Egyptian gods in the Carnegie Museum of Natural History

"Polytheism" refers to the worship of or belief in multiple deities usually assembled into a pantheon of gods and goddesses, along with their own religions and rituals. In most religions which accept polytheism, the different gods are representations of forces of nature or ancestral principles, and can be viewed either as autonomous or as aspects or emanations of a creator God or transcendental absolute principle (monistic theologies), which manifests immanently in nature (panentheistic and pantheistic theologies).[1]

It is a type of theism. Within theism, it contrasts with monotheism, the belief in a singular God, in most cases transcendent. Polytheists do not always worship all the gods equally, but can be henotheists, specializing in the worship of one particular deity. Other polytheists can be kathenotheists, worshiping different deities at different times.

Polytheism was the typical form of religion during the Bronze Age and Iron Age, up to the Axial Age and the development of Abrahamic religions which enforced strict monotheism. It is well documented in historical religions of Classical antiquity, especially ancient Greek religion and ancient Roman religion, and after the decline of Greco-Roman polytheism in tribal religions such as Germanic paganism or Slavic paganism.

Important polytheistic religions practiced today include Hinduism, Chinese traditional religion, Japanese Shinto, and the neopagan context.


  • Terminology 1
  • Soft polytheism vs. Hard polytheism 2
  • Gods and divinity 3
  • Types of deities 4
  • Mythology and religion 5
  • Historical polytheism 6
    • Ancient Greece 6.1
  • Folk religion 7
  • Contemporary world religions 8
    • Buddhism and Shinto 8.1
    • Christianity 8.2
      • Mormonism 8.2.1
    • Hinduism 8.3
    • Reconstructionism 8.4
    • Serer religion 8.5
  • Neopaganism 9
    • Wicca 9.1
  • See also 10
  • References 11
  • Further reading 12
  • External links 13


The term comes from the Greek πολύ poly ("many") and θεός theos ("god") and was first invented by the Jewish writer Philo of Alexandria to argue with the Greeks. When Christianity spread throughout Europe and the Mediterranean, non-Christians were just called Gentiles (a term originally used by Jews to refer to non-Jews) or pagans (locals) or, in a clearly pejorative idolaters (worshiping "false" gods). The modern usage of the term is first revived in French through Jean Bodin in 1580, followed by Samuel Purchas's usage in English in 1614.[2]

Soft polytheism vs. Hard polytheism

A central, main division in polytheism is between soft polytheism and hard polytheism.


This is contrasted with "Soft" polytheism, which holds that gods may be aspects of only one god, that the pantheons of other cultures are representative of one single pantheon, psychological archetypes or personifications of natural forces.

Gods and divinity

The deities of polytheism are often portrayed as complex personages of greater or lesser status, with individual skills, needs, desires and histories; in many ways similar to humans (anthropomorphic) in their personality traits, but with additional individual powers, abilities, knowledge or perceptions. Polytheism cannot be cleanly separated from the animist beliefs prevalent in most folk religions. The gods of polytheism are in many cases the highest order of a continuum of supernatural beings or spirits, which may include ancestors, demons, wights and others. In some cases these spirits are divided into celestial or chthonic classes, and belief in the existence of all these beings does not imply that all are worshipped.

Types of deities

Types of deities often found in polytheism may include

Mythology and religion

In the Classical era, Sallustius (4th century CE) categorised mythology into five types:

  1. Theological
  2. Physical
  3. Psychological
  4. Material
  5. Mixed

The theological are those myths which use no bodily form but contemplate the very essence of the gods: e.g., Cronus swallowing his children. Since divinity is intellectual, and all intellect returns into itself, this myth expresses in allegory the essence of divinity.

Myths may be regarded physically when they express the activities of gods in the world.

The psychological way is to regard (myths as allegories of) the activities of the soul itself and or the soul's acts of thought.

The material is to regard material objects to actually be gods, for example: to call the earth Gaia, ocean Okeanos, or heat Typhon.

The mixed kind of myth may be seen in many instances: for example they say that in a banquet of the gods, Eris threw down a golden apple; the goddesses contended for it, and were sent by Zeus to Paris to be judged. Paris saw Aphrodite to be beautiful and gave her the apple. Here the banquet signifies the hypercosmic powers of the gods; that is why they are all together. The golden apple is the world, which being formed out of opposites, is naturally said to be "thrown by Eris" (or Discord). The different gods bestow different gifts upon the world, and are thus said to 'contend for the apple'. And the soul which lives according to sense – for that is what Paris is – not seeing the other powers in the world but only beauty, declares that the apple belongs to Aphrodite.

Historical polytheism

Some well-known historical polytheistic pantheons include the Sumerian gods and the Egyptian gods, and the classical-attested pantheon which includes the ancient Greek religion and Roman religion. Post-classical polytheistic religions include Norse Æsir and Vanir, the Yoruba Orisha, the Aztec gods, and many others. Today, most historical polytheistic religions are pejoratively referred to as "mythology", though the stories cultures tell about their gods should be distinguished from their worship or religious practice. For instance deities portrayed in conflict in mythology would still be worshipped sometimes in the same temple side by side, illustrating the distinction in the devotees mind between the myth and the reality. It is speculated that there was once a Proto-Indo-European religion, from which the religions of the various Indo-European peoples derive, and that this religion was an essentially naturalist numenistic religion. An example of a religious notion from this shared past is the concept of *dyēus, which is attested in several distinct religious systems.

In many civilizations, pantheons tended to grow over time. Deities first worshipped as the patrons of cities or places came to be collected together as empires extended over larger territories. Conquests could lead to the subordination of the elder culture's pantheon to a newer one, as in the Greek Titanomachia, and possibly also the case of the Æsir and Vanir in the Norse mythos. Cultural exchange could lead to "the same" deity being renowned in two places under different names, as with the Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and also to the introduction of elements of a "foreign" religion into a local cult, as with Egyptian Osiris worship brought to ancient Greece.

Most ancient belief systems held that gods influenced human lives. However, the Greek philosopher Epicurus held that the gods were living, incorruptible, blissful beings who did not trouble themselves with the affairs of mortals, but who could be perceived by the mind, especially during sleep. Epicurus believed that these gods were material, human-like, and that they inhabited the empty spaces between worlds.

Hellenistic religion may still be regarded as polytheistic, but with strong monistic components, and monotheism finally emerges from Hellenistic traditions in Late Antiquity in the form of Neoplatonism and Christian theology.

Neolithic Era
Bronze Age to Classical Antiquity
Late Antiquity to High Middle Ages

Ancient Greece

The classical scheme in Ancient Greece of the Twelve Olympians (the Canonical Twelve of art and poetry) were:[4][5] Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Athena, Ares, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Hephaestus, Aphrodite, Hermes, and Hestia. Though it is suggested that Hestia stepped down when Dionysus was invited to Mount Olympus, this is a matter of controversy. Robert Graves' The Greek Myths cites two sources[6][7] that obviously do not suggest Hestia surrendered her seat, though he suggests she did. Hades[8] was often excluded because he dwelt in the underworld. All of the gods had a power. There was, however, a great deal of fluidity as to whom was counted among their number in antiquity.[9] Different cities often worshipped the same deities, sometimes with epithets that distinguished them and specified their local nature.


Folk religion

The animistic nature of folk beliefs is an anthropological cultural universal. The belief in ghosts and spirits animating the natural world and the practice of ancestor worship is universally present in the world's cultures and re-emerges in monotheistic or materialistic societies as "superstition", belief in demons, tutelary saints, fairies or extraterrestrials.

The presence of a full polytheistic religion, complete with a ritual cult conducted by a priestly caste, requires a higher level of organization and is not present in every culture. In Eurasia, the Kalash are one of very few instances of surviving polytheism. Also, a large number of polytheistic folk traditions are subsumed in contemporary Hinduism, although Hinduism is doctrinally dominated by monist or monotheist theology (Bhakti, Advaita). Historical Vedic polytheist ritualism survives as a minor current in Hinduism, known as Shrauta. More widespread is folk Hinduism, with rituals dedicated to various local or regional deities.

Contemporary world religions

Buddhism and Shinto

In Buddhism, there are higher beings commonly designed (or designated) as gods, Devas; however, Buddhism, at its core (the original Pali canon), does not teach the notion of praying nor worship to the Devas or any god(s).

However, in Buddhism, the core leader 'Buddha', who pioneered the path to enlightenment is not worshiped in meditation, but simply reflected upon. Statues or images of the Buddha (Buddharupas) are worshiped in front of to reflect and contemplate on qualities that the particular position of that rupa represents. In Buddhism, there is no creator and the Buddha rejected the idea that a permanent, personal, fixed, omniscient deity can exist, linking into the core concept of impermanence (anicca).

Devas, in general, are beings who have had more positive karma in their past lives than humans. Their lifespan eventually ends. When their lives end, they will be reborn as devas or as other beings. When they accumulate negative karma, they are reborn as either human or any of the other lower beings. Humans and other beings could also be reborn as a deva in their next rebirth, if they accumulate enough positive karma; however, it is not recommended.

Buddhism flourished in different countries, and some of those countries have polytheistic folk religions. Buddhism syncretizes easily with other religions. Thus, Buddhism has mixed with the folk religions and emerged in polytheistic variants as well as nontheistic variants. For example, in Japan, Buddhism, mixed with Shinto, which worships deities called kami, created a tradition which prays to the deities of Shinto as a form of Buddha. Thus, there may be elements of worship of gods in some forms of later Buddhism.

The concepts of Adi-Buddha and Dharmakaya are the closest to monotheism any form of Buddhism comes. All famous sages and Bodhisattvas being considered as reflections of it. Adi-Buddha is not said to be the creator, but the originator of all things, being a deity in an Emanationist sense.


It is sometimes claimed that Christianity is not truly monotheistic because of its teaching about the Trinity.[10] This is the position of some Jews and Muslims who contend that because of the adoption of a Triune conception of deity, Christianity is actually a form of Tritheism or Polytheism, for example see Shituf. However, the central doctrine of Christianity is that "one God exists in Three Persons and One Substance".[11] Strictly speaking, the doctrine is a revealed mystery which while above reason is not contrary to it.[11] The word 'person' is an imperfect translation of the original term "hypostasis". In everyday speech "person" denotes a separate rational and moral individual, possessed of self-consciousness, and aware of individual identity despite changes. A human person is a distinct individual essence in whom human nature is individualized. But in God there are no three individuals alongside of, and separate from, one another, but only personal self distinctions within the divine essence, which is not only generically, but also numerically, one.[12] Although the doctrine of the Trinity was not definitely formulated before the First Council of Constantinople in 381, the doctrine of one God, inherited from Judaism was always the indubitable premiss of the Church's faith.[13]

Jordan Paper, a Western scholar and self-described polytheist, considers polytheism to be the normal state in human culture. He argues that "Even the Catholic Church shows polytheistic aspects with the 'worshipping' of the saints." On the other hand, he complains, monotheistic missionaries and scholars were eager to see a proto-monotheism or at least henotheism in polytheistic religions, for example, when taking from the Chinese pair of Sky and Earth only one part and calling it the King of Heaven, as Matteo Ricci did.[14]


Statements in the Book of Mormon describe the unity of God (e.g. ; ), but later revelations superseded them.[15] Joseph Smith, the founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, believed in "the plurality of Gods", saying "I have always declared God to be a distinct personage, Jesus Christ a separate and distinct personage from God the Father, and that the Holy Ghost was a distinct personage and a Spirit: and these three constitute three distinct personages and three Gods".[16] Mormonism also affirms the existence of a Heavenly Mother,[17] as well as exaltation, the idea that people can become like god in the afterlife.[18]

Mormons teach that scriptural statements on the unity of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost represent a oneness of purpose, not of substance.[19] They believe that the early Christian church did not characterize divinity in terms of an immaterial, formless shared substance until post-apostolic theologians began to incorporate Greek metaphysical philosophies (such as Neoplatonism) into Christian doctrine.[20][21] Mormons believe that the truth about God's nature was restored through modern day revelation, which reinstated the original Judeo-Christian concept of a natural, corporeal, immortal God,[22] who is the literal Father of the spirits of humans.[23] It is to this personage alone that Mormons pray, as He is and always will be their Heavenly Father, the supreme "God of gods" (Deuteronomy 10:17). In the sense that Mormons worship only God the Father, they consider themselves monotheists. Nevertheless, Mormons adhere to Christ's teaching that those who receive God's word can obtain the title of "gods" (John 10:33-36), because as literal children of God they can take upon themselves His divine attributes.[24] Because Mormons do not classify God in terms of a substance, this transformation does not consist of a metaphysical conversion of human into divine, rather it is simply a process of learning and progressing. Mormons teach that "The glory of God is intelligence" (Doctrine and Covenants 93:36), and that it is by sharing the Father's perfect comprehension of all things that both Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit are also divine.[25]


Hinduism is a far from monolithic religion: many extremely varied religious traditions and practices are grouped together under this umbrella term and some modern scholars have questioned the legitimacy of unifying them artificially and suggest that one should speak of "hinduisms" in the plural.[26] Theistic Hinduism encompasses both monotheistic and polytheistic tendencies and variations on or mixes of both structures.

Hindus venerate deities in the form of the Murti, an icon. The Puja (worship) of the Murti is like a way to communicate with the formless, abstract divinity (Brahman in Hinduism) which creates, sustains and dissolves creation.

Some Hindu philosophers and theologians argue for a transcendent metaphysical structure with a single divine essence. This divine essence is usually referred to as Brahman or Atman, but the understanding of the nature of this absolute divine essence is the line which defines many Hindu philosophical traditions such as Vedanta.

Among lay Hindus, some believe in different deities emanating from Brahman, while others practice more traditional polytheism and henotheism, focusing their worship on one or more personal deities, while granting the existence of others.

Academically speaking, the ancient Vedic scriptures, upon which Hinduism is derived, describe four authorized disciplic lines of teaching coming down over thousands of years. (Padma Purana). Four of them propound that the Absolute Truth is Fully Personal, as in Judeo-Christian theology. That the Primal Original God is Personal, both transcendent and immanent throughout creation. He can be, and is often approached through worship of Murtis, called "Archa-Vigraha", which are described in the Vedas as likenesses of His various dynamic, spiritual Forms. This is the Vaisnava theology.

The fifth disciplic line of Vedic spirituality, founded by Shankaracharya, promotes the concept that the Absolute is Brahman, without clear differentiations, without will, without thought, without intelligence.

In the Smarta denomination of Hinduism, the philosophy of Advaita expounded by Shankara allows veneration of numerous deities with the understanding that all of them are but manifestations of one impersonal divine power, Brahman. Therefore, according to various schools of Vedanta including Shankara, which is the most influential and important Hindu theological tradition, there are a great number of deities in Hinduism, such as Vishnu, Shiva, Ganesha, Hanuman, Lakshmi, and Kali, but they are essentially different forms of the same "Being". However, many Vedantic philosophers also argue that all individuals were united by the same impersonal, divine power in the form of the Atman.

Many other Hindus, however, view polytheism as far preferable to monotheism. Ram Swarup, for example, points to the Vedas as being specifically polytheistic,[27] and states that, "only some form of polytheism alone can do justice to this variety and richness."[28] Sita Ram Goel, another 20th-century Hindu historian, wrote:

Some Hindus construe this notion of polytheism in the sense of polymorphism—one God with many forms or names. The Rig Veda, the primary Hindu scripture, elucidates this as follows:

They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuna, Agni, and he is heavenly nobly-winged Garutman. To what is One, sages give many a title they call it Agni, Yama, Matarisvan. Book I, Hymn 164, Verse 46 Rigveda[30]


Reconstructionists are pagans who apply scholarly disciplines such as history, etymology, archaeology, linguistics and others to a traditional religion that has been destroyed such as Norse Paganism, Greek Paganism, Celtic paganism and others. After researching his or her path a reconstructionist or "recon" for short will apply the customs, morals and worldview to the modern day. These pagans sharply differ from neopagans in that they consider their religion not only inspired by the religions of antiquity but as an actual continuation or revival of it.[31][32] Although many describe themselves as "hard" polytheists, others claim that this is not the only historically accurate polytheist theology.[33]

Serer religion

In Africa, polytheism in Serer religion dates as far back to the Neolithic Era (possibly earlier) when the ancient ancestors of the Serer people represented their Pangool on the Tassili n'Ajjer.[3] The supreme creator deity in Serer religion is Roog. However, there are many deities[34] and Pangool (singular : Fangool, the interceders with the divine) in Serer religion.[3] Each one has its own purpose and serves as Roog's agent on Earth.[34] Amongst the Cangin speakers, a sub-group of the Serers, Roog is known as Koox.[35]


Neopaganism, also known as modern paganism and contemporary paganism,[36] is a group of contemporary religious movements influenced by or claiming to be derived from the various historical pagan beliefs of pre-modern Europe.[37][38] Although they do share commonalities, contemporary Pagan religious movements are diverse and no single set of beliefs, practices, or texts are shared by them all.[39]


Neopaganism often blends polytheism with pantheism or panentheism.


Wicca is a duotheistic faith created by Gerald Gardner that allows for polytheism.[41][42][43] Wiccans specifically worship the Lord and Lady of the Isles (their names are oathbound).[42][43][44][45] It is an orthopraxic mystery religion that requires initiation to the priesthood in order to consider oneself Wiccan.[42][43][46] Wicca emphasizes duality and the cycle of nature.[42][43][47]

See also


  1. ^ Libbrecht, 2007. p. 42
  2. ^ Schmidt, Francis (1987). The Inconceivable Polytheism: Studies in Religious Historiography. New York: Gordon & Breach Science Publishers. p. 10.  
  3. ^ a b c (French) Gravrand, Henry, "La civilisation Sereer - Pangool", Les Nouvelles Editions Africaines du Senegal, (1990), ISBN 2-7236-1055-1. pp 9, 20, 77
  4. ^ "Greek mythology".  
  5. ^ "Dodekatheon" [Twelve Olympians].  
  6. ^ "Apollodorus, Library, book 3, chapter 5, section 3". 
  7. ^ "Pausanias, Description of Greece". 
  8. ^ George Edward Rines, ed. (1919). Encyclopedia Americana Vol. 13 13. Americana Corp. pp. 408–411. 
  9. ^ Stoll, Heinrich Wilhelm (R.B. Paul trans.) (1852). Handbook of the religion and mythology of the Greeks. Francis and John Rivington. p. 8. The limitation [of the number of Olympians] to twelve seems to have been a comparatively modern idea 
  10. ^ Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974) art. "Monotheism"
  11. ^ a b Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (1974) art. "Trinity, Doctrine of the"
  12. ^ Berkhof, Louis. Systematic Theology (1949) page 87
  13. ^ Kelly, J.N.D. Early Christian Doctrines A&C Black (1965) pp. 87,88
  14. ^ Jordan Paper: The Deities are Many. A Polytheistic Theology. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005, pp. 112 and 133.
  15. ^  
  16. ^ Dahl, Paul E. (1992), "Godhead", in  
  17. ^  
  18. ^ Pope, Margaret McConkie, "Exaltation",  
  19. ^  
  20. ^  
  21. ^ Draper, Richard R. (April 1994), "The Reality of the Resurrection",  
  22. ^  
  23. ^ "God Is Truly Our Father",  
  24. ^  
  25. ^ The Glory of God is Intelligence' - Lesson 37: Section 93"'", Doctrine and Covenants Instructor's Guide: Religion 324-325,  
  26. ^ Smith, Brian. "Hinduism." New Dictionary of the History of Ideas. 2005. Retrieved May 22, 2013 from Encyclopedia.com: http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3424300342.html
  27. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (1987). Defence of Hindu Society. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. "In the Vedic approach, there is no single God. This is bad enough. But the Hindus do not have even a supreme God, a fuhrer-God who presides over a multiplicity of Gods." -- Ram Swarup 
  29. ^ Goel, Sita Ram (1982). How I became a Hindu. New Delhi, India: Voice of India. p. 92. 
  30. ^ "RigVeda". The Sacred Books. Retrieved 22 May 2013. 
  31. ^ http://books.google.com/books?id=Ie-aHv8rzHoC&pg=PA14&lpg=PA14&dq=Reconstructionist+are+not+neopagan&source=bl&ots=rwK-BoaNHE&sig=mXlRj1r-C3_52ZOVv6C7TVEFcKc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=mgSaU-3UFdWjyASQ7YEo&ved=0CEsQ6AEwBzgK#v=onepage&q=Reconstructionist%20are%20not%20neopagan&f=false
  32. ^ http://necropolisnow.blogspot.com/2008/09/pagan-reconstructionism.html
  33. ^ Drew Jacob, [1] "Polytheism is Theology-Inclusive," Celtic Polytheism (2013)
  34. ^ a b (English) Kellog, Day Otis, and Smith, William Robertson, "The Encyclopædia Britannica: latest edition. A dictionary of arts, sciences and general literature", Volume 25, p 64, Werner (1902)
  35. ^ (French) Ndiaye, Ousmane Sémou, "Diversité et unicité sérères : l’exemple de la région de Thiès", Éthiopiques, no. 54, vol. 7, 2e semestre 1991 [2]
  36. ^ Adler 2006, p. xiii.
  37. ^ Lewis 2004, p. 13.
  38. ^ Hanegraaff 1996, p. 84.
  39. ^ Carpenter 1996, p. 40.
  40. ^  
  41. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 165–166.  
  42. ^ a b c d Hutton, Ronald (2003). The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft. Oxford Paperbacks.  
  43. ^ a b c d Lamond, Frederic (2005). Fifty Years of Wicca. Green Magic.  
  44. ^ Bracelin, J (1999). Gerald Gardner: Witch. Pentacle Enterprises. p. 199.  
  45. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 260–261.  
  46. ^ Gardner, Gerald (1982). The Meaning of Witchcraft. Llewellyn Pubns. pp. 21–22, 28–29, 69, 116.  

Further reading

  • Assmann, Jan, 'Monotheism and Polytheism' in: Sarah Iles Johnston (ed.), Religions of the Ancient World: A Guide, Harvard University Press (2004), ISBN 0-674-01517-7, pp. 17–31.
  • Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion: Archaic and Classical, Blackwell (1985), ISBN 0-631-15624-0.
  • Greer, John Michael; A World Full of Gods: An Inquiry Into Polytheism, ADF Publishing (2005), ISBN 0-9765681-0-1
  • Iles Johnston, Sarah; Ancient Religions, Belknap Press (September 15, 2007), ISBN 0-674-02548-2
  • Paper, Jordan; The Deities are Many: A Polytheistic Theology, State University of New York Press (March 3, 2005), ISBN 978-0-7914-6387-1
  • Penchansky, David, Twilight of the Gods: Polytheism in the Hebrew Bible (2005), ISBN 0-664-22885-2.

External links

  • The Association of Polytheist Traditions - APT, a UK-based community of Polytheists.
  • International Year Of Polytheism Philosophical project promoting polytheism by group monochrom
  • Integrational Polytheism