e-book Gene expression and regulation

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Yet cells of eukaryotic organisms each express a unique subset of DNA depending on cell type. In prokaryotic cells, transcription and translation occur almost simultaneously. In eukaryotic cells, transcription occurs in the nucleus, separate from the translation that occurs in the cytoplasm along ribosomes attached to endoplasmic reticulum. As stated above, gene expression in prokaryotes is regulated at the level of transcription, whereas in eukaryotes, gene expression is regulated at multiple levels, including the epigenetic DNA , transcriptional, pre- and post-transcriptional, and translational levels.

Control of Gene Expression

The science of epigenetics studies heritable changes in the genome that do not affect the underlying DNA gene sequences. For a cell to function properly, necessary proteins must be synthesized at the proper time. All cells control or regulate the synthesis of proteins from information encoded in their DNA. The process of turning on a gene to produce RNA and protein is called gene expression.

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Whether in a simple unicellular organism or a complex multi-cellular organism, each cell controls when and how its genes are expressed. For this to occur, there must be a mechanism to control when a gene is expressed to make RNA and protein, how much of the protein is made, and when it is time to stop making that protein because it is no longer needed.

The regulation of gene regulation is responsible for phenotypic differences between cells with similar or identical genomes. For example, skin cells differ from hair cells even though they have the same genome because they are found in the same person and because different genes are turned on or off in these cells. Similarly, chimpanzees share more than 98 percent of their genomes with modern humans. However, chimpanzees have more hair over more body parts than humans.

DNA, Genetics, and Evolution

This difference occurs because the genes that are responsible for the formation of hair follicles are turned on in more parts of the skin during development in chimpanzees than in humans. Even organisms that share percent identity in their genomes can appear phenotypically different because of differential gene expression. For example, identical twins appear very similar because they share the same genome.

However, people familiar with them can often tell them apart due to slight differences in birthmarks, wrinkles, or behavior.

Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes

Many of these traits arise because gene expression is regulated slightly different in two individuals with otherwise identical genomes. The regulation of gene expression conserves energy and space. It would require a significant amount of energy for an organism to express every gene at all times, so it is more energy efficient to turn on the genes only when they are required. In addition, only expressing a subset of genes in each cell saves space because DNA must be unwound from its tightly coiled structure to transcribe and translate the DNA.

Cells would have to be enormous if every protein were expressed in every cell all the time. The control of gene expression is extremely complex. Malfunctions in this process are detrimental to the cell and can lead to the development of many diseases. To understand how gene expression is regulated, we must first understand how a gene codes for a functional protein in a cell. The process occurs in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, just in slightly different manners.

Prokaryotic organisms are single-celled organisms that lack a cell nucleus, and their DNA therefore floats freely in the cell cytoplasm. To synthesize a protein, the processes of transcription and translation occur almost simultaneously. When the resulting protein is no longer needed, transcription stops. As a result, the primary method to control what type of protein and how much of each protein is expressed in a prokaryotic cell is the regulation of DNA transcription. These structural motifs result in their specificity for the consensus sequence and the major classes include proteins with zinc-coordinating DNA-binding domains zinc-finger proteins , proteins with basic domains helix-loop-helix and leucine-zipper factors , and proteins with helix-turn-helix domains homeodomain factors.

In Table 1, the transcription factors are classified according to structural motif as in the TFclass database. Table 1. Structural classification of transcription factors. The zinc-finger is a structural motif in which one or more zinc ions stabilize the protein fold as exemplified by the three-dimensional schematic representation of the estrogen receptor ESR1 purple with zinc-ions in red binding to DNA.

ESR1 is a nuclear hormone receptor, here shown to be expressed in glandular cells and cells in endometrial stroma of the uterus by staining with the antibody CAB The structural motif known as the leucine-zipper consists of a leucine repeat region, which forms an alpha helix with a hydrophobic region responsible for dimerization. Here exemplified by a three-dimensional schematic representation of the proto-oncogene JUN purple binding as a homodimer to DNA.

Gene regulation in eukaryotes

JUN is a basic leucine-zipper factor, here shown to be expressed in glandular cells of the colon by immunohistochemical staining by using the antibody CAB GBX1 is a homeo-domain factor, here shown to be expressed in follicle cells of the ovary by using the antibody HPA Post-translational modifications PTM are chemical modifications such as phosphorylation, glycosylation, ubiquitination, nitrosylation, methylation, acetylation, lipidation and proteolysis, which regulate activity, stability, localization and interaction of proteins.

Most modifications are mediated by enzymes, which add or remove functional groups, proteins, lipids or sugars to or from amino acid side chains or cleave peptide bonds to remove specific sequences or subunits. Phosphorylation is one of the most important post-translational modifications and plays a critical role in regulation of cell cycle, growth and differentiation, apoptosis and signal transduction pathways.

taylor.evolt.org/sypyv-mujeres-solteras.php It is a reversible process involving phosphorylation and dephosphorylation of a variety of substrates including proteins, lipids and carbohydrates. Protein activity and function are commonly regulated by phosphorylation on serine, threonine or tyrosine residues, which functions either by inducing conformational changes that regulate the catalytic activity or by recruiting other proteins that bind and recognize phosphomotifs. Our research addresses the transcriptional and epigenetic regulation of hematopoiesis by focusing on the characterization of transcription factor and associated co-factor functions in red blood cell differentiation We study epigenetic mechanisms regulating liver development, hepatocarcinogenesis and metabolism.

Our research aims at understanding the interplay between chromatin modifying enzymes Awards Research Grants. Active Research Grants.

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