Universal suffrage

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Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to adult citizens (or subjects), though it may also mean extending that right to minors (Demeny voting) and non-citizens. Although suffrage has two necessary components, the right to vote and opportunities to vote, the term universal suffrage is associated only with the right to vote and ignores the frequency that an incumbent government consults the electorate. Where universal suffrage exists, the right to vote is not restricted by race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status.

In 1893 New Zealand became the first nation in the world to grant universal, male and female adult suffrage.[1] Historically, however, universal suffrage usually referred to adult male suffrage. France was the first nation that announced universal [male] suffrage; it had the first national system that abolished all property requirements as a prerequisite for allowing men to register and vote. Republican France first instituted full male suffrage in 1792. France and Switzerland have recognized full male suffrage continuously since 1848 (for resident male citizens). The German Empire implemented full male suffrage from 1871.

In most countries, full universal suffrage followed about 10 to 20 years after full male suffrage. Notable exceptions in Europe were France, where women could not vote until 1945, Italy (1946), Belgium (1948), and Switzerland (1971 in federal elections and 1990 in all cantonal elections).


Universal suffrage requires the right to vote to be granted to all citizens. Some countries, however, do not allow certain categories of citizens to vote. This includes felony disenfranchisement and disfranchisement based on resident status.

Expanding suffrage[edit]

Voting is an important part of the formal democratic process.

The first movements in the Western world toward universal suffrage occurred in the early 19th century, and focused on removing property requirements for voting. In the United States following the American Civil War, slaves were freed and granted rights of citizens, including suffrage for adult males (although states established restrictions later in the century). In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the focus of the universal suffrage movement was the extension of the right to vote to women.


Many societies in the past have denied people the right to vote on the basis of race or ethnicity, related to discriminatory ideas about citizenship. For example, in apartheid-era South Africa, non-white people could not vote in national elections until the first multi-party elections in 1994.

Although in the United States African Americans were granted the rights of citizens, including suffrage, by constitutional amendments following the American Civil War, later in the century white Democrats had regained control in all states of the former Confederacy in the American South. From 1890 to 1910 they passed new constitutions, laws or constitutional amendments establishing barriers to voter registration and, later, voting, that essentially disfranchised most African Americans. They mounted legal challenges, but did not fully regain the ability to exercise their rights until after passage in the mid-1960s of the Voting Rights Act, which provided federal protection and enforcement. This was a result of their activism in the Civil Rights Movement.


All US states, with the exceptions of Maine and Vermont, disfranchise some felons from voting depending on their current incarceration, parole or probation status; a number of US states permanently disfranchise some felons, even after their release from prison.[2] Many states within the U.S. previously disfranchised paupers, persons who either paid no direct taxes, or received public assistance.[3]

Nations have differing degrees of legal recognition of non-resident citizens: non-resident Italians may vote for representatives at-large in the Italian parliament; U.S. citizens voting abroad vote as residents of the last state where they (or their parents) lived; British citizens, however, cannot vote for their national parliament unless they have lived in the UK within the last fifteen years.[4] A few nations also restrict those who are part of the military or police forces, e.g. Kuwait.[5]

Many democratic countries, most notably the United Kingdom and France, have had colonies. The inhabitants were generally not citizens of the imperial power, but subjects; subjects have generally not been entitled to vote for the imperial legislature. A peculiarly complex case is that of Algeria under the Third French Republic: Algeria was legally an integral part of France, but citizenship was restricted (as in other French colonies proper) by legal status, not by race or ethnicity. Any Muslim Algerian could become a French citizen by choosing to live like one. As this required the person to resign jurisdiction under Islamic law in favour of French civic law, very few did. Among Muslims, such a change was considered apostasy from Islam, which was the dominant religion in Algeria.


In the West Bank, Palestinians are not Israeli citizens and therefore cannot vote in Israeli elections. Different areas of the West Bank are under varying levels of Israeli control. settlers (and their offspring) to Area C retain their citizenship, and can continue to vote.

Criticism of universal suffrage[edit]

In recent years, some journalists have criticised universal suffrage. Renowned Russian journalist Yulia Latynina has suggested a ktitocracy be created: this electoral qualification would extend suffrage only to those persons who pay more in taxes than they consume in social welfare. She also proposed that the state buy out and destroy individual votes for a particular sum ($30 was proposed for Russia). This is intended to ensure that those who do not place high value on their votes do not influence the result, but at the same time they are not explicitly deprived of the right to vote.[6]

Notable dates for universal suffrage in the world[edit]

States have granted and revoked universal suffrage at various times.



Universal suffrage by country/territory
Year Country / Territory Notes
1788, or 1820s, or 1870, or 1920, or 1965 United States The United States drafted a new Constitution, which was ratified a year later in 1788. This created a government elected by the "people of the several states." In the 1820s most states lifted property restrictions for suffrage. This gave all white male citizens the right to vote. Some states also allowed free blacks to vote at certain periods. Following the American Civil War and the abolition of slavery, freed African Americans were granted citizenship. In 1868 the 14th Amendment set the groundwork for universal male suffrage. It gave all men 21 and above the right to vote by penalizing states that restricted male adult suffrage. Two years later in 1870 the 15th Amendment granted suffrage to adult males of any race and skin color, including former slaves (freedmen). In 1920 the 19th Amendment extended the franchise to women.[7] But, at the turn of the 20th century, former Confederate states passed laws and amendments to effectively disfranchise black voters through poll taxes, literacy tests, grandfather clauses and other restrictions, applied in a discriminatory manner. These were later ruled unconstitutional. Full enfranchisement was revived after 1965, with the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, to provide for federal enforcement of rights. In 1964, the 24th Amendment, which abolished the use of poll taxes, was passed..[8][9]
1875 France In 1792, the Convention assembly was elected by all males 25 and over. Over the subsequent 82 years, France experienced profound political upheaval, with republican, monarchist and bonapartist government governing at various times. Through these changes, suffrage increased and decreased based onthe introduction, repeal and reintroduction of various degrees of universal, property and census-based suffrage. The turmoil in the extent of the franchise was ended by the Constitutional Law of 1875, which provided universal male suffrage. This was supplemented in 1944 by full universal suffrage, including women as voters.[citation needed]
 ?-1795 Poland Prior to the Partition of Poland in 1795, tax-paying females were allowed to take part in political life.
1990 Switzerland At the formation of the federal state and with the Constitution of 1848, Switzerland became the first modern state to introduce universal male suffrage; this has continued unbroken since its adoption. Universal women's suffrage was not adopted until 27 November 1990.
1864 Greece After the deposition of King Otto of Greece in 1862, a new constitution was introduced introducing universal male suffrage.
1893 New Zealand With the extension of voting rights to women in 1893, the self-governing British colony became the first permanently-constituted jurisdiction in the world to grant universal adult suffrage,[1] suffrage previously having been universal for Māori men over 21 from 1867, and for European males from 1879.[10]
1906 Grand Principality of Finland As an autonomous Grand Principality in the Russian Empire, Finland achieved women's suffrage in 1906, becoming the second country in the world to adopt universal suffrage.[11] The Finnish parliamentary election of 1907 was the first time when women were elected (19 of 200 MPs). After becoming independent in 1917, Finland continued its universal suffrage.
1906 Iran Under "Constitutional Revolution"
1913 Norway Full male suffrage in 1898, with women included in 1913.
1915 Denmark First voting rights to anyone came in 1849, and the rules were changed a number of times. But it was not until the change of the constitution in 1915 that all men and women had influence on all chambers.
1867 Germany After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I and the introduction of a democratic system, the Weimar Republic. Revoked during 1935–1945 by the Nuremberg Laws. The restrictions applied also to the territories occupied by the Nazis during World War II. The German Empire (until 1918) (and the North German Confederation before it) had had universal male suffrage since 1867/71, which then has been one of the most progressive election laws.[12]
1918 Austria After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I universal suffrage including women.
1918 First Czechoslovak Republic After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I universal suffrage including women.
1918 Kingdom of Hungary After the Central Powers' defeat in World War I
1918 Second Polish Republic Universal suffrage for men and women over 21.
1918 Russian Republic With the 1918 Soviet Constitution; direct voting and the lifting of some political restrictions not until the 1936 Soviet Constitution.
1918 Uruguay With the 1918 Uruguayan Constitution.
1919 Azerbaijan Democratic Republic Became part of the Soviet Union in 1920
1919 Democratic Republic of Armenia Became part of the Soviet Union in 1920
1919 Democratic Republic of Georgia Became part of the Soviet Union in 1921
1919 Luxembourg
1919 Sweden Full[Incorrect - discuss] male suffrage 1909 for those aged 25 and above, but only to one of two equally weighed chambers. Universal suffrage for men and women later enacted.[13]
1922 Lithuania
1922 Republic of Ireland Then known as the Irish Free State, the country changed previous British law to enfranchise women equally with men in 1921.
1925 Newfoundland Joined Canada in 1949.
1928 United Kingdom Universal suffrage for all men in 1918 (in national elections). Women granted vote for first time in the same year but about 25% of women (those under 30) were excluded on grounds of age until 1928, granting women the vote on the same terms as men.[14] The Representation of the People Act 1948 removed multiple voting (i.e. established one person, one vote) and extended suffrage to local elections (apart from Northern Ireland where the situation was brought in line in 1968.)
1931 Ceylon (now as Sri Lanka) Universal suffrage for all irrespective of race, ethnicity, language, or gender.
1933 Spain Suffrage for men practiced from 1869 to 1923 and in the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1936). On November 19, 1933 women were granted the right to vote. Revoked during Franco era (1939–1975) and recovered since 1977 in the new Spanish Constitution.
1934 Turkey
1935 Burma Last free elections held in 1990.[15]
1937 Philippines Males who were over 25 years old and can speak English or Spanish, with property and tax restrictions, were previously allowed to vote as early as 1907; universal male suffrage became a constitutional right in 1935. Women's suffrage was approved in an all-male plebiscite in 1937.[16]
1944 France Universal adult suffrage introduced
1944 Jamaica Universal adult suffrage introduced
1945 Japan Universal adult suffrage introduced
1945 Italy Universal adult suffrage introduced
1947 Republic of China (now Taiwan) Universal suffrage under the Constitution of the Republic of China
1947 Argentina The General Election Law of 1912 was amended to include female citizens
1947/1953 Mexico Universal suffrage given to men after the Mexican Revolution; suffrage given to women in municipal elections in 1947 and national elections in 1953.[17] In 1996, Mexicans living in the United States were also given voting rights.[18]
1948 Belgium Universal suffrage for Women for Parliament elections
1950 India All adult citizens as recognized by the Constitution of India, irrespective of race or gender on the founding of the Republic of India
1951 Ghana Universal suffrage granted for the 1951 legislative election.
1952 Greece Universal male suffrage in 1864, with secret ballot; women given the vote in local elections since 1930 and in parliamentary elections since 1952.
1955 Indonesia
1955 Malaysia
1956 Colombia
 Universal male suffrage starting in 1853, restricted in 1886
Electorate defined on the basis of adult franchise and joint electorate.
1956 Pakistan
1960 Canada In 1920, Canada (excluding Quebec until 1940) enacted suffrage for both sexes. First Nations (of either sex) were not allowed to vote until 1960.
1962 Australia The Commonwealth Electoral Act extends the right to vote to all Australians regardless of race.
1964 Afghanistan Constitution transformed Afghanistan into a modern democracy.[19]
1971 Switzerland Introduction of women's suffrage at the federal level (but not yet at all cantonal elections).
1974 Portugal
1979 European Community (now European Union)
1984 Liechtenstein
1990 Samoa
1990 Switzerland Suffrage extended to women in all cantonal elections, after the last Canton Appenzell Innerrhoden introduced women's suffrage in 1990. (Universal adult's suffrage had already been introduced in 1971.)
1994 South Africa Universal suffrage not regarding race or colour of skin; Blacks and Coloureds were denied the right to vote before and during the apartheid era (1948–1994). White women's suffrage granted in 1930 and suffrage for all white adults regardless of property in 1931.
1996 Taiwan See above 1947 Republic of China.
2005 Kuwait Universal adult male suffrage since 1962, for citizens who are 21 or older, with the exception of those who, at the time of elections, serve in the armed forces. Note: As of 2005, women who satisfy the age and citizenship requirements are allowed to vote.
2008 Bhutan
2013 Qatar Municipal elections since 1999.
2017 (planned)[20] Hong Kong

Women's suffrage[edit]

The first women's suffrage was granted in Corsica in 1755 and lasted until 1769.[21]

Women's suffrage (with the same property qualifications as for men) was next granted in New Jersey in 1776 (the word "inhabitants" was used instead of "men") and rescinded in 1807.


The first unrestricted women's suffrage in a major country was granted in New Zealand in 1893.[1] The women's suffrage bill was adopted mere weeks before the general election of 1893. Māori men had been granted suffrage in 1867, white men in 1879. The Freedom in the World index lists New Zealand as the only free country in the world in 1893.[21]


In Portugal, in 1911, Carolina Beatriz Ângelo was the first woman to be granted the right to vote. She voted in the First Portuguese Republic elections of 1911.[22]

In 1930, Turkey granted women's suffrage for city council elections, many years earlier than France, Italy and Switzerland. In 1934 all women in Turkey could vote and could be elected.[23]

In 1931, the Second Spanish Republic allowed women the right of passive suffrage with three women being elected. During the discussion to extend their right to active suffrage, the Radical Socialist Victoria Kent confronted the Radical Clara Campoamor. Kent argued that Spanish women were not yet prepared to vote and, since they were too influenced by the Catholic Church they would vote for right-wing candidates. Campoamor however pleaded for women's rights regardless of political orientation. Her point finally prevailed and, in the election of 1933, the political right won with the vote of citizens of any sex over 23. Both Campoamor and Kent lost their seats.

Youth suffrage, children's suffrage and suffrage in school[edit]

Main article: Youth suffrage


See also[edit]


  2. ^ Procon.org – State Felon Voting Laws
  3. ^ Steinfeld, Robert J. (1989). "Property and Suffrage in the Early American Republic". Stanford Law Review 41 (2): 335–376, p. 335 et passim. doi:10.2307/1228746. 
  4. ^ Electoral Franchise: Who can vote UK Parliament
  5. ^ CIA – The World Factbook – Kuwait
  6. ^ [1]
  8. ^ Transcript of Voting Rights Act (1965) U.S. National Archives.
  9. ^ The Constitution: The 24th Amendment Time.
  10. ^ [2]
  11. ^ "Official Report of Debates". p.113. Council of Europe, 1991
  13. ^ Sveriges Riksdag: Kampen för rösträtt
  15. ^ "Burma timeline". BBC News. March 30, 2011. 
  16. ^ Tan, Michael (2009-11-12). "Suffrage". Philippine Daily Inquirer. Retrieved 2013-01-17. 
  18. ^ Mexico: Voting Rights and Emigration - Migration News | Migration Dialogue
  20. ^ Beijing says democracy possible in Hong Kong in 2017 ABC News. Retrieved November 4, 2011
  22. ^ [3][dead link]
  23. ^ Alev Çinar (2005). "Modernity, Islam, and secularism in Turkey: bodies, places, and time". p.65. University of Minnesota Press, 2005
  25. ^ Greenberg, D. (1987) The Sudbury Valley School Experience "Back to Basics – Political basics.". Retrieved February 21, 2010.

External links[edit]