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biology ： ウィキペディア英語版

(詳細はbiology'' is derived from the Greek word , ''bios'', "life" and the suffix , ''-logia'', "study of."〔(【引用サイトリンク】title=Who coined the term biology? )〕〔(【引用サイトリンク】url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=biology&allowed_in_frame=0 )〕 The Latin form of the term first appeared in 1736 when Swedish scientist Carl Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) used ''biologi'' in his ''Bibliotheca botanica''. It was used again in 1766 in a work entitled ''Philosophiae naturalis sive physicae: tomus III, continens geologian, biologian, phytologian generalis'', by Michael Christoph Hanov, a disciple of Christian Wolff. The first German use, ''Biologie'', was in a 1771 translation of Linnaeus' work. In 1797, Theodor Georg August Roose used the term in a book, ''Grundzüge der Lehre van der Lebenskraft'', in the preface. Karl Friedrich Burdach used the term in 1800 in a more restricted sense of the study of human beings from a morphological, physiological and psychological perspective (''Propädeutik zum Studien der gesammten Heilkunst''). The term came into its modern usage with the six-volume treatise ''Biologie, oder Philosophie der lebenden Natur'' (1802–22) by Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, who announced:
:The objects of our research will be the different forms and manifestations of life, the conditions and laws under which these phenomena occur, and the causes through which they have been effected. The science that concerns itself with these objects we will indicate by the name biology () or the doctrine of life ().
Scholars of the medieval Islamic world who wrote on biology included al-Jahiz (781–869), Al-Dīnawarī (828–896), who wrote on botany, and Rhazes (865–925) who wrote on anatomy and physiology. Medicine was especially well studied by Islamic scholars working in Greek philosopher traditions, while natural history drew heavily on Aristotelian thought, especially in upholding a fixed hierarchy of life.
Advances in microscopy also had a profound impact on biological thinking. In the early 19th century, a number of biologists pointed to the central importance of the cell. Then, in 1838, Schleiden and Schwann began promoting the now universal ideas that (1) the basic unit of organisms is the cell and (2) that individual cells have all the characteristics of life, although they opposed the idea that (3) all cells come from the division of other cells. Thanks to the work of Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow, however, by the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known as cell theory.〔Sapp, Jan (2003) ''Genesis: The Evolution of Biology'', Ch. 7. Oxford University Press: New York. ISBN 0-19-515618-8〕〔Coleman, William (1977) ''Biology in the Nineteenth Century: Problems of Form, Function, and Transformation'', Ch. 2. Cambridge University Press: New York. ISBN 0-521-29293-X〕
Meanwhile, taxonomy and classification became the focus of natural historians. Carl Linnaeus published a basic taxonomy for the natural world in 1735 (variations of which have been in use ever since), and in the 1750s introduced scientific names for all his species.〔Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', chapter 4〕 Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, treated species as artificial categories and living forms as malleable—even suggesting the possibility of common descent. Though he was opposed to evolution, Buffon is a key figure in the history of evolutionary thought; his work influenced the evolutionary theories of both Lamarck and Darwin.〔Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', chapter 7〕
Serious evolutionary thinking originated with the works of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who was the first to present a coherent theory of evolution.〔Gould, Stephen Jay. ''The Structure of Evolutionary Theory''. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, 2002. ISBN 0-674-00613-5. p. 187.〕 He posited that evolution was the result of environmental stress on properties of animals, meaning that the more frequently and rigorously an organ was used, the more complex and efficient it would become, thus adapting the animal to its environment. Lamarck believed that these acquired traits could then be passed on to the animal's offspring, who would further develop and perfect them.〔Lamarck (1914)〕 However, it was the British naturalist Charles Darwin, combining the biogeographical approach of Humboldt, the uniformitarian geology of Lyell, Malthus's writings on population growth, and his own morphological expertise and extensive natural observations, who forged a more successful evolutionary theory based on natural selection; similar reasoning and evidence led Alfred Russel Wallace to independently reach the same conclusions.〔Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', chapter 10: "Darwin's evidence for evolution and common descent"; and chapter 11: "The causation of evolution: natural selection"〕 Although it was the subject of controversy (which continues to this day), Darwin's theory quickly spread through the scientific community and soon became a central axiom of the rapidly developing science of biology.


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