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Multiculturalism relates to communities containing multiple cultures. The term is used in two broad ways, either descriptively or normatively.[1] As a descriptive term, it usually refers to the simple fact of cultural diversity: it is generally applied to the demographic make-up of a specific place, sometimes at the organizational level, e.g., schools, businesses, neighborhoods, cities, or nations.

As a normative term, it refers to ideologies or policies that promote this diversity or its institutionalization; in this sense, multiculturalism is a society “at ease with the rich tapestry of human life and the desire amongst people to express their own identity in the manner they see fit.”[2] Such ideologies or policies vary widely, including country to country,[3] ranging from the advocacy of equal respect to the various cultures in a society, to a policy of promoting the maintenance of cultural diversity, to policies in which people of various ethnic and religious groups are addressed by the authorities as defined by the group they belong to.[4][5] However, two main different and seemingly inconsistent strategies have developed through different government policies and strategies:[6][7] The first focuses on interaction and communication between different cultures. Interactions of cultures provide opportunities for the cultural differences to communicate and interact to create multiculturalism. This approach is also often known as interculturalism. The second centers on diversity and cultural uniqueness. Cultural isolation can protect the uniqueness of the local culture of a nation or area and also contribute to global cultural diversity.[citation needed] A common aspect of many policies following the second approach is that they avoid presenting any specific ethnic, religious, or cultural community values as central.[8]


Multiculturalism in different countries[edit]



The term multiculturalism is most often used in reference to Western nation-states, which had seemingly achieved a de facto single national identity during the 18th and/or 19th centuries.[10] Multiculturalism has been official policy in several Western nations since the 1970s, for reasons that varied from country to country,[11][12][13] including the fact that many of the great cities of the Western world are increasingly made of a mosaic of cultures.[14]

The Canadian government has often been described as the instigator of multicultural ideology because of its public emphasis on the social importance of immigration.[15] The Canadian Royal Commission on Bilingualism and Biculturalism is often referred to as the origins of modern political awareness of multiculturalism.[16] In the Western English-speaking countries, multiculturalism as an official national policy started in Canada in 1971, followed by Australia in 1973 where it is maintained today.[17][18] [19][20] It was quickly adopted as official policy by most member-states of the European Union. Recently, right-of-center governments in several European states—notably the Netherlands and Denmark— have reversed the national policy and returned to an official monoculturalism.[21] A similar reversal is the subject of debate in the United Kingdom, among others, due to evidence of incipient segregation and anxieties over "home-grown" terrorism.[22] Several heads-of-state have expressed doubts about the success of multicultural policies: The United Kingdom's Prime Minister David Cameron, German Chancellor Angela Merkel, Australia's ex-prime minister John Howard, Spanish ex-prime minister Jose Maria Aznar and French ex-president Nicolas Sarkozy have voiced concerns about the effectiveness of their multicultural policies for integrating immigrants.[23][24]

Many nation-states in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are culturally diverse, and are 'multicultural' in a descriptive sense. In some, communalism is a major political issue. The policies adopted by these states often have parallels with multicultural-ist policies in the Western world, but the historical background is different, and the goal may be a mono-cultural or mono-ethnic nation-building - for instance in the Malaysian government's attempt to create a 'Malaysian race' by 2020.[25]


Sydney's Chinatown

The next country to adopt an official policy of multiculturalism after Canada was Australia, a country with similar immigration situations and similar policies, for example the formation of the Special Broadcasting Service.[26] The Australian government retains multiculturalism in policy, and as a defining aspect of Australia today.[17][18] [20][27]

The White Australia Policy was quietly dismantled after World War II by various changes to immigration policy, the full political introduction of official policies of multiculturalism was not until 1972.[28] The election of John Howard's Liberal-National Coalition government in 1996 was a major watershed for Australian multiculturalism. Howard had long been a critic of multiculturalism, releasing his One Australia policy in the late 1980s.[29] A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police and Emergency Services was a publication of the Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau designed to offer guidance to police and emergency services personnel on how religious affiliation can affect their contact with the public. The first edition was published in 1999.[30][31][32] The first edition covered Buddhist, Hindu, Islamic, Jewish and Sikh faiths with participation of representatives of the various religions.[33] The second edition added Christian, Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander religions and the Bahá'í Faith to the list of religions was published in 2002.[34]

Contact between people of different cultures in Australia has been characterised by tolerance and engagement, but have also occasionally resulted in conflict and rifts.[35][36]

Australia's diverse migrant communities have brought with them food, lifestyle and cultural practices, which have been absorbed into mainstream Australian culture.[17][18]


Though not called Multiculturalism as such, the preamble of Argentina's constitution explicitly promotes immigration, and recognizes the individual's multiple citizenship from other countries. Though 97% of Argentina's population self-identify as of European descent[37][38] to this day a high level of multiculturalism remains a feature of Argentina's culture,[39] allowing foreign festivals and holidays (e.g. Saint Patrick's Day), supporting all kinds of art or cultural expression from ethnic groups, as well as their diffusion through an important multicultural presence in the media; for instance it is not uncommon to find newspapers[40] or radio programs in English, German, Italian or French in Argentina.


Canadian society is often depicted as being "very progressive, diverse, and multicultural".[41] Multiculturalism (a Just Society) was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the premiership of Pierre Elliott Trudeau in the 1970s and 1980s.[42] Multiculturalism is reflected in the law through the Canadian Multiculturalism Act[43] and section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[44] The Broadcasting Act of 1991 asserts the Canadian broadcasting system should reflect the diversity of cultures in the country.[45][46]


Continental Europe[edit]

Ethno-linguistic map of Austria–Hungary, 1910. Ethnic nationalism became the paramount issue as Italians, Slavs and Hungarians resisted rule by the Austrian-German-dominated Habsburg state.
Ethno-linguistic map of the Second Polish Republic, 1937. The Polish-Ukrainian animosity grew into ethnic massacres of 1943-44 in which up to 100,000 Poles and 20,000 Ukrainians died.[48]




Where cultural unity was insufficient, it was encouraged and enforced by the state.[51] The 19th-century nation-states developed an array of policies—the most important was compulsory primary education in the national language.[51] The language itself was often standardized by a linguistic academy, and regional languages were ignored or suppressed. Some nation-states pursued violent policies of cultural assimilation and even ethnic cleansing.[51]




Since its establishment in 7th century Bulgaria has hosted many religions, ethnic groups and nations. The capital Sofia is the only European city that has peacefully functioning, within walking distance,[56][57][58] four Places of worship of the major religions: Eastern Orthodox, St Nedelya Church; Islam, Banya Bashi Mosque; Roman Catholicism, Cathedral of St Joseph, Sofia; and Orthodox Judaism, Sofia Synagogue, the third largest synagogue in Europe.

This unique arrangement has been called by historians a "multicultural cliche".[59] It has also become known as "The Triangle of Religious Tolerance"[60] and has initiated the construction of a 100-square-meter scale model of the site that is to become a symbol of the capital.[61][62][63]

Furthermore, unlike some other Nazi Germany allies or German-occupied countries excluding Denmark, Bulgaria managed to save its entire 48,000-strong Jewish population during World War II from deportation to concentration camps.[64][65] According to Dr Marinova-Christidi the main reason for the efforts of Bulgarian people to save the Bulgarian Jews during WWII is that within the region they "co-existed for centuries with other religions" — giving it a unique multicultural and multiethnic history.[66]

Consequently, Bulgaria has become an example within the Balkan region of multiculturalism in terms of variety of religions, artistic creativity[67] and ethnicity.[68][69] Its largest ethnic minorities, Turks and Roma, enjoy wide political representation. In 1984, following a campaign by the communist regime for a forcible change of the Islamic names of the Turkish minority,[70][71][72][73] an underground organization called «National Liberation Movement of the Turks in Bulgaria» was formed which headed the Turkish community's opposition movement. On January 4, 1990 the activists of the movement registered an organization with the legal name «Movement for Rights and Freedom» (MRF) (in Bulgarian: Движение за права и свободи: in Turkish: Hak ve Özgürlükler Hareketi) in the Bulgarian city of Varna. At the moment of registration it had 33 members, at present, according to the organization's website, 68,000 members plus 24,000 in the organization's youth wing [1]. In 2012 Bulgarian Turks were represented at every level of government: local, with MRF having mayors in 35 municipalities, at parliamentary level with MRF having 38 deputies (14% of the votes in Parliamentary elections for 2009-13)[74] and at executive level, where there is one Turkish minister, Vezhdi Rashidov. Twenty one Roma political organizations were founded between 1997 and 2003 in Bulgaria.[75]


In October 2010, Angela Merkel told a meeting of younger members of her conservative Christian Democratic Union (CDU) party at Potsdam, near Berlin, that attempts to build a multicultural society in Germany had "utterly failed",[76] stating: "The concept that we are now living side by side and are happy about it does not work".[76][77] She continued to say that immigrants should integrate and adopt Germany's culture and values. This has added to a growing debate within Germany[78] on the levels of immigration, its effect on Germany and the degree to which Muslim immigrants have integrated into German society.[79]


Süleymanìye Mosque in Tilburg built in 2001

Multiculturalism in the Netherlands began with major increases in immigration during the mid-1950s and 1960s.[80] As a consequence, an official national policy of multiculturalism was adopted in the early 1980s.[80] This policy subsequently gave way to more assimilationist policies in the 1990s.[80] Following the murders of Pim Fortuyn (in 2002) and Theo van Gogh (in 2004) there was increased political debate on the role of multiculturalism in the Netherlands.[81]

Lord Sacks, Chief Rabbi of the United Hebrew Congregations of the Commonwealth, made a distinction between tolerance and multiculturalism, citing the Netherlands as a tolerant, rather than multicultural, society.[82] In June 2011 the First Rutte cabinet said the Netherlands would turn away from multiculturalism: "Dutch culture, norms and values must be dominant" Minister Donner said.[83]


India is culturally, linguistically, religiously and to a certain extent, ethnically, one of the most diverse if not the most diverse country in the world. As per the 1961 Census of India, the country is home to 1652 mother tongues.[84] The culture of India has been shaped by its long history, unique geography and diverse demography. India's languages, religions, dance, music, architecture and customs differ from place to place within the country, but nevertheless possess a commonality. The culture of India is an amalgamation of these diverse sub-cultures spread all over the Indian subcontinent and traditions that are several millennia old.[85] The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes.[86]



Occasionally, however, India has encountered religiously motivated violence,[88] such as the Moplah Riots, the Bombay riots, the 1984 anti-Sikh riots,the 2002 Gujarat riots, and most recently the 2012 Assam violence. This has resulted from, traditionally disadvantaged communities in public employment (e.g.: policing of the same locality), apprehension of owners in giving properties for sell or rent[89] and of society in accepting inter-marriages.[90] On the other hand, perennial suspicion by communal and linguistic minorities of their constitutional guarantees (e.g.: minority institutions[91] and personal law) being tinkered with, doesn't help matters either.

Largest population of non-Indian religions, such as Bahá'í Faith, Zoroastrianism resides in India.


There are more than 700 living languages spoken in Indonesia[92] and although predominantly Muslim the country also has large Christian and Hindu populations. Indonesia's national motto, "Bhinneka tunggal ika" ("Unity in Diversity" lit. "many, yet one"), articulates the diversity that shapes the country. Due to migration within Indonesia (as part of government transmigration programs or otherwise), there are significant populations of ethnic groups who reside outside of their traditional regions. Soon after the fourth Indonesian President, Abdurrahman Wahid came into power in 1999, he quickly abolished some of the discriminatory laws in efforts to improve race relationships.[citation needed]


An Ainu man, circa 1930

Japanese society, with its ideology of homogeneity, has traditionally rejected any need to recognize ethnic differences in Japan, even as such claims have been rejected by such ethnic minorities as the Ainu and Ryukyuan people.[93] Former Japanese Minister Taro Aso has called Japan a “one race” nation.[94] However, there are "International Society" NPOs funded by local governments throughout Japan.[95]




The Malaysian New Economic Policy or NEP serves as a form of affirmative action (see Bumiputera).[97] It promotes structural changes in various aspects of life from education to economic to social integration. Established after the May 13 racial riots of 1969, it sought to address the significant imbalance in the economic sphere where the minority Chinese population had substantial control over commercial activity in the country.





Multiculturalism has been a characteristic feature of the island of Mauritius.[99] Mauritian society includes people from many different ethnic and religious groups: Hindu, Muslim and Indo-Mauritians, Mauritian Creoles (of African and Malagasy descent), Buddhist and Roman Catholic Sino-Mauritians and Franco-Mauritians (descendants of the original French colonists).[100]


Mexico has historically always been a multicultural country, with people of ethnic groups including those of indigenous background, various European backgrounds, Africans, and a small Asian community.[101] Mexico City has recently been integrating rapidly, doing much better than many cities in a sample conducted by the Intercultural Cities Index (being the only non-European city, alongside Montreal, on the index).[102]


In contrast to the artificial or induced multiculturalism in the west, which grew through immigration, the Philippines (Along with India) are rare cases of natural multiculturalism, wherein, foreign settlements were anchored in actual historical events (such as invasions and occupations rather than merely induced immigration). The Chinese, Indians, Malays, and Arabs having established Sinified Huangdoms, Indianized Rajahnates, Malayo-Polynesian Datudoms and Islamic Sultanates on Philippine soil prior to Hispanic settlement and then after that point, the Latinos (which is already a whole range of racial types) and Spanish colonizers arrived in Philippine soil during the Hispanic era. Afterwards, there has been a small minority of Americans that arrived during the American colonial period. This caused the Philippines to be among the top if not the top-most multiethnic nations in the world.[103]

The authenticity is due to the historicity of these diverse foreign groups in the Philippines. In addition, the nation also possesses a high degree of endemic native diversity among its several ethnic groups. The Philippines has 10 major distinct groups mainly the Bicolano, Ibanag, Ilocano, Kapampangan, Moro, Pangasinan, Sambal, Tagalog, Visayan and hundreds of others. The Philippines also has several aboriginal stocks such as the Badjao, Igorot, Lumad, Mangyan and Negrito. In addition to this, the country also has considerable communities of American, Arabic, Chinese, Indian, Latino and Hispanic descent as well as other ethnicities from other countries. Consequently, the Philippine government has various programs supporting and preserving the nation's ethnic diversity.[104]

On the other hand, there have been many threats to the maintenance of interethnic solidarity in the country. Aside from economic and political dissatisfaction touting the capital as imperialist mostly among Visayans and Mindanaoans of the south, there have been longstanding concerns regarding the promulgation of the national language, Filipino. Amidst Filipino being heralded as the national language of the Philippines according to the 1987 National Constitution, many groups specifically from Cebuano-speaking regions resisted.[105] This is due to the fact that the said Filipino is no different from Tagalog although being justified by the regulating institution, Komisyon sa Wikang Filipino, as a different language that unites all peoples of the Philippines because of the significant difference in lexicon from its Tagalog base. Such enforcement of a national language based solely upon one language being spoken by one of the many ethnic groups in the country was seen as a form of ethnic marginalization and bias toward the Tagalog who have long enjoyed residence and proximity within the political and economic center, Manila. This was also seen as an injustice since a larger portion of the population speaks Visayan languages more than Tagalog during the time the national language was decided. Because of such disparities, there have been issues regarding discrimination particularly toward Visayans whose languages and cultures were seen as inferior if not unsophisticated. One recent example was the Filipino movie entitled Sakal, Sakali, Saklolo whereby one scene openly denigrates the use of Visayan as it was seen as "un-Filipino."[106] Some Filipino politicians have aired their criticism toward this act of intolerance; however, there had been no concrete actions done to resolve the issue.[107]

Although there had been no ethnic-based incidents of aggression between many Christian and animist groups, religion still plays a role in further fractionating Philippine society. The enduring war in Mindanao is one of the most prominent examples of religious conflicts pestering the economically frail southern Philippines. Since the 1899 Moro Rebellion, Muslim groups across Mindanao have bolstered armed offensives against foreign colonizers due to aspirations of self-determination. However, these efforts have failed resulting to the annexation of Islamic regions particularly the Sultanate of Sulu to the Philippines.



During the British colonial rule, there are areas which are enclaves containing a large population of certain ethnic groups exist in areas such as Chinatown, Geylang and Little India in Singapore. Presently (2010), remnants of the colonial ethnic concentration still exists but housing in Singapore is governed by the Ethnic Integration Policy.[108] The current Indian/Others ethnic limits are 10% and 13%, the limits for Malays are 22% and 25%, the limits for Chinese are 84% and 87% for the maximum ethnic limits for a neighborhood and a block respectively.

South Korea[edit]

South Korea is among the world's most ethnically homogeneous nations.[109] Those who do not share such features are often rejected by the Korean society or face discrimination.[110]

However, the word "multiculturalism" is increasingly heard in South Korea. In 2007, Han Geon-Soo, Professor of Cultural Anthropology at Kangwon National University, published an article entitled "Multicultural Korea: Celebration or Challenge of Multiethnic Shift in Contemporary Korea?", noting: "As the increase of foreign migrants in Korea transforms a single-ethnic homogeneous Korean society into multiethnic and multicultural one, Korean government and the civil society pay close attention to multiculturalism as an alternative value to their policy and social movement." He argued, however, that "the current discourses and concerns on multiculturalism in Korea" lacked "the constructive and analytical concepts for transforming a society".[111]



The Korea Times suggested in 2009 that South Korea was likely to become a multicultural society.[113] In 2010, JoongAng Daily reported: "Media in Korea is abuzz with the new era of multiculturalism. With more than one million foreigners in Korea, 2 percent of the population comes from other cultures." It added:


Although many debates still take place as to whether Korea really is a multicultural society or not, it is generally agreed[by whom?] that Korea has probably entered a stage of multiculturalism and has moved away from its homogeneous identity. Around 35~40% of Korean men in the rural area outside Seoul are engaged with wives from different countries. According to the Dongponews, an online media that connects migrants and immigrants of Korea, the number of foreigners residing in Korea reached 1.43 million by 2012, and is likely to increase more and more, reaching to the scale that cannot be undermined. More than that, Korea is going through a serious stage of low birthrate, leading to an aging society in shortage of labor forces. Another big changing factor is that Korea already has multi-ethnic, multi-cultural families appearing in great numbers, as one in every ten marriage is between a Korean and a foreigner, and in the rural side this portion is greater.[115] As such change takes place in such short period of time, it can be understood that many conflicts arise among different groups of people; the immigrants, government, and the rest of Korean society. Recently[when?] a lot of media attention is given to these people; documentaries on the lives of wives and their children are often shown, as well as talk shows that portray struggles and conflicts these people go through such as Love in Asia; a talk show hosting foreign wives, sharing their experience of marriage and family life, broadcast by the national broadcasting channel, KBS. Many Koreans nowadays do recognize the change that the society is going through due to these media attention. Government policies have also changed very recently; a lot of welfare programs and extracurricular activities are launched under the name of "multicultural policy." The policy is quite recent phenomenon.[citation needed]

United Arab Emirates[edit]


United Kingdom[edit]

Multicultural policies[116] were adopted by local administrations from the 1970s and 1980s onwards. In 1997 the New Labour government committed to a multiculturalist approach at a national level,[117] but after 2001 there was something of a backlash, led by centre-left commentators such as David Goodhart and Trevor Phillips. The government then embraced a policy of community cohesion instead. In 2011 Prime Minister and Conservative Party leader David Cameron said in a speech that "state multiculturalism has failed".[118]

United States[edit]


Continuous mass immigration was a feature of the United States economy and society since the first half of the 19th century.[119] The absorption of the stream of immigrants became, in itself, a prominent feature of America's national myth. The idea of the Melting pot is a metaphor that implies that all the immigrant cultures are mixed and amalgamated without state intervention.[120] The Melting Pot implied that each individual immigrant, and each group of immigrants, assimilated into American society at their own pace which, as defined above, is not multiculturalism as this is opposed to assimilation and integration.[121] An Americanized (and often stereotypical) version of the original nation's cuisine, and its holidays, survived. The Melting Pot tradition co-exists with a belief in national unity, dating from the American founding fathers:




The educational approach to multiculturalism has since spread to the grade school system, as school systems try to rework their curricula to introduce students to diversity earlier—often on the grounds that it is important for minority students to see themselves represented in the classroom.[125][126] Studies estimated 46.3 million Americans ages 14 to 24 to be the most diverse generation in American society.[127] In 2009 and 2010, controversy erupted in Texas as the state's curriculum committee made several changes to the state's requirements, often at the expense of minorities. They chose to juxtapose Abraham Lincoln's inaugural address with that of Confederate president Jefferson Davis;[128] they debated removing Supreme Court Justice Thurgood Marshall and labor-leader César Chávez[129] and rejected calls to include more Hispanic figures, in spite of the high Hispanic population in the state.[130]

Support for multiculturalism[edit]

Harmony Day is dedicated to celebrating Australia's cultural diversity.

Multiculturalism is seen by its supporters as a fairer system that allows people to truly express who they are within a society, that is more tolerant and that adapts better to social issues.[131] They argue that culture is not one definable thing based on one race or religion, but rather the result of multiple factors that change as the world changes.





Opposition to multiculturalism[edit]

Critics of multiculturalism often debate whether the multicultural ideal of benignly co-existing cultures that interrelate and influence one another, and yet remain distinct, is sustainable, paradoxical, or even desirable.[137][138][139] It is argued that Nation states, who would previously have been synonymous with a distinctive cultural identity of their own, lose out to enforced multiculturalism and that this ultimately erodes the host nations' distinct culture.[140]

Harvard professor of political science Robert D. Putnam conducted a nearly decade long study how multiculturalism affects social trust.[141] He surveyed 26,200 people in 40 American communities, finding that when the data were adjusted for class, income and other factors, the more racially diverse a community is, the greater the loss of trust. People in diverse communities "don’t trust the local mayor, they don’t trust the local paper, they don’t trust other people and they don’t trust institutions," writes Putnam.[142] In the presence of such ethnic diversity, Putnam maintains that


Ethologist Frank Salter writes:





See also[edit]


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  26. ^ "" (PDF). Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  33. ^ A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police (1st ed.). National Police Ethnic Advisory Bureau. 1999. Archived from the original on 16 March 2003. 
  34. ^ A Practical Reference to Religious Diversity for Operational Police (2nd ed.). Australasian Police Multicultural Advisory Bureau. 2002. Archived from the original on 19 June 2005. 
  35. ^ White, Rob; Perrone, Santina (2001). "Racism, Ethnicity and Hate Crime". Communal/Plural 9 (2): 161–181. doi:10.1080/13207870120081479. Retrieved 2012-08-18. 
  36. ^ Ann Curthoys (2007-11-01). "The Volatility of Racism in Australia". In Katharine Gelber, Adrienne Stone. Hate Speech and Freedom of Speech in Australia. Federation Press (2007). pp. 20–33. ISBN 978 1 86287 653 8(pbk) Check |isbn= value (help). 
  37. ^ Ben Cahoon. "Argentina". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  40. ^ *Buenos Aires Herald, Argentine-English language newspaper
  49. ^ Demographic analysis Employment, Social Affairs & Inclusion European Commission. October 12, 2006.
  52. ^ "Official Web site". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  53. ^ BBC report at, full list of questions in German at
  60. ^ Ki-moon, Ban, The World in the next 20 years
  61. ^ © В.Е. " - Макет на 4 храма – туристически символ на София". Retrieved 2012-01-29. 
  64. ^ Todorov, Tzvetan (2003). The Fragility of Goodness: Why Bulgaria's Jews Survived the Holocaust - translated by Translated by Arthur Denner. Princeton Univerisy Press. ISBN 9780691115641. 
  65. ^ Levi, Primo. "ISBN 158062541X Adams Media Corporation, 2001". ASIN 158062541X. 
  66. ^ By Leadel.Net. "Exclusive video: 'Restoring the crown to former glory'". Retrieved 2012-01-29. 
  70. ^ The history of Turkish community in Bulgaria, Ibrahim Yalamov
  73. ^ The Bulgarian state and Bulgarian Turks (to the middle of 1930s till the beginning of 1990s), Bulgarian Archive State Agency
  86. ^ "India – Caste". Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
  87. ^ "Indian Census". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  89. ^ "Sachar Committee Report". (Cabinet Secretariat, Govt. of India). Nov 2006. pp. 9–25. Retrieved 2012-08-18. 
  92. ^ "Ethnologue report for Indonesia". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  95. ^ "International Societies in Japan". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  97. ^ Malaysia fury at EU envoy remarks, BBC News
  100. ^ "Some facts about Mauritius". Retrieved 2010-12-10. 
  105. ^ Smolicz, J. J.; Nical, I.; Secombe, M. J. (2003). Assimilation or pluralism? Changing policies for minority languages education in Australia and the Philippines. Retrieved 3 December 2012. 
  106. ^ "Pimentel slams slur in Sakal, Sakali, Saklolo". 27 December 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2012. 
  107. ^ "Politicians slam "Sakal, Sakali, Saklolo" for ethnic slur". 29 December 2007. Retrieved 3 December 2012. 
  114. ^ "Multiculturalism in Korea", JoongAng Daily, August 26, 2010
  120. ^ Zangwill, Israel. The Melting Pot, 1908.
  143. ^ Salter, Frank, On Genetic Interests, pg.146.

Further reading[edit]

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