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Nature of Knowledge, tabi’at al ma’rifat

Nature of Knowledge
The Qur’anic terms for knowledge are: ‘ilm, ma’arifat, hikmat,
basiirat, ra’ay, dhann, yaqeen, tadhkirat, shu’ur, lubb, naba’,
burhan, dirayat, haqq, and tasawwur. The terms for lack of
knowledge are: jahl, raib, shakk, dhann, and ghalabat al
dhann. Grades of knowledge are ‘ilm al yaqeen, ‘ayn al
yaqeen, and haqq al yaqeen. Knowledge is correlated with
iman, ‘aql, qalb, and taqwah. Knowledge must be evidence-
based knowledge, hujjiyat al burhan. The seat of knowledge is
the ‘aql, and qalb. Allah’s knowledge is limitless but human
knowledge is limited. Humans vary in knowledge. Knowledge
is public property that cannot be hidden or monopolized.
Humans, angels, jinn, and other living things have varying
amounts of knowledge. Islamic epistemology, nadhariyyat
ma’rifiyyat Islamiyyat, is Qur’ an-based within the tauhidi
paradigm and is guided by objectivity, istiqamat. Knowledge
can be absolute for example revealed knowledge. Other types
of knowledge are relative, nisbiyat al haqiqat. The
probabilistic nature of knowledge arises out of limitations of
human observation and interpretation of physical phenomena.
History of Human Knowledge, tarikh al ma’rifat al
Adam was the first human to learn actively when he was taught
the names. Human knowledge after that grew by empirical trial
and error or through revelations. Development of language and
writing played a big role in knowledge development.
Publication and telecommunication are responsible for the
current knowledge revolution.
Sources of Knowledge, masadir al ma’arifat:

All knowledge is from Allah. Humans can get it in a passive

way from revelations or in an active way by empirical
observation and experimentation. Whatever k nowledge they
get is ultimately from Allah. Knowledge may be innate of
acquired. Humans have knowledge of the creator even before
birth. Some human knowledge is instinct. Most human
knowledge is learned as observation, ‘ilm tajriibi; transmission,
'ilm naqli; or analysis and understanding, 'ilm 'aqli. Seeking to
know is an inner human need that satisfies curiosity.
Revelation, wahy, inference, ‘aql, and empirical observation of
the universe, kaun, are major sources of acquired knowledge
accepted by believers. In terms of quantity, empirical
knowledge, ‘ilm tajriibi, comes first. In terms of quality
revealed knowledge, ‘ilm al wahy, comes first. There is close
interaction and inter-dependence between revelation, inference,
and empirical observation. ‘Aql is needed to understand wahy
and reach conclusions from empirical observations. Wahy
protects ‘aql from mistakes and provides it with information
about the unseen. ‘Aql cannot, unaided, fully understand the
empirical world. There is lack of unanimity on the fo llowing as
additional sources of knowledge: ‘ilm laduniy; inspiration,
ilham; intuition, hadas; instinct, jabillat; geomancy, firasat;
dreams, ru’uyat; and kashf. The controversy is not whether
they are sources of knowledge but whether they are sources
independent of the three mentioned before. Magic & sorcery,
sihr; astrology, tanjiim; foretelling, kahanat & tatayur; and
other forms of superstition are not sources of true knowledge.
They may lead to correct and verifiable facts but only by
chance and coincidence. They most often lead to wrong and
misguiding facts.
Classification of Knowledge, tasnif al marifat
Knowledge can be innate of acquired. It can be ‘aqli and naqli.
It can be knowledge of the seen, ‘ilm al shahadat, and
knowledge of the unseen, ‘ilm al ghaib. The unseen can be
absolute, ghaib mutlaq, or relative, ghaib nisbi. Some
knowledge is individually obligatory, fard ‘ain, whereas other
knowledge is collectively obligatory, fard kifayat.Knowledge
can be useful, nafiu. Knowledge can be basic or applied. There
are many different disciplines of knowledge.
Limitations of Human Knowledge, mahdudiyat al marifat al
The Qur'an in many verses has reminded humans that their
knowledge in all spheres and disciplines of knowledge is
limited. Human senses can be easily deceived. Human intellect
has limitations in interpreting correct sensory perceptions.
Humans cannot know the unseen, ghaib. Humans can operate
in limited time frames. The past and the future are unknowable
with certainty. Humans operate in a limited speed frame at both
the conceptual and sensory levels. Ideas can not be digested
and processed if they are generated too slowly or too quickly.
Humans cannot visually perceive very slow or very rapid
events. Very slow events like the revolution of the earth or its
rotation are perceived as if they are not happening. Human
memory is limited. Knowledge acquired decays or may be lost
altogether. Humans would have been more knowledgeable if
they had perfect memory.
Crisis of Knowledge, azmat al ma’arifat
Manifestations of the Crisis
There is pervasive ignorance of uluum al diin and uluum al
dunia. There is little respect for scholarship. Wealth and power
are considered more important than scholarship. There is
neglect of the empirical sciences. There is a dichotomy in the
education system: traditional Islamic vs. imported European,
ulum al diin vs ulum al dunia. Integration of the 2 systems has
failed or has been difficult because it has been mechanical and
not conceptual. The process of secularization in education has
removed the moral dimension from the education and violated
the aim of Islamic education to produce an integrated and
perfect individual, insan kaamil. The brain drain from Muslim
countries has compounded the educational crisis.
Ummatic Malaise Due to the Knowledge Crises
Knowledge deficiency and intellectual weakness are the most
significant manifestation of ummat’s decadence. The
intellectual crisis of the ummat is worsened by copying and
using poorly digested alien ideas and co ncepts. The prophet
warned the ummat about the lizard- hole phenomenon in which
the ummat in later times would follow its enemies
unquestionably like the lizard running into its hole. Among the
manifestations of the ummatic malaise are deficient ibadat,
action deficiency, political weakness, economic dependency,
military weakness, dependence in science and technology, and
erosion of the Islamic identity in life-style.
Historical Background
The generation of the Prophet (pbuh) was the best generation.
The best teacher met the best students and excellent results
were obtained. Companions had excellent knowledge and
understanding. Seeds of the current crisis appeared towards the
end of the khilafat rashidat... New social and political forces
overthrew the khilafat rashidat and the ideals it represented
were distorted or abolished. Then the authentic ‘ulama and
opinion leaders who remained faithful to the ideals of Islam
were marginalized and persecuted. Intellectual stagnation then
ensued. The process of secularization of the Muslim state
progressed. Widespread ignorance and illiteracy became
common. Many non-Islamic ideas and facts without valid proof
have found their way into the intellectual and religious heritage
of the ummat making the existing intellectual crisis even
Knowledge, a Pre Requisite for Tajdid
Reform and revival of the ummat will occur through
educational and knowledge reform. Tajdid is a recurring
phenomenon in the ummat and is a sign of its health and
dynamism. It is a basic characteristic of the ummat that periods
of reform/revival alternate with periods of decay and return to
jahiliyyat. Tajdid requires knowledge, ideas and action related
by the following mathematical equation: tajdid = idea + action.
Action without knowledge and guiding ideas will not lead to
true change. Ideas without action are not change at all. Tajdid
requires and is preceded by a reform in knowledge to provide
ideas and motivation on which to build. All successful societal
reform starts with change in knowledge. The ideal society
cannot be created without a knowledge base. That knowledge
base must be correct, relevant, and useful. Successful revival
movements throughout Muslim history have always been led
by scholars.
Knowledge: Strategy, Obligations, and Etiquette
The Muslim ummat is a potential economic and political bloc
whose potential is not yet realized. The contemporary tajdid
movement has a lot of strengths but also has basic deficiencies
that must be corrected. The knowledge and intellectual crises
are still a barrier. Reform movements unguided by correct
knowledge and understanding will falter and fail or will be
deviated from their paths. Social change requires change in
attitudes, values, convictions and behavior of a critical mass of
the population. Attitudes, values, convictions, and behaviors
are determined by the knowledge base. The vision of the
knowledge strategy is an upright balanced person who
understands the creator, knows his place, his roles, his rights,
and his responsibilities in the cosmic order. The mission of the
knowledge strategy is conceptual transformation of the
education system from kindergarten to post graduate studies to
reflect tauhid, positive moral values, objectivity, universality,
and serving the larger causes of humanity.
Methodology of Knowledge, manhaj al ma’arifat
Methodology started with Adam naming and classifying all
things followed by trial and error discoveries and later by
systematic methodological investigation. Inspired by the
Qur’an, Muslims developed the empirical scientific
methodology that triggered the European reformation,
renaissance, and scientific and technological revolution starting
in the early 16th century CE. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) knew
Arabic, learned from Muslims, and was the first European to
write about the empirical methodology. Europeans copied the
empirical methodology without its tauhidi context, rejected
wahy as a source of knowledge, and later imposed badly-
copied secularized science on the Muslim world. Ancient
Muslim scientists had shown that wahy, ‘aql, and empiricism
were compatible and had used methodological tools from the
Qur’an to correct deficiencies and improve Greek science
before passing it on to Europeans. They replaced Aristotelian
deductive logic and definitions with an Islamic inductive logic
inspired by the Qur’an.
Methodology from the Qur’an, manhaj qur’ani
The Qur’anic provides general guiding principles and is not a
substitute for empirical research. It enjoins empirical
observation; liberates the mind from superstition, blind
following, intellectual dependency, and whims. Its tauhidi
paradigm is the basis for causality, rationality, order,
predictability, innovation, objectivity, and natural laws. Laws
can be known through wahy, empirical observation and
experimentation. The Qur’anic teaches the inductive
methodology, empirical observation, nadhar and tabassur;
interpretation, tadabbur, tafakkur, i’itibaar & tafaquhu; and
evidential knowledge, bayyinat and burhan. It condemns blind
following, taqliid, conjecture, dhann; and personal whims,
hiwa al nafs. The Qur’anic concept of istiqamat calls for valid
and un-biased knowledge. The Qur’anic concepts of istikhlaf,
taskhir, and isti’imar are a basis for technology. The concept of
‘ilm nafei underlies the imperative to transform basic
knowledge into useful technology.
Methodology from the Classical Islamic Sciences

Classical sciences and their concepts are applicable to S&T.

Tafsir ‘ilmi and tafsir mawdhu’e parallel data interpretation in
empirical research. ‘Ilm al nasakh explains how new data
updates old theories without making them complety useless.
‘Ilm al rijaalcan ascertain the trustworthiness of researchers.
‘Ilm naqd al hadith can inculcate attitudes of critical reading of
scientific literature. Qiyaas is analogical reasoning. Istihbaab is
continued application of a hypothesis or scientific laws until
disproved. Istihsan is comparable to clinical intuition. Istislah
is use of public interest to select among options for example
medical technologies. Ijma is consensus-building among
empirical researchers. Maqasid al shariat are conceptual tools
for balanced use of S&T. Qawaid al shariat are axioms that
simplify complex logical operations by using established
axioms without going through detailed derivations.
Islamic Critique of the Empirical Method, naqd al manhaj
al tajribi
Using methodological tools from the Qur’an and classical
Islamic sciences, Muslims developed a new empirical and
inductive methodology in the form of qiyaas usuuli and also
pioneered the empirical methods by experimentation and
observation in a systematic way as illustrated by the work on
Ibn Hazm on optics. They criticize ancient Greek methodology
as conjectural, hypothetical, despising perceptual knowledge,
and based on deductive logic. They accept the European
scientific method of formulating and testing hypothesis but
reject its philosophical presumptions: materialism, pragmatism,
atheism, rejection of wahy as a source of knowledge, lack of
balance, rejection of the duality between matter and spirit, lack
of human purpose, lacks of an integrating paradigm like tauhid,
and being Euro-centric and not universal. European claims to
being open- minded, methodological, accurate, precise,
objective, and morally neutral have been observed not to hold
in practice. In its arrogance it treats as absolute probabilistic
and relativistic empirical knowledge based fallible human
observation and interpretation.
Towards An Islamic Methodology
A tauhidi universal, objective and unbiased methodology must
replace the Euro-centric and philosophically biased context and
not the practical experimental methods. The precepts of tauhidi
science are: unity of knowledge, comprehensiveness; causality
is the basis for human action, human knowledge is limited,
investigation of causal relations is based on constant and fixed
natural laws, harmony between the seen and the unseen, 3
sources of knowledge (wahy, aql & empirical observation);
khilafat; moral accountability; creation and existence have a
purpose, truth is both absolute and relative, human free will is
the basis of accountability, and tawakkul.
Classical Sciences
Sciences of the Qur’an, uluum al Qur’an
Qur’anic sciences deal with general matters relating to the
revelation, arrangement, collection, writing, recitation,
interpretation, miracles of the Qur’an, ‘Ilm tafsir al Qur'an, the
most important Qur’anic science, elucidates Allah’s intention
in the Qur’an to the best of human capacity. The literal
meaning corresponds to the actual meaning in clear verses,
ayat muhakamat. The actual meaning of allegorical verses,
ayat mutashabihaat, cannot be elucidated from the literal
meaning necessitating interpretation. Tafsir was undertaken by
the prophet and companions. It is a dynamic and growing
discipline because the Qur’an is a co ntinuing challenge and
every generation understands it in its own way. The 2 primary
sources of tafsir are the Qur’an itself and the sunnat.
Additional sources are Ijtihad and inference, istinbaat,
Interpretation by precedent; tafsir bi al ma’athuur is
interpretation by the Qur’an, the sunnat, the companions and
the followers. Tafsiir based on ijtihad, rationality & opinion,
tafsir bi al ra’ay, is praiseworthy if based on general principles
of the Qur’an and blameworthy if based purely on human
reasoning. Interpretation based on empirical science, tafsir
‘ilmi, is empirical and scientific asserting that there is no
contradiction between science and the Qur’an. It discovers the
link between the Qur’an and discoveries of empirical science.
The concept of ta’awil is positive when it is used to mean tafsir
and negative when it refers to attempts at interpreting the holy
text to support pre-conceived views or personal or parochial
interests. Indexation of the Qur’an makes it easier to look up
verses dealing with subjects of interest.
Sciences of Hadith, ‘uluum al hadith
‘ilm al hadith is the science of the principles by which the
status of the chain of transmitters, sanad, and the text, matn,
are ascertained. Criteria more stringent than laws of evidence
in courts are used to grade a hadith and accept it as valid. The
most important hadith collections are al Muwatta; Musnad
Ahmad, Sunan al Daarimi, Sahiih al Bukhari, Sahiih Muslim,
Sunan Ibn Majah, Sunan Abu Daud, al Jamiu al Sahiih li al
Tirmidhi, and Sunan al Nisae .
Biography of the Prophet, ‘ULUUM AL SIIRAT
‘Ilm al sirat studies the life of the Prophet, personality,
attributes, public and private behavior, work methodology,
leadership and management, and all his interactions with his
companions and others in the society. Because of its religious
importance ‘ilm al sirat is studied separately from history. It is
also separated from ‘uluum al hadith because it employs a less
rigorous methodology in collecting, analyzing, and accepting
information. The sources of ‘ilm al sirat are: the Holy Qur’an,
books of hadith, Arab poetry of that time, and special books of
sirat that were written.
Sciences of Fundamentals of Religion, 'uluum usul al ddiin
‘Ilm usul al ddiin (also ‘ilm al tauhid, ‘ilm al kalaam, & ‘ilm al
aqidat) deals with obligatory matters of the creed. The Islamic
creed is characterized by simplicity, realism, tolerance, and a
humane approach. It would not have required a separate
discipline were it nor for intellectual confusion that followed
Muslim contact with Greek philosophy and logic. The main
issues of ‘ulum usul al diin are: tauhid, shirk, and bid’at,
Sciences of the Law & its Fundamentals, uluum al fiqh wa
Fiqh is the knowledge of legal rules. Fiqh covers ibadat; civil
transactions, personal, criminal, judicial, constitutional,
international, and economic rulings. Usul al fiqh is principles
used by the mujtahid to reach a legal ruling using specific
evidence. The main sources of usul al fiqh are the Qur’an and
sunnat. It provides a methodological guideline for the mujtahid
so that he can pursue his analysis in a systematic and tried way.
It also lends credibility to the conclusions of the mujtahid
because people will know that he followed an established
methodology and was not following his personal whims or
fancies. Thus usul al fiqh helps people trust the conclusions of
the mujtahid.
Tarbiyyat ‘Ilmiyyat Qur’aniyyat
Basic Concepts
Basic concepts are the Qur’an, intellect, knowledge, fiqh,
thinking, innovation and creativity. The Qur’an is not a
textbook of science. It however contains many verses that train
the mind to observe, analyze, think and act in a scientific
manner. The Qur’anic stories have lessons, many scientific, for
those who understand. Intellect is correlated with signs and
with knowledge. Failure to use the intellect and blind following
are condemned. Knowledge is supreme. It removes blind
following. Human knowledge is limited. Knowledge is
acquired by study. Humans were ordained to read. Knowledge
by itself is not useful unless it is associated with work. The
Qur’an has used the term fiqh to refer to understanding which
is deeper than knowing. The Qur’an puts emphasis on thinking.
Thinking is based on empirical observation. The Qur’an
emphasizes freedom of thought in the form of freedom of
belief. Innovations in religion are prohibited but creativity is
Descriptive Knowledge
The Qur’an described mountains, the barrier between two
oceans, metal, the wind, plants, the sky, honey, and water. It
described the motion of the earth, the boats, the sun, the moon,
the water, and of the wind. It described processes such as
making of iron, armor, dams, and boats. It described the
creation of the human from dust. It describes the constant laws
of nature, sunan al laah fi al kawn. The laws are fixed and
stable and operate in various situations. Order is a law of
nature. Recording of observations is emphasized.
Analytic Knowledge
The Qur’an calls for evidence. It rejects false evidence and
condemns non evidence-based knowledge such as sorcery,
consulting fortune tellers, speculation or conjecture. Human
thought is a tool and not an end in itself. It operates on the
basis of empirical observations and revelation, both objective
sources of information, Thought that is not based on an
empirical basis or revelation is speculative and leads to wrong
conclusions. The Qur’an calls for objectivity. It condemns
following subjective feelings and turning away from the truth.
Reliance is on observation and not speculation. The Qur’an
calls upon humans to observe Allah’s signs in the universe and
in humans. The Qur’an however made it clear that human
senses have limitations. Rational thinking and logical
operations were described. In many prohibitions the Qur’an
provides logical reasons. The use of similitude, tashbiih, of two
things and phenomena is seen several verses. The Qur’an also
employed many examples, mithl, to illustrate concepts.
Prudence in reaching conclusions is emphasized.
Etiquette of Scientific Discourse
Questions can be for finding out information. The opposing
opinion should be respected. Differences on scientific matters
can arise and are natural. Discussion and exchange of views is
a necessity for humans. Discussion has its own etiquette. Truth
must be revealed. Contradictions must be avoided. Arrogance
is condemned. The following are attributes of good discussion:
objectivity, truthfulness, asking for evidence, and knowledge.
Purposeless disputation is frowned upon. False premises
should be abandoned once discovered Fear of people should be
no reason for not revealing the truth. Deception is condemned.
The truth of any assertion must be checked. Yaqeen is the basis
of ‘ilm but dhann is not.
Islamization of Knowledge: Concept & Practice
The Concept of Islamization:
Islamization is a process of recasting the corpus of human
knowledge to conform to the basic tenets of ‘aqidat al tauhid.
The process of Islamization does not call for re- invention of
the wheel of knowledge but calls for reform, correction, and re-
orientation. It is evolutionary and not revolutionary. It is
corrective and reformative. It is the first step in the islamization
and reform of the education system as a prelude to islamization
and reform of society.
History of Islamization
The 2-3rd centuries H witnessed a failed effort at Islamization
of knowledge. Greek scientific knowledge was transferred to
Muslims together with Greek philosophy and ideas that caused
confusions in ‘aqiidat. Greek science depended more on
philosophical deduction than experimentally-based induction.
It discouraged the scientific tarbiyat of the Qur’an which
emphasized observation of nature as a basis for conclusions.
The recent Islamisation movement towards the close of the 14 th
century H aimed at de-europeanizing education systems and
building an education system based on tauhid.
Reform of Disciplines:
Islamization has to start with reforming the epistemology,
methodology, and corpus of knowledge of each discipline. It
must be pro-active, academic, methodological, objective, and
practical. Its vision is objective, universal, and beneficial
knowledge in the context of a harmonious interaction of
humans with their physical, social, and spiritual environment.
Its practical mission is transformation of the paradigms,
methodologies, and uses of disciplines of knowledge to
conform to tauhid. Its immediate goals are: (a) de-
Europeanizing paradigms of existing disciplines to change
them from parochiality to universal objectivity, (b)
reconstruction of the paradigms using Islamic universal
guidelines, (c) re-classifying disciplines to reflect universal
tauhidi values, (d) reforming research methodology to become
objective, purposeful, and comprehensive (e) growth of
knowledge by research, and (f) inculcating morally correct
application of knowledge. The Qur’an gives general principles
that establish objectivity and protect against biased research
methodology. It creates a world-view that encourages research
to extend the frontiers of knowledge and its use for the benefit
of the whole universe. Scientists are encouraged to work within
these Qur’anic parameters to expand the frontiers of
knowledge through research, basic and applied.
Misunde rstanding the Reform Process
Islamization has been misunderstood as rejection of the corpus
of existing human knowledge and disciplines. It has been
misunderstood as creation of knowledge exclusive to Muslims.
It has been misconstrued as rewriting existing text-books to
reflect Islamic themes without deep thought about the
paradigms and methodology. It has also been confined to
spiritual reform of the student, scholar, or researcher. The
following superficial approaches to civilization have been tried
and failed: ‘Insertion’ of Qur’anic verses and hadiths in an
otherwise European piece of writing, searching for scientific
facts in the Qur’an, searching for Qur’anic proof of scientific
facts, establishing Qur’anic scientific miracles, searching for
parallels between Islamic and European concepts, using
Islamic in place of European terminologies, and adding
supplementary ideas to the European corpus of knowledge.
Practical Steps/Tasks of the Reform Process:
The first step is a good grounding in Islamic methodological
sciences of of usul al fiqh, ‘uluum al Qur’an, ulum al hadith,
and 'uluum al llughat. This is followed by reading the Qur’an
and sunnat with understanding of the changing time-space
dimensions. This is followed by clarification of basic
epistemological issues and relations: wahy and aql, ghaib and
shahada, ‘ilm and iman. This is followed by an Islamic critique
of basic paradigms, basic assumptions, and basic concepts of
various disciplines using criteria of Islamic methodology and
Islamic epistemology. Islamic reviews of existing text-books
and teaching materials are then undertaken to identify
deviations from the tauhidi episteme and the Islamic
methodology. The initial output of the islamization process will
be Islamic introductions to disciplines, muqaddimat al ‘uluum,
establishing basic Islamic principles and paradigms that
determine and regulate the methodology, content, and teaching
of disciplines. This parallels Ibn Khaldun’s Introduction to
History, muqaddimat presented generalizing and methodolo-
gical concepts on historical events. Publication and testing of
new text-books and other teaching materials is a necessary step
towards reform by putting into the hands of teachers and
students reformed material. Developing applied knowledge in
science and technology from basic knowledge will be the last
stage of the reform process. This is because in the end it is
science and technology that actually lead to changes in society.