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Asceticism has been historically observed in many religious traditions, including Buddhism, Jainism, Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, and contemporary practices continue amongst some religious followers.

The practitioners of this philosophy abandon sensual pleasures and lead an abstinent lifestyle, in the pursuit of redemption, [4] salvation or spirituality. [5] Asceticism is seen in the ancient theologies as a journey towards spiritual transformation, where the simple is sufficient, the bliss is within, the frugal is plenty. [3] Inversely, several ancient religious traditions, such as Zoroastrianism, Ancient Egyptian religion, [6] and the Dionysian Mysteries, as well as more modern Left Hand traditions, openly reject ascetic practices and focus on various types of hedonism.

Etymology and meaning


Dom Cuthbert Butler classified asceticism into natural and unnatural forms: [8]


Self-discipline and abstinence in some form and degree are parts of religious practice within many religious and spiritual traditions. Ascetic lifestyle is associated particularly with monks, nuns, oppper in Abrahamic religions, and bhikkhus, munis, sannyasis, yogis in Indian religions. [9] [10]

Abrahamic religions




The deserts of the Middle East were at one time inhabited by thousands of Christian hermits [14] including St. Anthony the Great (aka St. Anthony of the Desert), St. Mary of Egypt, and St. Simeon Stylites. In 963 CE, an association of monasteries called Lavra was formed on Mount Athos, in Eastern Orthodox tradition. [15] This became the most important center of orthodox Christian ascetic groups in the centuries that followed. [15] In the modern era, Mount Athos and Meteora have remained a significant center. [16]

Sexual abstinence such as those of the Encratites sect of Christians was only one aspect of ascetic renunciation, and both natural and unnatural asceticism have been part of Christian asceticism. The natural ascetic practices have included simple living, begging, [17] fasting and ethical practices such as humility, compassion, patience and prayer. [18] Evidence of extreme unnatural asceticism in Christianity appear in 2nd-century texts and thereafter, in both Eastern Orthodox Christian and Western Christian traditions, such as the practice of chaining the body to rocks, eating only grass, [19] praying seated on a pillar in the elements for decades such as by the monk Simeon Stylites, [20] solitary confinement inside a cell, abandoning personal hygiene and adopting lifestyle of a beast, self-inflicted pain and voluntary suffering. [17] [21] Such ascetic practices were linked to the Christian concepts of sin and redemption. [22] [23]

Evagrius Ponticus: monastic teaching


The ascetic literature of early Christianity was influenced by pre-Christian Greek philosophical traditions, especially Plato and Aristotle, looking for the perfect spiritual way of life. [25] According to Clement of Alexandria, Philosophy and Scriptures can be seen as "double expressions of one pattern of knowledge ". [26] According to Evagrius, " body and the soul are there to help the intellect and not to hinder it ". [27]


The Arabic word for asceticism is zuhd (Zuhd in Islam). [28] The Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers practiced asceticism. [29] However, contemporary mainstream Islam has not had a tradition of asceticism, but its Sufi groups [30] – have cherished an ascetic tradition for many centuries. [31] [32] Monasticism is forbidden in Islam. [33]

Others[ who? ] have argued that Zuhd can be simply described as seeking contentment, putting your trust in Allah and hoping for a short life with an attitude of indifference to the world. Zuhd is not something destined for a selected limited group of people, but rather a code of behaviour that should be followed by any pious Muslim. Thus, the term Muslim becomes equivalent to the term zahid, and practicing Islam is parallel to practicing zuhd [34] .

A Sufi Muslim ascetic (fakir) in Bengal in the 1860s. Portrait of a Muslim ascetic (fakir) in Eastern Bengal in the 1860s.jpg






Chassidei Ashkenaz were a Jewish mystical and ascetic movement in medieval Germany. GermanJews1.jpg





Bahá'í Faith


Indian religions















A female ascetic of the Vaishnavism tradition, 19th-century India. A female sadhu sannyasi monk with a Vishnu mark, painting from India.jpg


Asceticism-like practices are hinted in the Vedas, but these hymns have been variously interpreted as referring to early Yogis and loner renouncers. One such mention is in the Kesin hymn of the Rigveda, where Keśins ("long-haired" ascetics) and Munis ("silent ones") are described. [93] [94] These Kesins of the Vedic era, are described as follows by Karel Werner: [95]



The Vedic and Upanishadic texts of Hinduism, states Mariasusai Dhavamony, do not discuss self-inflicted pain, but do discuss self-restraint and self-control. [96] The monastic tradition of Hinduism is evidenced in 1st millennium BCE, particularly in its Advaita Vedanta tradition. This is evidenced by the oldest Sannyasa Upanishads, because all of them have a strong Advaita Vedanta outlook. [97] Most of the Sannyasa Upanishads present a Yoga and nondualism (Advaita) Vedanta philosophy. [98] [99] The 12th-century Shatyayaniya Upanishad is a significant exception, which presents qualified dualistic and Vaishnavism (Vishishtadvaita Vedanta) philosophy. [99] [100] These texts mention a simple, ethical lifestyle but do not mention self-torture or body mortification. For example,

These are the vows a Sannyasi must keep –


Baudhayana Dharmasūtra, II.10.18.1-10 [101]


The 11th century text, Yatidharmasamuccaya is a Vaishnavism text that summarizes ascetic practices in Vaishnavism tradition of Hinduism. [106] In Hindu traditions, as with other Indian religions, both men and women have historically participated in a diverse spectrum of ascetic practices. [5]



Jain texts such as Tattvartha Sutra and Uttaradhyayana Sutra discuss ascetic austerities to great lengths and formulations. Six outer and six inner practices are most common, and oft repeated in later Jain texts. [112] According to John Cort, outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). [113] Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. [113]



Kalpa Sutra 117

Both Mahavira and his ancient Jaina followers are described in Jainism texts as practicing body mortification and being abused by animals as well as people, but never retaliating and never initiating harm or injury (ahimsa) to any other being. [115] With such ascetic practices, he burnt off his past Karma, gained spiritual knowledge, and became a Jina. [115] These austere practices are part of the monastic path in Jainism. [116] The practice of body mortification is called kaya klesha in Jainism, and is found in verse 9.19 of the Tattvartha Sutra by Umaswati, the most authoritative oldest surviving Jaina philosophical text. [117] [118]

Monastic practice
Five Mahavratas of Jain ascetics Mahavratas.jpg
Five Mahavratas of Jain ascetics

In Jain monastic practice, the monks and nuns take ascetic vows, after renouncing all relations and possessions. The vows include a complete commitment to nonviolence ( Ahimsa ). They travel from city to city, often crossing forests and deserts, and always barefoot. Jain ascetics do not stay in a single place for more than two months to prevent attachment to any place. [119] [120] However, during the four months of monsoon (rainy season) known as chaturmaas, they stay at a single place to avoid killing life forms that thrive during the rains. [121] Jain monks and nuns practice complete celibacy. They do not touch or share a sitting platform with a person of the opposite sex.[ citation needed ]






Sikh Religion

While Sikhism treats lust as a vice, it has at the same time unmistakengly pointed out that man must share the moral responsibility by leading the life of a householder. What is important is to be God-centred. According to Sikhism, ascetics are certainly not on the right path. [126] When Guru Nanak visited Gorakhmata, he discussed the true meaning of asceticism with some yogis. [127]


Guru Nanak [127]

Other religions

Inca religion

In Inca religion of medieval South America, asceticism was practiced. [128] The high priests of the Inca people lived an ascetic life, which included fasting, chastity and eating simple food. [129] The Jesuit records report Christian missionaries encountering ascetic Inca hermits in the Andean mountains. [130]


Historical evidence suggest that the monastic tradition in Taoism practiced asceticism, and the most common ascetic practices included fasting, complete sexual abstinence, self-imposed poverty, sleep deprivation, and secluding oneself in the wilderness. [131] [132] More extreme and unnatural ascetic Taoist practices have included public self-drowning and self-cremation. [133] The goal of these spectrum of practices, like other religions, was to reach the divine and get past the mortal body. According to Stephen Eskildsen, asceticism continues to be a part of modern Taoism. [134] [135]



Sociological and psychological views



Max Weber [137] , The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism



Nietzsche's view


See also


  1. Alternate practices included cutting off a part of one's body. [78] [79]

Related Research Articles

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Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma, is an ancient Indian religion. Followers of Jainism are called "Jains", a word derived from the Prakrit word jina, meaning "victor". Jains trace their spiritual ideas and history through a succession of twenty-four leaders or tirthankaras, with the first being Rishabhanatha or also known as Adinath bhagwan, who according to Jain tradition lived millions of years ago, the twenty-third tirthankara Parshvanatha in 900 BCE, and the twenty-fourth tirthankara the Mahāvīra around 500 BCE. Jains believe that Jainism is an eternal dharma with the tirthankaras guiding every cycle of the Jain cosmology. Their canonical religious texts are called Agamas and Paramagamas.

Nirvana Liberation from repeated rebirth in saṃsāra

Nirvāṇa is commonly associated with Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism and represents its ultimate state of soteriological release, the liberation from repeated rebirth in saṃsāra.

<i>Tantra</i> Esoteric traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism


Yoga Group of physical, mental and spiritual practices originating in ancient India


Eastern philosophy Set of philosophies originating in Asia

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Tapas is a variety of austere spiritual practices in Indian religions. In Jainism, it means asceticism ; in Buddhism, it denotes spiritual practices including meditation and self-discipline; and in the different traditions within Hinduism it means a spectrum of practices ranging from asceticism, inner cleansing to self-discipline. The Tapas practice often involves solitude, and is a part of monastic practices that are believed to be a means to moksha.

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Buddhism and Jainism Buddhism and Jainism

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<i>Śramaṇa</i> Tradition in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism

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History of Buddhism in India Overview about the Buddhism in India

Buddhism is an ancient Indian religion, which arose in and around the ancient Kingdom of Magadha, and is based on the teachings of the Gautama Buddha who was deemed a "Buddha". Buddhism spread outside of Magadha starting in the Buddha's lifetime.

Jainism is a religion founded in ancient India. Jains trace their history through twenty-four tirthankara and revere Rishabhanatha as the first tirthankara. Some artifacts found in the Indus Valley civilization have been suggested as a link to ancient Jain culture, but this is highly speculative and a subjective interpretation. This theory has not been accepted by most scholars because very little is known about the Indus Valley iconography and script. The last two tirthankara, the 23rd tirthankara Parshvanatha and the 24th tirthankara Mahavira are considered historical figures. Mahavira was a contemporary of the Buddha. According to Jain texts, the 22nd Tirthankara Neminatha lived about 85,000 years ago and was the cousin of Hindu god Krishna. Jains consider their religion eternal.

Fasting in Buddhism Religious practice

In Buddhism, there are a variety of attitudes towards different forms of Fasting. The Buddha is known to have practiced extreme forms of fasting which led to his emaciation and to have famously abandoned it before his great awakening. Nevertheless, different forms of fasting are practiced in various Buddhist traditions.



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Further reading