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Names of the Greeks


Names of the Greeks

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The Greeks (Greek: Έλληνες) have been identified by many ethnonyms. The most common native ethnonym is "Hellen" (Ἕλλην), pl. "Hellenes" (Ἕλληνες); the name "Greeks" (Latin: "Graeci") was used by the Ancient Romans and gradually entered the European languages through its use in Latin. The mythological patriarch Hellen is the named progenitor of the Greek peoples; his descendants the Aeolians, Dorians, Achaeans and Ionians correspond to the main Greek tribes and to the main dialects spoken in Greece and Asia Minor (Anatolia). Among his descendants are also mentioned the Graeci and the Makedones.

The first Greek-speaking people, called Myceneans or Mycenean-Achaeans by historians, entered present-day Greece sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age. Homer refers to Achaeans as the dominant tribe during the Trojan war period usually dated to the 12th-11th centuries BC,[1][2] using "Hellenes" to describe a relatively small tribe in Thessaly. The Dorians, an important Greek-speaking group appeared roughly at that time. According to the Greek tradition, the "Graeci" ("Greeks", Γραικοί, Graikoi) were renamed "Hellenes" probably with the establishment of the Great Amphictyonic League after the Trojan war.

When the Romans first encountered Greek colonists in southern [3][4][5][6][7]



  • General names of Greece 1
  • Brief history 2
  • Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) 3
  • Hellenes (Έλληνες) 4
  • Greeks (Γραικοί) 5
  • Spread of the use of the term "Hellenes" 6
  • The tribal societies of the north 7
  • Hellenes and barbarians 8
  • Yunani (Ἴωνες), and Yavan (יָוָן) 9
  • Hellene comes to mean "pagan" 10
  • Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι) 11
  • Revival in the meaning of "Hellene" 12
  • Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί) 13
  • Hellenic continuity and Byzantine consciousness 14
  • Contest between the names Hellene, Roman, and Greek 15
  • See also 16
  • References 17
  • Bibliography 18
    • In English 18.1
    • In other languages 18.2
  • External links 19

General names of Greece




In the [9] so "Greece" is "Saberdzneti"(საბერძნეთი).

Brief history






Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί)



In Homer's Iliad, the Greek allied forces are described under three different names, often used interchangeably: Argives (in Greek: Argeioi, Ἀργεῖοι; used 29 times in the Iliad), Danaans (Δαναοί, used 138 times) and Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί, used 598 times).[15][16][17] Argives is an annotation drawn from the most prominent city of the Achaeans, Argos). Danaos is the name attributed to a Greek mythological character, twin brother of Aegyptus and son of Achiroe and Belus.

Hellenes (Έλληνες)

The main Greek sunctuaries and localization of the sanctuary of Dodona.

There is currently no satisfactory etymology for the name Hellenes. Some scholars assert that the name of the priests of Zeus in Dodona, "Selloi" (Σελλοί; also Ἑλλοί Helloi), changed to Sellanes (by analogy with Akarnanes) and then to Hellanes and Hellenes.[18] This theory is based on Aristotle's comments in Meteorologica where he places Ancient Hellas in Epirus between Dodona and the Achelous river, where in his opinion the great deluge of Deucalion must have occurred. The land was inhabited by Selloi and Graeci, who later came to be known as Hellenes.[19] In that regard Graici (Graikoi) was a native name of a Dorian tribe in Epirus which was used by the Illyrians.[20] Homer mentions that the Selloi were the prophets of Zeus at Dodona, but he is referring to Zeus of Dodona as god of the Pelasgians who were Pre-Dorian populations.[21] It is possible that the extension of a particular cult of Zeus in Dodona (a tendency among the Greeks to form ever-larger communities and amphictionies) caused the name to further extend to the rest of the peninsula.

However, this theory connects the name Hellenes with the Dorians who occupied Epirus, and the relation with the name Greeks given by the Romans becomes uncertain. The toponyms, especially an ancient city Hellas in southern Thessaly and the Greek tradition indicate that the name Hellenes is Pre-Dorian and that it is more likely that the homeland of the Graikoi who were later called Hellenes was in central Greece. The Greek tradition mentions an earlier deluge of Ogyges[22] in the region of Boeotia which was occupied by the Minyans a group of autochthonous or Proto-Greek speaking people. The region was called Graïke in ancient times probably after the old city of Graea (from Proto-Greek grau-j-, "old lady") on the coast.

Homer refers to Hellenes as an originally relatively small tribe settled in Apollo in Delphi (Phocis) and of Demeter near Thermopylae (Locris).[26] According to legend it was founded after the Trojan War, by the eponymous Amphictyon, brother of Hellen.

Greeks (Γραικοί)


The modern English noun Greek (Old English Grecas or Crecas) is derived from the Latin Graeci, which in turn originates from Ancient Greek Γραικός (Graikos). It seems that the word is related with the Greek word γέρων geron, "old man" (from the PIE base *ǵerh2-, "to grow old") via Proto-Greek *gera-, "old age"—also related to Mycenean Greek kera /geras/, "gift of honour".[27][28] The Germanic languages borrowed the name with an initial k sound, which was probably their initial sound closest to the Latin g (Goth. Kreks).[29]

Aristotle used the term Graikos related with Hellenes (Meteorologica I xiv) and claimed that it was the name originally used by the [24] In Greek mythology, Hellen, the patriarch of Hellenes, was son of Deucalion, who ruled around Phthia and Pyrrha, the only survivors after the great deluge.[25] Hesiod is referring to Graecus son of Pandora who was sister of Hellen. Alcman mentions that the mothers of Hellenes were Graikoi.

The German classical historian Graea,a town on the coast of Boeotia.[33] The name Graea (γραῖα) is derived from Proto-Greek grau-j-, "old lady".[27] Homer, while reciting the Boeotian forces in the Iliad's Catalogue of Ships, provides the first known reference to a region named Graea,[34] and Pausanias mentions that the ancient city of Tanagra was for a time called Graea, adding that "no one knows where this Graia really was; Aristotle thought it was near Oropus, further east on the same coast as Delion."[35] Busolt claimed that the name was given by the Romans originally to the Greek colonists from Graea who helped to found Cumae the important city in southern Italy where the Latins first encountered the Greeks and then to all Greeks.[33]

Spread of the use of the term "Hellenes"

Hellenes in the wider meaning of the word appears in writing for the first time in an inscription by Echembrotus, dedicated to Heracles for his victory in the Amphictyonic Games,[36] and refers to the 48th Olympiad (584 BC). After the Greco-Persian Wars, an inscription was written in Delphi celebrating victory over the Persians and calling Pausanias the leading general of the Hellenes.[37] Awareness of a pan-Hellenic unity was promoted by religious festivals, most significantly in the Eleusinian Mysteries, in which prospective initiates had to speak Greek, and almost as importantly through participation in the four Panhellenic Games—including the Olympic Games—in which participants were recognized by tribal affiliation. Neither women nor non-Greeks were allowed to participate; the occasional exception in later times, such as that made for Emperor Nero, was a sure sign of Roman political hegemony.

The tribal societies of the north



Thucydides calls the Acarnanians, Aetolians,[41] Epirotes[42] and Upper Macedonians[43] barbarians, but does so in a strictly linguistic sense – these peoples were considered barbarophone to the extent that their dialects of Greek were sufficiently different and archaic so as to sound crude and barely understandable to a southern Attic speaker such as Thucydides.[44] Similarly, when the Athenian orator Demosthenes called Philip II of Macedon worse than a barbarian in his Third Philippic, he did so with respect to the culture they demonstrated as foreigners not adhering to proper Hellenic standards, and did not raise the issue of their origin: "not only no Greek, nor related to the Greeks, but not even a barbarian from any place that can be named with honors, but a pestilent knave from Macedonia, whence it was never yet possible to buy a decent slave." Herodotus, Polybius, Strabo and a large number of other Greek and Roman writers regard the tribes of western Hellas, Epirus, and Macedonia as Hellenic in every respect.[45] It is also interesting to note that both Thucydides and Demosthenes were themselves of partial non-Attic origins and for Demosthenes it seems of non-Greek origins altogether while notably both of them held strong opposing political positions against Macedonians.

Hellenes and barbarians


The Greek tribes quickly noticed that they did not speak the same tongue as their neighbors, and used the term "βάρβαρος" ("barbarian") for them, with the meanings "uncultured", "uncivilized" or "speaker of a foreign language". The term βάρβαρος is thought to be onomatopoeic in origin: "bar-bar"—i.e. stammering—may have been how the speech of foreign peoples sounded to Greek speakers.[46] This was also the case for the Egyptians, who, according to Herodotus, "named barbarians all those who spoke a different tongue",[47] and in later years for the Slavs, who gave the Germans the name nemec, which means "mute", while calling themselves slověnski or "people of the word".[48] In his play The Birds, Aristophanes calls the illiterate supervisor a "barbarian" who nevertheless taught the birds how to talk.[49] The term eventually picked up a derogatory use and was extended to indicate the entire lifestyle of foreigners, and finally coming to mean "illiterate" or "uncivilized" in general. Thus "an illiterate man is also a barbarian".[50] According to Dionysius of Halicarnassus, a Hellene differed from a barbarian in four ways: refined language, education, religion, and the rule of law.[51] Greek education became identified with noble upbringing. Paul of Tarsus considered it his obligation to preach the Gospel to all men, "Hellenes and barbarians, both wise and foolish".[52]

Discrimination between Hellenes and barbarians lasted until the 4th century BC. Euripides thought it plausible that Hellenes should rule over barbarians, because the first were destined for freedom and the other for slavery.[53] Aristotle came to the conclusion that "the nature of a barbarian and a slave is one and the same".[54] Racial differentiation faded away through the teachings of Stoics, who distinguished between nature and convention and taught that all men have equal claim before the gods and thus by nature cannot be unequal to each other. With time and at least in some cases, Hellene, to use the words of Isocrates, became a trait of intellect, not race.


Yunani (Ἴωνες), and Yavan (יָוָן)




Hellene comes to mean "pagan"






Romans (Ῥωμαῖοι)


Romans or Rhomaioi (Ῥωμαῖοι; sg. Ῥωμαῖoς Rhomaios) and Romioi (Ρωμιοί; sg. Ρωμιός Romios), is the name by which the Greeks were known in the Middle Ages and during Ottoman rule. The name in antiquity originally signified the inhabitants of the city of Rome in Italy, but with the increasing grants of Roman citizenship to the Greeks and other nations of the Roman Empire, it soon lost its connection with the Latins. This process culminated in 212 AD, when Emperor Caracalla's Constitutio Antoniniana granted the citizenship to all free-born men of the Empire. Later Byzantine authors such as Nikephoros Basilakes,[63] Michael Attaleiates, Theodore Prodromos, Patriarch Germanus II, Niketas Choniates and Nicaean Emperor Theodore II Laskaris also used the classicizing term Ausones to refer to the people of the Eastern Roman Empire,[64] although, as John Tzetzes points out (in his Scholia to Lycophron's "Alexandra", attributed to himself and his brother Isaac), that should be understood in its proper context as a literary device.[65] Overall, the word Rhomaios came to represent the hellenized inhabitants of the East Roman Empire. It is even used today (albeit extremely rarely), being the most popular national name after Hellene.




See Rüm and Rumeli for Turkish and Islamic changes of meaning.

Revival in the meaning of "Hellene"

The Entry of the Crusaders into Constantinople, by Eugène Delacroix, 1840. The sack of Constantinople in 1204 by the Crusaders acerbated Greek nationalism and created disdain for the Latins which is well illustrated in the documents of the era. Nicetas Choniates portrays an especially lively account of the sack and its aftermath.


Accounts from the 11th century onward (from Anna Komnena, Michael Psellos, John III Vatatzes, George Pletho Gemistos and several others) prove that the revival of the term Hellene (as a potential replacement for ethnic terms like Graekos and Romios) did occur. For example, Anna Komnena writes of her contemporaries as Hellenes, but does not use the word as a synonym for a pagan worshipper. Moreover, Anna boasts about her Hellenic classical education, and she speaks as a native Greek and not as an outsider/foreigner who learned Greek.

The refounding of the University of Constantinople in the palaces of Magnaura promoted an interest in learning, particularly in Greek studies. Patriarch Photius was irritated because "Hellenic studies are preferred over spiritual works". Michael Psellus thought it a compliment when Emperor Romanus III praised him for being raised "in the Hellenic way" and a weakness for Emperor Michael IV for being completely devoid of a Hellenic education,[71] while Anna Comnena claimed that she had "carried the study of Hellenic to the highest pitch".[72] Also, commenting on the orphanage her father founded, she stated that "there could be seen a Latin being trained, and a Scythian studying Hellenic, and a Roman handling Hellenic texts and an illiterate Hellene speaking Hellenic correctly".[73] In this case we reach a point where the Byzantines are Romans on the political level but Hellenic by descent. Eustathius of Thessalonica disambiguates the distinction in his account of the fall of Constantinople in 1204 by referring to the invaders with the generic term "Latins", encompassing all adherents to the Roman Catholic Church, and the "Hellenes" as the dominant population of the empire.[74]

After the fall of Constantinople to the Crusaders, Greek nationalism accentuated. Nicetas Choniates insisted on using the name "Hellenes", stressing the outrages of the "Latins" against the "Hellenes" in the Peloponessus and how the Alfeios River might carry the news to the barbarians in Sicily, the Normans.[75] Nicephorus Blemmydes referred to the Byzantine emperors as Hellenes,[76] and Theodore Alanias wrote in a letter to his brother that "the homeland may have been captured, but Hellas still exists within every wise man".[77] The second Emperor of Nicaea, John III Ducas Vatatzes, wrote in a letter to Pope Gregory IX about the wisdom that "rains upon the Hellenic nation". He maintained that the transfer of the imperial authority from Rome to Constantinople was national and not geographic, and therefore did not belong to the Latins occupying Constantinople: Constantine's heritage was passed on to the Hellenes, so he argued, and they alone were its inheritors and successors.[78] His son, Theodore II Lascaris, was eager to project the name of the Greeks with true nationalistic zeal. He made it a point that "the Hellenic race looms over all other languages" and that "every kind of philosophy and form of knowledge is a discovery of Hellenes... What do you, O Italian, have to display?"[79]

The evolution of the name was slow and did never replace the "Roman" name completely. Constantine Palaeologus that the people he leads are "Hellenes, as their race and language and education testifies",[83] while Laonicus Chalcondyles was a proponent of completely substituting "Roman" terminology for "Greek" terminology.[84] Constantine Palaeologus himself in the end proclaimed Constantinople the "refuge for Christians, hope and delight of all Hellenes".[85] On the other hand, the same Emperor in his final speech before the Empire's demise called upon his audience to rally to the defenses by characteristically referring to them as "descendants of Hellenes and Romans", most possibly as an attempt to combine Greek national sentiment with the Roman tradition of the Byzantine crown and Empire, both highly respected elements in his subjects' psyche at that moment.

Byzantines (Βυζαντινοί)



Hellenic continuity and Byzantine consciousness


The "Byzantines" did not only refer to themselves as Rhomaioi in order to retain both their Roman citizenship and their ancient Hellenic heritage. In fact, the overwhelming majority of the "Byzantines" themselves were very conscious of their uninterrupted continuity with the ancient Greeks. Even though the ancient Greeks were not Christians, the "Byzantines" still regarded them as their ancestors. A common substitute for the term Hellene other than Rhomaios was the term Graikos (Γραικός). This term was used often by the "Byzantines" (along with Rhomaios) for ethnic self-identification. Evidence of the use of the term Graikos can be found in the works of Priscus, a historian of the 5th century AD. The historian stated in one of his accounts that while unofficially on an embassy to Attila the Hun, he had met at Attila's court someone who dressed like a Scythian yet spoke Greek. When Priskos asked the person where he had learned the language, the man smiled and said that he was a Graekos by birth. Many other "Byzantine" authors speak of the Empire's natives as Greeks [Graikoi] or Hellenes such as Constantine Porphyrogennitos of the 10th century. His accounts discuss about the revolt of a Slavic tribe in the district of Patras in the Peloponnese. Constantine states that the Slavs who revolted first proceeded to sack the dwellings of their neighbors, the Greeks (ton Graikon), and next they moved against the inhabitants of the city of Patras. Overall, ancient Hellenic continuity was evident all throughout the history of the Eastern Roman Empire. The "Byzantines" were not merely a general Orthodox Christian populace that referred to themselves as merely "Romans." Though they used the term for legal and administrative purposes, other terms were in fact used to ethnically distinguish themselves. In short, the Greek inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire were very conscious of their ancient Hellenic heritage and were able to preserve their identity while adapting to the changes the world was undergoing at the time.[90]

Contest between the names Hellene, Roman, and Greek


The struggle reflected the diverging view of history between classicists and medievalists (katharevousa and demotic) in their attempt to define Greek nationality at a time without a Byzantine state to foster the movement. The concept of Hellene for a person of Greek origin was already well established since the late Middle Ages. However, for the majority of the population, especially those in rural areas away from urban centers, the dominant perception was still that of a Roman/Romios, a descendant of the Byzantine Empire. Scholar Rigas Feraios called "Bulgars and Arvanites, Armenians and Romans" to rise in arms against the Ottomans.[91] General Makrygiannis recalled a friend asking him: "What say you, is the Roman State far away from coming? Are we to sleep with the Turks and awaken with the Romans?"[92]


The absence of a Byzantine state gradually led to the marginalization of the Roman name and allowed Hellene (Ἕλλην) to resurface as the primary national name. Dionysius Pyrrhus requests the exclusive use of Hellene in his Cheiragogy: "Never desire to call yourselves Romans, but Hellenes, for the Romans from ancient Rome enslaved and destroyed Hellas".[94] The anonymous author of The Hellenic Realm of Law, published in 1806 in Pavia, Italy, speaks of Hellenes: "The time has come, O Hellenes, to liberate our home".[95] The leader of the Greek War of Independence began his Declaration with a phrase similar to the above: "The time has come, O men, Hellenes".[96] After the name was accepted by the spiritual and political leadership of the land, it rapidly spread to the population, especially with the onset of the Greek War of Independence where many naïve leaders and war figures distinguished between idle Romans and rebellious Hellenes.[97] General Theodoros Kolokotronis in particular made a point of always addressing his revolutionary troops as Hellenes and invariably wore a helmet of ancient Greek style.


The citizens of the newly independent state were called "Hellenes" making the connection with ancient Greece all the more clear. That in turn also fostered a fixation[12] on antiquity and negligence for the other periods of history, especially the Byzantine Empire, for an age that bore different names and was a devisor to different, and in many ways more important legacies. The classicist trend was soon balanced by the Greek Great Idea that sought to recover Constantinople and reestablish the Byzantine Empire for all Greeks. As the Minister of Foreign Affairs proclaimed in front of Parliament in 1844, "The Kingdom of Greece is not Greece; it is only part of it, a small and poor part of Greece... There are two great centers of Hellenism. Athens is the capital of the Kingdom. Constantinople is the great capital, the City, dream and hope of all Greeks."[99]

See also


  1. ^ C. Mossé. (1984). La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle. Editions du Seuil. Paris. p. 12
  3. ^ Designations of the Georgians and their etymology , Elguja Xintʻibiże, p104-5
  4. ^ "Websters thesaurus". Greece. Retrieved 14 October 2006. 
  5. ^ Eastmond, A. (2004). Art and Identity in Thirteenth-Century Byzantium: Hagia Sophia and the Empire of Trebizond. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. p. 137.  
  6. ^ Rapp, Jr., S. H. (Oct–Dec 2000). Sumbat Davitis-dze and the Vocabulary of Political Authority in the Era of Georgian Unification. Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 120, No. 4. pp. 570–576. 
  7. ^ Medieval Georgians customarily applied these names to Byzantium and Byzantines (ibid)
  8. ^ Braun, T.F.R.G. (1982) [1925]. "Chapter 36a. The Greeks in the Near East". In Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L. The Cambridge Ancient History. III Part 3. The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries BC. Cambridge:  
  9. ^ Art and Identity in Thirteenth-century Byzantium By Antony Eastmond
  10. ^ A comprehensive overview in Hooker, J.T., Mycenean Greece, (1976, 20142), especially Chapter 2, "Before the Mycenenan Age", pp. 11-33 and passim; for a different hypothesis excluding massive migrations and favoring an autochthonous scenario see, Renfrew, C. "Problems in the General Correlation of Archaeological and Linguistic Strata in Prehistoric Greece: The Authochous origin" in Crossland, R.A. & Birchall, A. (eds.), Bronze age Migrations (1974), pp. 263-275, especially p. 267.
  11. ^  
  12. ^ a b O.R.Gurney (1975). The Hittites. Oxford University Press. p. 15
  13. ^ C. Mossé. (1984). La Grèce archaïque d'Homère à Eschyle. Editions du Seuil. Paris, pp. 16, 18
  14. ^ Aeschines, ii (On the embassy). 115; see also Strabo, ix.3.7, and Pausanias, x.8.2-5.
  16. ^ Homer. Iliad, 2.155-175, 4.8; Odyssey, 8.578, 4.6.
  17. ^ Excluding his Catalogue of Ships
  18. ^ Beekes: entry 6701: Selloi. Greek Etymological Dictionary
  19. ^ Aristotle, Meteorologica, I, 352b
  21. ^ Homer writes of Achilles praying to Dodonian Zeus: "King Zeus", he cried, "lord of Dodona, god of the Pelasgi, who dwellest afar, you who hold wintry Dodona in your sway, where your prophets the Selloi dwell around you with their feet unwashed and their couches made upon the ground": Homer, Iliad book 16, 233–235
  22. ^ Ogyges: Ogenos,Okeanos: ocean, the great river that was believed to surround the Earth. Probably derived from a Phoenician root, "to encircle"
  23. ^ Iliad, book 2, 681–685
  24. ^ a b The Parian marble. Entry No 6: "From when Hellen (Έλλην) [son of] Deuc[alion] became king of [Phthi]otis and those previously called Graikoi were named Hellenes"[3]
  25. ^ a b Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca
  26. ^ Aeschines ii.On the embassy 115. Pausanias 8.2–5
  27. ^ a b Beekes. Greek Etymological Dictionary, entry 1531
  29. ^ "Greek". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  30. ^ "Greek". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  31. ^ Ogyges may be related with the Greek Okeanos (Ὠκεανός, ocean), the Titan who personified the great world ocean/river, believed to surround the earth disc.—see Fontenrose, p. 236.
  32. ^ The Greek word Ogygios (Ὠγύγιος), meaning Ogygian, came to mean "primeval, primal," or "from earliest ages" and also "gigantic"—see Liddell & Scott, "Ὠγύγιος".
  33. ^ a b Greek.Online Etymology Dictionary
  34. ^ Homer, "Iliad", II, 498
  35. ^ Pausanias, Periegesis book 5, p. 136
  36. ^ Pausanias, "Description of Greece", 10, 7, 6:
  37. ^ Thucydides, "Histories", I, 132.
  38. ^ The Macedonians were Persian subjects at this time but their King, Alexander I, secretly pursued a pro-Hellenic policy — see Herodotus, "The Histories", Book IX, 45.
  40. ^ NGL Hammond, "A History of Greece to 322BC", Oxford University Press, 3rd edition, 1986
  41. ^ Thucydides, "History", II, 68, 5 and III, 97, 5
  42. ^ Thucydides, "History", II, 68, 9 and II, 80, 5 and I, 47, 3
  43. ^ Thucydides, "History", II, 80, 5
  44. ^ See discussion in Chapter 5 of Jonathan Hall, "Hellenicity: Between Ethnicity and Culture", University of Chicago Press, 2002
  45. ^ J. Juthner, "Hellenen and Barbaren", Leipzig, 1928, p. 4
  48. ^ Herodotus, "Histories", book II, 158
  49. ^ Aristophanes, "The Birds", 199
  50. ^ Aristophanes, "The Clouds", 492
  51. ^ Dionysius of Halicarnassus, "Roman Archaeology", 1, 89, 4
  52. ^ Saint Paul, "Epistle to the Romans", 1, 14
  53. ^ Euripides, "Iphigeneia at Aulis", 1400
  54. ^ Aristotle, "Republic", I, 5
  57. ^ New Testament, Gospel of Mark, 7, 26
  58. ^ Aristides, Apology
  59. ^ Clement of Alexandria, Miscellanies, 6, 5, 41
  60. ^ Pope Gregory, Against Julian, 1, 88
  61. ^ Suda dictionary, entry τ (t)
  62. ^ Socrates, "Ecclesiastical History", 7, 14
  64. ^ Kaldellis, Anthony. Hellenism in Byzantium. Cambridge University Press. pp. 63, 374, 355,.  
  66. ^ Procopius, Gothic war III.1 & Vandal war, I.21
  67. ^ Lambru, Palaeologeia and Peloponnesiaka, 3, 152
  69. ^ Epistola 86, of year 865, PL 119, 926
  70. ^ Liutprand, Antapodosis
  71. ^ Romanus III, "Towards the son of Romanus himself", p.49
  72. ^ Anna Comnena, "Alexiad", prologue 1
  73. ^ Anna Comnena, "Alexiad", 15, 7
  74. ^ Espugnazione di Thessalonica, p. 32, Palermo 1961
  75. ^ Nicetas Choniates, The Sack of Constantinople, Bonn, p. 806
  76. ^ Nicephorus Blemmydes, "Pertial narration", 1, 4
  77. ^ Theodore Alanias, PG 140, 414
  78. ^ John Vatatzes, "Unpublished Letters of Emperor John Vatatzes", Athens I, pp. 369–378, (1872)
  79. ^ Theodore Lascaris, Christian Theology, 7. and 8
  80. ^ Nicephorus Gregoras, Roman History
  81. ^ John Catacuzenus, History, 4, 14
  82. ^ Similar texts were composited by the scribes of the Kings in the north, e.g. of Russia, Poland, Lithuania...
  83. ^ George Gemistus Plethon, Paleologeia and Peloponessiaka, p. 247
  84. ^ Laonicus Chalcondyles, History I
  85. ^ George Phrantzes, History, 3.6
  87. ^ Gill Page, "Being Byzantine: Greek Identity Before the Ottomans" p6
  88. ^ Edward Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Alexandre Rambeau, L'empire Grecque au Xe siecle
  90. ^ Constantelos, Demetrios J. (12 September 2004). "Christian Hellenism and How the Byzantines Saw Themselves". Orthodox News (The National Herald). Archived from the original on 26 May 2006. Retrieved 19 September 2008. 
  91. ^ Rigas Feraios, "Thurius", line 45
  92. ^ Strategus Makrygiannis, "Memoirs", book 1, p. 117, Athens, 1849
  93. ^ Adamantios Korais, "Dialogue between two Greeks", p. 37, Venice, 1805
  94. ^ Dionysius Pyrrhus, "Cheiragogy", Venice, 1810
  95. ^ Hellenic Prefecture, p. 191, Athens, 1948
  96. ^ Ioannes Philemon, "Historical Essay on the Greek Revolution", Vol. 2, p. 79, (in Greek) Ιωάννης Φιλήμων, Δοκίμιον ιστορικόν περί της ελληνικής Επαναστάσεως, T.2, Αθήνα 1859
  97. ^ Ioannis Kakrides, "Ancient Greeks and Greeks of 1821", Thessalonike, 1956
  98. ^ Ambrosius Phrantzes, Abridged history of a revived Greece, T1 p. 398, Athens, 1839 [4]
  99. ^ Markezines, "Political History of Modern Greece", book A, p. 208, Athens


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External links

  • "What, if anything, is a Byzantine?"Clifton R. Fox,
  • "Example of the science of the ethnic cleaning of Roman history."John S. Romanides,
  • "Introduction to Romanity, Romania, Roumeli."John S. Romanides,
  • "Kostis Palamas and RomiosiniJohn S. Romanides, " (Greek)
