Solar Silicon Wafers 125mm & 150mm Psuedo Squares

university wafer substrates

Silicon Wafer Improve Light Absorption

We propose the use of silicon wafers to improve light absorption and improve the conversion efficiency of silicon solar cells. The gap between the current state of the art in silicon photovoltaics and the next generation of solar cells has widened due to the success achieved in the development of highly efficient silicon PV cells in recent years.

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Thin Float Zone SIlicon for Solar Applications

Researchers have discovered that the thinner a silicon wafer is the more efficient.

Ask for Item#253540

 2” and 3” diameter, float-zone, Si(100), n-type 1-5 Ohm-cm 20 microns thick


Solar Wafers with PN Junction

Researchers asks: I was just wondering whether the “Solar” products have a PN junction already (i.e. product ID 2920). If not, do you stock any products with a PN junction?

UniversityWafer Answer:

1) For solar application, P/N junction is typically made with a diffusion process. We do have a diffusion facility capable of creating junctions on wafers with diameter up to 4". Please let us know if you are interested in going into the project on a smaller diameter wafers.

2) We also have Si wafers with P/N junctions created by silicon on silicon epitaxial deposition method. Please ask for our inventory.

Silicon Solar Wafer Availability

A researcher asked the following:

I want 4 inch silicon wafers p-doped to ~10^15-10^16 cm^-3. The doping concentration is a bit flexible as long as it's not above 10^18 cm^-3. We don't have a strict requirement of thickness but ~200 um would be better. But the top surface has to be heavily n-doped to form n+ emitter. This is the minimum requirement for our wafers. In addition, if it is possible to heavily p-dope the back surface of the wafer to form ohmic contact, that would be great as well. If this kind of wafer is readily available at University wafers, we would like to order quickly. If it is not readily available but possible to prepare within a few days, please let me know that as well. Depending on the price per wafer, we will order a few.

UniversityWafer Answer:

We offer:

Item   Qty.   Description
GX82. 25   Solar cell silicon wafers, per SEMI Prime, P/P 4"Ø×300±25µm,
                    P/B[100]±0.5°, Nc=(3.05-1.50)E15/cm³,  Ro=(5-10)Ohmcm,
                    With Diffused Phosphorus layer ~1 µm thick, of Nc=(3-10)E18/cm³,  Ro~(0.005-0.012)Ohmcm}
                    SEMI Flats (two),
                    Sealed in Empak or equivalent cassette,
                    Note: Please see the pictures for the surface after process.
Price: $ Please contact us.

Photo of the wafer after our diffusion process. We expect a similar surface now.

silicon wafer surface after diffusion process

Replacing N-Type With P-Type Wafers For Silicon Heterojunction Solar Cells

Silicon heterojunction solar cells (SHJ), which consist of N-silicon wafers (Cz), have aroused growing industrial interest. The low efficiencies can be achieved by using low-cost, high-efficiency silicon cells, and the cheap silicon can also be used to form SH J cells.

The work uses a Monte Carlo simulation approach that allows us to take into account uncertainties regarding the performance of different types of silicon wafers and their properties. We identify the most important factors influencing commercial comparison between wafer types.

N-type wafers achieve the same efficiency as SHJ solar cells with a different silicon wafer type. Our analysis suggests that the p-types of SHj solar cells should be at least twice as efficient as their n-types. This work represents a new approach to the production of SH-Joules per square centimeter (n - p) of SH-J cells from p- type wafer waves.

How Electrons Are Released in Solar Cells

Electrons are released in solar cells when light hits them. In a typical PV cell, the energy from the light falls on a silicon atom that is made up of three shells. The first two shells are completely full, while the outer shell has only half as many electrons. When the light hits the cell, the excited atoms flow into the holes, filling them with free-floating hydrogen ions. The movement of the holes and the free-floating ions causes the electrical current to flow, generating electricity. This process is known as the photovoltaic effect.

When light strikes a solar cell, the electrons are released into the air. These free electrons flow into the circuit, where they get energy from the photons. Once they have used all of their energy, they are released back into the cell and repeat the cycle. The energy in the cell is then transferred to an external load. The resulting voltage will be the output of the PV. A PV cell can produce electricity from the light it receives.

When the sun shines on a solar cell, the electrons in the cell are "knocked loose." These free electrons dart around the silicon layers, useless for electricity generation until they reach the junction between the two types of semiconductors. Once there, the electric field pushes the electrons upwards and slingshots them towards a metal conductor strip. A photon is converted into electricity when the light strikes the semiconductor.

To generate electricity, the electrons are released from the silicon cell. They move through a conductive wire and recombine with a hole in the p-type side. The remaining electrons in the n-type layer are transferred to an electrode connected to an external load. Once released, the solar cells become useful. It's important to understand that sunlight is an important source of energy for solar cells.

When the sun's light hits a solar cell, electrons are freed from the semiconductor. The electrons are free to move from one layer to another, which is why they can't be released from the same cell. This is because they seek out the lowest resistance and the most efficient path. Unlike in ordinary cells, the electrons of the solar cell have to cross through the entire circuit to reach the next layer.

In PV cells, electrons are released from the semiconductor material and travel through a metal conductive plate on both layers. The electrons leave the cell as an electric current, which can be used to power a load. This electrical current is released from where are electrons released in solar cells. The amount of electricity produced depends on the amount of sunlight. For example, if the cell is exposed to a bright light, it will release a negative charge.

An electrochemical process creates a current in a cell. An electron can move through the semiconductor by receiving photons. The photons that arrive in a silicon solar cell "excite" it and move into the conduction band. Then, the electron is released from its valence band and moves into the conduction band. This is a hole. When the electrons are free, they can move around freely, but they cannot exit the semiconductor.

As light hits a layered solar cell, electrons are free to move randomly. The electrons closest to the p-n junction cannot return in the opposite direction. The excess electrons flow in the n-layer and create a charge imbalance. However, the charge imbalance is corrected by releasing the electrons. Then, the energy is used in the home, the rest of the electric grid, and in a wide range of other applications.

Light strikes a layered cell, and electrons are free to move randomly in the space between the layers. Then, the light strikes a crystalline silicon molecule. An incoming electron has a certain amount of energy, which is called the band gap. This band gap is the place where the electrons travel. As light passes through the layered cell, it absorbs the energy. This makes the energy available in the n-layer.

What are Types of Solar Cell Wafers?

The solar cell is a semiconductor that can convert sunlight into electricity. The structure is made of a stack of solar cells with different band gaps. Each cell absorbs photons with the appropriate band gap. A solar cell that uses a thin film of a semiconductor can be a cheap way to generate power. The process is scalable and can be scaled up to commercially viable levels. However, it requires significant investment and technological know-how to reach its potential.

The most common type of solar cell is a monocrystalline silicon panel. These cells are types of solar silicon cellstypically composed of a single-crystal substance. This makes electrons move more freely. In addition, they have a distinctive pattern of small white diamonds. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor of 0.70, while grade B cells are usually between 0.4 and 0.7. A monocrystalline panel will have fewer internal losses than a multicrystalline panel.

Standard industrial silicon cells are capable of achieving higher efficiencies than other single-junction devices. These high-quality devices also offer better durability, with modules lasting for more than 25 years with little long-term degradation. Moreover, these panels are highly durable, with few signs of deterioration. They are also environmentally friendly, as they require no maintenance. And since the sun does not emit carbon dioxide or other pollutants, they can be a reliable source of energy.

While silicon is a very popular material for solar cells, there are many other materials that can be used in the construction of these panels. Besides silicon, perovskite is also a common alternative to silicon, especially for the manufacturing of solar cells. This material is characterized by low maintenance and easy installation. It is also a great alternative to traditional solar panels, as it is more durable and does not need regular maintenance. If you want to build a high-efficiency panel, you should look for a high-quality solar cell.

There are two kinds of silicon cells: n-type and p-type. The n-type silicon cells are positively-charged and are based on phosphorus. The n-type cell is the most efficient, as it achieves a high efficiency of up to 30%. Unlike p-type cells, n-type solar cells are highly expensive. For this reason, a crystalline silicon cell is much more expensive than a p-type one.

In the solar cell, a single solar cell has a surface area of about 256 square centimeters. A solar panel is made up of dozens of these cells. In a single solar panel, a single solar cell can contain hundreds of thousands of cells. This technology has been developing since 2009 and is a great option for home and commercial applications. A typical PV panel can produce over one megawatt of electricity per day.

One of the most common types of solar cells is made from n-type CZ silicon. These cells have an excellent surface passivation property and are often coated in a thin layer of silicon nitride. Some solar cells have textured front surfaces to increase the amount of light that reaches the wafer. The n-type silicon cells are most expensive. They need to be made of a material with a high fill factor.

The cost of solar cells varies greatly. Typical solar cells are very costly. In the long run, a PV system will be more affordable than the conventional method. If it's possible, consider a solar panel with n-type silicon for your home. The technology is more expensive but can provide electricity for years. It's also good for the environment, as it's free from harmful emissions. For more information, read Energy Basics

To make a solar cell, two layers of p-type silicon are placed side by side. The n-type silicon has an excess of electrons while the p-type has an excess of positively charged holes. The n-type solar cell has more electrons. A p-type solar cell has a low fill factor. Thus, it has a higher fill factor. The higher the fill factor, the more stable it is.

Graphene aerogel is also a component of solar cells. It is added to the hole transport layer under the perovskite absorber layer to act as a moisture barrier. This improves the conversion efficiency. The n-type solar cell also features a surface-textured surface. It is very similar to the monocrystalline version. So, the only difference is the shape. There is no crystalline structure in the polycrystalline ones.

Solar Silicon Wafers

Summary of Solar Cell Production, and Limiting Efficiency of Silicon Solar Cell

Limiting Efficiency

It has been well established that the limiting efficiency of single crystals falls at about 29% [Swanson] this limit was established in the seminal work by Tiedje. In figure 1 we can see this limiting efficiency as a function of solar cell thickness. In this diagram, the peak efficiency is shown to be 29% with a thickness of just under 100µm.

Typical production solar cells achieve about 20% efficiency, while the best laboratory efforts have achieved about 25% [Swanson]. Green provides an excellent summary of the current progress of high-efficiency single-crystal silicon solar cells, and reconfirms the 29% limit established by Tiedje.

Production Process.

The process of manufacturing solar cells from single crystal p-type silicon wafers is detailed below.  This is the generalized method used based on a number of sources. It should be noted that different companies have different patented, and trade secret processes for each of these steps, but the steps remain the same.


After an initial cleaning procedure, the wafer is textured to create pyramid-like structures on the surface of the silicon. This causes incoming sunlight reflected off of one pyramid to bounce into other pyramids on the surface improving the overall sunlight absorption rate.

N doping (usually Phosphorous):

A variety of methods are used to dope the top surface of the P-type wafer to create N-type regions. This process (typically gas diffusion in a high-heat furnace) creates the critical p-n junction which forms the permanent electrical field.

Edge diffusion cleaning:

The doping process causes the phosphorous dopant to diffuse to the edges of the wafer, if this excess dopant was allowed to remain it would cause short circuiting between the positive and negative contacts of the solar cell. The excess dopant is removed by an acid-etching procedure.

Anti-reflective coating

The wafer is then given an anti-reflective coating, usually silicon nitride, to improve absorption.

 Screen printing of front and rear surface contacts

In the final step of the production process, front and rear surface contacts are screen printed onto the surface of the wafer to create the positive and negative contacts of the solar cell. The solar cells are then ready to be wired together to create solar panels.


1.) Tiedje et al; Limiting Efficiency of Silicon Solar Cells:

2.) M.A Green; Progress and outlook for high-efficiency crystalline silicon solar cells

3.) Swanson, R.M; Approaching the 29% limit efficiency of silicon solar cells

4.) Solar Cell production process

5.) Solar cell production video:

6.) Solar Cell production video:

156 Mono Solar Cells

We have the following 156.75mm x 156.75mm +/-0.25mm substrates.

Dimension 156.75mm x 156.75mm + 0.25mm
Diagonal 210mm + 0.5mm (Round Chamfers)
Thickness 200um + 20um
Front Anisotropically texturized surface and dark silicon nitride anti-reflection coatings
  0.7mm silver busbars
Back local aluminum back-surface field
  1.7mm (silver/aluminum) discontinuous solderng pads
156mm x 156mm mono solar cell
monocrystalline solar wafer specs
mono crystal solar cell drawing
Production and Quality Control
Precision cell efficiency sorting procedures
Stringent criteria for color uniformity and appearance
Reverse current and shunt resistance screening
ISO9001, ISO14001, and OHSAS 18001 certificated
Calibrated against Fraunhofer ISE
Electrical Performance
Efficiency Code 216 215 214 213 212 211
Efficiency 21.6 21.5 21.4 21.3 21.2 21.1
  5.28 5.25 5.23 5.2 5.18 5.16
Max. Power Current 9.29 9.26 9.24 9.22 9.2 9.19
  9.76 9.73 9.72 9.69 9.67 9.66
Max. Power Voltage 0.568 0.567 0.566 0.564 0.563 0.562
  0.667 0.666 0.665 0.664 0.663 0.682
Efficiency Code 210 209 208 206 204 202
Efficiency 21 20.9 20.8 20.6 20.4 20.2
Power 5.13 5.11 5.06 5.03 4.98 4.94
Max Power Current 9.16 9.14 9.12 9.07 9.03 8.99
Short Circuit Current 9.64 9.62 9.6 9.56 9.52 9.49
Max Power Voltage 0.56 0.559 0.557 0.555 0.552 0.55
Open Circuit Voltage 0.661 0.66 0.658 0.656 0.654 0.652
Temperature Coefficients
Current Temp Coefficients 0.04%/C
Voltage Temp Coefficients -0.32%/C
Power Temp Coefficients -0.42%/C

Creating Junctions on Silicon Wafers

UniversityWafer, Inc. and partners have a diffusion facility capable of creating junctions on wafers.

A researcher client asks the following:

We would appreciate if you would send a quote for 3 x 100 mm CZ single-side polished Si p-type (Boron doped) wafers with a Phosphorous diffusion forming a junction. Additional specs provided upon request.

UniversityWafer, Inc. Quoted:


Contact us for pricing