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For other uses, see Shinto (disambiguation).
Takachiho-gawara. Here is the sacred ground of the descent to earth of Ninigi-no-Mikoto (the grandson of Amaterasu).
Shinto priest and priestess.

Shinto (神道 Shintō?), also kami-no-michi,[note 1] is the indigenous religion of Japan and the people of Japan.[2] It is defined as an action-centered religion,[3] focused on ritual practices to be carried out diligently, to establish a connection between present-day Japan and its ancient past.[4] Founded in 660 BC according to Japanese mythology,[5] Shinto practices were first recorded and codified in the written historical records of the Kojiki and Nihon Shoki in the 8th century. Still, these earliest Japanese writings do not refer to a unified "Shinto religion", but rather to a collection of native beliefs and mythology.[6] Shinto today is a term that applies to the religion of public shrines devoted to the worship of a multitude of gods (kami),[7] suited to various purposes such as war memorials and harvest festivals, and applies as well to various sectarian organizations. Practitioners express their diverse beliefs through a standard language and practice, adopting a similar style in dress and ritual, dating from around the time of the Nara and Heian periods.[6]

The word Shinto ("way of the gods") was adopted, originally as Shindo,[8] from the written Chinese Shendao (神道, pinyin: shén dào),[9][note 2] combining two kanji: "shin" (?), meaning "spirit" or kami; and "" (?), meaning a philosophical path or study (from the Chinese word dào).[6][9] The oldest recorded usage of the word Shindo is from the second half of the 6th century.[10] Kami are defined in English as "spirits", "essences" or "gods", referring to the energy generating the phenomena.[11] Since Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms: rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami.[11] Kami and people are not separate; they exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity.[6]

Shinto is the largest religion in Japan, practiced by nearly 80% of the population, yet only a small percentage of these identify themselves as "Shintoists" in surveys.[7][12] This is due to the fact that "Shinto" has different meanings in Japan: most of the Japanese attend Shinto shrines and beseech kami without belonging to an institutional "Shinto" religion,[13] and since there are no formal rituals to become a member of folk "Shinto", "Shinto membership" is often estimated counting those who join organised Shinto sects.[14] Shinto has 100,000 shrines and 20,000 priests in the country.[7]

According to Inoue (2003):

In modern scholarship, the term is often used with reference to kami worship and related theologies, rituals and practices. In these contexts, "Shinto" takes on the meaning of "Japan’s traditional religion", as opposed to foreign religions such as Christianity, Buddhism, Islam and so forth.[15]

Types of Shinto

Yutateshinji ceremony performed at the Miwa Shrine.

Shinto religious expressions have been distinguished by scholars into a series of categories:[16]

  • Shrine Shinto (神社神道 Jinja-Shintō?), the main tradition of Shinto, has always been a part of Japan's history. It consists in taking part in worship practices and events at local shrines. Before the Meiji Restoration, shrines were disorganized institutions usually attached to Buddhist temples; in the Meiji Restoration they were made independent systematised institutions. The successor to the imperial organization system, the Association of Shinto Shrines, oversees about 80.000 shrines nationwide.
  • Imperial Household Shinto (皇室神道 Kōshitsu-Shintō?) are the religious rites performed exclusively by the imperial family at the three shrines on the imperial grounds, including the Ancestral Spirits Sanctuary (Kōrei-den) and the Sanctuary of the Kami (Shin-den).[17]
  • Folk Shinto (民俗神道 Minzoku-Shintō?) includes the numerous but fragmented folk beliefs in deities and spirits. Practices include divination, spirit possession, and shamanic healing. Some of their practices come from Buddhism, Taoism or Confucianism, but most come from ancient local traditions.
  • Sect Shinto (教派神道 Kyōha-Shintō?) is a legal designation originally created in the 1890s to separate government-owned shrines from local organised religious communities. These communities originated especially in the Edo period. The basic difference between Shrine Shinto and Sect Shinto is that sects are a later development and grew self-consciously, they can identify a founder, a formal set of teachings and even sacred scriptures. Sect Shinto groups are thirteen, and usually classified under five headings: pure Shinto sects (Shinto Taikyo, Shinrikyo and Izumo Oyashirokyo), Confucian sects (Shinto Shusei-ha and Taiseikyo), mountain worship sects (Jikkokyo, Fusokyo and Mitakekyo or Ontakekyo), purification sects (Shinshukyo and Misogikyo), and faith-healing sects (Kurozumikyo, Konkokyo and its branching Omotokyo, and Tenrikyo).[18]
  • Koshintō (古神道 ko-shintō?), literally "Old Shinto", is a reconstructed "Shinto from before the time of Buddhism", today based on Ainu religion and Ryukyuan practices. It continues the restoration movement begun by Hirata Atsutane.

Many other sects and schools can be distinguished.[19] Faction Shinto (宗派神道 Shūha-Shintō?) is a grouping of Japanese new religions developed since the second half of the 20th century that have significantly departed from traditional Shinto and are not always regarded as part of it.

Theology and cosmology


Main article: Kami

Kami or shin (神) is defined in English as "god", "spirit", "spiritual essence", all these terms meaning the energy generating a thing.[11] Since the Japanese language does not distinguish between singular and plural, kami refers to the divinity, or sacred essence, that manifests in multiple forms. Rocks, trees, rivers, animals, places, and even people can be said to possess the nature of kami.[11] Kami and people exist within the same world and share its interrelated complexity.[6]

Shinto gods are collectively called yaoyorozu no kami (八百万の神?), an expression literally meaning "eight million kami", but interpreted as meaning "myriad", although it can be translated as "many Kami". There is a phonetic variation, kamu, and a similar word in the Ainu language, kamui. An analogous word is mi-koto.[20]

Kami refers particularly to the power of phenomena that inspire a sense of wonder and awe in the beholder (the sacred), testifying to the divinity of such a phenomenon.[11] It is comparable to what Rudolf Otto described as the mysterium tremendum and fascinans.[11]





Main article: Amenominakanushi

According to the Kojiki,[22] Amenominakanushi (天御中主 "All-Father of the Originating Hub", or 天之御中主神 "Heavenly Ancestral God of the Originating Heart of the Universe") is the first kami, and the concept of the source of the universe according to theologies.[23][24] In mythology he is described as a "god who came into being alone" (hitorigami), the first of the zōka sanshin ("three kami of creation"), and one of the five kotoamatsukami ("distinguished heavenly gods").[23]


The god manifests in a duality, a male and a female function, respectively Takamimusubi and Kamimusubi.[25] In other mythical accounts the originating kami is called Umashiashikabihikoji ("God of the Ashi [Reed]") or Kuninotokotachi (the "God Founder of the Nation"), the latter used in the Nihon Shoki.[26]

Creation of Japan

Izanami-no-Mikoto and Izanagi-no-Mikoto, by Kobayashi Eitaku, late 19th century.

The generation of the Japanese archipelago is expressed mythologically as the action of two gods: Izanagi ("He-who-invites") and Izanami ("She-who-is-invited").[27] The interaction of these two principles begets the islands of Japan and a further group of kami.[28]

The events are described in the Kojiki as follows:

  • They lived on this island, and created a palace and within was large pole.
  • They had two children (islands) which turned out badly and they cast them out. They decided that the ritual had been done incorrectly the first time.
  • They then gave birth to the eight perfect islands of the Japanese archipelago.

In the myth, the birth of the god of fire (Kagu-Tsuchi) causes the death of Izanami, who descends into Yomi-no-kuni, the netherworld. Izanagi chases her there, but runs away when he finds the dead figure of his spouse.[29] As he returns to the land of the living, Amaterasu (the sun goddess) is born from his left eye, Tsukiyomi (the moon deity) from his right eye, and Susanoo (the storm deity) is born from Izanagi's nose.[30]



Shinto teaches that certain deeds create a kind of ritual impurity that one should want cleansed for one's own peace of mind and good fortune rather than because impurity is wrong. Wrong deeds are called "impurity" (穢れ kegare?), which is opposed to "purity" (清め kiyome?). Normal days are called "day" (ke), and festive days are called "sunny" or, simply, "good" (hare).[31]

Those who are killed without being shown gratitude for their sacrifice will hold a grudge (怨み urami?) (grudge) and become powerful and evil kami who seek revenge (aragami).[citation needed] Additionally, if anyone is injured on the grounds of a shrine, the area must be ritually purified.

Haraegushi (祓串) for purification


Purification rites called Harae are a vital part of Shinto. They are done on a daily, weekly, seasonal, lunar, and annual basis. These rituals are the lifeblood[citation needed] of the practice of Shinto. Such ceremonies have also been adapted to modern life. New buildings made in Japan are frequently blessed by a Shinto priest called kannushi (神主?) during the groundbreaking ceremony (Jichinsai 地鎮祭), and many cars made in Japan have been blessed as part of the assembly process. Moreover, many Japanese businesses built outside Japan have had ceremonies performed by a Shinto priest, with occasionally an annual visitation by the priest to re-purify.


It is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine, yet have a Buddhist funeral at the time of death mostly due to the negative Japanese conception of the afterlife and death as well as Buddhism's historical monopoly on funeral rites. In old Japanese legends, it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi (黄泉), a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of Izanami and Izanagi. This yomi is very close to the Greek Hades; however, later myths include notions of resurrection and even Elysium-like descriptions such as in the legend of Okuninushi and Susanoo. Shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare. However, death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in Shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death. Perhaps the most famous would be Emperor Ojin who was enshrined as Hachiman the God of War after his death.

Unlike many religions, one does not need to publicly profess belief in Shinto to be a believer. Whenever a child is born in Japan, a local Shinto shrine adds the child's name to a list kept at the shrine and declares him or her a "family child" (氏子 ujiko?). After death an ujiko becomes a "family spirit", or "family kami" (氏神 ujigami?). One may choose to have one's name added to another list when moving and then be listed at both places. Names can be added to the list without consent and regardless of the beliefs of the person added to the list. This is not considered an imposition of belief, but a sign of being welcomed by the local kami, with the promise of addition to the pantheon of kami after death.


Main article: Shinto shrine

Shinto Shrines of Japan

Ise Grand Shrine—Honden at Naiku. After 1871, it is the apex of the 80000 Shinto Shrines
Izumo Taisha—haiden and Honden, one of the oldest shrines in Japan
Tsubaki Grand Shrine—Haiden, one of the oldest shrines in Japan
Fushimi Inari—Main Gate, one of the oldest shrines in Japan
Isonokami—Haiden, a historically significant Imperial National Treasure

The principal worship of kami is done at public shrines or worship at small home shrines called kamidana (神棚, lit. "god-shelf"). The public shrine is a building or place that functions as a conduit for kami. A fewer number of shrines are also natural places called mori. The most common of the mori are sacred groves of trees, or mountains, or waterfalls. All shrines are open to the public at some times or throughout the year.

While many of the public shrines are elaborate structures, all are characteristic Japanese architectural styles of different periods depending on their age. Shrines are fronted by a distinctive Japanese gate (鳥居, torii) made of two uprights and two crossbars denoting the separation between common space and sacred space. The torii have 20 styles and matching buildings based on the enshrined kami and lineage.

There are a number of symbolic and real barriers that exist between the normal world and the shrine grounds including: statues of protection, gates, fences, ropes, and other delineations of ordinary to sacred space. Usually there will be only one or sometimes two approaches to the Shrine for the public and all will have the torii over the way. In shrine compounds, there are a haiden (拝殿) or public hall of worship, heiden (幣殿) or hall of offerings and the honden (本殿) or the main hall. The innermost precinct of the grounds is the honden or worship hall, which is entered only by the high priest, or worshippers on certain occasions. The honden houses the symbol of the enshrined kami.


Notable shrines

Of the 80,000 Shinto shrines:



Temizu Basin—Itsukushima Jinja

Any person may visit a shrine and one need not be Shinto to do this. Doing so is called Omairi. Typically there are a few basic steps to visiting a shrine.

  • At any entrance gate, bow respectfully before passing through.
  • If there is a hand washing basin provided, perform Temizu: take the dipper in your right hand and scoop up water. Pour some onto your left hand, then transfer the dipper to your left hand and pour some onto your right hand. Transfer the dipper to your right hand again, cup your left palm, and pour water into it, from which you will take the water into your mouth (never drink directly from the dipper), silently swish it around in your mouth (do not drink), then quietly spit it out into your cupped left hand (not into the reservoir). Then, holding the handle of the dipper in both hands, turn it vertically so that the remaining water washes over the handle. Then replace it where you found it.
  • Approach the shrine; if there is a bell, you may ring the bell first (or after depositing a donation); if there is a box for donations, leave a modest one in relation to your means; then bow twice, clap twice, and hold the second clap with your hands held together in front of your heart for a closing bow after your prayers.
  • There is variation in how this basic visitation may go, and depending on the time of year and holidays there may also be other rituals attached to visitations.
  • Be sincere and respectful to the staff and other visitors, and if at all possible, be quiet. Do be aware that there are places one should not go on the shrine grounds. Do not wear shoes inside any buildings.


Main article: Harae

The rite of ritual purification usually done daily at a shrine is a ceremony of offerings and prayers of several forms. Shinsen (food offerings of fruit, fish, vegetables), Tamagushi (sakaki tree branches), Shio (salt), Gohan (rice), Mochi (rice paste), and Sake (rice wine) are all typical offerings. On holidays and other special occasions the inner shrine doors may be opened and special offerings made.

Offerings to the kami

Tamagushi offering at Tsurugaoka Hachiman-gū
Offerings at Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America
Mochi offered at Meiji Jingū
Sake offerings at Itsukushima Shrine
Tamagushi and food offerings (shinsen) offered at Katori-jingū


Main article: Misogi

Misogi harai or Misogi Shūhō (禊修法) is the term for water purification.


The basic performance of this is the hand and mouth washing (Temizu 手水) done at the entrance to a shrine. The more dedicated believer may purify him- or herself by standing beneath a waterfall or performing ritual ablutions in a river. This practice comes from Shinto history, when the kami Izanagi-no-Mikoto first performed misogi after returning from the land of Yomi, where he was made impure by Izanami-no-Mikoto after her death.



Amulets and talismans

A woman tying her fortune (omikuji) at Kasuga Shrine
Main article: Ema (Shinto)


Ofuda are talismans—made of paper, wood, or metal—that are issued at shrines. They are inscribed with the names of kamis and are used for protection in the home. They are typically placed in the home at a kamidana. Ofuda may be kept anywhere, as long as they are in their protective pouches, but there are several rules about the proper placement of kamidana. They are also renewed annually.[32]


Omikuji are paper lots upon which personal fortunes are written.[32]


Other protective items include dorei, which are earthenware bells that are used to pray for good fortune. These bells are usually in the shapes of the zodiacal animals:[32] hamaya, which are symbolic arrows for the fight against evil and bad luck;[32] and Inuhariko, which are paper dogs that are used to induce and to bless good births.[32]

Amulets and Protection

Kamidana (home shrine) with kagamimochi and Ofuda
Daruma of various sizes
Hamaya at Ikuta Shrine
Various Omamori from Shrines in Japan and Tsubaki Grand Shrine of America
Ema dedicated at Sewa Jinja


Kagura traditional dance, Katori Jingu, Katori City










Originally, the practice of kagura involved authentic possession by the kami invoked. In modern day Japan it appears to be difficult to find authentic ritual possession, called kamigakari, in kagura dance. However, it is common to see choreographed possession in the dances. Actual possession is not taking place but elements of possession such as losing control and high jumps are applied in the dance.


Historical records

There is no core sacred text in Shinto, as the Bible is in Christianity or Qur'an is in Islam. Instead there are books of lore and history which provide stories and background to many Shinto beliefs.

  • The Kojiki (Record of Ancient Matters) The foundation to written Shinto history.
  • The Shoku Nihongi and its Nihon Shoki (Continuing Chronicles of Japan)
  • The Rikkokushi (Six National Histories) which includes the Shoku Nihongi and Nihon Shoki
  • The Jinnō Shōtōki (a study of Shinto and Japanese politics and history) written in the 14th century


Further information: Koshinto

Shinto has very ancient roots in the Japanese islands. The recorded history dates to the Kojiki (712) and Nihon Shoki (720), but archeological records date back significantly further. Both are compilations of prior oral traditions. The Kojiki establishes the Japanese imperial family as the foundation of Japanese culture, being the descendants of Amaterasu Omikami[citation needed]. There is also a creation myth and a genealogy of the gods. The Nihonshoki was more interested in creating a structural system of government, foreign policy, religious hierarchy, and domestic social order.

There is an internal system of historical Shinto development that configures the relationships between Shinto and other religious practices over its long history; the inside and outside Kami (spirits). The inside or ujigami (uji meaning clan) Kami roles that supports cohesion and continuation of established roles and patterns; and the hitogami or outside Kami, bringing innovation, new beliefs, new messages, and some instability.

Jomon peoples of Japan used natural housing, predated rice farming, and frequently were hunter-gatherers, the physical evidence for ritual practices are difficult to document. There are many locations of stone ritual structures, refined burial practices and early Torii that lend to the continuity of primal Shinto. The Jomon had a clan-based tribal system developed similar to much of the worlds indigenous people. In the context of this clan based system, local beliefs developed naturally and when assimilation between clans occurred, they also took on some beliefs of the neighboring tribes. At some point there was a recognition that the ancestors created the current generations and the reverence of ancestors (tama) took shape. There was some trade amongst the indigenous peoples within Japanese islands and the mainland, as well as some varying migrations. The trade and interchange of people helped the growth and complexity of the peoples spirituality by exposure to new beliefs. The natural spirituality of the people appeared to be based on the worship of nature forces or mono, and the natural elements to which they all depended.


Jomon Period


Yayoi Period



Kofun Period


Asuka Period


In particular the Asuka rulers of 552–645 saw disputes between the more major families of the clan Shinto families. There were disputes about who would ascend to power and support the imperial family between the Soga and Mononobe/Nakatomi Shinto families. The Soga family eventually prevailed and supported Empress Suiko and Prince Shotoku, who helped impress Buddhist faith into Japan. However, it was not until the Hakuho ruling period of 645–710 was Shinto installed at the imperial faith along with the Fujiwara Clan and reforms that followed.[6]

Hakuho Period

Beginning with Emperor Temmu (672–686), continuing through Empress Jito (686–697) and Emperor Mommu (697–707) Court Shinto rites are strengthened and made parallel to Buddhist beliefs in court life. Prior to this time clan Shinto had dominated and a codification of "Imperial Shinto" did not exist as such. The Nakatomi family are made the chief court Shinto chaplains and chief priests at Ise Daijingu which held until 1892. Also the practice of sending imperial princesses to the Ise shrine begins.[6] This marks the rise of Ise Daijingu as the main imperial shrine historically. Due to increasing influence from Buddhism and mainland Asian thought, codification of the "Japanese" way of religion and laws begins in earnest. This culminates in three major outcomes: Taiho Code (701 but started earlier), The Kojiki (712),and The Nihon Shoki (720).[6]


Nara Period


During this time, Buddhism becomes structurally established within Japan by Emperor Shōmu (reign 724–749), and several large building projects are undertaken. The Emperor lays out plans for the Buddha Dainichi (Great Sun Buddha), at Tōdai-ji assisted by the Priest Gyogi (or Gyoki) Bosatsu. The priest Gyogi went to Ise Daijingu Shrine for blessings to build the Buddha Dainichi. They identified the statue of Viarocana with Amatarasu (the sun goddess) as the manifestation of the supreme expression of universality.[6]


Syncretism with Buddhism


This explanation was later challenged by Kūkai (空海, 774–835), who saw the kami as different embodiments of the Buddhas themselves (honji suijaku theory). For example, he linked Amaterasu (the sun goddess and ancestor of the Imperial family) with Dainichi Nyorai, a central manifestation of the Buddhists, whose name means literally "Great Sun Buddha". In his view, the kami were just Buddhas by another name.



In the 18th century, various Japanese scholars, in particular Motoori Norinaga (本居 宣長, 1730–1801), tried to tear apart the "real" Shinto from various foreign influences. The attempt was largely unsuccessful, since as early as the Nihon Shoki parts of the mythology were explicitly borrowed from Taoism doctrines. For example, the co-creator deities Izanami and Izanagi are explicitly compared to yin and yang. However, the attempt did set the stage for the arrival of state Shinto, following the Meiji Restoration (c.1868), when Shinto and Buddhism were separated (shinbutsu bunri).

State Shinto

Main article: State Shinto

Fridell argues that scholars call the period 1868-1945 the "State Shinto period" because, "during these decades, Shinto elements came under a great deal of overt state influence and control as the Japanese government systematically utilized shrine worship as a major force for mobilizing imperial loyalties on behalf of modern nation-building."[40] However, the government had already been treating shrines as an extension of government before Meiji; see for example the Tenpō Reforms.







Shinto has also spread abroad to a limited extent, and a few non-Japanese Shinto priests have been ordained. A relatively small number of people practice Shinto in America. There are several Shinto shrines in America. Shrines were also established in Taiwan and Korea of those areas in Empire of Japan times, but following the war, they were either destroyed or converted into some other use.

New sects

Within Shinto, there are a variety of new sects outside Shrine Shinto and the officially defunct State Shinto. Sect Shinto, like Tenrikyo and Konkokyo, have a unique dogma or leader, with some exhibiting the influence of Messianic Christianity and cult of personality, in the 19th and 20th century, particularly the "New Religions" like (Shinshūkyō) that proliferated in the post-war era.

See also


  1. ^ Both mean the "way of the divine" or "of the gods". Other names are:[1]
    • kannagara-no-michi, "way of the divine transmitted from time immemorial";
    • Kodo, the "ancient way";
    • Daido, the "great way";
    • Teido, the "imperial way".
  2. ^ During the history of China, at the time of the spread of Buddhism to the country, the name Shendao was used to identify what is currently known as "Shenism", the Chinese indigenous religion, distinguishing it from the new Buddhist religion. (Brian Bocking. A Popular Dictionary of Shinto. Routledge, 2005. ASIN: B00ID5TQZY p. 129)


  1. ^ Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxiv
  2. ^ Williams, 2004. p. 4
  3. ^ Williams, 2004. p. 6
  4. ^ John Nelson. A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine. 1996. pp. 7–8
  5. ^ "The True Religion Acceptable by God", p. 23, by St. Godbe Ajuzie
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Richard Pilgrim, Robert Ellwood (1985). Japanese Religion (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc. pp. 18–19. ISBN 0-13-509282-5. 
  7. ^ a b c Breen, Teeuwen. 2010. p 1
  8. ^ Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxi
  9. ^ a b Sokyo, Ono (1962). Shinto: The Kami Way (1st ed.). Rutland, VT: Charles E Tuttle Co. p. 2. ISBN 0-8048-1960-2. OCLC 40672426. 
  10. ^ Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxi
  11. ^ a b c d e f Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxii
  12. ^ "Association of Shinto Shrines | 設立". Jinja Honcho. Retrieved 2013-05-05. 
  13. ^ Engler, Price. 2005. p. 95
  14. ^ Williams, 2004. pp. 4-5
  15. ^ Inoue Nobutaka, Shinto, a Short History (2003) p. 1
  16. ^ Nobutaka Inoue. Shinto: A Short History. Routledge, 2003. ISBN 0415319137
  17. ^ Sokyo, Ono (1962). Shinto: The Kami Way (1st ed.). Rutland, VT: Charles E Tuttle Co. p. 13. ISBN 0-8048-1960-2. OCLC 40672426. 
  18. ^ Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. pp. 212-213
  19. ^ Glossary A to Z - Shintō Schools & Sects
  20. ^ Hoffman, Michael, "In the land of the kami, Japan Times, March 14, 2010.
  21. ^ a b c d Stuart D. B. Picken, 1994. p. xxiii
  22. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29, note 92
  23. ^ a b c d e f Amenominakanushi. Encyclopedia of Shinto.
  24. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  25. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  26. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. pp. 28-29
  27. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  28. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  29. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  30. ^ Kitagawa, 1987. p. 29
  31. ^ Sugimoto, Yoshio (1997). An Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 230–231. ISBN 0-521-41692-2. OCLC 35008178. 
  32. ^ a b c d e f g h Handy Bilingual Reference For Kami and Jinja. Tokyo: International Cultural Workshop Inc. 2006. pp. 39–41. 
  33. ^ Kobayashi, Kazushige; Knecht, Peter, "On the Meaning of Masked Dances in Kagura", Asian Folklore Studies 40 (1): 1, 1981, p.3.
  34. ^ Averbuch, Irit, The Gods Come Dancing: A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura, Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1995, pp.83–87.
  38. ^ a b c Averbuch, Irit, The Gods Come Dancing: A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura, Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1995, p. 16.
  39. ^ Yusen, Kashiwahara (1994). The Shapers Of Japanese Buddhism (1st ed.). Tokyo, Japan: Kosei Publishing Co. pp. 3–13. ISBN 4-333-01630-4. 
  40. ^ Wilbur M. Fridell, “A Fresh Look at State Shintō”, Journal of the American Academy of Religion 44.3 (1976), 547-561 in JSTOR; quote p. 548

Further reading

  • Averbuch, Irit (1995). The Gods Come Dancing: A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura. Ithaca, NY: East Asia Program, Cornell University. ISBN 1-885445-67-9. OCLC 34612865. 
  • Averbuch, Irit (1998). "Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance". Asian Folklore Studies (Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture) 57 (2): 293–329. doi:10.2307/1178756. JSTOR 1178756. 
  • Blacker, Dr. Carmen (2003). "Shinto and the Sacred Dimension of Nature". Archived from the original on 2007-12-22. Retrieved 2008-01-21. 
  • Bowker, John W (2002). The Cambridge Illustrated History of Religions. New York City: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-81037-X. OCLC 47297614. 
  • Breen, John; Teeuwen, Mark (2010). A New History of Shinto. Blackwell. ISBN 1405155167. 
  • Breen, John and Mark Teeuwen, ed. (2000). Shintō in History: Ways of the Kami. Honolulu, Hi: Hawaii University Press. ISBN 0-8248-2362-1. 
  • Endress, Gerhild (1979). "On the Dramatic Tradition in Kagura: A Study of the Medieval Kehi Songs as Recorded in the Jotokubon". Asian Folklore Studies (Nanzan Institute for Religion and Culture) 38 (1): 1–23. doi:10.2307/1177463. JSTOR 1177463. 
  • Engler, Steven; Grieve, Gregory P. (2005). Historicizing "Tradition" in the Study of Religion. Walter de Gruyter, Inc. pp. 92–108. ISBN 3110188759. 
  • Havens, Norman (2006). "Shinto". In Paul L. Swanson & Clark Chilson, (eds.). Nanzan Guide to Japanese Religions. Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. pp. 14–37. ISBN 978-0-8248-3002-1. OCLC 60743247. 
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