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					               AIR POLLUTION MONITORING

Air pollution from both stationary (e.g. factories) and mobile (e.g. cars) sources includes
many substances, such as carbon monoxide or lead, which are harmful in themselves,
primary pollutants, and other substances which react with other chemicals to form new
harmful substances , secondary pollutants, (e.g. sulfur dioxide reacting with water and air
to produce the sulfuric acid of acid rain)..

Primary pollutants
Primary pollutants monitored in New Zealand: particulates (smoke, dust and haze), sulfur
dioxide, carbon monoxide, the oxides of nitrogen, benzene, hydrogen sulfide and

Secondary pollutants
Secondary pollutants are monitored in New Zealand: ozone, photochemical smog and acid
rain. None of these currently are found in high enough concentrations to be a significant

Monitoring Pollutants
Air pollution monitoring is done by a number of organisations in New Zealand, including
the Institute of Environmental Science and Research (ESR), the National Institute for
Water and Atmosphere (NIWA), Regional Councils and industry. These pollutants are
monitored through a variety of manual and instrumental methods with instrumental
methods progressively replacing the manual ones.

Manual sampling
Manual methods include passive samplers (in which solid matter is collected from the air
flow by a filter); paper tape samplers (where pollutants are collected, or react with a
coating on a paper tape which is advanced at regular time intervals); and bubblers (which
involve gases being bubbled through solutions in which particular pollutants undergo a
reaction). The particular pollutants for which these methods can be used are outlined in
Table 2.

Instrumental methods
Most of the instruments used are based on absorption or emission spectroscopic methods:
non-dispersive infra-red (NDIR),         chemiluminescence; flame photometry, and
fluorescence. In the case of airborne particles instruments have been developed on the
basis of light scattering, absorption of low-energy (beta) radiation, and the use of a
continuously recording microbalance. As with manual methods, the instrumental
techniques are best suited to specific pollutants, as shown in Table 2.

Levels of pollution
New Zealand, with the exception of a few specific areas, has quite low levels of pollution.
 Those pollutants which are of some concern are primarily carbon monoxide and oxides of
nitrogen, both of which are associated with vehicle emissions. Fine particulate matter has
also become a concern over the last few years. This is due to increasing levels of smoke
from domestic fires.

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In New Zealand the control of air pollution is governed by the Resource Management Act
1991, which is administered by Regional Councils throughout the country. The Act provides
for sustainable management of natural resources, including air. Discharges of contaminants
to air are prohibited under the Act, unless the discharge is expressly allowed by a rule in a
regional plan, a resource consant (issued by the Council) or regulations. The Act also
requires Regional Councils to carry out air monitoring, as a means of checking how
effectively it is managing air quality.


Air pollutants are both hazardous substances and substances which undergo chemical
reactions in the atmosphere to produce hazardous substances. These can be produced either
locally by a particular industrial process ('stationary' pollutants), or by moving objects such
as cars ('mobile' pollutants)

We are mainly concerned with the following primary and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants
Primary pollutants are those in which the substance emitted is itself hazardous. Some
primary pollutants also produce other dangerous substances after undergoing chemical
reactions in the atmosphere, and these are known as secondary pollutants. Primary pollutants
include the following substances.

This includes dust, smoke, aerosols and haze - any finely divided airborne solid material.
Particulates are commonly generated by fires, motor vehicles, some industries (particularly
road building, quarries and fossil fuel power stations) and various natural sources including
volcanoes, plant and animal matter and dirt. Particulates are aesthetically displeasing, can
irritate the eyes and cause repiratory problems. In recent years concerns have been raised
about the possible health effects of 'fine' particulate matter (less than 10µm diameter). These
have been shown to be associated with increases in hospitalisation and even deaths from
respitorary illnesses and heart disease.

Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Sulphur dioxide is often produced by the industrial processes which produce particulates, the
primary sources of SO2 being coal, fuel oil and diesel. Being a corrosive acidic gas, sulphur
dioxide damages buildings and other materials, and can cause respiratory problems.

Carbon monoxide, CO
The commonest source of carbon monoxide is motor vehicle emisions, where it results from
the combustion of petrol in the presence of insufficient oxygen. It is also a result of some
fuel-consuming industries and domestic fires. Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless,
highly toxic gas that displaces oxygen in human blood, causing oxygen deprivation.

The oxides of nitrogen, NOx

NOx refers to the mixture of nitric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) formed by the
oxidation of nitrogen during the combustion of air. The majority of NOx is produced in

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-2
motor vehicle emissions, although other sources can have significant local impact. NOx is a
contributor to several secondary pollutants, and NO2 is a respiratory irritant that can also
corrode metals at high concentrations.

Over the last few years leaded petrols have been phased out of use. However this has
resulted in higher levels of benzene and other aromatics in the substitute unleaded petrol.
Benzene breaks down quickly in the environment and is not stored in the tissues of plants or
animals. However, it is still hazardous to humans at high levels as it can cause several
diseases of the blood including leukemia (cancer of the white blood cells). Benzene
monitoring programmes were started in New Zealand in 1994 and are continuing because the
levels in some locations were found to be reasonably high.

Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
Hydrogen sulphide is mainly associated with geothermal activity at Rotorua, where it is
responsible for the 'rotten eggs' smell, but it is also formed from the anaerobic decomposition
of many organic wastes and is a by-product of paper manufacture and leather tanning (see
article). It is highly poisonous (more toxic than hydrogen cyanide), and because it initially
anaesthetises the sensory organs it can build up to high concentrations without warning and
cause paralysis and then asphyxiation.

These have two main sources: the Comalco aluminium smelter and fertiliser works .
Fluorides can have adverse effects on plants, and in some cases concentrate in the leaves so
that animals eating the plants ingest significant quantities. Fluoride in animals converts the
hydroxyapatite in bones and teeth into fluoroapatite:

                        Ca5(PO4)3OH + F- ! Ca5(PO4)3F + OH-

This is initially advantageous (indeed water is fluoridated to cause this to take place) but if it
occurs to too great an extent it produces discoloured patches and eventually weakens the

Secondary Pollutants
These are pollutants formed by chemical reactions in the atmosphere, either with other
chemicals or with light.

Ozone (O3) and photochemical smog
Ozone is formed via. two main pathways. The first is by the reaction of NOx with any of a
wide range of volatile organic compounds in the presence of sunlight. Such volatile organic
compounds are found in motor vehicle exhaust and industrial solvents. Further ozone is
formed by the decomposition of NO2 in sunlight and the reaction of the decomposition
products with oxygen itself to give ozone:
                                    NO2 → NO + O

                                      O + O2 → O3

Ozone is the major constituent of photochemical smog, which is a complex mixture also
containing oxidised organics, including aldehydes (RCOOH) such as formaldehyde,
peroxides (ROOR), acrolein and peroxyacylnitrates. This chemical "brew" causes damage to

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sensitive plants and crops, eye and lung irritation, accelerated degradation of materials such
as rubber, and a marked deterioration in atmospheric visibility.

Acid rain
This is a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, which are formed by the interaction of NO2
and SO2 with moisture and oxygen in the air. Acid rain corrodes building materials and has
harmful effects on plant and animal life, but to date has not been a significant problem in
New Zealand.


A wide range of methods is available for the measurement of air pollutants, from the very
simple to the highly sophisticated, and with a corresponding variation in costs. Descriptions
of the most common procedures are given below. The manual procedures described are
relatively labour intensive, and limited in the amount of information provided. As a result
these have gradually been phased out where possible in favour of the more sophisticated
direct-reading instruments. Apart from periodic maintenance, the operational requirements of
the latter are minimal. However, they do require considerably more effort in data processing
and analysis, because of the much greater volumes of data produced.

Most of the techniques described have been used for air monitoring in New Zealand over the
last thirty or so years. In the past most of this work was done by the Department of Health,
which was responsible under the old Clean Air Act 1972. Now the work is done by Regional
Councils, or by science providers such as the Institute of Environmental Science and
Research (ESR) and the National Institute for Water and Atmosphere (NIWA). Some
monitoring is also done by specific industries as part of their requirements of their resource

Manual methods
Passive samplers
The simplest approach to sampling of gaseous air pollutants involves passive collection onto
a chemically treated surface or material. The driving force for collection is diffusion through
the air and/or movement due to wind. Once in contact with the collector, the pollutant is
retained by chemical reaction.

Results generated by these methods are useful in a relative sense, but because of the
variability of the factors affecting collection and retention of the pollutant it is difficult to
establish any simple relationships to the airborne concentrations.

Paper tape samplers
The usefulness of the above systems can be extended if air is forcibly drawn through or over
the treated surface by means of a pump. An example of this is the paper tape sampler shown
in Figure 1. Numerous applications have been reported for gases such as H2S, HCN, NH3,
NO2, SO2, Cl2, COCl2, amines and isocyanates.

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                                                   air inlet


                        take-up                 to
                         spool                 pump

                                  Figure 1 - Paper-Tape Sampler

In most commercial systems the tape is automatically advanced at selected time intervals to
produce a series of discrete spots or samples. Some units also incorporate a direct
measurement system for use when stain development takes place in situ. In others it is
necessary to remove the tape for measurement or analysis of each spot.

A paper tape system has also been developed into a continuous monitoring system for
particulate matter, using the attenuation of low energy radiation. This is described under the
section on suspended particulate monitoring methods given below.

Bubbler Systems
One of the most universal approaches for the collection of gaseous pollutants is to bubble the
air through a solution designed to absorb or react with the contaminants. Most gases and
vapours can be collected in this way, followed by an appropriate laboratory analysis of the
resulting solutions.

Instrumental Monitoring Methods
A wide range of instrumental methods have been reported for the monitoring of air
pollutants. Many of the systems are based on photometric techniques, and the most common
examples of these are described below.

Non-Dispersive Infra-Red (NDIR)
NDIR analysers have been developed to monitor SO2, NOx, CO, and other gases that absorb
in the infra-red, including CO2 and hydrocarbons. However it is probably true to say that this
is the "preferred" technique only for CO monitoring of pollutants in ambient air. The
technique is of relatively low sensitivity, and is more applicable to the concentrations found
in source emissions than in ambient air.

An NDIR analyser is basically an instrument that does not disperse the light emitted from an
infra-red source - i.e. the light is not split up into its component wavelengths by means of a
prism or grating. Instead a broad band of light is produced by means of a bandpass filter,
which is chosen to coincide with an absorption peak of the pollutant molecule. The IR band
centres for some common gases are shown in Table 1.

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Table 1 - NDIR band centres for some common atmospheric pollutants
                           Gas                                      Location of band centre / cm-1            1

               carbon monoxide (CO)                                                    2200
                carbon dioxide (CO2)                                       850 - 1250, 1900, 3700
                      water (H2O)                                    1000 - 1400, 1800 - 2000, 3200
                   nitric oxide (NO)                                                1800 - 2000
               nitrogen dioxide (NO2)                                               500 - 1800
                 sulfur dioxide (SO2)                                               700 - 1250

The layout of a typical NDIR analyser is shown in Figure 2. Infra-red radiation passes
through a reference cell, usually containing clean dry air, and a separate cell containing the
sample. The detector is referred to as a "microphone" type. It consists of two chambers
separated by a thin metal diaphragm and filled with gas of the species being measured. As the
molecules in the detector absorb the IR radiation their kinetic energy increases, causing the
pressure in each chamber will increase. If, however, absorbing molecules are present in the
sample cell, the amount of energy reaching that side of the detector will diminish. Thus a
pressure differential develops between the two chambers, resulting in displacement of the
diaphragm. This is sensed as a change in capacitance by the instrument electronics. As shown
in the figure the instrument also includes a beam chopper. This serves to create an alternating
signal in the detector, which makes it easier to detect and amplify.

                                       ... . . .. ....
                                                 sample cell

                                                                                              signal output

                                                  . ..
                                                 reference cell          detector
                                        Figure 2 - An NDIR analyser

A common problem with this type of analyser is that other gases that absorb light in the same
spectral region as the pollutant will cause a positive interference in the measurement. For CO
analysers water vapour and CO2 are potential interferents. Water can be readily removed
from the sample by means of an inlet filter containing a desiccant, such as silica gel. In
ambient air monitoring the effect of CO2 is usually not significant.

Chemiluminescence is the emission of light energy that results from some chemical reactions.
The reaction between NO and O3 is an example:

          All IR readings are given using the units cm-1 (known as wave numbers). These are a measure of the
energy of the radiation as E = (c ÷ λ), meaning that E ∝ λ -1. The symbol ' λ ' (the Greek letter lambda) is the
wavelength of the radiation being absorbed and has the units 'cm', thus the energy of this radiation has the units cm-1.

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-6
                                  NO + O3 → NO2* + O2
                                    NO2* → NO2 + hv

These reactions produce a continuum of radiation in the range 500 to 3000 nm. The reaction
between O3 and ethylene is also chemiluminescent, with an emission in the region of 435 nm.
Both of these phenomena have been used to produce continuous monitors for NOx and O3,

A typical layout of a chemiluminescence analyser for NOx is shown in Figure 3. Ozone is
generated by the UV irradiation of clean air and mixed in a reaction chamber with the sample
air. Light from the reaction passes through an optical filter and is detected with a
photomultiplier tube.
                                NO2        NO

                                                                         sample in
                                        ozone generator
                                                                         clean air

                             NO + O3
                              NO2 + O2
                                                          .         output

                     Figure 3 - Chemilunminenscence Detector for NOx

Clearly, NO2 in the sample will not be detected in this system. However, this can be reduced
to NO by means of a heated catalyst, such as a stainless steel or molybdenum. If this is
included in the system the instrument can respond to NO and NO2, i.e. NOx. In commercial
analysers the converter is either incorporated as shown in Figure 3, with automatic valves to
switch continuously between operation with and without the catalyst, or two separate
channels with individual reaction chambers and detectors are used.

Flame Photometric Analysers
Gas chromatographers will be familiar with the flame photometric detector (FPD) which is
used for the analysis of sulfur compounds. In this detector, samples eluting from a GC
column are passed through a hydrogen-rich flame. If any sulfur-containing compounds are
present the sulfur is reduced to a diatomic molecule, S2, which is initially in an excited state.
On decay to the ground state light is emitted over a wavelength range of 300 to 425 nm,
centred at about 394 nm, i.e.
                                        S2* → S2 + hv
The light emitted from the chamber is viewed by a photomultiplier filled with a
narrow-bandpass filter.

A schematic of the FPD is shown in Figure 4. This has been incorporated into air monitoring
instrumentation for the detection of sulfur.

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The first way in which it has been used involves passing sample air directly into the detector
as part of the air/fuel mixture. The system then becomes a continuous "total" sulfur monitor.
Some degree of specificity can be achieved by the use of appropriate pre-filters (e.g. to
remove H2S in the presence of SO2, and vice versa).

Commercial sulfur gas monitors are also available that are essentially custom-built gas
chromatographs. Sample injection is by means of automatic gas sampling valves which are
operated at regular intervals. The components of each discrete sample are then separated on
an appropriate GC column, or columns, to give a continual series of individual

                                              filter   p.m.t.


                  sample air

                               Figure 4 - Flame Photometric Detector

Thus the flame photometric detector can provide a sensitive and selective monitoring system
for the sulfur-gases. Its major limitation is the dependence on hydrogen (which fuels the
flame), as this introduces strict safety requirements in both the instrument and its installation.

Fluorescence Monitors
Another form of monitor using the principle of fluorescence has been developed, and this
provides a satisfactory alternative to the FPD sulfur analysers. Fluorescence is a process
whereby light energy of a given wavelength is absorbed and then reemitted at a different
wavelength, i.e.
                              AB + hv → AB* → AB + hv'
The change in wavelength occurs because the molecule that is excited remains in that state
for some finite period of time (ca 10-8 - 10-4 s). This is sufficient for some of the energy to be
dissipated in the form of vibration or rotation within the molecule. This results in the
emission of light of a lower energy, and hence a longer wavelength.

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-8
                           210 nm

                                 SO2 + hv       SO2*
                                                  SO2 + hv'
                 UV lamp
                                                      350 nm filter

                           Figure 5 - Fluorescence Analyser for SO2

This phenomenon has been utilised in the development of a monitor for SO2. As shown in
Figure 5 a UV lamp provides a source of radiation, either continuous or pulsed, which is
filtered to admit a narrow band of light into the cell, centred at about 210 nm. The fluorescent
radiation is measured at right angles to the incident beam, using a photomultiplier.

Unlike the FPD analyser, the fluorescence system is specific for SO2. Sample air must be dry
and free of dust to avoid fouling of the cell. There is also the potential for interference from
fluorescent organic compounds that may be present in the air, but these can also be removed
with an appropriate pre-filter.

Suspended Particulate Monitoring Methods.
The term 'suspended particulate matter' refers to particules less than 20 microns (µm) in size,
which can remain suspended in air for significant periods of time, ranging from a few
minutes for the larger particles through to several days for very fine material (ca. < 0.1 µm).
These particles can effect visual air quality and can have effects on human health.
Traditionally this material was measured by sucking air through a filter and determining the
weight of dust collected. The equipment used was known as a High-Volume Air Sampler,
and collected all particles below 20 µm plus a proportion of larger particles as well. The
results were referred to as total suspended particulate (TSP). In more recent times the
equipment has been modified to collect only particules below 10 µm, which are trhe ones
most likely to be inhaled and therefore have an effect on respiratory health. This
measurement is known as inhalable particulate, or PM-10.

There are four methods currently being used in New Zealand for the measurement of PM-10.
 The most common is the High-Volume Air Sampler, fitted with a size selective inlet. Other
systems in use are the β-attenuation tape sampler and the Tapered-Element Oscillating
Microbalance (TEOM).

The High Volume Air Sampler operates by drawing air at a rate of about 1.5 m3/ min through
a 25 cm x 20 cm glass fibre filter, which is weighed before and after sampling under
conditions of constant humidity. Samples are normally collected over 24 hours.

The β-attenuation unit operates by drawing air at a rate of 15 to 20 litres per minute through a
continuous glass-fibre or teflon tape. A source of β-particles is used to sense the build-up of

                                                                      XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-9
particles on the tape by changes in the amount of absorption. Measurements are normally
averaged over one hour to obtain sufficient sensitivity, and the tape is advanced either at the
end of each cycle or some other pre-set interval.

In the TEOM monitor air is drawn through a filter which is attached to a sensitive oscillating
microbalance. Changes in the frequency of oscillation are directly related to the mass of
material on the filter, and this is computed electronically once every few minutes. The
sampling rate is 16.7 litres per minute and the unit operates continuously. The microfilters
need to be changed every 1 to 4 weeks depending on particle loadings.

Monitoring Methods used for Specific Pollutants
A summary of methods used for monitoring all of the aerial pollutants of concern in New
Zealand is given in Table 2. More detailed explanations of the methods used for some of the
specific pollutants are given below.

Table 2 - Usage of monitoring methods for aerial pollutants
                   particulates      SO2   CO     NOx     Benzene      H2S    fluorides    O3
 Passive                 √            √             √         √         √         √         √
 Paper tape              √                                              √
 Bubbler                              √             √                   √                   √
 NDIR                                       √
 Chemi-                                             √                                       √
 FPD                                  √                                 √
 Fluoresence                          √                                 √


More detailed explanations of some of the air monitoring methods are given below. These
are mainly for the older non-instrumental methods which are no longer used routinely in this
country. However the procedures are still of interest for the range of different chemistries
involved. Also some of the methods may be suitable for use at secondary school level with
appropriate modifications to suit the available equipment.

Particulate Matter
Solid particulate pollutants may be arbitrarily classified into the following categories which
reflect both the physical characteristics of the materials and the procedures commonly
employed in their measurement.

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-10
Dust Deposition
Large particules that settle readily out of the atmosphere are collected
by deposition. Particles larger than about 10µm in diameter may be
collected in this way, although it is those 100µm and above which are
the most significant in terms of both visual impact and overall mass.
Monitoring of dustfall is carried out by determining the amount of solid
matter deposited over an exposed surface in a period of time. The
device commonly used for dustfall monitoring is shown in Figure 6,
although other types of collection equipment are available. This
arrangement utilises readily available equipment, consisting of a 100 -
                                                                                  Figure 6 -
150 mm diameter glass funnel held inside a 4.5 litre bottle. The
supporting wooden box provides stability and helps to keep the funnel

The collectors are normally exposed for periods of up to a month. At the end of this time the
samples are filtered and analysed for any or all of the following: weight of insoluble
material and ash content, quantity of liquid collected and pH, weight of dissolved solids,
chemical analysis for trace metals, or anions such as sulfate, nitrate, and chloride. Results
are reported in terms of weight of material collected over unit area and in unit time, i.e. mg
m-2 day-1. It should be noted that results produced by different systems will not necessarily
be comparable. Results are best interpreted in a relative sense with one type of collector

Suspended Particulate Matter
This includes particles in the approximate range of 0.1 to 20µm, which may remain
suspended in the atmosphere for periods of a few minutes through to a few days or even
weeks. SPM was formerly monitored by the Department of Health using a glass fibre filter
(Figure 7) through which air was pumped, which collected solid matter that could then be
weighed and measured. The SPM concentration is calculated by dividing the weight of dust
by the volume drawn through the filter.

The first of these is a $-attenuation monitor, in which the air is drawn through a glass fibre
or paper filter, and the mass of dust collected measured by the attenuation of $-rays passed
through it. The other is based on the scattering of light by the dust present in the air
contained in a measurement chamber, giving results in kilometres of visibility.

Smoke consists of fine particles, ca. 10µm and smaller. These have the greatest impact on
atmospheric visibility, and are evaluated using optical techniques with or without prior
collection (by e.g. filtration). Two main methods can be used.

The first procedure used for smoke monitoring is as described in a British Standard (B.S.
1747, part 2). Air is drawn through a filter paper held between two brass blocks, and the
smoke stain produced is measured by light reflectance, but could also be assessed semi-
quantitatively against a set of 'colour' standards. The equipment is normally incorporated
into a sampling train for the measurement of both smoke and sulfur dioxide as shown in
Figure 8. The normal sampling period is 24 hours. For convenience, sampling

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                      gas                air
                      meter             pump

                         Figure 7 - Equipment for SPM monitoring

                                                                                 air inlet

             air              gas                               smoke
            pump              meter                              filter

                                           trap SO 2 bubbler
                        Figure 8 - Sampling Unit for Smoke and SO2

units containing multiple sampling trains are sometimes used to allow continuous
monitoring over extended periods. An alternative method that has been used in
Christchurch is measuring the amount of matter collected on a paper tape that is advanced
every two hours, which gives a picture of changes in pollution level throughout the day.

The measurement of smoke is based on the light reflectance of the pollutant, and the
measurements are sometimes referred to as a "soiling index". The results are converted from
reflectance to 'smoke units' on the basis of a calibration curve included in the British
Standard, giving and indicator of the relative "dirtiness" of the smoke.

The following pollutants are all gaseous, and there are some general issues relevant to all
such pollutants, in particular the need for sensitivity and selectivity. The concentrations of
most pollutants in air are of the order of tens of micrograms per cubic metre, and thus unless
large volumes of air are sampled the quantities of material available for analysis are quite
low. Since many of the pollutants occur together in the air it is also important that the
procedures used for any one component are not subject to interference from others.

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-12
  Sulphur dioxide
  A typical bubbler system is illustrated in Figure 8 in the combined sampling unit for smoke
  and SO2. In this case the absorber solution is dilute hydrogen peroxide adjusted to a pH of
  4.5. This retains the SO2 by converting it to sulfuric acid, i.e.
                                     SO2 + H2O2 → H2SO4
  The quantity of pollutant collected can be determined by titration, with the endpoint at the
  original pH, using dilute base (e.g. 0.004 N sodium borate). Alternatively one can calculate
  the result directly from the pH change.

  Obviously this method will not be specific for SO2. Interferences can occur due to other
  gases, such as NO2 or NH3. The use of a pH of 4.5 is specifically designed to counter one
  potential interferent, CO2, which under these conditions is not absorbed. If the absorber
  solution is analysed for sulfate ion rather than acidity the method can be made quite
  specific, but at the expense of increased analytical requirements of time and/or cost.

  The West-Gaeke method
  This involves converting the SO2 to the sulphite ion using a solution of potassium
  tetrachloromercurate, and then colorimetrically determining the concentration using a
  solution of pararosaniline and formaldehyde as follows:

            +                           +


  HCHO → → →

                              HO3SH2CHN                    C               NHCH2SO 3

  There are a number of potential interferences in this reaction, but most of these are
  eliminated by the addition of appropriate reagents. The nitrite ion formed from NO2 is
  destroyed by reaction with sulfamic acid.
                      HOSO2NH2 + NO2- + H+ → N2 + H2SO4 + H2O
  The use of EDTA in the absorber solution and phosphoric acid in the pararosaniline reagent
  solution serve to complex any metals present. Ozone is also a potential interferent, but a
  time delay of 20 minutes or more before analysis ensures that this breaks down in the
  absorber solution.

  This is a more specific than that using hydrogen peroxide, but it is rarely used today because
  of concerns about the use of mercury required.

  Oxides of nitrogen
  The most common bubbler procedures for NOx are based on the Griess-Ilosvay method for
  the determination of nitrite ion. This involves diazotisation of an aromatic amine in acid
  solution, followed by coupling of the diazo compound with an aromatic amine to form an

                                                                 XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-13
intensely-coloured azo dye. One of the first applications of this method to the determination
of NO2 in air was reported by B.E. Saltzman, and this has since come to be known as the
Saltzman or Griess-Saltzman method.

The absorber used in the Saltzman method is a mixture of sulfanilic acid and
N-(l-naphthyl)- ethylenediamine in acetic acid solution. After fifteen minutes a pink
solution, which can be measured at 550 nm, is formed in accordance with the following
                                    NH2                             +-
                                                               N N X

                                           + HNO2

                                    SO3H                       SO3H

                                          CH2CH2NH2            CH2CH2NH2
             N N X                        NH                   NH


             SO 3H                                             N N                 SO3

The method as described is specific for NO2. However, NO may also be determined by prior
oxidation with acidified permanganate solution. A sampling train for the determination of
both pollutants is shown in Figure 9. NO2 is collected in the first bubbler. The second
bubbler contains the permanganate solution, while the third (empty) bubbler serves as a
spray trap. The fourth bubbler retains the oxidised NO.

                                                                                 air inlet

        glass frit

                            NO             spray                NO2
                          bubbler          trap     oxidiser   bubbler

                             Figure 9 - Sampling Unit for NO2 and NO

It will be seen in Figure 9 that the bubblers used for NO2 absorption are different from
those shown previously. The flask is especially designed to allow sampling at relatively
high flow rates (up to 0.4 L/min) with only a small volume of absorber liquid (10 mL). The
glass frit is required to improve the collection efficiency of the system, by increasing the gas
to liquid contact area.

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-14
There are no major interferences in the Saltzman method, other than from excessively high
concentrations of SO2 or O3. The major difficulty with the method arises out of the
conversion of NO2 to nitrite ion prior to analysis. This is expected to occur according to the
                          2NO2 + H2O → NO2- + NO3- + 2H+
and an equivalence of 0.5 moles of nitrite ion is expected for each mole of NO2. In practice
one finds an equivalence of between 0.5 and 1.0, typically about 0.7, this is referred to as
the Saltzman factor. There is no general agreement in the literature as to the "correct" value
of the Saltzman factor, or whether in fact a constant value should be expected. To some
extent the problem has become essentially a "non-issue", with the advent of instrumental
methods for the direct determination of NOx in air.

Two variations to the Saltzman method should be mentioned before concluding this section,
as these have been used quite extensively in the past in this country. One difficulty with the
Saltzman method is that the colour formed in the absorber is likely to fade after a few hours,
and thus the method is mainly suitable for short-term measurements. Most interest has been
in 24-hour sampling, and for this a modification of the method in which the NO2 is absorbed
in aqueous triethanolamine solution has been used. Colour development is carried out as
before, but with the addition of the Saltzman reagents at the end of the sampling period.

In a further modification, it is possible to move to a liquid-free sampling system by the use
of triethanolamine (TEA) absorbed on to granulated pumice or firebrick. This has
advantages in the development of semi-automated multi-day sampling units, as well as
removing the need for fragile and expensive glassware. Here the air is drawn over an
absorber of TEA on pumice, removing the NO2, and then over CrO3 (also on pumice) to
oxidise the NO to NO2. This NO2 is then collected on an second TEA absorber. After
sampling the pollutants are washed from the solid substrate with water and the solution is
analysed for nitrite ion as before.

O3 and Total Oxidants
Most of the bubbler methods for ozone are based on the oxidising properties of the gas, and
hence the methods are indicative of total "oxidants" in the air sample.

The most commonly used procedure involves the reaction with neutral-buffered potassium
iodide solution (NBKI). The reaction with ozone is approximated by:
                        O3 + 3KI + H2O → KI3 + O2 + 2KOH
The liberated iodine is measured at 352 nm.

The most significant interferences in the method are from SO2 and NO2, both of which will
also liberate iodine. The former can be removed by a prefilter treated with CrO3.
Interference due to the latter can be allowed for if NOx is also measured at the same time.

The only major limitation with the method is that sampling must be restricted to periods of
30 minutes or less, because of the deterioration of the iodine complex with time.

                                                               XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-15

During the last thirty years air pollution monitoring has been carried out in many areas of
New Zealand. Until recently however, much of the activity was concentrated in Auckland
and Christchurch; the former because of its size, motor vehicle population, and the extent of
industrial development, and the latter because of a readily apparent pollution problem
during the winter months. It is not intended to detail the results of this monitoring here. This
information is readily available from the various sources listed under Further Information.
For the purposes of this article a few general comments will suffice. Guidelines for air
quality in New Zealand provided by the Ministry for the Environment, issued in 1994, are
given in Table 3.

Generally New Zealand is considered to be a country with only low levels of air pollution,
and in most areas and for most times of the year that is so. There are two main exceptions to
this situation: Auckland and Christchurch.

Carbon monoxide (from car exhaust) is a pollutant of concern, especially in areas of trafic
congestion, such as Queen Street in Auckland. Periodic pollution exceeding the air quality
guideline levels shown in Table 3 have been recorded in most of the main cities.

Elevated levels of oxides of nitrogen have also been recorded in Auckland and Christchurch
although the levels are only moderately high by world standards.

High levels of motor vehicle derived pollutants are also often related to problems of
photochemical smog, as these provide the necessary precursors for oxidant formation. In the
past "elevated" levels of oxidants have been recorded in Auckland on 5-10 days of each
year, during the summer months. However even the highest levels recorded are below the
l-hour average of 150 µg m-3 recommended by the Ministry for the Environment. This
phenomenon is therefore not considered to be a problem in the Auckland region.

In Christchurch the major air pollution problem is related to the occurrence during the
winter months of meteorological conditions conducive to poor atmospheric dispersion. This
coincides with the time of greatest demand for home heating, and the result is a marked
increase in the levels of visible smoke. The Ministry for the Evironment guideline of 120
µg m-3 is regularly exceeded during the winter months.

Unlike many other cities overseas, the high levels of smoke in Christchurch are not
generally accompanied by correspondingly high levels of SO2. Rarely, if ever, are the levels
above the MoE guideline for this pollutant (125 µg m-3, 24-hour average).

Levels of NO in Christchurch can also be high during the winter months, reflecting a
significant contribution to the problem from motor vehicles, as well as from domestic

XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-16
Table 3 - Air Quality Guidelines for New Zealand
    Pollutant                        Allowable Concentration               Time Period
    inhalable particulate (PM10)              40 µg m-3                   annual mean
                                             120 µg m-3                   24 hr average
    sulfur dioxide                            50 µg m-3                   annual mean
                                             125 µg m-3                   24 hr average
                                             350 µg m-3                   1 hr average
                                             500 µg m-3                  10 min average
    carbon monoxide                          10 mg m-3                     8 hr average
                                             30 mg m-3                     1 hr average
    nitrogen dioxide                         100 µg m-3                    annual mean
                                             300 µg m-3                    1 hr average
    ozone                                    100 µg m-3                    8 hr average
                                             150 µg m-3                    1 hr average
    hydrogen sulfide                         7.0 µg m-3                    1 hr average
    fluoride                                 0.5 µg m-3                  3 month average
                                            0.84 µg m-3                  1 month average
                                             1.7 µg m-3                   7 day average
                                             2.9 µg m-3                   24 hr average
                                             3.7 µg m-3                   12 hr average


The results of air pollution monitoring can be obtained from Regional Councils and the
Ministry for thr Environment. A summary of air pollution monitoring in New Zealand
1960-1994 is also available from ESR. A general review of some of the early air pollution
monitoring in Auckland was given by Graham and Thom in Chemistry in New Zealand,
1980, p.18- 20.

Original article written by B. W. L. Graham, National Environmental Chemistry and
Acoustics Laboratory (NECAL), Department of Health, Auckland. Rewritten and updated
by Heather Wansbrough using information supplied by B. W. L. Graham and with reference

•           Saitas, Jeff; Ground-Level Ozone; [Online] Available
  ; February 20, 1997

•           Xintaras, Charlie and Perry, Mike; Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease
            Registry; [Online] Available;
            February 20, 1997

                                                                 XIV-Environment-A-Air Pollution-17