Nonverbal communication

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Nonverbal communication is the process of communication through sending and receiving wordless (mostly visual) cues between people. It is sometimes mistakenly referred to as body language (kinesics), but nonverbal communication encompasses much more, such as use of voice (paralanguage), touch (haptics), distance (proxemics), and physical environments/appearance.[1] Typically overlooked in nonverbal communication are proxemics, or the informal space around the body and chronemics: the use of time. Not only considered eye contact, oculesics comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate.






SymbolTable for Non-verbal communication with patients



Scientific research on nonverbal communication and behavior was started in 1872 with the publication of Charles Darwin’s book The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals.[6] In the book, Darwin argued that all mammals, both humans and animals, showed emotion through facial expressions. He posed questions such as: “Why do our facial expressions of emotions take the particular forms they do?” and “Why do we wrinkle our nose when we are disgusted and bare our teeth when we are enraged?”[7] Darwin attributed these facial expressions to serviceable associated habits, which are behaviors that earlier in our evolutionary history had specific and direct functions.[7] For example, a species that attacked by biting, baring the teeth was a necessary act before an assault and wrinkling the nose reduced the inhalation of foul odors. In response to the question asking why facial expressions persist even when they no longer serve their original purposes, Darwin’s predecessors have developed a highly valued explanation. According to Darwin, humans continue to make facial expressions because they have acquired communicative value throughout evolutionary history.[7] In other words, humans utilize facial expressions as external evidence of their internal state. Although The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals was not one of Darwin’s most successful books in terms of its quality and overall impact in the field, his initial ideas started the abundance of research on the types, effects, and expressions of nonverbal communication and behavior.[8]

Despite the introduction of nonverbal communication in the 1800s, the emergence of behaviorism in the 1920s paused further research on nonverbal communication.[8] Behaviorism is defined as the theory of learning that describes people’s behavior as acquired through conditioning.[9] Behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner trained pigeons to engage in various behaviors to demonstrate how animals engage in behaviors with rewards.[9]

While most psychology researchers were exploring behaviorism, the study of nonverbal communication began in 1955 by Adam Kendon, Albert Scheflen, and Ray Birdwhistell. They analyzed a film using an analytic method called context analysis.[8] Context analysis is the method of transcribing observed behaviors on to a coding sheet. This method was later used in studying the sequence and structure of human greetings, social behaviors at parties, and the function of posture during interpersonal interaction.[8] Birdwhistell pioneered the original study of nonverbal communication, which he called kinesics. He estimated that humans can make and recognize around 250,000 facial expressions.

Research on nonverbal communication rocketed during the mid 1960s by a number of psychologists and researchers. Argyle and Dean, for example, studied the relationship between eye contact and conversational distance. Ralph V. Exline examined patterns of looking while speaking and looking while listening.[8] Eckhard Hess produced several studies pertaining to pupil dilation that were published in Scientific American. Robert Sommer studied the relationship between personal space and the environment.[8] Robert Rosenthal discovered that expectations made by teachers and researchers can influence their outcomes, and that subtle, nonverbal cues may play an important role in this process.[8] Albert Mehrabian studied the nonverbal cues of liking and immediacy. By the 1970s, a number of scholarly volumes in psychology summarized the growing body of research, such as Shirley Weitz’s Nonverbal Communication and Marianne LaFrance and Clara Mayo’s Moving Bodies.[8] Popular books included Body Language (Fast, 1970), which focused on how to use nonverbal communication to attract other people, and How to Read a Person Like a Book (Nierenberg & Calero, 1971) which examined nonverbal behavior in negotiation situations.[8] The Journal of Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior were also founded in 1978. [6]

First impression[edit]

It takes just one-tenth of a second for someone to judge and make their first impression.[10] A first impression is a lasting non-verbal communicator. The way a person portrays themselves on the first encounter is non-verbal statement to the observer. “First impressions are lasting impressions.” There can be positive and negative impressions.[11] Positive impressions can be made through the way you present yourself. Presentation can include clothing and other visible attributes. Negative impressions can also be based on presentation and also on personal prejudice. First impressions, although sometimes misleading, can in many situations be an accurate depiction of others.[10]


Main article: Posture (psychology)

There are many different types of body positioning to portray certain postures, including slouching, towering, legs spread, jaw thrust, shoulders forward, and arm crossing. The posture or bodily stance exhibited by individuals communicates a variety of messages whether good or bad. Posture can be used to determine a participant's degree of attention or involvement, the difference in status between communicators, and the level of fondness a person has for the other communicator, depending on body "openness".[12] Studies investigating the impact of posture on interpersonal relationships suggest that mirror-image congruent postures, where one person's left side is parallel to the other person's right side, leads to favorable perception of communicators and positive speech; a person who displays a forward lean or decreases a backward lean also signifies positive sentiment during communication.[13]


Clothing is one of the most common forms of non-verbal communication. The study of clothing and other objects as a means of non-verbal communication is known as artifactics[15] or objectics.[16] The types of clothing that an individual wears conveys nonverbal cues about his or her personality, background and financial status, and how others will respond to them.[6] An individual's clothing style can demonstrate their culture, mood, level of confidence, interests, age, authority, values/beliefs, and their sexual identity.[17] For instance, Jewish men may wear yamakas to outwardly communicate their religious belief. Similarly, clothing can communicate what nationality a person or group is, for example, in traditional festivities Scottish men often wear kilts to specify their culture.

Aside from communicating a person’s beliefs and nationality, clothing can be used as a nonverbal cue to attract others. Men and women may shower themselves with accessories and high-end fashion in order to attract partners they are interested in. In this case, clothing is used as a form of self-expression in which people can flaunt their power, wealth, sex appeal, or creativity.[17] A study of the clothing worn by women attending discothèques, carried out in Vienna, Austria, showed that in certain groups of women (especially women who were without their partners), motivation for sex and levels of sexual hormones were correlated with aspects of their clothing, especially the amount of skin displayed and the presence of sheer clothing.[18]

The way one chooses to dress tells a lot about one’s personality. In fact, there was a study done at the University of North Carolina, which compared the way undergraduate women chose to dress and their personality types. The study showed that women who dressed “primarily for comfort and practicality were more self-controlled, dependable, and socially well adjusted” (“Sarasota Journal” 38). Women who didn’t like to stand out in a crowd had typically more conservative and traditional views and beliefs. Clothing, although non-verbal, tells people what your personality is like. The way a person dresses is typically rooted from deeper internal motivations such as emotions, experiences and culture (“Forbes”). Clothing expresses who you are, or even, who you want to be that day. It shows people who you want to be associated with, and where you fit in. Clothing can start relationships, because you’re cluing other people in on what you are like (“Sarasota Journal” 38).[19][20]






Gestures can be subdivided into three groups:


Some hand movements are not considered to be gestures. They consist of manipulations either of the person or some object (e.g. clothing, pencils, eyeglasses) – the kinds of scratching, fidgeting, rubbing, tapping, and touching that people often do with their hands. Such behaviors are referred to as adapters. They may not be perceived as meaningfully related to the speech in which they accompany, but may serve as the basis for dispositional inferences of the speaker’s emotion (nervous, uncomfortable, bored.)[7]


Other hand movements are considered to be gestures. They are movements with specific, conventionalized meanings called symbolic gestures. Familiar symbolic gestures include the “raised fist,” “bye-bye,” and “thumbs up.” In contrast to adapters, symbolic gestures are used intentionally and serve a clear communicative function. Every culture has their own set of gestures, some of which are unique only to a specific culture. Very similar gestures can have very different meanings across cultures. Symbolic gestures are usually used in the absence of speech, but can also accompany speech.[7]


The middle ground between adapters and symbolic gestures is occupied by conversational gestures. These gestures do not refer to actions or words, but do accompany speech. Conversational gestures are hand movements that accompany speech, and are related to the speech they accompany. Though they do accompany speech, conversational gestures are not seen in the absence of speech and are only made by the person who is speaking.[7]

Eye contact[edit]


Eye contact is the instance when two people look at each other's eyes at the same time; it is the primary nonverbal way of indicating engagement, interest, attention and involvement. Studies have found that people use their eyes to indicate interest. This includes frequently recognized actions of winking and movements of the eyebrows.[citation needed] Disinterest is highly noticeable when little or no eye contact is made in a social setting. When an individual is interested however, the pupils will dilate.

According to Eckman, "Eye contact (also called mutual gaze) is another major channel of nonverbal communication. The duration of eye contact is its most meaningful aspect."[24] Generally speaking, the longer there is established eye contact between two people, the greater the intimacy levels.[4] Gaze comprises the actions of looking while talking and listening. The length of a gaze, the frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate are all important cues in nonverbal communication.[25] "Liking generally increases as mutual gazing increases."[4]

Along with the detection of disinterest, deceit can also be observed in a person. Hogan states "when someone is being deceptive their eyes tend to blink a lot more. Eyes act as leading indicator of truth or deception,"[4] Both nonverbal and verbal cues are useful when detecting deception. It is typical for people who are detecting lies to rely consistently on verbal cues but this can hinder how well they detect deception. Those who are lying and those who are telling the truth possess different forms of nonverbal and verbal cues and this is important to keep in mind. In addition, it is important to note that understanding the cultural background of a person will influence how easily deception is detectable because nonverbal cues may differ depending on the culture. In addition to eye contact these nonverbal cues can consist of physiological aspects including pulse rate as well as levels of perspiration.[9] In addition eye aversion can be predictive of deception. Eye aversion is the avoidance of eye contact. Eye contact and facial expressions provide important social and emotional information. Overall, as Pease states, "Give the amount of eye contact that makes everyone feel comfortable. Unless looking at others is a cultural no-no, lookers gain more credibility than non-lookers"[6]

In concealing deception, nonverbal communication makes it easier to lie without being revealed. This is the conclusion of a study where people watched made-up interviews of persons accused of having stolen a wallet. The interviewees lied in about 50% of the cases. People had access to either written transcript of the interviews, or audio tape recordings, or video recordings. The more clues that were available to those watching, the larger was the trend that interviewees who actually lied were judged to be truthful. That is, people that are clever at lying can use voice tone and face expression to give the impression that they are truthful.[26] Contrary to popular belief, a liar does not always avoid eye contact. In an attempt to be more convincing, liars deliberately made more eye contact with interviewers than those that were telling the truth.[27][28] However, there are many cited examples of cues to deceit, delivered via nonverbal (Para verbal and visual) communication channels, through which deceivers supposedly unwittingly provide clues to their concealed knowledge or actual opinions.[29] Most studies examining the nonverbal cues to deceit rely upon human coding of video footage (c.f. Vrij, 2008[30]), although a recent study also demonstrated bodily movement differences between truth-tellers and liars using an automated body motion capture system.[31]

Across cultures[edit]

Nonverbal communication can have different meanings according to different cultures. Foreigners may even be confused about universal emotions. "In many cultures, such as the Arab and Iranian cultures, people express grief openly. They mourn out loud, while in Asian cultures, the general belief is that it is unacceptable to show emotion openly."[32] In fact, Chinese people value silence more than verbal communication.[33] Gestures, postures, haptics, clothing, eye contact and proxemics all can be understood differently across the world.

Gestures vary widely across cultures in how they are used and what they mean. Native Americans did not have a written language for a long time, so they relied heavily on nonverbal communication in which dances, rituals, and ceremonies were vital.[34] This may be why they tend to teach children using what has been coined as Learning by Observing and Pitching-In (LOPI).[35] Children in many communities of Indigenous of the Americas learn by observing and slowly but surely the child masters the activity and is able to complete and accomplish a task.


For example, "sticking out the tongue may be a form of mockery in the West, but in Polynesia it serves as a greeting and a sign of reverence. Clapping is a North American way of applauding, but in Spain and the Orient it is a means of summoning the waiter. Northern Europeans usually indicate agreement by nodding their heads up and down, and shaking the head from side to side to indicate disagreement. The Greeks have for at least three thousand years used the upward nod for disagreement and the downward nod for agreement.”[37] In addition, laughter is a sign of amusement normally, but in Africa it is a sign of wonder or embarrassment.[37] There are many manners of waving goodbye: Americans face the palm outward and move the hand side to side, Italians face the palm inward and move the fingers facing the other person, French and Germans face the hand horizontal and move the fingers toward the person leaving.[38] Also, it is important to note that gestures are used in more informal settings and more often by children.[38]


Emotional expression varies with culture.[40] The more individualistic a culture is, the more likely the people will show emotions that are disengaged or emphasize what the self is feeling (anger, disgust, and joy).[40] Showing fear is less likely to occur in collectivistic societies because it shows social withdrawal.[41] Joy is more likely to be expressed in individualistic cultures because it is an expression of one’s uniqueness and individuality, whereas in collectivistic cultures, it may disrupt the group with values of interdependence.[42] In addition, Native Americans tend to be more reserved and less expressive with emotions.[43] Finally, frequent touches are common for Chinese people; however, such actions like touching, patting, hugging or kissing in western cultures such as America are less frequent and publicly displayed.[44]




Children's Learning in Indigenous American Communities[edit]

Nonverbal communication is commonly used in learning arrangements within many American Indigenous communities, and seems related to other features of how adults and children collaborate. Organizing learning around extensive use of nonverbal communication within indigenous communities creates a system of teaching where learning and practicing a skill are not separate endeavors, but rather one implies the other. For example, children living in Indigenous Mayan communities become accustomed to and learn from an early age how to implement nonverbal communication through intent observation of adults.[49] Nonverbal communication helps support observation in that it allows for continuous keen observation, and participation when necessary. While not traditionally thought of as “talk,” nonverbal communication has been found to contain highly precise and symbolic meanings, as verbal speech traditionally does, and these meanings are conveyed through the use of gesture, posture changes, and timing.[49][49]

One aspect of nonverbal communication that aids in conveying these precise and symbolic meanings is "context embeddedness." The idea that many children in Indigenous American Communities are closely involved in community endeavors, both spatially and relationally, helps to promote nonverbal communication in the sense that words are not always necessary. When children are closely related to the context of the endeavor as active participants, coordination is based on a shared reference, which helps to allow, maintain, and promote nonverbal communication.[50]

The idea of "context embeddedness" allows nonverbal communication to be a means of learning within Native American Alaskan Athabaskans and Cherokee communities. By observing various family and community social interactions, social engagement is dominated through nonverbal communication. For example, when children illicit thoughts or words verbally to their elders, they are expected to structure their speech carefully. This demonstrates cultural humility and respect as excessive acts of speech and conversational genre shifts reveal weakness and disrespect. This careful self-censorship exemplifies traditional social interactions of Athapaskin and Cherokee Native Americans are mostly dependent on nonverbal communication. [51]

Nonverbal cues are used by most children in the Warm Springs Indian Reservation community within the parameters of their academic learning environments. This includes referencing Native American religion through stylized hand gestures in colloquial communication, verbal and nonverbal emotional self-containment, and less movement of the lower face to structure attention on the eyes during face-to-face engagement. Therefore, children's approach to social situations within a reservation classroom, for example, may act as a barrier to a predominantly verbal learning environment. Most Warm Springs children benefit from a learning model that suits a nonverbal communicative structure of collaboration, traditional gesture, observational learning and shared references.[52]

While nonverbal communication is prevalent in Indigenous American Communities, verbal communication is also used. Verbal communication works to support a model of observation, but in a way in which it is not used to explain an activity, but rather it plays a facilitating role in carrying out an activity. Verbal communication helps to support the completion of an endeavor instead of becoming the focus of it, or substituting for involvement.[49]

Nonverbal actions[edit]

According to Matsumoto and Juang, the nonverbal motions that different people indicate important channels of communication. Nonverbal actions should match and harmonize with the message being portrayed, otherwise confusion will occur.[8] For instance, an individual would normally not be seen smiling and gesturing broadly when saying a sad message. The author states that nonverbal communication is very important to be aware of, especially if comparing gestures, gaze, and tone of voice amongst different cultures. As Latin American cultures embrace big speech gestures, Middle Eastern cultures are relatively more modest in public and are not expressive. Within cultures, different rules are made about staring or gazing. In some cultures, gaze can be seen as a sign of respect. Voice is a category that changes within cultures. Depending on whether or not the cultures is expressive or non expressive, many variants of the voice can depict different reactions.[53]


"In the study of nonverbal communications, the limbic brain is where the action is...because it is the part of the brain that reacts to the world around us reflexively and instantaneously, in real time, and without thought."[54] There is evidence that the nonverbal cues made from person-to-person do not entirely have something to do with environment.[6]


Movement and body position[edit]



Kinesic messages are more subtle than gestures.[55] Kinesic messages comprise the posture, gaze, and facial movements.[56] American looks are short enough just to see if there is recognition of the other person, Arabs look at each other in the eye intensely, and many Africans avert the gaze as a sign of respect to superiors.[57] There are also many postures for people in the Congo; they stretch their hands and put them together in the direction of the other person.[58]

Haptics: touching in communication[edit]

Main article: Haptic communication
A high five is an example of communicative touch.





In chimpanzees the sense of touch is highly developed. As newborns they see and hear poorly but cling strongly to their mothers. Harry Harlow conducted a controversial study involving rhesus monkeys and observed that monkeys reared with a "terry cloth mother," a wire feeding apparatus wrapped in soft terry cloth that provided a level of tactile stimulation and comfort, the monkey who had the real parent were considerably more emotionally stable as adults than those with a mere wire mother.(Harlow,1958)



Main article: Proxemics

Proxemics is the study of the cultural, behavioral, and sociological aspects of spatial distances between individuals.[61] Every person has a particular space that they keep to themselves when communicating, like a personal bubble. When used as a type of nonverbal signal in communication, proxemics helps to determine the space between individuals while they interact. There are four types of proxemics with different distances depending on the situation and people involved.[62] Intimate distance is used for close encounters like embracing, touching, or whispering. Personal distance is for interactions with close friends and family members. Social distance is for interactions among acquaintances. It is mostly used in workplace or school settings where there is no physical contact. Public distance is for strangers or public speaking.



Argyle (1988) concluded there are five primary functions of nonverbal bodily behavior in human communication:[65]

  • Express emotions
  • Express interpersonal attitudes
  • Self-presentation of one's personality
  • Rituals (greetings)


Versus verbal communication[edit]




When communicating, nonverbal messages can interact with verbal messages in six ways: repeating, conflicting, complementing, substituting, regulating and accenting/moderating. Conflicting Verbal and nonverbal messages within the same interaction can sometimes send opposing or conflicting messages. A person verbally expressing a statement of truth while simultaneously fidgeting or avoiding eye contact may convey a mixed message to the receiver in the interaction. Conflicting messages may occur for a variety of reasons often stemming from feelings of uncertainty, ambivalence, or frustration.[23]When mixed messages occur, nonverbal communication becomes the primary tool people use to attain additional information to clarify the situation; great attention is placed on bodily movements and positioning when people perceive mixed messages during interactions. Definitions of nonverbal communication creates a limited picture in our minds but there are ways to create a clearer one. There are different dimensions of verbal and nonverbal communication that have been discovered. They are (1)structure versus non-structure, (2)linguistic versus non-linguistic, (3)continuous versus discontinuous, (4)learned versus innate, and (5)left versus right hemispheric processing.[69]





Structure versus non-structure[edit]

Verbal communication is a highly structured form of communication with set rules of grammar. The rules of verbal communication help to understand and make sense of what other people are saying. For example, foreigners learning a new language can have a hard time making themselves understood. On the other hand nonverbal communication has no formal structure when it comes to communicating. Nonverbal communication occurs without even thinking about it. The same behavior can mean different things such as crying of sadness or of joy. Therefore these cues need to be interpreted carefully to get the correct meaning of them.[72]

Linguistic versus non-linguistic[edit]

There are only a few assigned symbols in the system of nonverbal communication. Nodding the head is one symbol that indicates agreement in some cultures but in others it means disagreement. On the other hand, verbal communication has a system of symbols that have specific meanings to them.[73] C

Continuous and discontinuous[edit]

Verbal communication is based on discontinuous units whereas nonverbal communication is continuous. Communicating nonverbally cannot be stopped unless one would leave the room but even then the intrapersonal processes still take place (individuals communicating with themselves). Without the presence of someone else the body still manages to undergo nonverbal communication. For example, after a heated debate there are no other words being said but there are still angry faces and cold stares being distributed. This is an example of how nonverbal communication is continuous.[73]

Learned versus innate[edit]

Learned non-verbal cues require a community or culture for their reinforcement. For example, table manners are not innate capabilities upon birth. Dress code is a non-verbal cue that must be established by society. Hand symbols, whose interpretation can vary from culture to culture, are not innate nonverbal cues. Learned cues must be gradually reinforced by admonition or positive feedback.

Innate non-verbal cues are "built-in" features of human behavior. Generally, these innate cues are universally prevalent and regardless of culture. For example, smiling, crying, and laughing do not require teaching. Similarly, some body positions, such as the fetal position, are universally associated with weakness. Due to their universality, the ability to comprehend these cues is not limited to individual cultures.[74]

Left versus right-hemispheric processing[edit]

This type of processing involves the neurophysiological approach to nonverbal communication. It explains that the right hemisphere processes nonverbal stimuli such as those involving spatial, pictorial, and gestalt tasks while the left hemisphere involves the verbal stimuli involving analytical and reasoning tasks. It is important to know the implications in processing the differences between verbal and nonverbal communication messages. It is possible that individuals may not use the correct hemisphere at appropriate times when it comes to interpreting a message or meaning.[74]

Clinical studies[edit]

From 1977 to 2004, the influence of disease and drugs on receptivity of nonverbal communication was studied by teams at three separate medical schools using a similar paradigm.[75] Researchers at the University of Pittsburgh, Yale University and Ohio State University had subjects observe gamblers at a slot machine awaiting payoffs. The amount of this payoff was read by nonverbal transmission prior to reinforcement. This technique was developed by and the studies directed by psychologist, Dr. Robert E. Miller and psychiatrist, Dr. A. James Giannini. These groups reported diminished receptive ability in heroin addicts[76] and phencyclidine abusers[77] was contrasted with increased receptivity in cocaine addicts. Men with major depression[78] manifested significantly decreased ability to read nonverbal cues when compared with euthymic men.

In some subjects tested for ability to read nonverbal cues, intuitive paradigms were apparently employed while in others a cause and effect approach was used.[79] Subjects in the former group answered quickly and before reinforcement occurred. They could not give a rationale for their particular responses. Subjects in the latter category delayed their response and could offer reasons for their choice. The level of accuracy between the two groups did not vary nor did handedness.[80]


Obese women[82] and women with premenstrual syndrome[83] were found to also possess diminished abilities to read these cues. In contradistinction, men with bipolar disorder possessed increased abilities.[84] A woman with total paralysis of the nerves of facial expression was found unable to transmit or receive any nonverbal facial cues whatsoever.[85] Because of the changes in levels of accuracy on the levels of nonverbal receptivity, the members of the research team hypothesized a biochemical site in the brain which was operative for reception of nonverbal cues. Because certain drugs enhanced ability while others diminished it, the neurotransmitters dopamine and endorphin were considered to be likely etiological candidate. Based on the available data, however, the primary cause and primary effect could not be sorted out on the basis of the paradigm employed.[86]

Child comprehension[edit]





Comprehension of nonverbal facial cues[edit]

A byproduct of the work of the Pittsburgh/Yale/ Ohio State team was an investigation of the role of nonverbal facial cues in heterosexual nondate rape. Males who were serial rapists of adult women were studied for nonverbal receptive abilities. Their scores were the highest of any subgroup.[89] Rape victims were next tested. It was reported that women who had been raped on at least two occasions by different perpetrators had a highly significant impairment in their abilities to read these cues in either male or female senders.[90] These results were troubling, indicating a predator-prey model. The authors did note that whatever the nature of these preliminary findings the responsibility of the rapist was in no manner or level, diminished.


See also[edit]


  1. ^ Nonverbal Communication Theories. (2009). In the Encyclopedia of Communication Theory. doi: 10.4135/9781412959384.n262
  2. ^ a b Nonverbal Communication. Entry in The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science(2004).
  3. ^ Paradise, Ruth (1994). "Interactional Style and Nonverbal Meaning: Mazahua Children Learning How to Be Separate-But-Together". Anthropology & Education Quarterly 25 (2): 156–172. 
  4. ^ a b c d e f Hogan, K., Stubbs, R. (2003). Can't get Through 8 Barriers to Communication. Grenta, LA: Pelican Publishing Company.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Krauss, R .M., Chen, Y., and Chawla, P. (2000). Nonverbal behavior and nonverbal communication: What do conversational hand gestures tell us? Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 1(2), 389-450.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hecht, M .A. and Ambady, N. (1999). Nonverbal communication and psychology: Past and future. The New Jersey Journal of Communication, 7(2), 1-12.
  9. ^ a b c Sanderson, C .A. (2010). Social Psychology. Wiley. USA.
  10. ^ a b Willis, J., & Todorov, A. (2006). First impressions: Making up your mind after 100 ms exposure to a face. Psychological Science, 17(1), 592-598.
  11. ^ Smith E .R., (2007). Social Psychology. Psychology Press. USA.. 57,86
  12. ^ a b c Knapp & Hall, 2007, p. 9
  17. ^ a b Learnvest. (2012). What your clothes say about you. Retrieved from
  19. ^ "Researchers say clothing choices reveal personality." Sarasota Journal 12 March 1981, 38. Web. 31 Mar. 2014. <
  20. ^ "What Your Clothes Say About You." Forbes. 04 Mar 2012: n. page. Web. 31 Mar. 2014. <>.
  21. ^ Ottenheimer, 2007, p. 130
  25. ^ Argyle, 1988, pp. 153-155
  27. ^ Mann, Samantha; Aldert Vrij, Sharon Leal, Par Granhag, Lara Warmelink, Dave Forester (5 May 2012). "Windows to the Soul? Delierate Eye Contact as a Cue to Deceit". Journal of Nonverbal Behavior 36 (3). doi:10.1007/s10919-012-0132-y. Retrieved 21 September 2013. 
  28. ^ Drewnicky, Alex. "Body Language - Common Myths and How to use it Effectively". Retrieved 11 February 2014. 
  32. ^ Levine and Adelman. (1993). Beyond Language. Prentice Hall.
  50. ^ de Leon, Lourdes (2000). "The Emergent Participant: Interactive Patterns in the Socialization of Tzotzil (Mayan) Infants". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology 8 (2): 131–161. 
  51. ^
  52. ^ Philips, Susan. "The Invisible Culture: Communication in Classroom and Community on the Warm Springs Indian Reservation". Waveland Press. 1992. Print
  59. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.10
  61. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition 2000, updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company.
  62. ^ 2007; Personal Space- Proxemics. Corporate Dossier. The Economic Times.
  65. ^ Argyle, 1988, p.5
  69. ^ Malandro, Loretta (1989). nonverbal communication. New York: Newbery Award Records. p. 7. ISBN 0-394-36526-7. 
  70. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.14
  71. ^ Knapp & Hall, 2007, p.16
  72. ^ Malandro, Loretta (1989). nonverbal communication. New York: Newbery Award Records. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-394-36526-7. 
  73. ^ a b Malandro, Loretta (1989). nonverbal communication. New York: Newbery Award Records. p. 8. ISBN 0-394-36526-7. 
  74. ^ a b Malandro, Loretta (1989). nonverbal communication. New York: Newbery Award Records. p. 9. ISBN 0-394-36526-7. 
  90. ^ AJ Giannini, WA Price, JL Kniepple. Decreased interpretation of nonverbal cues in rape victims. International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine. 16:389-394,1986.



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