Juris Doctor

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The Juris Doctor (J.D.) is a professional doctorate[1][2][3][4][5][6] and first professional[7][8] graduate degree[9][10][11] in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, and other common law countries. Many who hold the degree of Juris Doctor are professionals committed to the practice of law, and may choose to focus their practice on criminal law, personal injury, family law, corporate law, and/or a wide range of other areas.

The majority of individuals holding a J.D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions.[12][13][14][15] While individuals holding a J.D. are generally known as lawyers, those professionals who pass a required bar examination are generally known as attorneys.[16] Even though not all J.D. holders choose to take and pass a bar exam, those who elect not to take the exam or are otherwise not admitted to the bar are still known as lawyers based on the education they have received and the degree that has been conferred upon them.[16] Likewise, those attorneys who once were admitted to the practice of law and otherwise lost their admission to the bar of a particular place, whether voluntarily or otherwise, may still be referred to as lawyers so long as they hold the degree of Juris Doctor.[16]


Etymology and abbreviations[edit]

In the United States, the professional doctorate in law may be conferred in Latin or in English, as Juris Doctor, and at some law schools "Doctor of Law" (JD or J.D.), or Doctor of Jurisprudence (DJur or D.Jur.), respectively. "Juris Doctor" literally means "Teacher of Law", while the Latin for "Doctor of Jurisprudence"—Jurisprudentiae Doctor—literally means "Teacher of Legal Knowledge".

Invariably an earned doctorate, the J.D./D.Jur. is equivalent in academic rank to the Doctor of Laws or Legum Doctor (LLD or LL.D.). However, while the LL.D. remains an earned doctorate in Ireland and many Commonwealth countries, it is invariably an honorary degree in the United States.[20][21]

Historical context[edit]

Origins of the law degree[edit]

In Europe the first academic degrees were law degrees, and the law degrees were doctorates.[22][23][24] The foundations of the first universities were the glossators of the 11th century, which were schools of law.[25] The first university, that of Bologna, was founded as a school of law by four famous legal scholars in the 11th century who were students of the glossolalia school in that city. The University of Bologna served as the model for other law schools of the medieval age.[26]

The history of legal training in England[edit]



In England in 1292 when Edward I first requested that lawyers be trained, students merely sat in the courts and observed, but over time the students would hire professionals to lecture them in their residences, which led to the institution of the Inns of Court system.[30] The original method of education at the Inns of Court was a mix of moot court-like practice and lecture, as well as court proceedings observation.[31] By the fifteenth century, the Inns functioned like a university akin to the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge, though very specialized in purpose.[32] With the frequent absence of parties to suits during the Crusades, the importance of the lawyer role grew tremendously, and the demand for lawyers grew.[33]

Traditionally Oxford and Cambridge did not see common law as worthy of study, and included coursework in law only in the context of canon and civil law and for the purpose of the study of philosophy or history only. The apprenticeship program for solicitors thus emerged, structured and governed by the same rules as the apprenticeship programs for the trades.[34] The training of solicitors by apprenticeship was formally established by an act of parliament in 1729.[35] William Blackstone became the first lecturer in English common law at the University of Oxford in 1753, but the university did not establish the program for the purpose of professional study, and the lectures were very philosophical and theoretical in nature.[35] Blackstone insisted that the study of law should be university based, where concentration on foundational principles can be had, instead of concentration on detail and procedure had through apprenticeship and the Inns of Court.[36]




Initially in the United States the legal professionals were trained and imported from England.[39] A formal apprenticeship or clerkship program was established first in New York in 1730—at that time a seven-year clerkship was required, and in 1756 a four-year college degree was required in addition to five years of clerking and an examination.[40] Later the requirements were reduced to require only two years of college education.[40] But a system like the Inns did not develop, and a college education was not required in England until the 19th century, so this system was unique.



In time, the apprenticeship program was not considered sufficient to produce lawyers fully capable of serving their clients' needs.[44] The apprenticeship programs often employed the trainee with menial tasks, and while they were well trained in the day-to-day operations of a law office, they were generally unprepared practitioners or legal reasoners.[45] The establishment of formal faculties of law in U.S. universities did not occur until the latter part of the 18th century.[46] With the beginning of the American Revolution, the supply of lawyers from Britain ended. The first law degree granted by a U.S. university was a Bachelor of Law in 1793 by the College of William and Mary, which was abbreviated L.B.; Harvard was the first university to use the LL.B. abbreviation in the United States.[47]

The first university law programs in the United States, such as that of the University of Maryland established in 1812, included much theoretical and philosophical study, including works such as the Bible, Cicero, Seneca, Aristotle, Adam Smith, Montesquieu and Grotius.[48] It has been said that the early university law schools of the early 19th century seemed to be preparing students for careers as statesmen rather than as lawyers.[49] At the LL.B. programs in the early 1900s at Stanford University and Yale continued to include "cultural study," which included courses in languages, mathematics and economics.[50]

In the 1850s there were many proprietary schools which originated from a practitioner taking on multiple apprentices and establishing a school and which provided a practical legal education, as opposed to the one offered in the universities which offered an education in the theory, history and philosophy of law.[51] The universities assumed that the acquisition of skills would happen in practice, while the proprietary schools concentrated on the practical skills during education.[51]

Revolutionary approach: Scientific study of law[edit]


In part to compete with the small professional law schools, there began a great change in U.S. university legal education. For a short time beginning in 1826 Yale began to offer a complete "practitioners' course" which lasted two years and included practical courses, such as pleading drafting.[52] U.S. Supreme Court justice Joseph Story started the spirit of change in legal education at Harvard when he advocated a more "scientific study" of the law in the 19th century.[53] At the time he was a lecturer at Harvard. Therefore at Harvard the education was much of a trade school type of approach to legal education, contrary to the more liberal arts education advocated by Blackstone at Oxford and Jefferson at William and Mary.[54] Nonetheless there continued to be debate among educators over whether legal education should be more vocational, as at the private law schools, or through a rigorous scientific method, such as that developed by Story and Langdell.[55][56] In the words of Dorsey Ellis, "Langdell viewed law as a science and the law library as the laboratory, with the cases providing the basis for learning those 'principles or doctrines' of which law, considered as a science, consists.'"[57] Nonetheless, into the year 1900 most states did not require a university education (although an apprenticeship was often required) and most practitioners had not attended any law school or college.[54]

Therefore, the modern legal education system in the U.S. is a combination of teaching law as a science and a practical skill,[58] implementing elements such as clinical training, which has become an essential part of legal education in the U.S. and in the J.D. program of study.[59]



Legal education in the United States[edit]

Professional doctorates were developed in the United States in the 19th century, the first being the Doctor of Medicine in 1807,[60] but the professional law degree took more time. At the time the legal system in the United States was still in development as the educational institutions were developing. The status of the legal profession was at that time still ambiguous, therefore the development of the legal degree took much time.[61] Even when some universities offered training in law, they did not offer a degree.[61] Because in the United States there were no Inns of Court, and the English academic degrees did not provide the necessary professional training, the models from England were inapplicable, and the degree program took some time to develop.[62] At first the degree took the form of a B.L. (such as at the College of William and Mary), but then Harvard, keen on importing legitimacy through the trappings of Oxford and Cambridge, implemented an LL.B. degree.[63] This was somewhat controversial at the time because it was a professional training without any of the cultural or classical studies required of a bachelors degree in England.[64] Thus, even though the name of the English LL.B. degree was implemented at Harvard, the program in the U.S. was nonetheless intended as practical or professional training, and not, as in England, merely a bachelor of arts denoting a specialization in law.[65]

Creation of the Juris Doctor[edit]




Major common law approaches[edit]

The English legal system is the root of the systems of other common-law countries, such as the United States. Originally common lawyers in England were trained exclusively in the Inns of Court, but even though it took nearly 150 years since common law education began with Blackstone at Oxford for university education to be part of legal training in England and Wales, eventually the LL.B. became the degree usually taken before becoming a lawyer. Nonetheless, in England and Wales the LL.B. is an undergraduate scholarly program and does not provide all of the training required before becoming licensed in that jurisdiction.[72] Both barristers and solicitors must undertake two further periods of training (the Bar Professional Training Course, BPTC and pupillage for barristers and the LPC followed by a training contract for solicitors).

The bachelor's degree originated at the University of Paris, which system was implemented at Oxford and Cambridge.[73] The "arts" designation of the degree traditionally signifies that the student has undertaken a certain amount of study of the classics.[74] On continental Europe the bachelor's degree was phased out in the 18th or early 19th century but it continued at Oxford and Cambridge. Today Oxford offers the bachelor's degree in law (B.C.L.) as a second entry program, contrary to the practice of all other English universities. Cambridge followed the same practice until relatively recently, renaming its LL.B. degree as LL.M. in 1982.[75]

Because the English legal education is undergraduate and provides a general education (retaining some of the characteristics of the liberal arts degree advocated by Blackstone) a great number of the graduates have no intention of becoming solicitors or barristers.[76] The approach of the English degree can be seen in the required curriculum, in which there is no study of civil procedure, and relatively few courses in advanced law such as business entities, bankruptcy, evidence, family law, etc.[dubious ][77] There has been a trend in the past twenty years in England to introduce more professionally relevant courses in the curriculum, particularly in "qualifying law degrees," and the law school has taken a more central role in the preparation of lawyers in England,[77] but the degree is still more scholarly or academic than those in North America. This is also the case for other common law jurisdictions such as in Australia, India and Hong Kong.


Modern variants and curriculum[edit]

Legal education is rooted in the history and structure of the legal system of the jurisdiction where the education is given, therefore law degrees are vastly different from country to country, making comparisons among degrees problematic.[80] This has proven true in the context of the various forms of the J.D. which have been implemented around the world.

Until about 1997 the J.D. was unique to law schools in the U.S. But with the rise in international success of law firms from the United States, and the rise in students from outside the U.S. attending U.S. law schools, attorneys with the J.D. have become increasingly common internationally.[81] Therefore the prestige of the J.D. has also risen, and many universities outside of the U.S. have started to offer the J.D., often for the express purpose of raising the prestige of their law school and graduates.[81] Such institutions usually aim to appropriate the name of the degree only, and sometimes the new J.D. program of study is the same as that of their traditional law degree, which is usually more scholarly in purpose than the professional training intended with the J.D. as created in the U.S. Various characteristics can therefore be seen among J.D. degrees as implemented in universities around the world.

Comparisons of J.D. Variants[82]
Jurisdiction Scholarly Content Required? Duration in Years Different curriculum from LL.B. in Jurisdiction? Sufficient Education for License?
United States No 3 No Yes
Australia Yes 3 No No
Canada Yes 3 No No
Hong Kong Yes 2–3 No No
Singapore Yes 2–3 No No[83]
Japan No 2–3 Yes No
Philippines Yes 4 Yes Yes

Types and characteristics[edit]


Standard Juris Doctor curriculum[edit]


Replacement for the LL.B.[edit]

Canadian and Australian universities have law programs that are very similar to the J.D. programs in the United States. These include the University of British Columbia, University of Alberta, University of Victoria, Université de Moncton, University of Calgary, University of Saskatchewan, University of Manitoba, University of Windsor, University of Ottawa, the Osgoode Hall Law School[86] and University of Toronto Law School[87] in Canada, and the University of Melbourne in Australia.[11] Therefore, when the J.D. program was introduced at these institutions, it was a mere renaming of their second-entry LL.B. program and entailed no significant substantive changes to their curricula.[88] The reason given for doing so is because of the international popularity and recognizability of the J.D., and the need to recognize the demanding graduate characteristics of the program.[89] Because these programs are in institutions heavily influenced by those in the UK, the J.D. programs often have some small scholarly element (see chart above, entitled "Comparisons of J.D. Variants"). And because the legal systems are also influenced by that of the UK, an apprenticeship is still required before being qualified to apply for a license to practice (see country sections below, under "Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.").

Descriptions of the J.D. outside the U.S.[edit]




The Juris Doctor is a graduate entry first professional degree, however, despite the naming of the degree, in Australia it is not considered to be a doctoral degree. According to the Australian Qualifications Framework, the J.D. is categorised as a level 9, Masters Degree (extended). This is similar to other graduate entry first professional degrees which are now in Australia such as the Doctor of Medicine.


The J.D. degree, a professional undergraduate degree,[90][91][92][93] is the dominant law degree in Canada, replacing the traditional LL.B. degree prominent in Commonwealth countries.[94] The University of Toronto became the first to rename its law degree from LL.B. to J.D. in 2001. Students typically support the renaming as they wish to deter potential employers in the United States and elsewhere from believing that they possess undergraduate degrees in law.[95] As with the second-entry LL.B., in order to be admitted to a Juris Doctor program, applicants must have completed a minimum of 2 or 3 years of study toward a Bachelor's degree and scored high on the North American Law School Admission Test.[96] As a practical matter, nearly all successful applicants have completed one or more degrees before admission to a Canadian common law school.[97] All Canadian Juris Doctor programs consist of three years, and have similar content in their mandatory first year courses. The mandatory first year courses in Canadian law schools outside Quebec include public law (i.e. provincial law, constitutional law, and administrative law), property law, tort law, contract law, criminal law, and legal research and writing.[98] Beyond first year and other courses required for graduation, course selection is elective with various concentrations such as commercial and corporate law, taxation, international law, natural resources law, real estate transactions, employment law, criminal law, and Aboriginal law.[99] After graduation from an accredited law school, each province's or territory's law society requires completion of a bar admission course or examination, and a period of supervised "articling" prior to independent practice.[100]

Use of the "J.D." designation by Canadian law schools is not intended to indicate an emphasis on American law, but rather to distinguish Canadian law degrees from English law degrees, which do not require prior undergraduate study.[81] The Canadian J.D. is a degree in Canadian Law. Accordingly, United States jurisdictions other than New York and Massachusetts,[101] do not recognize Canadian Juris Doctor degrees automatically.[102][103] This is equivalent to the manner in which United States J.D. graduates are treated in Canadian jurisdictions such as Ontario.[104] To prepare graduates to practise in jurisdictions on both sides of the border, some pairs of law schools, such as the New York University (NYU) Law School and Osgoode Hall Law School,[105] the University of Ottawa Law School and the Michigan State University Law School or American University,[106] and the University of Windsor Law School and the University of Detroit Mercy Law School,[107] have developed joint American-Canadian J.D programs.

One notable exception is University of Montreal, which offers a one-year J.D. aimed at Quebec civil law graduates in order to practice law either elsewhere in Canada or in the state of New York.[108]

Hong Kong[edit]

The J.D. degree is currently offered at The Chinese University of Hong Kong,[109]The University of Hong Kong,[110] and City University of Hong Kong.The degree is known as the 法律博士 in Chinese, and in Cantonese it is pronounced as Faat Leot Bok Si.[111] The J.D. in Hong Kong is almost identical to the LL.B. and is reserved for graduates of non-law disciplines, but the J.D. is considered to be a graduate-level degree and requires a thesis or dissertation.[112] Like the LL.B. there is much scholarly content in the required coursework. Although the universities offering the degree claim that the J.D. is a two-year program, completing the degree in two years would require study during the summer term.[113] There seems to be much confusion of the role or status of the J.D. in Hong Kong, as the City University website states that their J.D. is not a research doctorate.[114] Neither the LL.B. nor the J.D. provides the education sufficient for a license to practice, as graduates of both are also required to undertake the PCLL course and a solicitor traineeship or a barrister pupillage.[115]


In Japan the J.D. is known as Homu Hakushi (法務博士).[116] The program generally lasts three years. Two year J.D. programs for applicants with legal knowledge (mainly undergraduate level LL.B. holders) are also offered .This curriculum is professionally oriented,[117] but does not provide the education sufficient for a license to practice as an attorney in Japan, as all candidates for a license must have 12 month practical training by the Legal Training and Research Institute after passing bar examination.[118]



Juris Doctor (JD) program of Central Philippine University College of Law is the first Juris Doctor (JD) program in any Law schools in the Philippines approved by the Philippine Legal Education Board.

The degree was first conferred in the Philippines by the Ateneo de Manila Law School, which first developed the model program later adopted by most schools now offering the J.D.. After the Ateneo, schools such as the University of Batangas College of Law began offering the J.D., with schools such as the Far Eastern University Institute of Law offering a joint degree program leading to a J.D. and an MBA.[120] In 2008, the University of the Philippines College of Law began conferring the J.D. on its graduates, the school choosing rename its LL.B. program into a J.D. because to accurately reflect the nature of education the university provides as "nomenclature does not accurately reflect the fact that the LL.B. is a professional as well as a post baccalaureate degree."[121] In 2009, the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila (PLM) and the Silliman University College of Law also shifted their respective LL.B Programs to Juris Doctor -applying the change to incoming freshmen students for School Year 2009–2010.[122][123] The newly established De La Salle University College of Law will likewise offer the J.D., although it will offer the program using a trimestral calendar, unlike the model curriculum that uses a semestral calendar.[124]


The degree of Doctor of Jurisprudence (J.D.) is offered at the Singapore Management University (SMU), and it is treated as a qualifying law degree for the purposes of admission to the legal profession in Singapore.[125] A graduate of this programme is a "qualified person" under Singapore's legislation governing entry to the legal profession, and is eligible for admission to the Singapore Bar.[126]




Doctor of the Science of Law or Doctor of Juridical Science(D.S.L./J.S.D.)´s are obtained after a two year academic program concluding with a doctoral thesis publication. To be eligible for such program, the candidate must first hold a Masters degree, ( Master of Laws (LL.M.), usually a two years course), which in turn can only be accessible by licensed lawyers, holding a professional (licensee) degree obtainable by a four to five years academic program (Licenciado en Derecho or J.D. ). Since most universities and law schools must have approval or incorporation to either the ministry of education (Secretaría de Educación Pública) or the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México México (UNAM), with some exceptions (v.gr. Escuela Libre de Derecho) all the academic programs are similar throughout the country.


J.D.'s are not generally awarded in the People's Republic of China (P.R.C.) instead，a J.M. (Juris Magister) is awarded as the counterpart of JD in the United States, the professional degree in law in China.[129] The primary law degree in the P.R.C. is the bachelor of law. In the fall of 2008 the Shenzhen campus of Peking University started the School of Transnational Law, which offers a U.S.-style education and awards both a Chinese masters degree and, by special authorization of the government, a J.D.[130]


At this time the Juris Doctor does not exist in India; no official entity in India authorizes the award of such a degree. A new venture Jindal Global Law School sought to start an academic program with a recognized Juris Doctor degree,[131] and the plan is well on track according to sources.


No university in Italy awards a Juris Doctor degree, nor are there any plans to implement the degree. However, the law degree in Italy is more advanced (5 years course) than a standard undergraduate program,[132] and lawyers in Italy often use the title of "doctor"[133] (Italian law authorizes all university graduates, including undergraduates, to use the title of doctor).[134]

The Juris Doctor in academia[edit]

As a professional doctorate, the Juris Doctor is a degree that prepares the recipient to enter the law profession (as does the M.D. in the medical profession). While the J.D. is the sole degree necessary to become a professor of law or to obtain a license to practice law, it (like the M.D.) is not a "research degree".[135] Research degrees in the study of law include the Master of Laws (LL.M.), which ordinarily requires the J.D. or LL.B. as a prerequisite,[136] and the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D./J.S.D.), which ordinarily requires the LL.M. as a prerequisite.[136] However, the American Bar Association has issued a Council Statement,[137] advising law schools that the J.D. should be considered as being equivalent to the Ph.D. for educational employment purposes. Accordingly, while most law professors are required to conduct original writing and research in order to be awarded tenure, most only have a J.D.

The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the J.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.[138] Among legal degrees, they accord this status only to the Doctor of Juridical Science degree.[138] In Europe, the European Research Council follows a similar policy.[139]

See also[edit]

Notes and references[edit]

  2. ^ National Science Foundation (2006). "Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients". InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics. NSF. 06-312: 7.  Under "Data notes" this article mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate.
  5. ^ German Federal Ministry of Education. "U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education". Archived from the original on April 13, 2008. Retrieved 2008-05-26.  Report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate.
  12. ^ http://www.ncble.org/
  13. ^ http://barexam.virginia.gov/
  14. ^ http://admissions.calbar.ca.gov/Requirements.aspx
  15. ^ http://www.nybarexam.org/
  16. ^ a b c http://www.legalmatch.com/lawyer-or-attorney-difference.html
  21. ^ http://www.acronymfinder.com/Doctor-of-Jurisprudence-%28DJUR%29.html>.
  27. ^ Stein (1981), 434, 435.
  28. ^ Stein (1981), 434, 436.
  29. ^ a b c Stein (1981), 436.
  31. ^ Stein (1981), 431.
  32. ^ Stein (1981), 432.
  33. ^ Stein (1981), 433.
  34. ^ Stein (1981), 434.
  35. ^ a b Stein (1981), 435.
  37. ^ Moline (2003), 775.
  38. ^ Stein (1981), 429.
  39. ^ Stein (1981), 438.
  40. ^ a b Stein (1981), 439.
  41. ^ Moline (2003), 781.
  42. ^ a b c Moline (2003), 782.
  43. ^ Moline (2003), 782 and 783.
  45. ^ Stein (1981).
  46. ^ Stein (1981), 442.
  48. ^ Moline (2003), 794.
  49. ^ Moline (2003), 795.
  50. ^ Kirkwood, 19.
  51. ^ a b Sonsteng (2007), 15.
  52. ^ a b Moline (2003), 798.
  53. ^ Moline (2003), 800.
  54. ^ a b Moline (2003), 801.
  55. ^ Stein (1981), 445.
  58. ^ Moline (2003), 802.
  59. ^ Sonsteng (2007), 19.
  60. ^ Reed (1921), 162.
  61. ^ a b Reed (1921), 165.
  62. ^ Reed (1921), 164.
  63. ^ Reed (1921), 167.
  69. ^ Herbermann, 112–117.
  70. ^ David Perry, “How Did Lawyers Become ’Doctors’?,” New York State Bar Journal, June 2012, 20 at p. 21, available at [www.heinonline.org|title=Heinonline] (login required).
  73. ^ Reed, (1921), 160
  74. ^ Reed (1921), 161
  75. ^ The History of the LL.M.
  77. ^ a b Langbein (1996).
  78. ^ Reed (1921), 27.
  79. ^ a b Reed (1928), 390.
  80. ^ See, Langbein (1996).
  87. ^ University of Toronto J.D. admissions FAQ [2].
  89. ^ idem
  90. ^ YorkU Undergraduate Admissions
  91. ^ Windsor Law
  92. ^ Alberta Law
  93. ^ UVic Law
  94. ^ Osgoode Law School "Dean Patrick Monahan on the Growing Number of Canadian Law Schools Switching from the LLB to JD Degree Designation" [3][dead link]
  96. ^ [4][dead link]
  97. ^ [5][dead link]
  99. ^ Canadian law school concentrations, certificates and joint-degree programs [6].
  100. ^ Law Law Society of Upper Canada (Ontario) PRP [7].
  102. ^ NYU Law. Law.nyu.edu. Retrieved on 2013-07-15.
  104. ^ [8][dead link]
  105. ^ NYU/Osgoode Joint LL.B/J.D. [9].
  109. ^ http://www.law.cuhk.edu.hk/programmes/juris-doctor.php
  115. ^ Hong Kong Bar Association. General Admission. Accessed June 1, 2008.
  120. ^ Curriculum models (2006). Philippine Association of Law Schools.
  121. ^ University of Philippines College of Law. News. April 25, 2008.
  123. ^ PLM Curricula and Degree Programs
  126. ^ Rule 5A, Legal Profession (Qualified Persons) Rules (Cap. 161, s.2(2)) [10], Ministry of Law (Singapore), Retrieved 14 February 2014.
  130. ^ http://www.stl.szpku.edu.cn/upFile/20106/20106101133125.pdf
  133. ^ Studio Misuraca, Franceschin and Associates. Accessed February 16, 2009.
  135. ^ Kenneth Kaoma Mwenda, Gerry Nkombo Muuka (eds.), "The Challenge of Change in Africa's Higher Education in the 21st Century", Cambria Press (2009) [11]; see esp. Mwenda's comments on pp. 87–88, in the section labeled "The Academic Rank of a JD" and the quoted material from Pappas immediately preceding it.
  136. ^ a b LL.M. Admissions Requirements, Yale University
  139. ^ PhD and Equivalent Doctoral Degrees: The ERC Policy. Retrieved 2013-05-25. 

External links[edit]