant input to the demodulator.
                                                                     Figure 3-1.

                                                                                                               The Antenna Group
                                                                                                                The antenna is one of the most critical elements in a radio circuit.
                                                                                                               Here, we will look at typical antenna types and their applications.

                                29                                                                                                              30
                                                                                                                            Antenna Characteristics and Parameters
                                                                                                                              Some of the most commonly used terms to describe antennas

                                                                                                                            are impedance, gain, radiation pattern, take-off angle, and

                                                                 IF = INTERMEDIATE
                                               AGC = AUTOMATIC

                                               GAIN CONTROL

                                                                                                                              Every antenna has an input impedance, which represents the
                                                                                                                            load to be applied to the transmitter. This impedance depends upon
                                                                                                                            many factors, such as antenna design, frequency of operation, and
                                                                                                                            location of the antenna with respect to surrounding objects.

                                                                                                                              The basic challenge in radio communications is finding ways
                                                                                                                            to get the most power possible, where and when you need it, to
                                                                                                                            generate and transmit signals. Most transmitters are designed to
                                                                                                                            provide maximum output power and efficiency into a 50-ohm load.
                                                                                                                            (OHM is a unit of measurement of resistance. Its symbol is Ω.)

                                                                                     Simplified Diagram of an HF Receiver
           3RD CONV/
            IF AMPL

                                                                                                                            Some antennas, such as log periodic antennas, can provide a
                       3D LO

                                                                                                                            50-ohm load to the transmitter over a wide range of frequencies.

                                                                                                                            These antennas can generally be connected directly to the trans-

                                                                                                                            mitter. Other antennas, such as dipoles, whips, and long-wire
                       2D LO

                                                                                                                            antennas, have impedances that vary widely with frequency and
           2ND CONV/
            IF AMPL

                                                                                                                            the surrounding environment. In these cases, an antenna tuner or
                                                                                                                            coupler is used. This device is inserted between the transmitter
                                                                                                                            and antenna to modify the characteristics of the load presented to
                                                                                                                            the transmitter so that maximum power may be transferred from


                                                                                                                            the transmitter to the antenna.
           1ST CONV/
            IF AMPL

                                                                                                                               The gain of an antenna is a measure of its directivity — its
                                                                                                                            ability to focus the energy it radiates in a particular direction.
                                     1ST LO

                                                                                                                            The gain may be determined by comparing the level of signal
                                                                                                                            received from it against the level that would be received from an

                                                                                                                            isotropic antenna, which radiates equally in all directions. Gain
           RF AMPL/

                                                                                                                            can be expressed in dBi; the higher this number, the greater the
                                                                                                                            directivity of the antenna. Transmitting antenna gain directly
                                                                                     Figure 3-2.

                                                                                                                            affects transmitter power requirements. If, for example, an omni-

                                                                                                                            directional antenna were replaced by a directional antenna with

                                                                                                                            a gain of 10 dBi, a 100-watt transmitter would produce the same
                                                                                                                            effective radiated power as a 1-kW transmitter and omnidirec-
                                                                                                                            tional antenna.

                               31                                                                                                                           32
  In addition to gain, radio users must understand the radiation
pattern of an antenna for optimal signal transmission. Radiation                                      NOTE: Example shown is for
pattern is determined by an antenna’s design and is strongly                                                an antenna pointing
influenced by its location with respect to the ground. It may also                                          toward the east.
be affected by its proximity to nearby objects such as buildings
and trees. In most antennas, the pattern is not uniform, but is
characterized by lobes (areas of strong radiation) and nulls (areas
of weak radiation). These patterns are generally represented                               90°
graphically in terms of plots in the vertical and horizontal planes
(Figure 3-3), which show antenna gain as a function of elevation
angle (vertical pattern) and azimuth angle (horizontal plot). The      (WEST)   180°                                             0°
radiation patterns are frequency dependent, so plots at different
frequencies are required to fully characterize the radiation pattern
of an antenna.                                                                             270°
  In determining communications range, it is important to factor                       (SOUTH)
in the take-off angle, which is the angle between the main lobe of
an antenna pattern and the horizontal plane of the transmitting
antenna. Low take-off angles are generally used for long-haul                                     AZIMUTH PATTERN
communications; high take-off angles are used for shorter-range

  The orientation of an antenna with respect to the ground deter-                                                           X°
mines its polarization. Most HF antennas are either vertically or
horizontally polarized. A vertically polarized antenna produces
low take-off angles and is therefore suitable for ground waves
and for long-haul sky wave links. The main drawback of vertical
antennas is their sensitivity to ground conductivity and locally
generated noise. It is necessary to use a grounding screen to get
the best results.                                                                                                                0°
  A horizontally polarized antenna radiates at higher take-off
angles and is suitable for shorter range communications, out
to about 400 miles. By adjusting the height of the antenna above
                                                                                              ELEVATION PATTERN
ground, it is possible to increase gain at lower take-off angles for
longer-range sky wave performance. Horizontally polarized
                                                                       Figure 3-3.     Antenna Radiation Patterns
antennas are largely independent of ground conductivity, and
are less affected by local noise than vertical antennas.

                                33                                                                   34
 For ground wave propagation, the transmitting and receiving                 Sky wave communications between relatively closely spaced
antennas should have the same polarization for best results. For           stations may require antennas specially designed for this
sky wave propagation, the polarization of the antennas need not            purpose. These near vertical incidence sky wave (NVIS)
be the same, since the polarization of the signal will change              antennas have a very high take-off angle, radiating RF energy
during ionospheric refraction.                                             nearly straight up. The radio waves refract downward to the
                                                                           earth in a circular pattern. NVIS antennas provide omnidirec-
Types of Antennas                                                          tional coverage out to about 600 km.
 There is a countless variety of antennas used in HF communi-
cation. We’ll focus here on just some of the more common types.
                                                                                                                TAKE-OFF ANGLE
  The vertical whip antenna is usually adequate for ground wave
circuits, since it is omnidirectional, has low take-off angles, and is                                                90°

vertically polarized. A typical vertical whip radiation pattern is                                      °                            60
                                                                                                      60                               °
shown in Figure 3-4. A reflector, consisting of a second vertical
whip, can add directivity to the radiation pattern of a whip.

  One of the most versatile types of HF antenna is the half-wave


dipole, which is basically a length of wire equal to one-half the

transmitting wavelength. The dipole can be oriented to provide
either horizontal or vertical (center-fed) polarization. Figure 3-5
shows a center-fed horizontal dipole antenna. The radiation pattern
can change dramatically as a function of its distance above the
ground. Figure 3-6 shows the vertical radiation pattern of a hori-            15        10       5          0   -5   -10    -5   0         5   10        15
zontal dipole for several values of its height (in terms of transmitting                     3 MHz                   dBi
                                                                                             9 MHz
wavelength) above the ground.                                                                18 MHz

 A vertical dipole can often be used effectively on ships or
                                                                            Figure 3-4.                Vertical Whip Radiation Pattern
vehicles. An inverted vee (sometimes called a “drooping dipole”)
produces a combination of horizontal and vertical radiation with
omnidirectional coverage. See Figure 3-7.

  Directional antennas range from simple single-wire configura-
tions like the inverted vee to elaborate multi-wire arrays, includ-
ing horizontal and vertical log periodic systems; see Figure 3-8.
Directional antennas are often used in point-to-point links. In
systems requiring point-to-point communications to widely
dispersed stations, rotatable directional antennas may be used.

                                  35                                                                                 36
                                                               DIPOLE .25λ ABOVE GROUND

                      Center-Fed Horizontal Dipole Antenna
                                                                                           DIPOLE .5λ ABOVE GROUND

                                                             DIPOLE .75λ ABOVE GROUND

                                                                                           DIPOLE 1.25λ ABOVE GROUND
                      Figure 3-5.

                                                             λ Symbol for wavelength.

                                                             Figure 3-6.          Horizontal Dipole Antenna,
                                                                                  Vertical Radiation Patterns

37                                                                                         38

                          HEIGHT = 50 FT          NON-METALLIC

                                                        TO TRANSMITTER

                             INVERTED VEE ANTENNA

                                     TAKE-OFF ANGLE
                                                                                                                               TAKE-OFF ANGLE
                             °                                   60
                          60                                       °                                                   °                            60
                                                                                                                     60                               °




                 3 MHz                     dBi                                                              4MHz                    dBi
                 9 MHz
                                                                                                            12 MHz
                 18 MHz
                                                                                                            30 MHz

   λ Symbol for wavelength.

Figure 3-7.                 Inverted Vee Antenna                                           Figure 3-8.               Horizontal Log Periodic Antenna

                                          39                                                                                        40
• A radio system consists of a transmitter, receiver, and antenna
• The transmitter group consists of an exciter and power ampli-
  fier. The exciter includes a modulator, carrier generator, and
                                                                       NOISE AND
  frequency translator.
• The receiver group consists of an RF input filter/amplifier,
  frequency converters/IF amplifiers, demodulator, and local

• Antenna selection is critical to successful HF communications.
                                                                       W       hile listening to the radio during a thunderstorm, you’re
                                                                               sure to have noticed interruptions or static at one time or
  Antenna types include vertical whip, dipole, and directional.        another. Perhaps you heard the voice of a pilot rattling off data to
                                                                       a control tower when you were listening to your favorite FM
• An antenna coupler matches the impedance of the antenna              station. This is an example of interference that is affecting a
  to that of the transmitter, transferring maximum power to            receiver’s performance. Annoying as this may be while you’re
  the antenna.                                                         trying to listen to music, noise and interference can be hazardous
                                                                       in the world of HF communications, where a mission’s success or
• The gain of an antenna is a measure of its directivity — its         failure depends on hearing and understanding the transmitted
  ability to focus the energy it radiates in a particular direction.   message.

• Antenna radiation patterns are characterized by nulls                  Receiver noise and interference come from both external and
  (areas of weak radiation) and lobes (areas of strong radiation).     internal sources. External noise levels greatly exceed internal
                                                                       receiver noise over much of the HF band. Signal quality is indi-
• Low antenna take-off angles are generally used for long-haul         cated by signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), measured in decibels (dB).
  communications; high take-off angles are used for shorter-           The higher the SNR, the better the signal quality. Interference
  range communications.                                                may be inadvertent, as in the case of the pilot’s call to the tower.
                                                                       Or, it may be a deliberate attempt on the part of an adversary to
                                                                       disrupt an operator’s ability to communicate.

                                                                         Engineers use various techniques to combat noise and inter-
                                                                       ference, including: (1) boosting the effective radiated power,
                                                                       (2) providing a means for optimizing operating frequency,
                                                                       (3) choosing a suitable modulation scheme, (4) selecting the
                                                                       appropriate antenna system, and (5) designing receivers that
                                                                       reject interfering signals. Let’s look at some of the more common
                                                                       causes of noise and interference.

                                 41                                                                     42
Natural Sources of Noise                                             Intentional Interference
  Lightning is the main atmospheric (natural) source of noise.          Deliberate interference, or jamming, results from transmitting
Atmospheric noise is highest during the summer and greatest          on operating frequencies with the intent to disrupt communica-
at night, especially in the l- to 5-MHz range. Average values of     tions. Jamming can be directed at a single channel or be wide-
atmospheric noise, as functions of time of day and season, have      band. It may be continuous (constant transmitting) or look-
been determined for locations around the world, and are used in      through (transmitting only when the signal to be jammed is
predicting HF radio system performance. Another natural noise        present). Modern military radio systems use spread-spectrum
source is galactic or cosmic noise, generated in space. It is        techniques to overcome jamming and reduce the probability of
uniformly distributed over the HF spectrum, but does not affect      detection or interception. Spread-spectrum techniques are tech-
performance below 20 MHz.                                            niques in which the modulated information is transmitted in a
                                                                     bandwidth considerably greater than the frequency content of
Man-Made Noise                                                       the original information. We’ll look at these techniques in
  Power lines, computer equipment, and industrial and office         Chapter 7.
machinery produce man-made noise, which can reach a receiver
through radiation or by conduction through power cables. This          Signals from a transmitter reach the receiver via multiple paths
type of man-made noise is called electromagnetic interference        (Figure 4-1). This causes fading, a variation in average signal
(EMI) and it is highest in urban areas. Grounding and shielding      level because these signals may add or subtract from each other
of the radio equipment and filtering of AC power input lines are     in a random way.
techniques used by engineers to suppress EMI.

Unintentional Interference
   At any given time, thousands of HF transmitters compete
for space on the radio spectrum in a relatively narrow range of
frequencies, causing interference with one another. Interference
is most severe at night in the lower bands at frequencies close to
the MUF. The HF radio spectrum is especially congested in
Europe due to the density of the population.

   A major source of unintentional interference is the collocation
of transmitters, receivers, and antennas. It’s a problem on ships,
for instance, where space limitations dictate that several radio
systems be located together. For more than 30 years, Harris RF
Communications has designed and implemented high-quality
integrated shipboard communications systems that eliminate
problems caused by collocation. Ways to reduce collocation inter-
ference include carefully orienting antennas, using receivers that
won’t overload on strong, undesired signals, and using transmit-
ters that are designed to minimize intermodulation.

                               43                                                                   44
;;;        ;;
                                                                                 • Natural (atmospheric) and man-made sources cause noise and
                                                                                   interference. Lightning strikes are the primary cause of atmo-

                                                                                   spheric noise; power lines, computer terminals, and industrial
                                                                                   machinery are the primary cause of man-made noise.

                                                                                 • Congestion of HF transmitters competing for limited radio
                                                                                   spectrum in a relatively narrow range of frequencies causes
                                                                                   interference. It is generally worse at night in lower frequency


                                                                                 • Collocated transmitters interfere with each other, as well as
                                                                                   with nearby receivers.

                                                                                 • Jamming, or deliberate interference, results from transmitting

                                                                                   on operating frequencies with the intent to disrupt communi-

                                                                                 • Multipath interference causes signal fading.

                                                           Multipath Reception



           F1 LAYER

                                                           Figure 4-1.
                      E LAYER

                                45                                                                              46

5 DATA                                                                    Bits are part of a number system having a base of two that
                                                                        uses only the symbols 0 and 1. Thus, a bit is any variable that
                                                                        assumes two distinct states. For example, a switch is open or
                                                                        closed, a voltage is positive or negative, and so on.

                                                                           A simple way to communicate binary data is to switch a circuit
  COMMUNICATION                                                         off and on in patterns that are interpreted at the other end of a link.
                                                                        This is essentially what was done in the early days of telegraphy.
  VIA HF RADIO                                                          Later schemes used a bit to select one of two possible states of the
                                                                        properties that characterize a carrier (modulated radio wave) —
                                                                        either frequency or amplitude. More sophisticated approaches
                                                                        allow the carrier to assume more than two states and hence to

   F    rom the very beginning, HF radio used Morse code for data
        communications. Over time, improved techniques were
                                                                        represent multiple bits.

                                                                        Baud Rate
                                                                          Data transmission speed is commonly measured in bits per
  developed for data transmission that take into account the vari-
  ability of the HF medium and greatly increase the speed at which      second (bps). Sometimes the word baud is used synonymously
  data transmission occurs over a radio link. In addition, the appli-   with bps, although the two terms actually have different
  cation of error-correcting codes and automatic repeat request         meanings. Baud is a unit of signaling speed and is a measure
  (ARQ) techniques offering error-free data transfer permits the use    of symbols per second that are being sent. A symbol may
  of HF radio in computer-to-computer communications systems.           represent more than one bit.

    To understand the principles of HF data communication, we’ll           The maximum baud rate that can be supported by a radio
  define some common data terminology and explain the signifi-          channel depends on its bandwidth — the greater the band-
  cance of the modem. We will also outline some of the problems         width, the greater the baud rate. The rate at which information
  and solutions associated with HF data communication.                  is transmitted, the bit rate, depends on how many bits there are
                                                                        per symbol.
  Binary Data
     Communication as an activity involves the transfer of informa-     Asynchronous and Synchronous Data
  tion from a transmitter to a receiver over a suitable channel.          The transmission of data occurs in either an asynchronous or a
  Consider this book, for instance. It uses symbols (the alphabet)      synchronous mode, as defined below.
  to encode information into a set of code groups (words) for trans-
  mission over a channel (the printed page) to a receiver (the            In asynchronous data transmission, each character has a start
  reader). Applying this principle to data (information), we begin      and stop bit (Figure 5-1). The start bit prepares the data receiver
  by using a kind of shorthand to transform the data into code          to accept the character. The stop bit brings the data receiver
  words (binary digits, or bits) for transmission over a channel        back to an idle state.
  (HF radio) to a receiver (the reader).

                                 47                                                                      48
                                  Synchronous data transmission eliminates the start and stop
                                bits. This type of system typically uses a preamble (a known
                                sequence of bits, sent at the start of a message, that the receiver
                                uses to synchronize to its internal clock) to alert the data receiver
                                that a message is coming.

                                  Asynchronous systems eliminate the need for complex
                                synchronization circuits, but at the cost of higher overhead than
                                synchronous systems. The stop and start bits increase the length
                                of a character by 25 percent, from 8 to 10 bits.

                                HF Modems
                                  A conventional voice radio cannot transmit data directly. Data
                                digital voltage levels must be converted to audio, using a device
                                called a modulator, which applies the audio to the transmitter.
                                Conversely, at the receiver, a demodulator converts audio back
                                to digital voltage levels. Harris’ RF-5000 radios are equipped
                                with built-in high-speed modems (the MOdulator and the

     Asynchronous Data System
                                DEModulator, packaged together), which permit the radios to
                                operate with either voice or data inputs.

                                  HF modems fall into three basic categories: (1) modems with
                                slow-speed frequency shift keying (FSK); (2) high-speed parallel
                                tone modems; and (3) high-speed serial (single) tone modems.

                                  The simplest modems employ FSK to encode binary data (0s
                                and 1s) (see Figure 5-2). The input to the modulator is a digital
                                signal that takes one of two possible voltage levels. The output
                                of the modulator is an audio signal that is one of two possible
                                tones. HF FSK systems are limited to data rates less than 75 bps
                                due to the effects of multipath propagation. Higher rates are
                                possible with multi-tone FSK (MFSK), which uses a greater
                                number of frequencies.
     Figure 5-1.

                                  High-speed HF modem technology, using both parallel and
                                serial tone waveforms to allow transmission at up to 4800 bps,
                                was pioneered by Harris in the early 1980s. The serial tone

49                                                               50
                              modem carries information on a single audio tone. This provides
                              vastly improved data communications on HF channels, including
                              greater robustness, reduced sensitivity to interference, and a
                              higher data rate with powerful forward error correction (FEC),
                              described in the next section. Harris currently has its fourth
                              generation of high-speed modems on the market.

                              Error Control
                                Harris RF Communication’s engineers use several different
                              approaches to avoid data transmission problems.

                                FEC adds redundant data to the data stream to allow the data
                              receiver to detect and correct errors. An important aspect of this
                              concept is that it does not require a return channel for the
                              acknowledgment. If a data receiver detects an error, it simply
                              corrects it and accurately reproduces the original data without
                              notifying the data sender that there was a problem.

                                The FEC coding technique is most effective if errors occur
                              randomly in a data stream. The HF medium, however, typically
     Frequency Shift Keying
                              introduces errors that occur in bursts — that is, intervals with a
                              high bit error ratio (BER) in the channel are interspersed with
                              intervals of a low BER. To take full advantage of the FEC coding
                              technique, it’s best to randomize the errors that occur in the
                              channel by a process called interleaving (Figure 5-3).

                                For example, at the modulator, the data stream enters a 9-row by
                              10-column matrix. The blocks are entered by rows and unloaded by
                              columns. When the data stream leaves the matrix for transmission,
                              the sequence of output bits will be 1, 11, 21, and so on.

                                 At the demodulator, the process is reversed by de-interleaving.
                              Data is entered by columns in a matrix identical to that at the
     Figure 5-2.

                              transmitter. It is read out in rows, restoring the sequence of data
                              to its original state. Thus, if a burst were to cause 9 consecutive bits
                              to be in error, no more than 3 of them will fall in any 30-bit sequence
                              of bits after de-interleaving. Then, if an FEC coding technique were
                              used, the errors would be corrected.

51                                                              52
                                Soft-decision decoding further enhances the power of the error-
                              correction coding. In this process, a group of detected symbols
                              that retain their analog character are compared against the set of
                              possible transmitted code words. The system “remembers” the
                              voltage from the detector and applies a weighing factor to each
                              symbol in the code word before making a decision about which
                              code word was transmitted.

                                Data communications techniques are also used for encrypting
                              voice calls by a device called a vocoder (short for voice coder-
                              decoder). The vocoder converts sound into a data stream for
                              transmission over an HF channel. A vocoder at the receiving
                              end reconstructs the data into telephone-quality sound.

                                 In addition to error correction techniques, high-speed serial
                              modems may include two signal processing schemes that
                              improve data transmissions. An automatic channel equalizer
                              compensates for variations in the channel characteristics as data
                              is being received. An adaptive excision filter seeks out and
                              suppresses narrowband interference in the demodulator input,
                              reducing the effects of co-channel interference, that is, interfer-
     Interleaving Operation   ence on the same channel that is being used. Harris has patented
                              several techniques to perform these functions.
     Figure 5-3.

53                                                            54
• The transmission of data requires the use of modems to
  convert digital data into analog form when transmitting, and
  convert analog data back to digital form when receiving.
• HF modems are classified as slow-speed FSK, high-speed
                                                                   ADAPTIVE RADIO
  parallel tone, or high-speed serial tone.
• Serial tone modems provide vastly improved data communica-
  tions on HF channels, including a higher data rate with
  powerful forward error correction (FEC), greater robustness,
  and reduced sensitivity to interference.

• FEC systems provide error correction without the need for a
                                                                   T     he constantly changing properties of the ionosphere, as
                                                                         well as random noise and interference, cause disruptions in
                                                                   HF communications. In the past, a skilled radio operator was
  return link.                                                     required to establish communications and to continually adjust
                                                                   operating parameters. Today, this function is fully automatic.
• Interleaving is a technique that randomizes error bursts,        Harris RF Communications provides adaptive radio systems,
  allowing FEC systems to work more effectively.                   pioneered in the early ‘80s, that can react rapidly to changing
                                                                   propagating conditions and use feedback from Real Time
• Soft-decision decoding further reduces bit error rates by        Channel Evaluation (RTCE) techniques to select frequencies,
  comparing a group of symbols that retain their analog char-      adjust data rates, or change modulation schemes. Two of the
  acter against the set of possible transmitted code words.        many adaptive processes are Automatic Link Establishment
                                                                   (ALE) and Link Quality Analysis (LQA). Because of Harris’
• A vocoder converts voice signals into digital data for coded     previous experience with adaptive radio technology, the
  transmission over HF channels.                                   company was asked to become a member of the United States
                                                                   Military Standard Committee to develop the ALE standard.
• Automatic channel equalization and adaptive excision filtering
  are signal processing techniques that improve data communi-      Automatic Link Establishment
  cations performance.                                                ALE is a technique that permits HF radio stations to call and
                                                                   link on the best HF channel automatically without operator
                                                                   assistance. Harris pioneered the manufacture of adaptive
                                                                   communications equipment with AUTOLINK. In addition, Harris
                                                                   is a leader in the development of advanced ALE techniques that
                                                                   comply with MIL-STD-188-141A and FED-STD-1045A. (See
                                                                   Appendix A, Standards.)

                               55                                                                 56
   Typically, ALE systems make use of recently measured radio
channel characteristics (LQA data) stored in a memory “matrix.”
network is assigned an address (ID). When not in use, each radio
receiver constantly scans through its assigned frequencies,
listening for calls addressed to it.

   To reach a specific station, the caller simply enters an ID just
like dialing a phone number. The radio consults its LQA matrix
and selects the best available assigned frequency. (Further expla-
nation of the LQA matrix appears below.) It then sends out a brief
message containing the ID of the destination. When the receiving
station “hears” its address, it stops scanning and stays on that
frequency. The two stations automatically conduct a “hand-
shake” to confirm that a link is established and they are ready to
communicate (Figure 6-1). The receiving station, which was
completely silent, will typically emit a ringing signal to alert the      Figure 6-1.   ALE System Handshake
receiving operator of an incoming call. At the conclusion of the
call, one of the stations “hangs up,” a disconnect signal is sent to
the other station, and they each return to the scanning mode.

Link Quality Analysis
  An HF communications system has a number of channels
assigned to it. A system incorporating LQA capability selects
the best channel. Here’s how it works in an adaptive system.

   At prescribed intervals, a station in a network will attempt to
link on each of its assigned frequencies and measure the signal
quality on each linked frequency. These quality scores are stored
in a matrix. When a call is initiated, the radio checks its “memory”
to determine the best quality frequency for the call to the desired
station. It then attempts to link on that frequency. If the link cannot
be established, it will try again on the next best frequency, and so
on, until a link is established.

  Figure 6-2 shows a simplified LQA matrix for station BASE01.
The channel numbers represent programmed frequencies, and                 Figure 6-2.   LQA Matrix for BASE 01

                                 57                                                              58
the numbers in the matrix are the most recent channel-quality        SUMMARY
scores. Thus, if an operator wanted to make a call from BASE01       • Adaptive radio technology permits modern HF radio systems
to MOBILE03, the radio would attempt to call on channel 18,            to adjust automatically to changing propagation conditions.
which has the highest LQA score.
                                                                     • Automatic Link Establishment (ALE) makes it possible for
  When making multi-station calls, the radio selects the channel       HF radios to connect without operator assistance.
with the best average score. Thus, for a multi-station call to all
the addresses in the matrix, channel 14 would be selected.           • Link Quality Analysis (LQA) is a method of assessing
                                                                       channel quality, so that connections occur on the best
Adaptive Enhancements                                                  channel/ frequency.
  Adaptive radio technology is further enhanced by the use of
computer controllers, which permit modem data rate selection         • Other automatic adaptive techniques are available.
based on channel conditions, optimum antenna choice, automatic
adjustment of transmitted power level, automatic nulling and elim-
ination of interfering signals, and selection of modem modulation
and coding schemes. The benefit is that these adaptive schemes
are largely automatic and improve communications without oper-
ator intervention. Thus, the requirement for an operator with high
technical knowledge has been significantly reduced.

                               59                                                                   60

7                                                                         The process involves using a mathematical algorithm, coupled
                                                                       with a key, to translate information from the clear to the
                                                                       encrypted state. If sensitive information is transmitted without
                                                                       the protection of cryptography and the information is inter-
    SECURING                                                           cepted, it would require little effort or resources to understand
                                                                       the transmittal. The US Government has established standards
    COMMUNICATIONS                                                     for the degree of protection required for different levels of classi-
                                                                       fied and sensitive information.

                                                                         In voice communications systems that do not require extremely
                                                                       high security, you can protect against casual eavesdropping by
            e have reached the age where advancements in radio         scrambling. Scrambling, as an analog COMSEC technique,
            technology make communicating easy, widespread, and        involves separating the voice signal into a number of audio sub-
    reliable. Now the security of the communication becomes as         bands, shifting each sub-band to a different audio frequency range,
    important as the communication itself. In this chapter, we’ll      and combining the resulting sub-bands into a composite audio
    discuss communications security (COMSEC), that is, methods that    output that modulates the transmitter. A random pattern controls
    keep important communications secure. We’ll also talk about        the frequency shifting. The technique of scrambling the pattern is
    transmission security (TRANSEC) — schemes that make it difficult   similar to sending a message with a decoder ring, like the ones
    for someone to intercept or interfere with your communications.    sometimes found in children’s cereal boxes. You can, for example,
                                                                       designate that the letter c be ciphered as g, a as n, and t as w, so
    COMSEC                                                             that when you receive the message gnw, you decode it as cat.
      COMSEC uses scrambling or cryptographic techniques in order      Descrambling occurs at the receiver by reversing the process.
    to make information unintelligible to people who do not have a     Harris’ Analog Voice Security (AVS) allows for easy entry into the
    need to know or who should not know. We’ll differentiate here      communications net because it does not require synchronization
    between cryptographic or ciphering techniques applied to digital   with other stations.
    signals and scrambling techniques applied to analog signals.
                                                                         In digital encryption the data, which may be digitized voice (as
      Cryptography is the process of encrypting (translating) infor-   described in Chapter 5), is reduced to a binary data stream. The
    mation into an apparently random message at the transmitter        cryptographic engine creates an extremely long, non-repeating
    and then deciphering the random message by decryption at           binary number stream based on a traffic encryption key (TEK). The
    the receiver.                                                      data stream is added to the cryptographic stream, creating the
                                                                       encrypted data, or cipher text. A binary stream created in this
      Historically, sensitive information has been protected through   fashion is inherently unpredictable; it also provides a very secure
    the use of codes. The sender would manually encode the             method of protecting information. On the other hand, all analog
    messages before transmission and the recipient would manually      signals are more predictable and thus less secure.
    decode the messages upon receipt. Today’s electronic technolo-
    gies allow the coding/decoding process to occur automatically.       The data encryption strength, which is the degree of difficulty
                                                                       in determining the message content, is a function of the

                                   61                                                                   62
complexity of the mathematical algorithm coupled with the key.           (OTAR). This technique nearly eliminates the need for manual
The key is a variable that changes the resynchronization of the          loading of keys and provides a secure key management.
mathematical algorithm. Protection of the key is vital. Even if an
unwanted organization gains access to the encrypted informa-                OTAR is based upon a benign key distribution system. It
tion and has the algorithm, it is still impossible to decrypt the        includes a key encryption key (KEK) used to encrypt the TEK and
information without the key. The US Government has developed             any other operational COMSEC or TRANSEC keys. This process
rigorous key management procedures to protect, distribute,               is referred to as “wrapping” so as to differentiate it from traffic
store, and dispose of keys.                                              encryption. The KEK is the only key that must be initially loaded
                                                                         into both the sending and receiving units. Usually, an initial set of
  In the past, keys were manually loaded into a cryptographic            operational keys are loaded at the same time.
device by using a paper tape, magnetic medium, or plug-in
transfer device. Creation and secure delivery of keys to each user          After wrapping, subsequent distribution can use any physical
were significant problems in both logistics and record keeping.          or electronic means. In an OTAR system, the wrapped keys are
                                                                         inserted into a message and sent over a radio link to the intended
   One type of key management system also used in the commer-            station using error-free transmission protocols (an error would
cial sector is public key cryptography. Under this standard, each        render the keys useless). The link used for transmission is
user generates two keys. One is the public key, “Y,” and the other       usually secured by the TEK currently in use. Thus, the key mate-
is the private key, “X.” The Y value derives from the X value. The       rial is doubly protected when sent over the air, practically elimi-
strength of such a system lies in the difficulty of deriving X from Y;   nating any possibility of compromise.
what is encrypted with the Y key can only be decrypted with the
X key. By openly disseminating the user’s public Y key, and                For a higher degree of security, it is common to digitize the
retaining sole access to the private X key, anyone can send a            voice signal by means of a vocoder, as mentioned in Chapter 5.
secure message to you by encrypting it with your public Y key.           The resulting digital signal is then treated like any data stream.
You are the only one, though, who can decrypt the message, since
only you have the private X key.                                         TRANSEC
                                                                           TRANSEC employs a number of techniques to prevent signal
  In a network using this public key system, two-way secure              detection or jamming of the transmission path. These techniques
communications are possible among all network users. This is             include hiding the channel or making it a moving target.
called an asymmetrical key system. The alternative is a symmetric
key system, in which the same key encrypts and decrypts data.              Low Probability of Detection (LPD) systems transmit using
Because both the originator and all recipients must have the same        very low power or spread the signal over a broad bandwidth so
keys, this system offers the highest levels of security.                 that the natural noise in the environment masks the signal.

  Harris has led the way in developing state-of-the-art electronic         A related strategy, known as Low Probability of Intercept (LPI),
means to secure and distribute key material for these symmetric          involves transmitting signals in short bursts or over a wide band-
key-based communications systems. A recent development                   width to reduce on-the-air time.
applicable to radio networks employs Over-The-Air-Rekeying

                                 63                                                                      64
   The most commonly used TRANSEC technique is frequency                 SUMMARY
hopping. In this system, the transmitter frequency changes so            • COMSEC uses cryptography or scrambling to make
rapidly that it is difficult for anyone not authorized to listen in or     information unintelligible to people who do not have a need
to jam the signal. The receiver is synchronized so that it hops            to know or who should not know.
from frequency to frequency in a predetermined pattern in                  - The security level of a COMSEC system depends on the
unison with the transmitter. Frequency hopping scatters the                  mathematical soundness of the algorithms and the number
intelligence over several hundred discrete frequencies. A radio              of variables in the key.
operator listening to one of these frequencies may hear a short            - Protection of the key is vital to securing the transmitted
“pop” of static. A broadband receiver could perhaps capture all              information.
of these little bursts; however, the task of picking these bursts          - Public key cryptography is widely used in the commercial
out of the other natural and man-made bits of noise would be                 sector.
daunting, requiring a team of experts several hours just to
reassemble a short conversation. Jamming one channel would               • Over-The-Air-Rekeying (OTAR) eliminates the need for
have minimal impact on the hopping communicator. To effec-                 manual loading of keys and provides a more secure method
tively jam a frequency-hopping radio, most or all of the frequen-          of key management.
cies that the hopping communicator uses would have to be
jammed, thus preventing the use of those frequencies as well.            • TRANSEC protects the transmitted signal itself, to prevent
Harris’ AN/PRC-117, AN/PRC-138, and RF-5000 FALCON trans-                  signal detection or jamming of the transmission path.
ceiver series of products are highly rated for their frequency-            - Low Probability of Detection (LPD) systems use spread-
hopping capabilities.                                                        spectrum and other techniques to “hide” the signal beneath
                                                                             the natural noise level.
  Harris’ RF Communications Secure Products Line is a preferred            - Low Probability of Interception (LPI) radios transmit
supplier of information security for the US Government and the US            compressed digital data in short bursts or over a wide
Department of Defense. It is a leader in the development and                 bandwidth.
production of US Government and exportable security products.              - Frequency-hopping radio systems jump rapidly in unison,
The NSA-endorsed WINDSTER Key Generator Module and SKMM                      from one frequency to another in apparently random
(Standard Key Management Module) line of products has full OTAR              patterns, using a common timing reference.
capabilities and meets NSA’s rigorous Commercial COMSEC
Endorsement Program requirements.

  Harris’ COMSEC/TRANSEC Integrated Circuit (CTIC) and
COMSEC/TRANSEC Integrated Circuit/DS-101 Hybrid (CDH)
provide system embedders and US Government customers
protection of highly classified information using state-of-the-art
TRANSEC/COMSEC techniques. The company also provides a
comprehensive line of secure products for the export market.

                                 65                                                                    66


    H       F radio offers a unique combination of cost effectiveness
            and versatility for long-haul communications. In recent
    years, computer technology and high-speed digital signal
    processing have enhanced the performance and reliability of HF
    communications systems, resulting in reduced operator involve-
    ment in establishing HF communications circuits.

      At the same time, new technology has dramatically reduced
    the size and weight of HF radio equipment. Diverse capabilities,
    which formerly required separate pieces of equipment, are now
    combined and embedded into the radio transceiver itself.

                                                                              Secure Data System
    Examples of HF Communications Systems
      Harris Corporation, RF Communications Division, designs,
    manufactures, and installs turnkey radio communications
    systems for worldwide government, military, and commercial
    markets. Here are some examples of how these HF systems
    come together in a modern communications network to meet
    complex communications needs.

    Secure Data System
      Figure 8-1 shows a typical secure HF data transmission system,

                                                                              Figure 8-1.
    which can be used whenever it is necessary to transfer data
    securely between two points. The serial modem, which uses FEC
    coding, also provides real-time channel equalization and data
    interleaving for protection against fading, and automatic excision

                                   67                                    68
filters remove interference from up to four sources. The transmit
modem data rate adjusts to the terminal data rate and is selected
on the basis of an LQA (estimate of channel quality). The amount
of coding (redundancy) used in the FEC varies as a function of the
selected modem data rate. Thus, if poor channel quality is
predicted, a relatively low data rate and a more powerful FEC
code will be designated.

Country-Wide HF Data Communications System

                                                                           Country-Wide HF Data Communications System
  A country-wide HF data communications system, which
provides economical, long-range communications, is shown in
Figure 8-2. The HF data communications system links a fixed
central communications center and 12 subordinate stations
located throughout the country. The system incorporates an ALE
capability that offers fully automatic operation with unattended
processing of incoming messages.

   Each subordinate station has additional HF and VHF radios
that provide voice and data communications to mobile stations in
its vicinity. In the data communications mode, an ARQ message
protocol is used for error detection and correction. The central
station is a fixed installation with separate transmit and receive
control sites. Intersite communications and control are via
microwave or a landline link.

HF Telephone System
  An HF radio link can extend the reach of a telephone network,
as shown in Figure 8-3. The system operates much like the cord-
less telephone widely used in homes today, but covers hundreds
of thousands of miles using HF radio. The HF telephone system
enables users to place calls to and from mobile radio transceivers
into the commercial switched telephone network or private
subscriber telephone lines.

                                                                           Figure 8-2.
  Calls from the field can be placed over HF, VHF, or UHF to
anywhere in the world through the base station telephone switch
or exchange. To initiate a call, the user enters a telephone number

                                69                                    70
                           just as if the Remote Access Unit (RAU ) were a telephone set
                           connected directly to the base station telephone exchange.

                             At this point, the number dialed is transmitted through the
                           RAU to the Telephone Interface Unit (TIU). As the TIU dials the
                           digits and the telephone rings, call progress tones are heard by
                           the mobile operator. In order to contact anyone in the field, a
                           telephone user dials a telephone number (or the extension) to
                           which the TIU is connected — from anywhere in the world.
                           The call is automatically answered by the TIU and the user is
                           connected directly with the field radio.

                           Ground-to-Air Communications System
                              Figure 8-4 is a block diagram of a ground-to-air communica-
                           tions system with a split-site ground station capable of simulta-
                           neous data, facsimile, or voice communications with up to four
                           airborne platforms. This system dedicates one ground-based
                           receiver-transmitter pair and an associated controller to ALE.
                           Once a ground-air link is established, the station controller hands
                           off the traffic channel to another receiver-transmitter pair. This
                           system also incorporates the cordless telephone capability
     HF Telephone System   described above. Thus, an airborne platform has access to the
                           telephone network. Each aircraft incorporates an HF transceiver
                           with built-in ALE controller and data modem, plus a 400-watt
                           solid-state power amplifier and antenna coupler. Intersite
                           communications between receiver and transmitter sites are
                           via radio or landline.

                           HF Digital Video Imaging Communications System
                              This system captures, digitizes, and transmits video images in
                           near real time from a mobile unit to a base station via an HF data
                           link. Figure 8-5 shows a scenario in which an unattended still-
                           video camera sends images to an imaging terminal via a fiber-
     Figure 8-3.

                           optic link. The terminal captures and digitizes the image and
                           sends the data to a modem in the transceiver, which relays the
                           data to the base. Communications may be via a two-way link
                           that uses an ARQ protocol to obtain error-free transmission of

71                                                         72
     Figure 8-4.   Ground-to-Air Communications System


     Figure 8-5.   HF Digital Video Imaging Communications System
the image, or a one-way link in which FEC coding reduces the
probability of error in the received message.

Broadband Transmitter System
   The biggest HF communication problem that must be solved
on board large naval ships is how to run multiple HF transmit
and receive circuits simultaneously without interfering with
each other, and that all circuits operate through a very few
number of antennas (due to size and space limitations). Harris
has developed the optimum solution to these problems with its
ultra-linear broadband transmitting system. Harris’ system also
supports rapid frequency changes through use of ALE and
frequency hopping. Figure 8-6 is a simplified block diagram of a
solid-state transmitter system capable of delivering up to 4 kW in
the 2- to 30-MHz frequency range into an antenna. Signals from
up to eight independent audio sources modulate HF exciters.
The outputs of the exciter route through a signal distribution unit    Figure 8-6.   Solid-State Transmitter System
into a bank of linear solid-state power amplifiers, each capable of
delivering 500 watts. The signal distribution unit allows various
combinations of exciter signals to be applied to the power ampli-
fiers, so that, for example, the signal from a single exciter may be
applied to all eight amplifiers. The amplifier outputs are added in
a passive power combiner and supplied to an antenna.

HF Tactical Communications Network
  Figure 8-7 shows a portion of a tactical communications
network that provides coverage over distances ranging from less
than 50 miles to more than 1,500 miles. In a network of this type,
the individual elements include frequency hopping, encryption,
and ALE capabilities. Network requirements dictate that links
are provided between the fixed headquarters site and fixed
installations for quasi-permanent military regions and zones.
Provisions are made for communications between headquarters
and task forces at fixed, non-permanent installations. Lower
echelon communications have a combination of fixed, mobile,
and man-portable equipment. Frequency management of the
network is a headquarters responsibility.                              Figure 8-7.   HF Tactical Communications

                                75                                                            76
HF E-Mail and Inter-Networking
  Electronic mail and other inter-networking technologies are
becoming increasingly important for interoffice communications.
However, many users find that communications between remote
stations are difficult and/or expensive, due to costly telephone or
satellite charges. Harris’ HF radios and systems are an excellent
alternative for providing these services to distant users or
stations. Typical applications include:

  • Naval ship-to-shore and ship-to-ship communications.
  • Embassy Ministry of Foreign Affairs communications.
  • Oil/Gas/Mining operations.

   In the following discussion, we will focus on naval applica-
tions; similar configurations support other HF E-mail and inter-
networking communications system requirements.

  An HF E-mail system for naval ships and deployed forces that

                                                                           Shipboard HF E-Mail System
supports naval communications, including administrative, logistic,
and engineering order-wire traffic, is shown in Figure 8-8.

  A typical shipboard HF E-mail system consists of a Harris
RF-6750 Wireless Gateway, an RF-7210 ALE Controller, an
RF-5710 High-Speed HF Modem, and connection to a Harris HF
radio system (the RF-590A Receiver and RF-1140 Transmitter).
The modem and radio system are remotely controlled and
managed by the Wireless Gateway computer.

   The RF-6750 Wireless Gateway provides seamless data trans-
fers between common networked applications, such as E-mail
and FTP file transfer, running on geographically separated Local
Area Networks (LANs). This system also supports the applica-
tion of sending mobile HF data messages over the Internet. The

                                                                           Figure 8-8.
data transfers are accomplished automatically using HF radio.
Unlike conventional network routers and gateways, the RF-6750
is designed specifically to operate over HF radio circuits.

                               77                                     78
System Design Considerations                                       Traffic analysis
  Harris’ RF Communications Division has a communications            • What are the typical message lengths?
systems engineering department staffed by engineers who are          • What is the average number of messages per unit of time?
specialists in the design of custom equipment for the “one-of-a-     • What are the message priorities?
kind” type of application. The following are some of the factors     • When is the peak traffic?
that we consider in designing a modern HF radio system.              • What are the types of traffic?

System definition                                                  Projected growth for each category of traffic
  • Who are the users?                                               • What impact do higher traffic levels have on system
  • What is their location?                                             implementation?
  • Are communications one-way or two-way?                           • Are additional nodes and/or relays necessary?
  • What are the interfaces with other communications media?
                                                                   Impact on message structure
  • What is the operating environment (hostile or friendly,
                                                                     • Is the format for data message compatible with traffic
    rural or urban)?
Transfer of information                                              • Include security classification, priority, source, and
  • What type of traffic is there (voice, data, images)?               destination address.
  • Do the priority levels differ, depending on the message
    source and/or content?
                                                                     • Is this a fixed or mobile site?
  • What are the security levels for safeguarding the
    information?                                                   Fixed site
                                                                     • Are the receiving, transmitting, and control functions
Message protection and security
                                                                       collocated or separate?
 • What is the correct type of error detection and correction
                                                                     • Is this a permanent or temporary installation?
   for data?
                                                                     • Are there any frequency restraints for collocated receivers
 • What type of COMSEC is needed?
                                                                       and transmitters?
 • Will spread-spectrum or frequency-hopping techniques be
                                                                     • What are the staffing requirements?
   used to avoid interception or jamming?
                                                                     • What are the environmental considerations?
 • Is excision filtering needed to remove interfering signals?
                                                                     • What type of power is available?
System availability                                                  • Is uninterrupted power a requirement?
  • What is the probability of transferring messages in real
                                                                   Mobile site
                                                                    • Is the equipment designed for a vehicle, ship, shelter, or
  • Can alternate routing be used to enhance message
                                                                    • Are manpacks required?
  • Can lower priority traffic use store-and-forward techniques?
                                                                    • What are the antenna limitations and constraints?
  • Are there any operational restrictions due to propagation,
                                                                    • What are the physical size constraints?
    transmitter power, or other constraints?
                                                                    • What are the bandwidth and primary power requirements?
                                                                    • What are the environmental considerations?

                               79                                                                   80
Communications protocol                                            SUMMARY
 • Is there a return channel for ARQ?                              • Modern HF radio is small and lightweight. Features and capa-
 • Is ALE being used?                                                bilities, which formerly required additional equipment, are
 • What are the data protocols?                                      now embedded into the radio transceiver.
Equipment selection
                                                                   • HF radio plays a key role in modern long-range telecommuni-
 • Transmitter requirements: Power output, solid state versus
                                                                     cations systems, often working in conjunction with other
   tube, broadband or narrowband, allowable distortion,
                                                                     media, such as satellites, cellular networks, and telephone
   frequency range, tuning speed, remote control?
 • Receiver requirements: Selectivity, dynamic range,
   distortion, remote control?
                                                                   • A systems approach is needed to obtain the best results in
 • Antenna requirements: Gain, bandwidth, polarization,
                                                                     designing a modern HF radio communications network.
   radiation pattern, available terrain, remote control?
Data communications systems
 • What is the data rate?
 • How is data being protected (interleaving, encryption)?
 • What is the modulation scheme?
 • Is the modem serial or parallel tone?
Interface to other equipment and systems
  • What other equipment is required (fax, data terminal,
    imaging systems)?
  • What other types of systems are involved?
  • Is there an interface with VHF/UHF radio systems, satellite,
    or switched telephone networks?
Command and control
 • Will operation be attended or unattended?
 • Is self-test required?
 • Are the transmitter, receiver, and control sites at different
   places (split site)?

                                81                                                               82

9 FUTURE DIRECTIONS                                                           Advances in DSP devices improve adaptive filtering, which in
                                                                            turn combats unintentional interference and jamming. Modem
                                                                            capabilities will expand so that waveforms will be optimized for
                                                                            use, not only with HF, but for other frequencies in the next gener-
                                                                            ation of multi-band radios.


   I   n the earlier chapters, we presented the principles of HF
       communications, and gave you some insight into where the
                                                                               Improvements in HF system performance and computer-based
                                                                            technology provide networks that achieve highly reliable levels of
                                                                            communications through automatic message routing and adap-
                                                                            tive signaling techniques. Network design includes ways to deter-
  technology of HF communications has been and where it is now.             mine periodically the link quality between each pair of its stations
                                                                            at each of their assigned frequencies, and send this information to
    Today, and for the future, HF radio fills two roles. First, it is the   all nodes so that they route messages automatically. Thus, if
  primary medium for long-haul communications, where there is a             station A transmits a message to B, a routing algorithm detemines
  need for a mobile or quickly deployable system to support emer-           if direct point-to-point communication is possible or whether the
  gency or military operations. Second, it is a highly cost-effective       message from A to B must be routed through other stations.
  alternative and backup to other communications media, such as
  telephone and satellite systems. In either capacity, HF has to              The ability to transfer information over a network enables
  support a variety of traffic, including voice, data, and images.          simultaneous transfer of several messages or speeds up the
                                                                            transfer of long messages. For example, multiple radios in a
    Advances in digital signal processing (DSP) technology will             station simultaneously send messages to several destinations
  lead to continued improvements in HF systems and equipment.               over several channels. Also, a long message can be divided so
  In particular, we expect to see advances in the following areas:          that portions of it can be sent in parallel. If channel bandwidths
                                                                            increase beyond the current 3-kHz restriction (which requires
  ALE Performance                                                           international agreement), improvements in real-time channel
    Higher-speed devices allow more precise and frequent link-              equalization techniques will allow data transmission rates
  quality analysis, enabling better and faster frequency selection.         considerably higher than the current rate of 9600 bps.
  Also, higher ALE system data rates allow faster transmission of
  channel-quality information.                                                HF radio is becoming an increasingly important element in multi-
                                                                            media networks that incorporate landline, VHF, and UHF. Recent
  Modem Design                                                              and projected improvements in HF communications technology
    Adaptive channel equalization improvements will allow                   mean that constraints on the passing of information through
  increases in channel bit rates to up to 9600 bps in a 3-kHz               networks that include an HF leg will be significantly reduced.
  channel, giving HF communication an economical advantage
  over other long-haul communications media. Also, for certain              Radio Design
  less restricted applications allowing greater than 3-kHz band-              Radios will continue to move toward multi-band designs,
  width, transmission of 64 kbps can be achieved over HF.                   ranging from MF through UHF in a single radio.

                                   83                                                                       84
   Digital circuits will continue to replace analog circuits,
resulting in lower costs and more versatile and reliable designs.    APPENDIX A — Standards
Digital processing circuitry will handle higher and higher
frequencies, as higher speed analog-to-digital converters and          HF communications standards, created by the US Govern-
other DSP circuits become available.                                 ment, NATO, and other organizations, greatly influence the
                                                                     design of HF equipment and systems. These standards apply to
  The versatility, made possible by “going digital,” allows radios   equipment specifications, waveform design, communication
to be quickly reprogrammed for broadband modes of operation,         protocols, and computer control. They serve to:
resulting in new levels of performance, such as higher data rates
and improved frequency-hopping capabilities.                         • Ensure interoperability among systems used by different

                                                                     • Reduce ambiguous descriptions of equipment and systems
                                                                       by providing a common language in equipment specifications
                                                                       and in defining the operating environment.

                                                                     • Allow more accurate comparison between different equip-
                                                                       ment by defining test conditions.

                                                                       A summary of some of the most important HF radio communi-
                                                                     cation standards are:

                                                                     • Federal Standard 1045A, HF Radio Automatic Link
                                                                       Establishment. Specifies automated radio features, including
                                                                       frequency scanning, selective calling, ALE, LQA, and
                                                                       sounding, which ensure interoperability of radio systems.

                                                                     • Federal Standard 1052, HF Radio Modems. Defines design
                                                                       objectives for data modems and performance requirements for
                                                                       a data link protocol compatible with the ALE standards estab-
                                                                       lished by FED-STD 1045A.

                                                                     • MIL-STD-188-100 Notice 1, Common Long Haul and Tactical
                                                                       Communications System Technical Standards. Specifies
                                                                       requirements for interconnecting long-haul and tactical
                                                                       systems for voice and data service.

                               85                                                                  86
• MIL-STD-188-110A, Interoperability and Performance
  Standards for Data Modems. Establishes requirements and         APPENDIX B — GLOSSARY
  design objectives that ensure specified levels of performance
  of voice-frequency data modems used in communications           ADAPTIVE EXCISION FILTER A signal-processing technique
  systems.                                                        that improves data transmissions. It seeks and suppresses
                                                                  narrowband interference in the demodulator input and reduces
• MIL-STD-188-141A, Interoperability and Performance              the effects of co-channel interference (interference on the same
  Standards for Medium- and High-Frequency Radio                  channel that is being used).
  Equipment. Establishes requirements and design objectives
  that ensure interoperability and specified levels of perfor-    ADAPTIVE SYSTEM A system that automatically adjusts its
  mance for HF radio equipment. Includes details about imple-     parameters to improve its performance in response to changing
  menting ALE systems, waveforms, signal structures,              conditions.
  protocols, and LQA.
                                                                  AGC (Automatic Gain Control) — Circuit employed to vary gain
• NATO STANAG 4285, Characteristics of 1200/2400/3600 bps         or amplifier in proportion to input signal strength so that output
  Single-Tone Modulators/Demodulators for HF Radio Links.         remains at a constant level.
  Defines the parameters that ensure interoperability between
  single-tone modems designed for communicating via HF radio      ALE (Automatic Link Establishment) — A technique that
  links at bit rates of 1200, 2400, or 3600 bps.                  permits radio stations to make contact with one another auto-
• NATO STANAG 4529, Modification of NATO STANAG 4285 to
  deliver data and voice in 1240 Hz bandwidth.                    AM (Amplitude Modulation) — A technique used to transmit
                                                                  information in which the amplitude of the radio frequency carrier
                                                                  is modulated by the audio input and the full carrier and both
                                                                  sidebands are transmitted.

                                                                  AME (Amplitude Modulation Equivalent) — A method of single
                                                                  sideband transmission where the carrier is reinserted to permit
                                                                  reception by conventional AM receivers.

                                                                  AMPLITUDE The peak-to-peak magnitude of a radio wave.

                                                                  ANTENNA COUPLER/TUNER A device between the trans-
                                                                  mitter and antenna that modifies the characteristics of the load
                                                                  presented to the transmitter so that it transfers maximum power
                                                                  to the antenna.

                              87                                                                  88
ANTENNA DIRECTIVE GAIN The ratio of radiation intensity in            BAUD A unit of signaling speed equal to the number of symbols,
a certain direction to the average radiation intensity.               i.e., discrete signal conditions per second.

ANTENNA POWER GAIN The ratio of radiated power in a                   BER (Bit Error Ratio) — The number of erroneous bits divided by
given direction to the antenna input power.                           the total number of bits communicated.

ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) — Data transmission tech-              BINARY Number system having base of 2, using only the
nique for error-free data transfer.                                   symbols 0 and 1.

ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange) —          BIT One binary digit (0 or 1).
The standard code for digital data interchange. ASCII uses a
coded character set consisting of a 7-bit coded character (8 bits     BLOS (Beyond Line-of-Sight) — Communications that occur over
including parity check).                                              a great distance.

ASYMMETRICAL KEY SYSTEM A key management system                       BROADBAND A term indicating the relative spectrum occu-
that allows two-way secure communications among all users             pancy of a signal as distinguished from a narrowband signal.
that have a public key and a private key.                             A broadband signal typically has a bandwidth in excess of twice
                                                                      the highest modulating frequency. Synonym: Wideband.
ASYNCHRONOUS A data communication system that adds
start-and-stop signal elements to the data for the purpose of         CARRIER A radio frequency signal that may be modulated with
synchronizing individual data characters or blocks.                   information signals.

ATMOSPHERIC NOISE Radio noise caused by natural atmospheric           CCIR (International Radio Consultative Committee) — An
processes (primarily by lightning discharges in thunderstorms).       organization of the International Telecommunications Union
                                                                      (ITU) that studies technical questions related to radio communi-
AUTOMATIC CHANNEL EQUALIZER A signal processing                       cations.
technique that improves data transmissions by compensating
for variations in the channel characteristics as data is received.    CHANNEL A unidirectional or bidirectional path for transmit-
                                                                      ting and/or receiving radio signals.
BANDPASS FILTER A filter that passes a limited band of frequen-
cies. It is used to remove noise and spurious signals generated in    CIPHER TEXT Encrypted data.
the exciter or output frequency harmonics from the power amplifier.
                                                                      COLLOCATION The act or result of placing or arranging side
BANDWIDTH The range of frequencies occupied by a given signal.        by side.

BASEBAND The frequency band occupied by a signal prior to             COMSEC (Communications Security) — Scrambling or crypto-
radio frequency carrier modulation or following demodulation.         graphic techniques that make information unintelligible to
                                                                      unauthorized persons.

                                89                                                                     90
COSMIC NOISE Random noise originating outside the earth’s              E LAYER The mid-level of the ionosphere which reaches
atmosphere.                                                            maximum ionization at noon. It begins dissipating toward sunset
                                                                       and reaches minimum activity at midnight. Irregular cloud-like
CRYPTOGRAPHY A COMSEC technique that translates                        formations of ionized gases occasionally occur in the E layer.
(encrypts) information into an apparently random message and
then interprets (deciphers) the random message by decryption.          EMI (Electromagnetic Interference) — An electromagnetic
                                                                       disturbance that degrades communications performance .
CW (Continuous Wave) — A radio wave of constant amplitude              Synonym: Radio Frequency Interference (RFI).
and constant frequency. Also, Morse code.
                                                                       ENCRYPTION Process of translating information into an appar-
D LAYER First layer in the ionosphere. Reaches maximum ioniza-         ently random message.
tion when the sun is at zenith and dissipates quickly toward sunset.
                                                                       ERP (Effective Radiated Power) — Equivalent power transmitted
dB ( Decibel) — The standard unit for expressing transmission          to the atmosphere, which is the product of the transmitter power
gain or loss and relative power ratios.                                output multiplied by the gain of the antenna.

DE-INTERLEAVING Process used by a demodulator to reverse               ERROR DETECTION An error correction technique that uses
interleaving and thus correct data transmission errors used in         binary code words to modify data messages by systematically
FEC coding.                                                            adding check bits to detect errors in received words.

DEMODULATION The process in which the original modu-                   EXCITER The part of the transmitter that generates the modu-
lating signal is recovered from a modulated carrier.                   lated signal for a radio transmitter.

DIPOLE ANTENNA A versatile antenna that is usually a wire              F LAYER The uppermost and most heavily ionized region of the
fed at the center of its length. Its orientation provides either       ionosphere. Important for long-haul communications, since this
horizontal or vertical polarization.                                   layer remains ionized even after sunset.

DIRECT WAVES Travel in straight line, becoming weaker as               FADING The variation of the amplitude and/or phase of a
distance increases.                                                    received signal due to changes in the propagation path with time.

DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA An antenna that has greater gain in                FEC (Forward Error Correction) — A system of error control for
one or more directions.                                                data transmission whereby the receiver can correct any code
                                                                       block that contains fewer than a fixed number of bits in error.
DSP (Digital Signal Processing) — A recently developed technology
that allows software to control digital electronic circuitry.          FM (Frequency Modulation) — A form of modulation where the
                                                                       frequency of a carrier varies in proportion to an audio modulating
DTMF (Dual-Tone-Multi-Frequency) — Refers to DTMF signaling,           signal.
which is typically used in telephone systems.

                                91                                                                    92
FOT (Frequency of Optimum Transmission) — The highest               AC current flow by a capacitor or an inductor. An ideal antenna
frequency predicted to be available for sky wave transmission for   coupler will act so as to cancel the reactive component of antenna
a given path and time for 85 percent of the maximum usable          impedance, i.e., by providing an equal inductive reactance if the
frequency (MUF).                                                    antenna has a capacitive reactance or an equal capacitive reac-
                                                                    tance if the antenna presents an inductive reactance.
FREQUENCT The number of completed cycles per second of a
signal, measured in hertz (Hz).                                     INCIDENT ANGLE The angle at which sky waves enter the
FREQUENCY HOPPING The rapid switching (hopping) of radio
system frequency for both the receiver and transceiver from         INTERLEAVING A technique that increases the effectiveness of
frequency to frequency in apparently random patterns, using a       FEC codes by randomizing the distribution of errors in communi-
common timing reference.                                            cation channels characterized by error bursts.

FSK (Frequency Shift Keying) — A form of modulation in which a      IONCAP (Ionospheric Communications Analysis and Prediction)
digital signal shifts the output frequency between discrete         — A popular and effective propagation prediction program that
values.                                                             predicts system performance at given times of day as a function
                                                                    of frequency for a given HF path and a specified complement of
GAIN The ratio of the value of an output parameter, such as         equipment.
power, to its input level. Usually expressed in decibels.
                                                                    IONOSPHERE A region of electrically charged particles or gases
GROUND REFLECTED WAVE The portion of the propagated                 in the earth’s atmosphere extending from 50 to 600 kilometers
wave that is reflected from the surface of the earth between the    (approximately 30 to 375 miles) above the earth’s surface.
transmitter and receiver.
                                                                    IONOSPHERIC SOUNDING An automated propagation predic-
GROUND WAVE A radio wave that is propagated over the                tion technique.
earth and ordinarily is affected by the presence of the ground.
                                                                    ISB (Independent Sideband) — Double sideband transmission in
HF (High Frequency) — Nominally, the band from 3 to 30 MHz; in      which the information carried by each sideband is different.
practice, the lower end of the HF band extends to 1.6 MHz.
                                                                    JAMMING Deliberate interference that results from transmis-
Hz (Hertz) — Basic unit for frequency.                              sion on operating frequencies with the intent to disrupt commu-
IF (Intermediate Frequency) — A frequency used within equip-
ment as an intermediate step in transmitting or receiving.          KEK (Key Encryption Key) — Used in digital encryption.

IMPEDANCE Opposition to current flow of a complex combina-          KEY A variable that changes the mathematical algorithm in
tion of resistance and reactance. Reactance is the opposition to    cryptography.

                               93                                                                  94
KEY GENERATOR A device or process that generates the vari-                MUF (Maximum Usable Frequency) — The upper limit for the
able for a cryptographic encoding system.                                 frequencies used at a specified time for radio transmission
                                                                          between two points via ionospheric propagation.
LOS (Line of Sight) — A term that refers to radio signal propaga-
tion in a straight line from the transmitter to a receiver without        MULTIPATH The propagation phenomenon that results in radio
refraction; generally extends to the visible horizon.                     signals reaching the receiving antenna by two or more paths.

LPD (Low Probability of Detection) — Techniques for minimizing            MULTIPATH SPREAD The range of timed differences that it takes
the probability that the transmitted signal is detected by an             for radio signals to reach the receiving antenna when they arrive
unauthorized party.                                                       from several routes, which may include one or more sky wave
                                                                          paths and/or a ground-wave path. The effect of multipath spread is
LPI (Low Probability of Intercept) — Techniques for minimizing            minimized by selecting a frequency as close as possible to the MUF.
the likelihood of the intelligence on a transmitted signal being
recovered by an unauthorized party.                                       NVIS (Near-Vertical Incidence Sky wave) — A technique for
                                                                          transmitting over relatively short ranges by ionospheric refrac-
LQA (Link Quality Analysis) — A technique for real-time channel           tion using very high incident angles.
evaluation in which radios measure and store values indicating
the relative quality of a radio link at different assigned frequencies.   OHM Unit of measurement of resistance. Its symbol is Ω.

LUF (Lowest Usable Frequency) — The lowest frequency in the               OMNIDIRECTIONAL ANTENNA An antenna whose pattern is
HF band at which the received field intensity is sufficient to            non-directional in azimuth.
provide the required signal-to-noise ratio.
                                                                          ON-OFF KEYING Turning the carrier on or off with telegraph
MAIN LOBE In an antenna radiation pattern, the lobe containing            key (Morse code). Same as CW.
the direction of maximum radiation intensity.
                                                                          OTAR (Over-The-Air-Rekeying) — This technique developed by
MFSK (Multi-tone Frequency Shift Keying).                                 Harris eliminates the need for manual loading of encryption keys
                                                                          and provides a more secure method of key management.
MODEM (MOdulator-DEmodulator) — A device that modulates
and demodulates signals. The modem converts digital signals               PARALLEL TONE MODEM Carries information on simulta-
into analog form for transmitting and converts the received               neous audio tones, where each tone is modulated at a low-
analog signals into digital form.                                         keying rate.

MODULATION The process, or result of the process, of varying              PHASE In a periodic process such as a radio wave, any possible
a characteristic of a carrier in accordance with a signal from an         distinguishable state of the wave.
information source.

                                 95                                                                       96
POLARIZATION The orientation of a wave relative to a refer-             SCRAMBLING A COMSEC technique that involves separating
ence plane. Usually expressed as horizontal or vertical in radio        the voice signal into a number of bands, shifting each band to a
wave terminology.                                                       different audio frequency range, and combining the resulting bands
                                                                        into a composite audio output that modulates the transmitter.
POWER AMPLIFIER The part of the transmitter that boosts the
output power of the radio signal to the desired wattage before          SERIAL TONE MODEM Carries digital information on a single
sending it to the transmitting antenna.                                 audio tone.

PREAMBLE A known sequence of bits sent at the start of a                SHORT WAVE Radio frequencies above 3 MHz.
message which the receiver uses to synchronize to its internal clock.
                                                                        SID (Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance) — Abnormally high
PROPAGATION The movement of radio frequency energy                      ionization densities caused by solar flares, resulting in a sudden
through the atmosphere.                                                 increase in radio wave absorption.

PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY A type of key management                        SIDEBAND The spectral energy, distributed above or below a
system used in the commercial sector. Under this standard, each         carrier, resulting from a modulation process.
user generates two keys, a public key and a private key. The
strength of such a system lies in the difficulty of deriving the        SKY WAVE A radio wave that is reflected by the ionosphere.
private key from the public key.
                                                                        SNR (Signal-to-Noise Ratio) — The ratio of the power in the
RADIATION PATTERN Pattern determined by an antenna’s                    desired signal to that of noise in a specified bandwidth.
design and strongly influenced by its location with respect to the
ground. Radiation patterns are frequency dependent.                     SOFT-DECISION DECODING An error-correction technique
                                                                        where a group of detected symbols that retain their analog char-
RAU (Remote Access Unit).                                               acter are compared against the set of possible transmitted code
                                                                        words. A weighing factor is applied to each symbol in the code
REFRACTION The bending of a radio wave as it passes                     word before a decision is made about which code word was
obliquely from one medium to another.                                   transmitted.

RMS (Root Mean Square).                                                 SPORADIC E Layer found in the E Layer of the ionosphere.
                                                                        Supports propagation of sky waves at the upper end of the HF
RTCE (Real-Time Channel Evaluation) — Techniques used to                band and beyond.
select frequencies, adjust data rates, or change modulation
schemes in adaptive radio systems.                                      SPREAD SPECTRUM A technique used to overcome deliberate
                                                                        radio communications interference, in which the modulated
SATCOM (Satellite Communications).                                      information is transmitted in a bandwidth considerably greater
                                                                        than the frequency content of the original information.

                                97                                                                      98
SSB (Single Sideband) — A modulation technique in which the        VERTICAL WHIP ANTENNA An omnidirectional antenna that
carrier and one sideband (upper or lower) are suppressed so that   has low take-off angles and vertical polarity.
all power is concentrated in the other sideband.
                                                                   VOCODER A device that converts sounds into a data stream
STORE AND FORWARD A technique where information is                 that can be sent over an HF channel. Short for voice coder-
stored until a communication link is established and then sent.    decoder.

SUNSPOT CYCLE Eleven-year cycle of sunspots which                  WAVELENGTH Distance between point on loop of wave to
generate bursts of radiation that increase levels of ionization.   corresponding point on adjacent wave.

SURFACE WAVES Travel along the surface of the earth and
may reach beyond the horizon.

SYMMETRIC KEY SYSTEM A key management system in
which the same key encrypts and decrypts data.

SYNCHRONOUS A form of data communications that uses a
preamble to alert the data receiver that a message is coming and
to allow it to synchronize to an internal bit clock.

TAKE-OFF ANGLE The angle between the axis of the main
lobe of an antenna pattern and the horizontal plane at the
transmitting antenna.

TEK (Traffic Encryption Key) — Used in digital encryption.

TIU (Telephone Interface Unit).

TRAFFIC The information moved over a communications

TRANSCEIVER Equipment using common circuits in order to
provide transmitting and receiving capability.

TRANSEC (Transmission Security) — Techniques that prevent
signal detection or jamming of the transmission path.

                                99                                                              100
  We hope this book is helpful in introducing you to the concepts
and benefits of HF radio technology. For more information, here’s
some recommended reading:
  Mayor, Jonathan L. (1992). The Radio Amateur’s Digital
  Communications Handbook. Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.:
  TAB Books.
  Laster, Clay. (1994). The Beginner’s Handbook of Amateur
  Radio. Blue Ridge Summit, Pa.: TAB Books
  Sabin, W. E. (1995) Single Sideband Systems and Circuit.
  New York, NY.: McGraw-Hill
  Schetgen, Robert (Ed.). The ARRL Handbook for Radio
  Amateurs, 1995. Newington, Conn.: Amateur Radio Relay
  Straw, Dean. The ARRL Antenna Book, 1995. Newington,
  Conn.: Amateur Radio Relay League

   We would appreciate your input. Did you enjoy this introduc-
tion? Did you find it interesting and informative? Would you like
to hear more about other radio products such as antennas or
multi-band radio? Our goal is to educate and inform you. Let us
know if we were successful!
To contact us:
  By Phone:      (716) 244-5830
                 Marketing Communications Manager
  By Mail:       Harris Corporation
                 RF Communications Division
                 1680 University Avenue
                 Rochester, New York 14610
  By Fax:        (716) 244-2917
  By Web: