Liquids/Liquid objects

(Redirected from Liquid objects)


Cyan is the color of clear water over a sandy beach. Credit: visualpanic from Barcelona.


A liquid (water) is imaged flowing out of a bottle. Credit: Walter J. Pilsak, Waldsassen, Germany.


Theoretical liquid objectsEdit

Def. a "substance that is flowing, and keeping no shape, such as water; a substance of which the molecules, while not tending to separate from one another like those of a gas, readily change their relative position, and which therefore retains no definite shape, except that determined by the containing receptacle; an inelastic fluid"[1] is called a liquid.

Def. any object consisting of at least 2 % by particle, or least divisible particle, number of liquids is called a liquid object.


"The dawn of the oil age was fairly recent. Although the stuff was used to waterproof boats in the Middle East 6,000 years ago, extracting it in earnest began only in 1859 after an oil strike in Pennsylvania. ... It was used to make kerosene, the main fuel for artificial lighting after overfishing led to a shortage of whale blubber. Other liquids produced in the refining process, too unstable or smoky for lamplight, were burned or dumped."[2]


Pudding is made in Denmark among other places on Earth. Credit: Janada.
The top image is the plum pudding model of atoms. In the bottom image are deflections. Credit: Fastfission.

Def. any "type of sauce made from milk and eggs (and usually sugar, and sometimes vanilla or other flavourings) and thickened by heat, served hot poured over desserts, as a filling for some pies and cakes, or cold and solidified"[3] is called a custard.

Def. a "type of dessert that has a texture similar to custard or mousse but using some kind of starch as the thickening agent"[4] is called a pudding.

For the determination of the elemental composition of liquid proteins microPIXE can quantify the metal content of protein molecules with a relative accuracy of between 10% and 20%.[5] In part by the X-ray emission from sulfur and the phosphate groups but excessive amounts of chlorine overlap with the sulfur peak; whereas KBr and NaBr do not.

In the image second down on the right, the top image is the plum pudding model of atoms undisturbed by penetrating protons. In the bottom image, some of the protons are deflected.


These are crystals of gallium melting from the heat of a human hand. Credit: Gadjitz.
The image shows a metal melt suspended within an electrically conducting coil. Credit: James Plafke.

Free electrons in vacuum can be influenced by electric and magnetic fields [so] as to form a fine beam. At the spot of collision of the beam with the particles of the solid-state matter, most portion of the kinetic energy of electrons is transferred into heat. The main advantage of this method is the possibility of very fast local heating, which can be precisely electronically (computer) controlled. The high concentration of power in a small volume of matter, which can be reached in this way results in very fast increase of temperature in the spot of impact causing the melting or even evaporation of any material, depending on working conditions. This makes the electron beam an excellent tool in many applications.

"Electron beams can be generated by thermionic emission, field emission or the anodic arc method. The generated electron beam is accelerated to a high kinetic energy and focused towards the [target]. When the accelerating voltage is between 20 kV – 25 kV and the beam current is a few amperes, 85% of the kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into thermal energy as the beam bombards the surface of the [target]. The surface temperature of the [target] increases resulting in the formation of a liquid melt. Although some of incident electron energy is lost in the excitation of X-rays and secondary emission, the liquid [target] material evaporates under vacuum."[6]

Any material can be melted by an electron beam in vacuum. This source of heat is absolutely clean, as well as the vacuum environment, so the purest materials can be produced in electron beam vacuum furnaces. For the production or refinement of rare and refractory metals the vacuum furnaces are of smaller volume, but for steels large furnaces with capacity in metric tons and electron beam power of megawatts are operated in industrialized countries.

"[W]e did not at all anticipate the nearly perfect liquid behavior."[7]


The second image down on the right shows the use of magnetic field induction heating to melt metal.



"Radioactive potassium [...] appears also to be a substantial source of heat in the Earth's core"[8]


Much "less potassium [occurs] in the Earth's crust and mantle than [is] expected based on the composition of rocky meteors that supposedly formed the Earth. If, as some have proposed, the missing potassium resides in the Earth's iron core, how did an element as light as potassium get there, especially since iron and potassium don't mix?"[8]


The "new alloy [is created] by squeezing iron and potassium between the tips of two diamonds [a diamond anvil] to temperatures and pressures characteristic of 600-700 kilometers below the surface - 2,500 degrees Celsius and nearly 4 million pounds per square inch, or a quarter of a million times atmospheric pressure."[8]

"Our new findings indicate that the core may contain as much as 1,200 parts per million potassium -just over one tenth of one percent."[9]



"More experiments need to be done to show that iron can actually pull potassium away from the silicate rocks that dominate in the Earth's mantle."[11]

"They proved it would be possible to dissolve potassium into liquid iron."[11]



"Early in Earth's history, the interior temperature and pressure would not have been high enough to make this alloy."[9]


"The Earth is thought to have formed from the collision of many rocky asteroids, perhaps hundreds of kilometers in diameter, in the early solar system. As the proto-Earth gradually bulked up, continuing asteroid collisions and gravitational collapse kept the planet molten. Heavier elements - in particular iron - would have sunk to the core in 10 to 100 million years' time, carrying with it other elements that bind to iron."[8]



Pure "iron and pure potassium [combined] in a diamond anvil cell [that] squeezed the small sample to 26 gigapascals of pressure while heating the sample with a laser above 2,500 Kelvin (4,000 degrees Fahrenheit), which is above the melting points of both potassium and iron. [Repeat] six times in the high-intensity X-ray beams of two different accelerators - Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory's Advanced Light Source and the Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory - to obtain X-ray diffraction images of the samples' internal structure. The images confirmed that potassium and iron had mixed evenly to form an alloy, much as iron and carbon mix to form steel alloy."[8]


"At these temperatures and pressures, the underlying physics changes and the electron density shifts, making potassium look more like iron."[12]

"At high pressure, the periodic table looks totally different."[12]



There are three requisites for a dynamo to occur and subsequently operate:

  • An electrically conductive fluid medium such as a plasma or liquid iron
  • local magnetohydrodynamic instabilities
  • An energy source to create the local magnetohydrodynamic instabilities and to drive mechanical turbulence, motion, or shear within the fluid.

In the case of the Earth, the magnetic field is induced and constantly maintained by the convection of liquid iron in the outer core. A requirement for the induction of field is a rotating fluid. Rotation in the outer core is supplied by the Coriolis effect caused by the rotation of the Earth. The Coriolis force tends to organize fluid motions and electric currents into columns aligned with the rotation axis. Induction or creation of magnetic field is described by the induction equation:


where u is a velocity, B is the magnetic field, t is time, and   is the magnetic diffusivity with   electrical conductivity and   permeability. The ratio of the second term on the right hand side to the first term gives the Magnetic Reynolds number, a dimensionless ratio of advection of a magnetic field to diffusion.

Tidal forces between celestial orbiting bodies causes friction that heats up the interiors of these orbiting bodies. This is known as tidal heating, and it helps create the liquid interior criteria, providing that this interior is conductive, that is required to produce a dynamo.



The image on the left uses a visual radiation detector to record a meteor collision with liquid water.

Def. "precipitation products of the condensation of atmospheric water vapour"[13] are called hydrometeors.



Def. "growth of a cloud or precipitation particle by the collision and union of a frozen particle (ice crystal or snowflake) with a super-cooled liquid droplet which freezes on impact"[15] is called accretion.


This image shows a late-summer rainstorm in Denmark. Credit: Malene Thyssen.

On the left is a late-summer rainstorm in Denmark. The nearly black color of the cloud's base indicates the foreground cloud is probably cumulonimbus.

The falling rain consists of water droplets.


"Apart from the scientific interest for fluid sciences and material sciences in space, the rotating liquid drops have high interest for cosmogony, geophysics and nuclear physics as well."[16]





Main sorption processes of adsorbate molecules and atoms at mineral-water interface are used to remediate contaminated sites and clean wastewaters. Credit: Alain Manceau.



"When solid or liquid objects formed in the early Solar System, either by condensation from the vapor phase or by melting and crystallization of preexisting material, each of these isotopic chronometers is expected to have been reset."[17]


Water occurs on land, composes the oceans, becomes ice and forms clouds. Credit: NASA, MODIS, USGS, and DMSP.

Def. the "science of the properties, distribution, and effects of water on a planet's surface, in the soil and underlying rocks, and in the atmosphere"[18] is called hydrology.


The discoveries of the locations of water may be thought of as geohydrology.


Increased thawing of frozen ground could create more thermokarst features, like this lake. Credit: Andrew Slater.

Hydromorphology is the science of the shapes and forms of water on Earth and other astronomical objects.


Def. "a lake occupying a closed depression formed by settlement of the ground following thawing of ice-rich permafrost or the melting of massive ice"[15] is called a thermokarst lake.


Various ways to divide the World Ocean is shown using a rotating series of maps. Credit: Quizimodo.
The image shows a blue sky, white clouds over a blue-green ocean on Earth. Credit: SKYLIGHTS.

Def. On Earth one "of the five large bodies of water separating the continents"[20] is called an ocean.


This diagram depicts the Earth's thermohaline circulation. Credit: Robert Simmon, NASA. Minor modifications by Robert A. Rohde.



This image is a plot showing the magnitude of the magnetic field of Mercury. Credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington.

"This plot [at right] shows the measured magnitude of the magnetic field of Mercury as MESSENGER executed its first flyby of that planet. MESSENGER's Magnetometer (MAG) provided definitive identification of all boundaries of the Mercury magnetosphere system, consistent with the observations made with the Fast Imaging Plasma Spectrometer (FIPS) on the Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer (EPPS) instrument, and revealed a much more quiescent system than was seen during the first Mariner 10 flyby. This state of the system was also consistent with the absence of energetic particles as documented by the Energetic Particle Spectrometer (EPS) portion of MESSENGER's EPPS instrument. Mercury lacks radiations belts similar to the Van Allen belts at the Earth discovered by James Van Allen with a simple particle experiment on Explorer I launched 50 years ago."[21]

Mercury, despite its small size, has a magnetic field [see image and plot at right], because it has a conductive liquid core created by its iron composition and friction resulting from its highly elliptical orbit.

"Mercury’s core, already suspected to occupy a greater fraction of the planet's interior than do the cores of Earth, Venus, or Mars, is even larger than anticipated."[22]

The "elevation ranges on Mercury are much smaller than on Mars or the Moon and documents evidence that there have been large-scale changes to Mercury’s topography since the earliest phases of the planet’s geological history."[22]


"MESSENGER’s radio tracking has allowed the scientific team to develop the first precise model of Mercury’s gravity field which, when combined with topographic data and the planet’s spin state, sheds light on the planet’s internal structure, the thickness of its crust, the size and state of its core, and its tectonic and thermal history."[22]

"Mercury’s core occupies a large fraction of the planet, about 85% of the planetary radius, even larger than previous estimates. Because of the planet’s small size, at one time many scientists thought the interior should have cooled to the point that the core would be solid. However, subtle dynamical motions measured from Earth-based radar, combined with MESSENGER’s newly measured parameters of the gravity field and the characteristics of Mercury’s internal magnetic field that signify an active core dynamo, indicate that the planet’s core is at least partially liquid."[22]


"Energetic and magnetostrophic balance arguments show that a dynamo source for Mercury's observed magnetic field is problematic if one expects an Earth-like partitioning of toroidal and poloidal fields."[23]

But, a thin shell dynamo model is consistent with the observed weak magnetic field.[23]

From "the ratio of the dipole field at the core-mantle boundary to the toroidal field in the core for various shell thicknesses and Rayleigh numbers[...] some thin shell dynamos can produce magnetic fields with Mercury-like dipolar field intensities. In these dynamos, the toroidal field is produced more efficiently through differential rotation than the poloidal field is produced through upwellings interacting with the toroidal field. The poloidal field is also dominated by smaller-scale structure which was not observable by the Mariner 10 mission, compared to the dipole field."[23]


"Venus and the Earth have similar radii and estimated bulk compositions, and both possess an iron core that is at least partially liquid. However, despite these similarities, Venus lacks an appreciable dipolar magnetic field."[24]

This "absence is due to Venus’s also lacking plate tectonics for the past 0.5 b.y. (1 b.y.=109 yr). The generation of a global magnetic field requires core convection, which in turn requires extraction of heat from the core into the overlying mantle. Plate tectonics cools the Earth’s mantle; on the basis of elastic thickness estimates and convection models, [...] the mantle temperature on Venus is currently increasing. This heating will reduce the heat flux out of the core to zero over ~1 b.y., halting core convection and magnetic field generation. If plate tectonics was operating on Venus prior to ca. 0.5 Ga, a magnetic field may also have existed. On Earth, the geodynamo may be a consequence of plate tectonics; this connection between near-surface processes and core magnetism may also be relevant to the generation of magnetic fields on Mars, Mercury and Ganymede."[24]

The lack of an appreciable Earth-like dipolar magnetic field "cannot be explained by the planet's slow rotation".[24]

In "the absence of plate tectonics, the mantle on Venus cannot cool rapidly enough to drive core convection and a geodynamo."[24]

"Planetary magnetic fields are produced by motion in a conductor, usually the planet’s iron core. Such motion may be due to either thermal convection or compositional convection, driven by core solidification".[24]

"The maximum heat flux that can be extracted from the core without thermal convection is given by"[24]


"where k and α are the thermal conductivity and expansivity, g is the acceleration due to gravity, T is the core temperature, and Cp is the specific hear capacity. [...] Fc is in the range 11-30 mW·m-2. Thermal convection will cease if the heat being extracted from the core is less than Fc; in the absence of core solidification, the geodynamo will halt. Compositional convection may continue [...], but will certainly halt if the heat flux out of the core drops to zero or below (i.e., the core starts heating up). The rate at which the core loses heat is controlled by the temperature difference between core and mantle and, thus, on the rate at which the mantle is cooling".[24]


The image shows Wallace's geographic distribution of living things. Credit: Alfred Russel Wallace.




"Why are their essays and books about the endangered earth so monological -- that is, a conversation of a dominant group talking to itself?"[27]

Referring to the second image down on the right, "Despite differences between coastal and pelagic waters, and the differences both in the isolation techniques used and in the scale, the same major phylogenetic groups have been identified as being dominant in both these environments; however, in the larger scale study, a total of 16 major taxa were detected and in the open ocean Cyanobacteria were a dominant group."[28]



"This is a very different way of powering a dynamo that involves physical stirring, like stirring a bowl with a giant spoon."[30]




"The further out the moon moves, the slower the stirring, and at a certain point the lunar dynamo shuts off."[30]




"Only certain types of fluid motions give rise to magnetic dynamos."[30]


Interplanetary mediumEdit

"For specific cosmogonic details the most important piece of Mesopotamian literature is the Babylonian epic story of creation, Enuma Elish (ibid., 60–72). Here, as in Genesis, the priority of water is taken for granted, i.e., the primeval chaos consisted of a watery abyss. The name for this watery abyss, part of which is personified by the goddess Tiamat, is the etymological equivalent of the Hebrew tehom (Gen. 1:2), a proper name that always appears in the Bible without the definite article. (It should be noted, however, that whereas "Tiamat" is the name of a primal generative force, tehom is merely a poetic term for a lifeless mass of water.) In both Genesis (1:6–7) and Enuma Elish (4:137–40) the creation of heaven and earth resulted from the separation of the waters by a firmament. The existence of day and night precedes the creation of the luminous bodies (Gen. 1:5, 8, 13, and 14ff.; Enuma Elish 1:38)."[32]


This is a top down view of Olympus Mons, the Solar system's largest known volcano. Credit: .

The shield volcano, Olympus Mons [shown in the second image at right] (Mount Olympus), at 27 km is the second highest known mountain in the Solar System.[33] It is an extinct volcano in the vast upland region Tharsis, which contains several other large volcanoes. Olympus Mons is over three times the height of Mount Everest, which in comparison stands at just over 8.8 km.[34]


This rendering of Europa shows the temperature field in a simulation of the icy moon's global ocean dynamics, where hot plumes (red) rise from the seafloor and cool fluid (blue) sinks down from the ice-ocean border. Credit: K. M. Soderlund/NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.
This rendering of Jupiter's icy moon Europa shows so-called isosurfaces of warmer (red) and cooler (blue) temperatures in a simulation of Europa’s global ocean dynamics. Credit: J. Wicht/NASA/JPL/University of Arizona.

"This rendering [at the right] of Europa shows the temperature field in a simulation of the icy Jupiter moon's global ocean dynamics, where hot plumes (red) rise from the seafloor and cool fluid (blue) sinks down from the ice-ocean border. More heat is delivered to the ice shell near the equator, consistent with the distribution of chaos terrains on Europa."[35]

"This rendering [at the left] of Jupiter's icy moon Europa shows so-called isosurfaces of warmer (red) and cooler (blue) temperatures in a simulation of Europa’s global ocean dynamics. More heat is delivered to the ice shell near the equator where convection is more vigorous, consistent with the distribution of chaos terrains on Europa."[36]


With "a diameter only slightly more than 300 miles, Enceladus just doesn’t have the bulk needed for its interior to stay warm enough to maintain liquid water underground."[37]






"However, they don't exactly match."[38]


"Enceladus' wobble, technically called "libration," is barely noticeable."[37]

"Cassini observations have ruled out a wobble greater than about 2 degrees with respect to Enceladus' uniform rotation rate."[38]

A "computer simulation [...] made maps of the surface stress on Enceladus for various wobbles, and found a range where the areas of greatest stress line up better with the observed warmest zones."[37]



"The wobble is probably caused by Enceladus' uneven shape."[37]

"Enceladus is not completely spherical, so as it moves in its orbit, the pull of Saturn's gravity generates a net torque that forces the moon to wobble." [38]





VY Canis MajorisEdit













Scintillation neutron detectors include liquid organic scintillators,[43] crystals,[44][45] plastics, glass[46] and scintillation fibers.[47]


  1. Liquid objects are more common by a factor of two than previously realized.

See alsoEdit


  1. liquid. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. September 21, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  2. "Yesterday’s fuel". The Economist 408 (8847). August 3, 2013. Retrieved 2013-09-30. 
  3. Paul G (1 December 2005). custard. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. Retrieved 2015-04-23. 
  4. pudding. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 11 March 2015. Retrieved 2015-04-23. 
  5. EF Garman; GW Grime. "Elemental analysis of proteins by microPIXE". Progress in biophysics and molecular biology 89 (2): 173–205. doi:10.1016/j.pbiomolbio.2004.09.005. PMID 2005 15910917 2005. 
  6. Dgray (January 17, 2008). Materials Science and Engineering/Doctoral review questions/Daily Discussion Topics/01162008, In: Wikiversity. Retrieved 2013-07-21. 
  7. 7.0 7.1 Steven Vigdor (June 26, 2012). Atom Smasher Sets Guinness Record for Hottest Man-Made Temperature. Livecience. Retrieved 2013-11-01. 
  8. 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6 8.7 8.8 8.9 Robert Sanders (December 10, 2003). Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core. Berkeley, Californis USA: University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  9. 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 Kanani Lee (December 10, 2003). Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core. Berkeley, Californis USA: University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  10. 10.0 10.1 10.2 Mark Bukowinski (December 10, 2003). Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core. Berkeley, Californis USA: University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  11. 11.0 11.1 11.2 Bruce Buffett (December 10, 2003). Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core. Berkeley, Californis USA: University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  12. 12.0 12.1 12.2 Raymond Jeanloz (December 10, 2003). Radioactive potassium may be major heat source in Earth's core. Berkeley, Californis USA: University of California Berkeley. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  13. hydrometeor. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. July 7, 2012. Retrieved 2013-02-15. 
  14. Mark R. Mireles; Kirth L. Pederson; Charles H. Elford (February 21, 2007). Meteorologial Techniques. Offutt Air Force Base, Nebraska, USA: Air Force Weather Agency/DNT. Retrieved 2013-02-17. 
  15. 15.0 15.1 Jane Beitler (2014). All About Snow. National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2014-09-17. 
  16. Xu Shuochang (1992). Ing. Hans Josef Rath. ed. Applications of bifurcation theory to the problem of rotating liquid drops in space, In: Microgravity Fluid Mechanics. Berlin: Springer. pp. 315-23. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-50091-6_34. ISBN 978-3-642-50093-0. Retrieved 2013-12-22. 
  17. Donald D. Bogard (May 1995). "Impact ages of meteorites: A synthesis". Meteoritics 30 (05): 244-68. Retrieved 2013-08-02. 
  18. hydrology, In: Wiktionary. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 4 December 2014. Retrieved 2015-01-04. 
  20. ocean. San Francisco, California: Wikimedia Foundation, Inc. 9 December 2014. Retrieved 2014-12-16. 
  21. JHU/APL (January 30, 2008). Mercury's Magnetic Field. Baltimore, Maryland USA: Johns Hopkins University. Retrieved 2014-03-29. 
  22. 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 Sean C. Solomon (March 21, 2011). Mercury’s Surprising Core and Landscape Curiosities. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA: Carnegie Institution for Science.’s_surprising_core_and_landscape_curiosities. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  23. 23.0 23.1 23.2 Sabine Stanley; Jeremy Bloxham; William E. Hutchison; Maria T. Zuber (May 2005). "Thin shell dynamo models consistent with Mercury's weak observed magnetic field". Earth and Planetary Science Letters 234 (1-2): 27-38. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2005.02.040. Retrieved 2014-03-29. 
  24. 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 24.4 24.5 24.6 Francis Nimmo (November 2002). "Why does Venus lack a magnetic field?". Geology 30 (11): 987-90. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2002)030<0987:WDVLAM>2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 2014-03-29. 
  25. Robert Simmon; Marit Jentoft-Nilsen (October 2, 2010). The Water Planet. Washington, DC USA: NASA. Retrieved 2013-05-29. 
  27. James H. Cone (March 22, 2000). "Whose earth is it anyway?". Cross Currents (Spring-Summer). Retrieved 2012-02-10. 
  28. Alan C Ward; Nagamani Bora (June 2006). "Diversity and biogeography of marine actinobacteria". Current Opinion in Microbiology 9 (3): 279-86. doi:10.1016/j.mib.2006.04.004. Retrieved 2011-12-30. 
  29. 29.0 29.1 29.2 29.3 Tim Stephens (November 9, 2011). Ancient lunar dynamo may explain magnetized moon rocks. Santa Cruz, California USA: University of California Santa Cruz. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  30. 30.0 30.1 30.2 30.3 Christina Dwyer (November 9, 2011). Ancient lunar dynamo may explain magnetized moon rocks. Santa Cruz, California USA: University of California Santa Cruz. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  31. 31.0 31.1 Francis Nimmo (November 9, 2011). Ancient lunar dynamo may explain magnetized moon rocks. Santa Cruz, California USA: University of California Santa Cruz. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  32. Opensourcejunkie (March 19, 2008). Study of Genesis/Genesis as a Myth. Retrieved 2013-03-04. 
  33. Craig Glenday (2009). Guinness World Records. Random House, Inc.. p. 12. ISBN 0-553-59256-4. 
  34. Junyong Chen, et al. (2006). "Progress in technology for the 2005 height determination of Qomolangma Feng (Mt. Everest)". Science in China Series D: Earth Sciences 49 (5): 531–8. doi:10.1007/s11430-006-0531-1. 
  35. Charles Q. Choi (December 9, 2013). Hidden Oceans on Jupiter's Icy Moon Europa May Explain Strange Terrain. Retrieved 2014-06-11. 
  36. J. Wicht (December 9, 2013). Hidden Oceans on Jupiter's Icy Moon Europa May Explain Strange Terrain. Retrieved 2014-06-11. 
  37. 37.00 37.01 37.02 37.03 37.04 37.05 37.06 37.07 37.08 37.09 37.10 Bill Steigerwald (October 6, 2010). Saturn's Icy Moon May Keep Oceans Liquid with Wobble. Greenbelt, Maryland USA: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  38. 38.0 38.1 38.2 38.3 38.4 Terry Hurford (October 6, 2010). Saturn's Icy Moon May Keep Oceans Liquid with Wobble. Greenbelt, Maryland USA: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center. Retrieved 2014-03-28. 
  40. Pierre-Marie Robitaille (April 15, 2011). "Liquid Metallic Hydrogen: Building Block of a Liquid Sun". Bulletin of the American Physical Society 56 (3): Abstract ID: BAPS.2011.OSS.D4.5. Retrieved 2013-07-16. 
  41. 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 M. Groenewegen (November 27, 2009). SPIRE spectrum of VY Canis Majoris. Pasadena, California USA: Caltech. Retrieved 2014-03-12. 
  45. Example crystal scintillator based neutron monitor.
  46. Bollinger, L.M.; Thomas, G.E.; Ginther, R.J. (1962). "Neutron Detection With Glass Scintillators". Nuclear Instruments and Methods 17: 97–116. 

External linksEdit

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