Force and Motion

Document Sample
Force and Motion Powered By Docstoc
					                                                                     Team: ____________________

                           Force and Motion 2
In the first Force and Motion lab, you studied constant forces and friction-free motion. In this
sequel, you will study forces that depend on time and position. You will also explore the force
of friction.

Part I. Force Curves
A force curve is the graph of the force F on an object as a function of time t. The way in which
F depends on t tells you everything about the dynamical behavior of a system. Here, you will use
the force sensor to measure the force function F(t) for different systems. “Reading” the shape of
force curves is an integral part of the “art” of Newtonian mechanics.

A. Bungee Jump

         What kind of forces do you feel during a bungee jump?

Build the following small-scale replica of a bungee-jump system:

                                                 force sensor

                                 rods            3 rubber bands

                                                 500-gram weight



Open the file ForceProbe. Set the switch on the sensor to the ‘10N’ range. Zero the sensor
when it is in the vertical position and nothing is attached to the hook.

Start with the person (weight) high above the ground (floor, not table) so that the bungee cord
(rubber bands) is relaxed (unstretched). Caution: Before releasing the heavy 500-gram mass,
make sure it will not hit your foot. Activate the force sensor. Release the person. The force
sensor will record the tension force F(t) exerted by the bungee cord on the person. Change the
scales of F and t on your F(t) graph (try the Autoscale) in order to magnify all features and
clearly display the shape of the force curve during the entire up-down-up-down- … motion of
the bungee jump.

PRINT your force curve.

1. Mark the two points on your printed force curve where the person is momentarily at rest at the
extreme bottom (closest to ground after being released) and at the extreme top (farthest from
ground after the first ‘bounce’) of the bungee jump. Label the points “Bottom of Jump” and
“Top of Jump”.

2. What is the Apparent Weight of the person at these two extreme points?

Note: The force sensor is a “hanging weight scale” just as a bathroom scale is a “standing weight scale”.
The weight of any object hanging from the force sensor is simply the value (F) recorded by the sensor. If
the object is not accelerating, then the sensor reads the “actual weight” (F=W). If the object is accelerating
up or down, then the sensor reads the “apparent weight” ( F>W or F<W).

Write the values of the two apparent weights next to the corresponding two extreme points on
your force curve.

3. Mark the value of the actual weight of the person on the Force (Newton) axis. Draw a
horizontal line at this value across the entire graph. Write “Actual Weight” on the line.


                             Actual Weight = _______ N .

 Apparent Weight (top) =         _______ N .          Apparent Weight (bottom) = ________ N .

At the bottom of the bungee jump, the jumper feels ______             times heavier/lighter (circle one) than
their actual weight.

At the top of the bungee jump, the jumper feels ______ times heavier/lighter (circle one) than
their actual weight.

B. Collision

          What does the force of impact look like during a collision?

Collisions are everywhere. A ball hits a bat. A foot kicks a ball. A car hits a car. A ball
bounces off the floor. An asteroid hits the earth. An electron scatters off a proton. A rusher
tackles a quarterback. An asteroid collides with a planet. The dynamical trademark of all
collisions is that the force between the colliding objects is an Impulsive Force − a LARGE
FORCE acting over a small time.

Place the force sensor against the end of the track. Start the cart at the other end. Zero the force
sensor. Activate the force sensor. Give the cart an initial velocity. Let it coast along the track
and collide with the force sensor (hook).

The force curve recorded by the force sensor should have a “triangular shape” and clearly show
the two dynamical features that characterize all collisions:

 1. Maximum Force Fmax (height of curve).            2. Collision Time ∆t (width of curve).

Change the F and t scales on your F(t) graph so that the triangular shape of your collision curve
is clearly displayed, i.e. “zoom in” on the collision event − that narrow window of time ∆t during
which the cart and the sensor are in contact (F ≠ 0). The height and width of your “collision
triangle” should be obvious just by looking at the F-axis and the t-axis of your F(t) graph.

PRINT your force curve. Mark the value of “Fmax” on the F axis. Mark the time interval “∆t”
on the t axis. Report the values of these collision parameters here:

          Fmax =    __________ N .                       ∆t = __________ s .

Area Under F(t) Curve = “Impulse”

Note that that ½ Fmax estimates the average force Fav acting on the cart over the interval of time
∆t during which the impulsive force acts. The “ product of Fav and ∆t ” is an important
dynamical quantity in physics because it determines the “ change-in-momentum m∆v ” of the
cart, according to Newton’s Law: Fav∆t = m∆v. The force-time product Fav∆t is called
Impulse. Calculus says Fav∆t is equal to ∫Fdt. It also says ∫Fdt is equal to the area. Thus
Impulse = Area Under F(t). Use the computer to find the impulse acting on your cart during the
collision. Here’s how: Highlight the “collision triangle” (click and drag mouse across the time
interval ∆t) and then click on the area icon [π].

              Impulse = Area under F(t) =        _________________ N•s .

Calculate the area by hand. Approximate the F(t) curve as a triangle (area = ½ base × height).
Show your hand calculation directly on the graph. Compare to the computer calculation.

Part II. Position-Dependent Force − A Case Study
“Feel the Force”.   How does F(x) depend on x ?

Many forces in nature depend on position. The gravitational force on a planet depends on its
distance from the sun. The magnetic force on a mag-lev train depends on its distance above the
tracks. The electric force on an electron in an atom depends on its distance from the protons in
the nucleus.

In this experiment, you will encounter one of the most important position-dependent forces in
physics: the force due to a spring. The mechanical system that you will study consists of a cart
connected to two springs moving on a metal track:


The origin of the x-axis is chosen to be the point where the net force on the cart is zero. The cart
will remain at rest at x = 0. At this so-called “equilibrium point”, the left spring pulls on the cart
with a force that exactly balances the pull of the right spring. Thus F = 0 at x = 0. With your
hand, pull the cart away from x = 0 to another position, such as x = +5 cm and x = −5 cm, and
feel the force. The force always restores the mass back toward x = 0:

                              F                        F

                    −5                     0                     +5

As you pull the cart further away from x = 0, the restoring force back to x = 0 becomes stronger
due to the increasing expansion and compression of the springs. Thus the magnitude of F is not
constant: F depends on x.

                                               F                   F

                                           0           x
Since the force F on the cart depends on the position x of the cart, the physical quantity F is
represented by a mathematical function F(x). Given any value of x, the function F(x) specifies
the value of the force at that particular x. Based on your qualitative study so far, all you know
about this function is that F(0) = 0 and that the magnitude of F(x) is an increasing function. Your
experimental goal is to find the precise form of this force function. Does F(x) have the form
F = 3x , or F = 5x2 , or F(x) = ln(1+x)? You will find F(x) two different ways: (1) Dynamically,
by observing the back-and-forth motion of the cart. (2) Statically, by using a spring scale.

1. Discovering the Law of Force

In physics, a force law is a mathematical rule that specifies how force depends on position. From
the previous Force and Motion Lab, you learned how physicists discover the force laws of
nature: Observe the Motion , Deduce the Force. In this experiment, your quest is to

                Deduce how the force F(x) depends on x from a measurement of
                         how the position x(t) depends on t.

For a constant force (independent of time), the graph of x(t) is a parabola , i.e. x(t) = ½ at2.
For the non-constant force due to springs, what is the “shape” of x(t)?

Exercise: Suppose you measure x(t) for a mass m = 3 and find x = 4t2 . What is the net force
acting on the mass? Hint: F = ma or F = md2x/dt2 .

                                                                            F = ____________ .

Sinusoidal Motion

Level the track using the “steel ball test”. Place the wooden block covered with felt on top of the
cart. This block acts as a “flag” for the motion sensor to see. In order for the motion sensor to
see the cart, you will probably have to elevate the sensor by placing it on top of blocks on the
table. Open Logger Pro file Moving Along. Pull the cart from x = 0 to about x = 20 cm and
release. Use the motion sensor to record the position x(t) of the cart as a function of time.

Does your x(t) curve look like a “sine curve” ?    A sine it is!

There is a deep connection between force and geometry:

                  Gravitational Force ⇔ Elliptical Motion
                     Spring Force     ⇔ Sinusoidal Motion
               Electromagnetic Force ⇔ Helical Motion

As the cart moves back and forth along the x axis, the motion repeats itself. The cart
“oscillates”. The position function x(t) is a periodic function of time t. Oscillatory motion is
everywhere in Nature: pendulum, tuning fork, guitar string, sound waves, light waves, radio
waves, electron in antenna, atomic clock, molecular vibrations (heat), nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), pulsating stars (pulsars), oscillating universe (big bang-big crunch) …

The mathematical equation describing the x-t curve recorded by your motion sensor is

                             x(t) = A sin (2πt/T) .

This sinusoidal worldline is graphed below. Note how the parameters A and T uniquely define
the motion function x(t) and determine the overall shape of the worldline. Qualitatively
speaking, A and T specify the “height” and the “width” of the sine curve.





More precisely, the amplitude A is the maximum displacement of the cart away from the
equilibrium point. The period T is the time it takes the cart to complete one oscillation (one
back-and-forth motion) Note that the function x(t) = Asin(2πt/T) is bounded, −A ≤ x ≤ A, and
periodic, x(t+T) = x(t).

Examine the x-t curve recorded by your motion sensor. Read off the values of A and T that
characterize the sinusoidal motion of your cart:

    A = ______________ m .                                    T = ______________ s .

The Period of Motion T Determines the Law of Force F(x)

Amazing Fact: If you know the time T, then you can figure out the force F(x). Here are the key
steps that allow you to deduce the force function F(x) from the motion function x(t):

                        F =    m   a
                          =    m   dv/dt
                          =    m   d2 x /dt2
                          =    m   d2 Asin(2πt/T) /dt2
                          =    m   [−(2π/T)2 Asin(2πt/T) ]
                          =    m   [−(2π/T)2 x ]

Can you justify each step (equal sign)? This derivation illustrates the power of Newton’s
PHYSICS and CALCULUS in analyzing nature.

The last line in the derivation reveals precisely how F depends on x. In summary, by inserting
the motion function x = Asin(2πt/T) into Newton’s law, F = m d2x/dt2 , we have deduced the
following force function:

                            F(x) = − (4π2m/T2) x .

Physicists write this force law in the form

                                F = − kx ,

where the force constant k is

                                k = 4π2m/T2 .

The magnitude of the force F on the cart increases in direct proportion to the distance x that the
cart is displaced from the equilibrium point (x=0). If you double x , then you double F. The
constant k is the proportionality constant between F and x. The minus sign in F = −kx indicates
that the force is always opposite to the displacement. A cart on the right (left) side of x=0
experiences a force that is directed to the left (right).

Physicists say that the spring force is a “Linear Force” because the force function F = −kx is a
linear function of x. In contrast, the force of gravity and the force of electricity are “Inverse-
Squared Forces” (F = k/x2 ). Whereas the spring force gets stronger as the distance increases,
the forces of gravity and electricity get weaker as x increases.

If you know the value of the force constant k, then you know everything about the spring force in
your system. Different spring systems have different values of k. Stiff springs (car suspensions)
have large values of k. Weak springs (toy slinkys) have small values. What is the value of k that
characterizes the chemical bond – “the electromagnetic spring” − between the vibrating oxygen
atoms in an O2 molecule?

Note that the relation “k = 4π2m/T2 ” says that “k goes like 1/T2 ”:

                   strength of force ∼ inverse square of period .

Why should the force be related to the inverse of time? This relation makes intuitive sense. A
stiff spring (large k) vibrates faster (small T) than a weak spring. If the cart moves back-and
forth rapidly (small T), then the velocity changes rapidly (large a), and thus the force (ma) must
be strong (large k).

Measuring the Force Constant with a Stopwatch

Bottom Line: To find the law of force F(x) = − (4π2m/T2)x , you need to measure the mass m of
the system and the period T of the motion.

Measure m of system (cart + block).                          m = ________________ kg .

Measure the period with a stopwatch. More specifically, measure the time it takes the cart to
complete five oscillations (five back-and-forth motions). Divide this five-cycle time by five to
obtain the period. Why five? Ten would be good too. Because of the uncertainty in starting
and stopping the watch and counting the oscillations, it is more accurate to measure a long time
rather than a short time. For example, if the uncertainty in measuring the time with the

stopwatch is 0.5 seconds, then a “short time” measurement, such as 5 ± 0.5 seconds, is a 10%
error, whereas a “long time” measurement, such as 50 ± 0.5 seconds, is only a 1% error. Report
the value of the period of your oscillating cart.

                                                                T = _______________ s .

Is this stopwatch value of T consistent with (within 5% of) the graphical value of T that you
obtained from the “width” of your x-t curve? If not, see your instructor.

Based on your measured values of m and T, what is the force constant that characterizes your
spring system? Show your calculation.

                                                            k = _________________ N/m.

Given this value of k, compute the magnitude of the force (F = − kx without the minus sign) at
those values of x listed in the following table.

Force deduced from the Motion

  x (m)       0.00      0.02       0.03       0.04       0.05       0.06      0.07       0.08       0.09
F = kx (N)      0

2. Measuring F(x) with a Spring Scale

Now that you have deduced the force function F(x) from the motion data x(t), you can check
your result by directly measuring F(x) using a spring scale. This may seem like an easy method
to find the force, but remember, someone had to calibrate the force meter to convert a length
measurement (stretch of spring) into a force quantity (Newtons). Finding force from F = ma is
the gold standard for measuring force.

First make sure the spring scale is “zeroed”. When the scale is held in a horizontal position and
nothing is connected to the hook, the force should read “zero”.

Start with the cart at rest at x = 0. The two springs should still be connected to the ends of the
cart and the track. Attach the spring scale to the right end of the cart. While keeping the scale as
horizontal as possible (parallel to the track), pull on the scale case and displace the cart from
x = 0 to x = 0.02 m. Hold the cart at 0.02 m and record the scale reading Fs in the table below.
Next pull the cart to 0.04 m, hold, and record the reading, etc. Note that since the cart is at rest at
each location, the force exerted on the cart by the scale is equal and opposite to the force exerted

on the cart by the two attached springs. The subscript “s” on Fs denotes that this force is
measured with the spring scale.

Force measured with the Spring Scale

Fs (N)      0

Use the program Graphical Analysis to plot Fs versus x (Fs on the y axis). Your data points
should fall on a line. Analyze the graph to find the best-fit line through the points. The equation
of the line is Fs = ksx. Report the value of the slope:

                               ks =    _________________ N/m .

On the same graph, plot the force function F = kx that you discovered from your analysis of the
oscillatory motion (see the Table Force deduced from the Motion). [ How do you graph a second
set of data on the same graph? Click on “Data” to enter Data Set 2. Click on the “y” label of the graph to
plot Data Set 2 ]     Note that since the minus sign in the force law F = −kx has been omitted in
both graphs, these graphs display the magnitude of the force and not the direction.

PRINT your graph On the printed graph, label the F = kx line with the name “Force deduced
from the Motion”. Label the Fs = ksx line with the name “Force measured with the Spring

Compare Your Measured Force Laws

The force function F(x) = − kx deduced by analyzing the oscillatory motion is

                            F(x) = − _________ x .

The force function Fs(x) = − ksx obtained by directly reading the spring scale is

                            F(x) = − _________ x .

The percent difference between the force constants k and ks is ______ % .

Part III. Exploring Friction
The force of kinetic friction acts on any object sliding across a surface. This friction force f
obeys the empirical law:
                                        f = µN ,

where N is the normal force and µ is the coefficient of kinetic friction. The coefficient µ depends
on the nature of the two surfaces in contact. For steel on steel, µ = 0.5. For Teflon on steel,
µ = 0.04. For rope on wood, µ = 0.3. For shoes on ice, µ = 0.05. For rubber on dry concrete,
µ = 0.8. For rubber on wet concrete, µ = 0.3.

Measuring the Coefficient of Friction

You goal is to measure the value of µ for felt on aluminum. Attach the spring scale to the
wooden block covered in felt. Practice pulling the block across the aluminum track at a constant
speed. Judge the speed (qualitatively) by covering a constant amount of distance every second of
time. Try a speed of about 10 cm per second. Then try a speed of about 20 cm per second. To a
very good approximation, the force of friction is independent of speed.

Why pull at constant speed? If the speed of the block is constant, then its acceleration is zero,
which means that the net force on the block is zero, which means that the scale reading F (spring
force) equals the magnitude of the friction force f . In the vertical direction, N equals mg. See
the force diagram below. This force analysis assumes that the track is level so that there is no
component of mg along the track direction.
                                               ⇒ v = constant
         f   (friction)                                                  F (scale reading)


Record the value of the friction force f for five different values of the normal force N. Load the
block with five different brass weights (0, 100, 150, 200, 250 grams) in order to change the value
of N = mg. Note: m = mass of wooden block + mass of brass weights.

    m (kg)
 N (Newtons)
 f (Newtons)

Use the program Graphical Analysis to graph f versus N (f on y axis, N on x axis). Include the
point (N, f) = (0, 0). Find the best-fit line through your data points. If you compare the
mathematical equation of a line “y = mx+b” with the physical equation of friction, written in the
form “f = µN+0”, then it follows that the coefficient of friction µ is equal to the slope (m) and the
y-intercept (b) should be zero. Indeed, µ = f/N is the rise over the run of the line. PRINT your
graph showing the best-fit line and the value of the slope. Report your measured value of the
coefficient of friction:

                           µ =      ________________            ( felt on aluminum ) .

Part IV. Experimental Design: Lowering a Weight 3/5 m in 9/5 s.
Your goal is to lower a “heavy” weight (100 gram brass cylinder) over a pulley so that the
weight, starting from rest, falls to the ground – a distance of 0.60 meters – in a time of
1.8 seconds. Here is the schematic of the mechanical system:

                                                                        Hanging Mass
                                                                        mH = 100 grams

                                                                         0.60 m      1.8 s

The Theory

1. Calculate the value of the acceleration a of the hanging mass as required by the design specs
   (falls 0.60 m in 1.8 s).

                                                                    a   =   ___________ m/s2.

2. Draw a free body diagram for the hanging mass mH. Set up Newton’s equation of motion
   Fnet = ma for this body. Plug the numerical values of mH and a into Newton’s equation and
   solve for the value of the tension T in the string.

                                                                     T =    _____________ N .

3. Treat the Block-plus-Load system as one body of mass m ≡ mB + mL . Draw a free body
   diagram for the mass m. Set up Newton’s equation Fnet = ma for m. Plug the numerical
   values of T , µ , a , and g into Newton’s equation and solve for the value of m. Then
   compute the mass of the load using the relation m = mB + mL .

      m = _______________ kg .                               mL = _______________ kg .

* Have your instructor check your theoretical work before you move on to the experimental
  stage of the design project.

The Experiment

Check that the track is level – again! This design experiment is sensitive to track tilt. So use the
“steel ball test” to make sure that the track is “exactly” horizontal. Also make sure that the string
is horizontal (if it is not horizontal, then adjust the tilt of the pulley).

Add the amount of load mL to the block as predicted by your theory. Get the mass accurate to
within one or two grams. Distribute the load mass evenly over the top of the block. Start the
hanging mass at the specified height (0.60 m) above the ground. Release the system from rest
and measure the time it takes (using a stopwatch) for the hanging mass to hit the ground. Repeat
the measurement five times and compute the average value t.

   Time trials:    ________          ________    ________       ________       _________

                                 t    =   ____________ seconds .

% difference between the required time 1.8 seconds and the actual t is     _______ %.

Sensitivity to Load Mass

If your % difference is greater than 5 % , then add or remove enough load mass so that your
system lowers the weight in the required time of 1.8 seconds. The total mass that now sits on top
of your block is the actual load mass – the load mass that insures the design specs are satisfied in
the actual experiment.

% difference between the actual load mass = _____________ kg

and the theoretical (calculated) load mass =     _____________ kg                is   _______ % .