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search for a random nonce
that once hashed with the digest of the block header generates
a hash of a predefined number of leading zeros (see details
in Section III). This hard "work" has two main roles. The
first is to stand as a Proof of Work to generate, i.e., mine,
Bitcoins as a reward to miners for maintaining the blockchain
and verifying the protocol's correctness. The second is to
tune the rate of creating blocks by forcing a global consensus
through periodically calibrating the hardness of th | [
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search for a random nonce
that once hashed with the digest of the block header generates
a hash of a predefined number of leading zeros (see details
in Section III). This hard "work" has two main roles. The
first is to stand as a Proof of Work to generate, i.e., mine,
Bitcoins as a reward to miners for maintaining the blockchain
and verifying the protocol's correctness. The second is to
tune the rate of creating blocks by forcing a global consensus
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e puzzle β
by simply changing the required number of leading zeros in
the hash. The rate of Bitcoin's block creation is usually tuned
to around six blocks per hour.
The interesting properties of Bitcoin's PoW, i.e., being hard
to solve and easy to verify (among others discussed next),
come at the price of high computation demands, reflected
as a steep energy consumption similar to the electricity con-
sumption of entire countries [38], [14]. Consequently, despite
the essential guarantees that Bit | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 602 |
coin's PoW provides, like
security and maintaining the blockchain, many researchers
consider finding the nonce a waste of energy being "useless".
This motivated more sustainable alternatives like Proof of
Stake [30], Proof of Activity [6], Proof of Retrievability [35],
and Proofs of Useful Work [5].
III. BITCOIN'S POW PROPERTIES AND CHALLENGES
The several attempts to make the hash-based PoW in [30],
[6], [35], [5], [33], [42] were either limited to a narrow
range of concrete "useful work" or intro | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 603 |
coin's PoW provides, like
security and maintaining the blockchain, many researchers
consider finding the nonce a waste of energy being "useless".
This motivated more sustainable alternatives like Proof of
Stake [30], Proof of Activity [6], Proof of Retrievability [35],
and Proofs of Useful Work [5].
III. BITCOIN'S POW PROPERTIES AND CHALLENGES
The several attempts to make the hash-based PoW in [30],
[6], [35], [5], [33], [42] were either limited to a narrow
range of concrete "useful work" or intro | [
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duced new undesired
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and efficient way, keeping the challenges somehow close to
those of the current Bitcoin's hash-based PoW (follow next).
Indeed, addressing concrete scientific problems incurs new
significant challenges β that are not thoroughly studied by the
community β like efficiency, commitment, anonymity, etc.,
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 605 |
duced new undesired
properties. Importantly, the proposed solutions are often based
on meta-data that may be retrieved from the system in a secure
and efficient way, keeping the challenges somehow close to
those of the current Bitcoin's hash-based PoW (follow next).
Indeed, addressing concrete scientific problems incurs new
significant challenges β that are not thoroughly studied by the
community β like efficiency, commitment, anonymity, etc.,
which require non-trivial solutions and trade-offs. To | [
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identify
these challenges and address them, we need a reference
baseline properties to compare against. Since we are unaware
of such a comprehensive study, we found it intuitive to first
analyze the properties of Bitcoin's PoW first, and try to meet
them in our solution (in the following sections).
To analyze the properties of current hash-based PoW in
Bitcoin, we need to understand the structure and the role of
PoW in more details. As described in Section II, the miner
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"/"
] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 607 |
identify
these challenges and address them, we need a reference
baseline properties to compare against. Since we are unaware
of such a comprehensive study, we found it intuitive to first
analyze the properties of Bitcoin's PoW first, and try to meet
them in our solution (in the following sections).
To analyze the properties of current hash-based PoW in
Bitcoin, we need to understand the structure and the role of
PoW in more details. As described in Section II, the miner
collects the transactions | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 609 |
random n β N such that:
HBh(n) = SHA-256
2(Bh | n) β€ Ο
where H is a SHA-256 [52] hashing function that once
applied twice to the concatenation of Bh with the nonce n,
returns a positive integer not greater than a predefined target
Ο . The role of the miner is to find the nonce n that satisfies
this inequation, which leads to the first property:
(P1) Puzzle Hardness Solving the puzzle must have a notion
of hardness that manifests in the PoW itself.
Hardness in PoW is crucial for security reasons: it | [
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] | Sustainable blockchain through proof of exercise | 610 |
deters
the adversary from constructing new blocks to possibly incur
conflicting transactions and succeed in double spending. In
Bitcoin, the creation of a block (i.e., solving the puzzle) is
rewarded by Bitcoins, which is believed to be an incentive for
an adversary to solve the puzzle and provide the corresponding
PoW, rather than attacking the system. Therefore, the hardness
must be reflected in the PoW.
Indeed, cryptographic hashing is interesting as the inverse
function Hβ1Bh does not exist. | [
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Consequently, to find the nonce
n, miners keep incrementing it until the function HBh(n) β€ Ο
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bits) integer in Bitcoin, the possible values of n are 2256
which is an extremely huge number to cover in a short time.
(Given the current difficulty Ο β 1012, specialized hardware
having a hash rate of Terahashs/s [51] need several years to
solve the puzzle [50].) Despite the fact that this randomness
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a single
miner will not often succeed in solving the puzzle in 10
minutes, which is the typical maintained time to create a
new block by the entire network β and thus the miner
has to restart the process from scratch as Bh will change.
Maintaining this time frame is guaranteed by modifying Ο ;
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Proof-of-Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource-Constrained Distributed Systems
Proof-of-Authentication for Scalable Blockchain inResource-Constrained Distributed Systems
Deepak Puthal β, Saraju P. Mohanty β , Priyadarsi Nanda β, Elias Kougianos β‘, and Gautam Das Β§β Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Email: {Deepak.Puthal, Priyadarsi.Nanda} @ uts.edu.auβ Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, USA
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 614 |
Proof-of-Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource-Constrained Distributed Systems
Proof-of-Authentication for Scalable Blockchain inResource-Constrained Distributed Systems
Deepak Puthal β, Saraju P. Mohanty β , Priyadarsi Nanda β, Elias Kougianos β‘, and Gautam Das Β§β Faculty of Engineering and Information Technologies, University of Technology Sydney, Australia
Email: {Deepak.Puthal, Priyadarsi.Nanda} @ uts.edu.auβ Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of North Texas, USA
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 615 |
mail: {Saraju.Mohanty} @ unt.eduβ‘ Department of Engineering Technology, University of North Texas, USA
Email: {Elias.Kougianos} @ unt.edu§ Department of Computer Science and Engineering, The University of Texas at Arlington, USA
Email: gdas @ uta.edu
Abstract β Resource -constrained distributed systems such asthe Internet of Things (IoT), edge computing and fog computingare deployed for real-time monitoring and evaluation. Currentsecurity solutions are problematic when there is a centralizedcontrolling en | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 616 |
tity. The blockchain provides decentralized securityarchitectures using proof-of-work (PoW). Proof-of-work is anexpensive process for IoT and edge computing due to the deploy-ment of resource-constrained devices. This paper presents a novelconsensus algorithm called Proof-of-Authentication (PoAh) toreplace Proof-of-Work and introduce authentication in such envi-ronments to make the blockchain application-specific. This paperimplemented the Proof-of-Authentication system to evaluate itssustainability and a | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 617 |
tity. The blockchain provides decentralized securityarchitectures using proof-of-work (PoW). Proof-of-work is anexpensive process for IoT and edge computing due to the deploy-ment of resource-constrained devices. This paper presents a novelconsensus algorithm called Proof-of-Authentication (PoAh) toreplace Proof-of-Work and introduce authentication in such envi-ronments to make the blockchain application-specific. This paperimplemented the Proof-of-Authentication system to evaluate itssustainability and a | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 618 |
pplicability for the IoT and edge computing.The evaluation process is conducted in both simulation andreal-time testbeds to evaluate performance. Finally, the processof Proof-of-Authentication and its integration with blockchainin resource-constrained distributed systems is discussed. Ourproposed PoAh, while running in limited computer resources(e.g. single-board computing devices like the Raspberry Pi) hasa latency in the order of 3 secs.
Index Terms β Blockchain, Consensus Algorithm, Proof-of-Work, Proo | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 619 |
pplicability for the IoT and edge computing.The evaluation process is conducted in both simulation andreal-time testbeds to evaluate performance. Finally, the processof Proof-of-Authentication and its integration with blockchainin resource-constrained distributed systems is discussed. Ourproposed PoAh, while running in limited computer resources(e.g. single-board computing devices like the Raspberry Pi) hasa latency in the order of 3 secs.
Index Terms β Blockchain, Consensus Algorithm, Proof-of-Work, Proo | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 620 |
f-of-Authentication, Internet of Things (IoT), Re-source constrained distributed systems
I. INTRODUCTION
The Internet of Things (IoT) is a collection of "Things"
that can communicate and share information between different
applications to achieve certain goals. The IoT follows different
communications management than the TCP / IP stack, where
things follow an Identity Management Protocol to become
identified devices during data collection [1]. The IoT operates
at the lower lever of data collection and pr | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 621 |
ocessing as shown in
Figure 1. The IoT combines the sensing layer and middleware
for efficient data collection and transmission, while data is also
transmitted to a higher layer (Edge Layer) for near real-time
data processing [2]. The edge layer includes a large number
of edge datacenters (EDC) and EDCs are distributed in nature
without central dependencies. This edge deployment makes
the IoT deployment sustainable by processing emergency data
in the edge layer [3].
IoT
Edge
Cloud Data Processing
Figure 1 | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 622 |
. Multi-layer architecture of resource-constrained distributed systems.
The combination of IoT and EDCs forms a distributed envi-
ronment with resource-constrained devices. Security becomes
a key requirement for these mission critical environments.
Several security solutions involving cryptography exist for
IoT and similar applications [4] [5]. Cryptographic solutions
are broadly divided into two types: asymmetric cryptography
and symmetric cryptography. Symmetric cryptography is ap-
proximately 1000 time | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 623 |
. Multi-layer architecture of resource-constrained distributed systems.
The combination of IoT and EDCs forms a distributed envi-
ronment with resource-constrained devices. Security becomes
a key requirement for these mission critical environments.
Several security solutions involving cryptography exist for
IoT and similar applications [4] [5]. Cryptographic solutions
are broadly divided into two types: asymmetric cryptography
and symmetric cryptography. Symmetric cryptography is ap-
proximately 1000 time | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 624 |
s faster than asymmetric cryptography,
and therefore symmetric cryptography is widely accepted for
IoT infrastructure [6]. The IoT is a large part of resource-
constrained distributed systems, so it also adopts symmetric
cryptosystem for encryption and decryption. In either case,
there is always a central entity to initialize or process these
security mechanisms, i.e. a Key Distribution Center (KDC) for
symmetric cryptography and a Certificate Authority (CA) for
asymmetric cryptography. As a result, a sin | [
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] | Proof of Authentication for Scalable Blockchain in Resource Constrained Distributed Systems | 625 |
gle-point failure
may lead to a compromise of the whole system. There is al-
ways demand of decentralized security solutions for distributed
systems, and the blockchain is presently a widely accepted
decentralized security solution.
In a change in outlook, the blockchain disposes of the
requirement for any central entity between various users
executing data and financial transmissions by utilizing an
immutable, simple and decentralized public ledger. This pub-
lic ledger is distributed in nature, where | [
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NEM
Technical Reference
Version 1.2.1
February 23, 2018
Contents
Preface iii
1 Introduction 1
2 Accounts and Addresses 2
2.1 Account state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 NEM addresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Converting a public key into an address . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Intentional address collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3 Cryptography 7
3.1 Private and | [
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] | NEM White paper | 628 |
public key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Signing and verification of a signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Encoding and decoding messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Transactions 10
4.1 Transfer transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Importance transfer transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Activating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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] | NEM White paper | 629 |
public key . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Signing and verification of a signature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.3 Encoding and decoding messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4 Transactions 10
4.1 Transfer transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
4.2 Importance transfer transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.2.1 Activating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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. . . . . 11
4.2.2 Deactivating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Multisig related transaction types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.1 Aggregate modification transactions (multisig modification) . . . . 12
4.3.2 Multisig signature transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.3 Multisig transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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"."
] | NEM White paper | 631 |
. . . . . 11
4.2.2 Deactivating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3 Multisig related transaction types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
4.3.1 Aggregate modification transactions (multisig modification) . . . . 12
4.3.2 Multisig signature transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.3.3 Multisig transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.4 Unconfirmed transactions (spam filter) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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] | NEM White paper | 632 |
. 13
5 Blocks and the block chain 16
5.1 Block difficulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Block score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Block creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.4 Block chain synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 A reputation system for nodes 21
6.1 Node interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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] | NEM White paper | 633 |
. 13
5 Blocks and the block chain 16
5.1 Block difficulty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Block score . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.3 Block creation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5.4 Block chain synchronization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6 A reputation system for nodes 21
6.1 Node interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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".",
".",
".",
".",
"51",
"9",
".",
"4",
"No",
"##de",
"Selection",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
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".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
".",
"51",
"Pre",
"##face",
"\"",
"You",
"miss",
"100",
"%",
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"the",
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"don",
"'",
"t",
"take",
".",
"\"",
"-",
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"G",
"##ret",
"##z",
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"##M",
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"decent",
"##ral",
"##ization",
",",
"financial",
"freedom",
",",
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".",
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"like",
"to",
"thank",
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"contributors",
"and",
"the",
"many",
"people",
"who",
"have",
"inspired",
"us",
".",
".",
".",
"Bloody",
"##R",
"##ook",
"##ie",
"g",
"##im",
"##re",
"Jaguar",
"##0",
"##6",
"##25",
"Ma",
"##koto",
"1",
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"\"",
"He",
"'",
"d",
"say",
"hello",
"and",
"introduce",
"himself",
",",
"but",
"most",
"of",
"the",
"cats",
"turned",
"a",
"deaf",
"ear",
",",
"pretending",
"they",
"couldn",
"'",
"t",
"hear",
"him",
",",
"or",
"stare",
"right",
"through",
"him",
".",
"\"",
"-",
"Ha",
"##ruk",
"##i",
"Mu",
"##rak",
"##ami",
"N",
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"##M",
",",
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"form",
",",
"is",
"a",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##o",
"currency",
"that",
"is",
"built",
"on",
"block",
"chain",
"technology",
".",
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"NE",
"##M",
"block",
"chain",
"is",
"an",
"improvement",
"on",
"existing",
"block",
"chain",
"technologies",
".",
"It",
"integrate",
"##s",
"concepts",
"from",
"other",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##oc",
"##ur",
"##ren",
"##cies",
"(",
"e",
".",
"g",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
")",
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"academic",
"research",
"in",
"network",
"theory",
".",
"NE",
"##M",
"'",
"s",
"primary",
"contribution",
"to",
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"cry",
"##pt",
"##o",
"currency",
"landscape",
"is",
"a",
"new",
"consensus",
"me",
"##ch",
"-",
"an",
"##ism",
"called",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"I",
"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
"(",
"Po",
"##I",
")",
".",
"Unlike",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
"(",
"Po",
"##W",
")",
",",
"it",
"is",
"en",
"##vir",
"##on",
"##men",
"-",
"tally",
"sustainable",
"and",
"does",
"not",
"require",
"large",
"scale",
"computing",
"resources",
"in",
"per",
"##pet",
"##uity",
".",
"Po",
"##I",
"is",
"similar",
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"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"St",
"##ake",
"(",
"Po",
"##S",
")",
"except",
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"it",
"is",
"not",
"solely",
"derived",
"from",
"the",
"size",
"of",
"an",
"account",
"'",
"s",
"balance",
".",
"It",
"incorporates",
"other",
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"that"
] | NEM White paper | 634 |
. . . . 21
6.2 Local trust value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Aggregating local trust values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 Enhancing the algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5 Benefits of the reputation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Proof-of-Importance 26
7.1 Eligibility for Entering the Importance Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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"##M",
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] | NEM White paper | 635 |
. . . . 21
6.2 Local trust value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3 Aggregating local trust values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
6.4 Enhancing the algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6.5 Benefits of the reputation system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
7 Proof-of-Importance 26
7.1 Eligibility for Entering the Importance Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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] | NEM White paper | 636 |
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3 NCDawareRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4 Clustering the transaction graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.5 Calculating Importance Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.6 Resistance to Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.6.1 Sybil Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.6.2 Loop Attack . . . . | [
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
7.3 NCDawareRank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7.4 Clustering the transaction graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.5 Calculating Importance Scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.6 Resistance to Manipulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.6.1 Sybil Attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.6.2 Loop Attack . . . . | [
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.7 Nothing-at-Stake Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.8 Comparing importance to stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8 Time synchronization 44
8.1 Gathering samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.2 Applying filters to remove bad data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.7 Nothing-at-Stake Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.8 Comparing importance to stake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
8 Time synchronization 44
8.1 Gathering samples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.2 Applying filters to remove bad data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.3 Calculation of the effective offset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . | [
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. . . 46
8.4 Coupling and threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9 Network 49
9.1 Node Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.2 Node Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.3 Node Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.3.1 Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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] | NEM White paper | 641 |
. . . 46
8.4 Coupling and threshold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
9 Network 49
9.1 Node Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
9.2 Node Startup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.3 Node Discovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
9.3.1 Announcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
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"-"
] | NEM White paper | 642 |
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.4 Node Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Preface
" You miss 100% of the shots you don't take. "- Wayne Gretzky
NEM is a movement that aims to empower individuals by creating a new economy based
on the principles of decentralization, financial freedom, and equality of opportunity.
We would like to thank the contributors and the many people who have inspired us. . .
BloodyRookie gimre Jaguar0625 Makoto
1 Introduction
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. . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
9.4 Node Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Preface
" You miss 100% of the shots you don't take. "- Wayne Gretzky
NEM is a movement that aims to empower individuals by creating a new economy based
on the principles of decentralization, financial freedom, and equality of opportunity.
We would like to thank the contributors and the many people who have inspired us. . .
BloodyRookie gimre Jaguar0625 Makoto
1 Introduction
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] | NEM White paper | 644 |
e'd say hello and introduce himself, but most of the cats turned a deaf ear,pretending they couldn't hear him, or stare right through him. "- Haruki Murakami
N
EM, in its most basic form, is a crypto currency that is built on block chain
technology. The NEM block chain is an improvement on existing block
chain technologies. It integrates concepts from other cryptocurrencies (e.g.
Bitcoin) and academic research in network theory.
NEM's primary contribution to the crypto currency landscape is a new consen | [
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] | NEM White paper | 645 |
e'd say hello and introduce himself, but most of the cats turned a deaf ear,pretending they couldn't hear him, or stare right through him. "- Haruki Murakami
N
EM, in its most basic form, is a crypto currency that is built on block chain
technology. The NEM block chain is an improvement on existing block
chain technologies. It integrates concepts from other cryptocurrencies (e.g.
Bitcoin) and academic research in network theory.
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] | NEM White paper | 646 |
sus mech-
anism called Proof of Importance (PoI). Unlike Proof of Work (PoW), it is environmen-
tally sustainable and does not require large scale computing resources in perpetuity. PoI
is similar to Proof of Stake (PoS) except that it is not solely derived from the size of an
account's balance. It incorporates other behaviors that are believed to be positive for the
holistic economy. In this way, it attempts to reward active economy participants at the
expense of inactive ones and dampens the rich gettin | [
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] | NEM White paper | 647 |
g richer effect that is inherent to
PoS.
NEM's vision is to be the foundation of a vibrant crypto currency ecosystem that
emphasizes security and trustless computing. NEM was launched with built-in support
for multisig transactions and encrypted messages. Additionally, the peer-to-peer (P2P)
NEM network implements a modified version of Eigentrust++ to identify and minimize
the impact of malicious nodes.
NEM is evolving and this is just the beginning. Stay tuned for more things to come.
Page 1 of 54
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] | NEM White paper | 648 |
g richer effect that is inherent to
PoS.
NEM's vision is to be the foundation of a vibrant crypto currency ecosystem that
emphasizes security and trustless computing. NEM was launched with built-in support
for multisig transactions and encrypted messages. Additionally, the peer-to-peer (P2P)
NEM network implements a modified version of Eigentrust++ to identify and minimize
the impact of malicious nodes.
NEM is evolving and this is just the beginning. Stay tuned for more things to come.
Page 1 of 54
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] | NEM White paper | 649 |
2 Accounts and Addresses
" No wind serves him who addresses his voyage to no certain port. "- Michel de Montaigne
N
EM uses elliptic curve cryptography to ensure confidentiality, authenticity
and non-repudiability of all transactions. Each account is a private+public
Ed25519 keypair (section 3: Cryptography) and is associated with a mutable
state that is updated when transactions are accepted by the network. Ac-
counts are identified by NEM addresses, which are derived in part from one way mutations
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] | NEM White paper | 650 |
Ed25519 public keys.
2.1 Account state
The state associated with each account includes the following items:
β’ account balance
β’ number of harvested blocks (see subsection 5.3: Block creation)
β’ height of the first transaction that referenced the account
β’ list of multisig accounts and list of cosignatories (see subsection 4.3: Multisig related
transaction types)
β’ information about delegated account status (see subsection 4.2: Importance transfer
transactions)
β’ importance and NCD aware rank (see | [
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"is",
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"##firmed",
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"as",
"(",
"s",
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"##con",
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".",
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":",
"β’",
"Consider",
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"β’",
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"less",
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"120",
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",",
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"-",
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".",
"Figure",
"3",
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"as",
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"very",
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".",
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"his",
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"fees",
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"ex",
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"##d",
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"a",
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"rate",
".",
"Page",
"14",
"of",
"54",
"100",
"200",
"300",
"400",
"500",
"600",
"700",
"800",
"900",
"1",
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"0",
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"15",
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"54",
"5",
"Block",
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"\"",
"If",
"ever",
"I",
"to",
"the",
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"shall",
"say",
":",
"Beautiful",
"moment",
",",
"do",
"not",
"pass",
"away",
"!",
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"you",
"may",
"forge",
"your",
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"to",
"bind",
"me",
",",
"\"",
"-",
"Johann",
"Wolfgang",
"von",
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"T",
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"##o",
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"a",
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"blocks",
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".",
"Each",
"NE",
"##M",
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"contain",
"up",
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"120",
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".",
"Since",
"the",
"blocks",
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"chain",
"and",
"the",
"transactions",
"in",
"the",
"blocks",
"are",
"ordered",
",",
"the",
"complete",
"transaction",
"history",
"is",
"held",
"in",
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"block",
"chain",
".",
"Block",
"##s",
"are",
"stored",
"in",
"a",
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"as",
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"NE",
"##M",
"calls",
"the",
"first",
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"the",
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"##is",
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".",
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"1",
".",
"the",
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"version",
"2",
".",
"the",
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"stamp",
"3",
".",
"the",
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"key",
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"##er",
"(",
"block",
"creator",
")",
"4"
] | NEM White paper | 651 |
section 7: Proof-of-Importance)
β’ vested balance (crucial for PoI and NEM itself)
The underlying crypto currency of the NEM network is called XEM. Each account's
XEM balance is split into two parts: vested and unvested.
Whenever an account receives XEM, the new XEM are added to the account's unvested
balance. When an account sends XEM, XEMs are taken from both the vested and the
unvested balance, to retain the vested to unvested ratio1. Additionally, every 1440 blocks,
1
10 of the unvested balance is | [
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"(",
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"3",
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"The",
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"is",
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".",
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] | NEM White paper | 652 |
section 7: Proof-of-Importance)
β’ vested balance (crucial for PoI and NEM itself)
The underlying crypto currency of the NEM network is called XEM. Each account's
XEM balance is split into two parts: vested and unvested.
Whenever an account receives XEM, the new XEM are added to the account's unvested
balance. When an account sends XEM, XEMs are taken from both the vested and the
unvested balance, to retain the vested to unvested ratio1. Additionally, every 1440 blocks,
1
10 of the unvested balance is | [
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] | NEM White paper | 653 |
moved to the vested part.
1Of course that is not always possible
Page 2 of 54
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
10,000
20,000
30,000
40,000
50,000
60,000
70,000
80,000
90,000
days
ve
st
ed
pa
rt
Figure 1: Vesting of 100,000 XEM
All accounts in the nemesis block2 are fully vested.
2.2 NEM addresses
A NEM address is a base-323 encoded triplet consisting of:
β’ network byte
β’ 160-bit hash of the account's public key
β’ 4 byte checksum
The checksum allows for quick recognition of mistyped | [
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"("
] | NEM White paper | 654 |
addresses. It is possible to send
XEM to any valid address even if the address has not previously participated in any
2first block in the NEM block chain
3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32
Page 3 of 54
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32
transaction. If nobody owns the private key of the account to which the XEM is sent, the
XEM is most likely lost forever.
2.3 Converting a public key into an address
In order to convert a public key to an address, the following steps are performed:
1. Perform 2 | [
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] | NEM White paper | 655 |
addresses. It is possible to send
XEM to any valid address even if the address has not previously participated in any
2first block in the NEM block chain
3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32
Page 3 of 54
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base32
transaction. If nobody owns the private key of the account to which the XEM is sent, the
XEM is most likely lost forever.
2.3 Converting a public key into an address
In order to convert a public key to an address, the following steps are performed:
1. Perform 2 | [
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56-bit Sha3 on the public key
2. Perform 160-bit Ripemd of hash resulting from step 1.
3. Prepend version byte to Ripemd hash (either 0x68 or 0x98)
4. Perform 256-bit Sha3 on the result, take the first four bytes as a checksum
5. Concatenate output of step 3 and the checksum from step 4
6. Encode result using base32
Example:
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Y: 169318abc3e5b002059a396d4cf1c3d35ba022c675b15fb1c4943f7662eef268
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] | NEM White paper | 659 |
ure 2: Address generation
Page 5 of 54
2.4 Intentional address collision
It is possible that two different public keys will yield the same address. If such an address
contains XEM it would be possible for an attacker to withdraw funds from such account.
In order for the attack to succeed, the attacker would need to find a private+public
keypair such that the sha3 256 of the public key would at the same time be equal to the
ripemd-160 preimage of 160-bit hash mentioned above. Since sha3 256 offers 12 | [
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"and",
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")",
".",
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"##M",
",",
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".",
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"##ol",
"-",
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"##y",
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"can",
"be",
"used",
"as",
"an",
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"the",
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".",
"The",
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"used",
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"a",
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".",
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"[",
"11",
"]",
",",
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"[",
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"]",
",",
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".",
"7",
".",
"1",
"Eli",
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"##bility",
"for",
"En",
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"the",
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"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
"Cal",
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",",
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",",
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"vest",
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"X",
"##EM",
".",
"All",
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"X",
"##EM",
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"99",
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",",
"99",
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"##EM",
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"-",
"zero",
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"89",
"##9",
",",
"99",
"##9",
".",
"In",
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",",
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"-",
"zero",
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"##qua",
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"X",
"##EM",
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"costs",
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"##ing",
".",
"If",
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"##M",
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",",
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",",
"this",
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"via",
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"fork",
",",
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"adjusting",
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"fees",
"and",
"other",
"parameters",
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".",
"Page",
"26",
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"54",
"7",
".",
"2",
"The",
"out",
"##link",
"matrix",
"Su",
"##pp",
"##ose",
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".",
"For",
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"NE",
"##M",
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"the"
] | NEM White paper | 660 |
8 bits of
security, it's mathematically improbable for a single sha3 256 collision to be found. Due
to similarities between NEM addresses and Bitcoin addresses, the probability of causing a
NEM address collision is roughly the same as that of causing a Bitcoin address collision.
Page 6 of 54
3 Cryptography
" I understood the importance in principle of public key cryptography but it'sall moved much faster than I expected. I did not expect it to be a mainstay
of advanced communications technology. "- W | [
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hitfield Diffie
B
lock chain technology demands the use of some cryptographic concepts.
NEM, like many other crypto currencies, is using cryptography based on
Elliptic Curve Cryptography. The choice of the underlying curve is impor-
tant in order to guarantee security and speed.
NEM has chosen to use the Twisted Edwards curve:
βx2 + y2 = 1β
121665
121666
x2y2
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. J. Bernstein et al. and is one
of the safest and fastest digital signature algorithms [2].
The base point for the corresponding group G is called B. The group has q = 2252 β
27742317777372353535851937790883648493 elements. Every group element A can be en-
coded into a 256 bit integer A which can also be interpreted as 256-bit string and A can
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For the hash function H mentioned in the paper, NEM uses the 512 bit SHA3 hash
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lic key
The private key is a random 256-bit integer k. To derive the public key A from it, the
following steps are taken:
H(k) = (h0, h1, ..., h511) (1)
a = 2254 +
β
3β€iβ€253
2ihi (2)
A = aB (3)
Since A is a group element it can be encoded into a 256-bit integer A which serves as the
public key.
Page 7 of 54
3.2 Signing and verification of a signature
Given a message M , private key k and its associated public key A, the following steps are
taken to create a signature:
H(k) = (h0, h1, ..., h511 | [
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) (4)
r = H(h256, ..., h511,M) where the comma means concatenation. (5)
R = rB (6)
S = (r +H(R,A,M)a)mod q (7)
Then (R, S) is the signature for the message M under the private key k. Note that
only signatures where S < q and S > 0 are considered as valid to prevent the problem
of signature malleability.
To verify the signature (R, S) for the given message M and public key A one checks
S < q and S > 0 and then calculates
RΜ = SB βH(R,A,M)A
and verifies that
RΜ = R (8)
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"0",
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"of"
] | NEM White paper | 665 |
then
SB = rB + (H(R,A,M)a)B = R +H(R,A,M)A
so (8) will hold.
3.3 Encoding and decoding messages
NEM uses Bouncy Castle's AES block cipher implementation in CBC mode4 to encrypt
and decrypt messages.
If Alice has the private key kA and wants to encrypt a message for Bob who has the
public key AB (with corresponding group element AB) then the shared secret used when
setting up the cipher is calculated as follows:
aA is computed from kA according to (2)
salt = 32 random bytes
G = aAAB
shared secret = | [
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HΜ(G Y salt)
4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation#CBC
Page 8 of 54
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation#CBC
where HΜ is the 256-bit SHA3 hash function.
Another 16 random bytes are used as IV data. Thus, the encrypted message payload
consists of
1. the salt
2. the IV data
3. the encrypted message block
Decryption works in a similar manner. Bob has to know Alice's public key AA (and his
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] | NEM White paper | 667 |
HΜ(G Y salt)
4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation#CBC
Page 8 of 54
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Block_cipher_mode_of_operation#CBC
where HΜ is the 256-bit SHA3 hash function.
Another 16 random bytes are used as IV data. Thus, the encrypted message payload
consists of
1. the salt
2. the IV data
3. the encrypted message block
Decryption works in a similar manner. Bob has to know Alice's public key AA (and his
own private key kB) and the salt to derive the shared secret:
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"##M",
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"##EM",
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"NE",
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"\"",
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"Re",
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"##ring",
"several",
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"fully",
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"an",
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"##EM",
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"-",
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"##ing",
"X",
"##EM",
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"X",
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] | NEM White paper | 668 |
is computed from kB according to (2)
G = aBAA
shared secret = HΜ(G Y salt)
Supplying the shared secret and the IV data to the cipher engine decrypts the encoded
message.
Page 9 of 54
4 Transactions
" To transact business with the girl who ran the gas-pump Dean merely threwon his T-shirt like a scarf and was curt and abrupt as usual and got back in
the car and off we roared again. "- Jack Kerouac
T
ransactions introduce dynamism into a cryptocurrency system. They are
the only way of altering the s | [
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"β’",
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"10",
",",
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"co",
"##ll",
"##uding",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
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"10",
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"the",
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"3",
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":",
"Page",
"36",
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"54",
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"##ll",
"##uding",
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"X",
"##EM",
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"##uding",
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"##ll",
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"##EM",
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",",
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",",
"a",
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"thousands",
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"additional",
"accounts",
".",
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"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
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"splitting",
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"or",
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"sending",
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"other",
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"economic",
"activity",
".",
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"##I",
"scores",
"sum",
"to",
"unity",
",",
"other",
"rational",
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"take",
"the",
"same",
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".",
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"the",
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"benefit",
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".",
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"##W",
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",",
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"##I",
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"##W",
",",
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"specialized",
"mining",
"hardware",
"have",
"a",
"large",
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"over",
"those",
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"use",
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"commonly",
"available",
"video",
"cards",
".",
"As",
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"this",
"writing",
",",
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"equal",
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"##has",
"##h",
"/",
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"a",
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"##h",
"/",
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"1",
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"##I",
",",
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"an",
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",",
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"##I",
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] | NEM White paper | 669 |
is computed from kB according to (2)
G = aBAA
shared secret = HΜ(G Y salt)
Supplying the shared secret and the IV data to the cipher engine decrypts the encoded
message.
Page 9 of 54
4 Transactions
" To transact business with the girl who ran the gas-pump Dean merely threwon his T-shirt like a scarf and was curt and abrupt as usual and got back in
the car and off we roared again. "- Jack Kerouac
T
ransactions introduce dynamism into a cryptocurrency system. They are
the only way of altering the s | [
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"##uding",
"accounts",
"sending",
"X",
"##EM",
"in",
"a",
"loop",
"to",
"each",
"other",
"β’",
"co",
"##ll",
"##uding",
"accounts",
"all",
"sending",
"X",
"##EM",
"to",
"a",
"common",
",",
"co",
"##ll",
"##uding",
"account",
"β’",
"co",
"##ll",
"##uding",
"accounts",
"sending",
"X",
"##EM",
"to",
"accounts",
"randomly",
"As",
"figure",
"10",
"shows",
",",
"after",
"adding",
"a",
"small",
"number",
"of",
"accounts",
",",
"a",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
"attacker",
"does",
"not",
"gain",
"much",
"importance",
"by",
"adding",
"even",
"thousands",
"of",
"additional",
"accounts",
".",
"Although",
"the",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
"attacker",
"gains",
"more",
"importance",
"than",
"the",
"honest",
"actor",
",",
"the",
"gain",
"is",
"limited",
"and",
"bounded",
"by",
"the",
"Po",
"##I",
"calculation",
".",
"Some",
"actors",
"can",
"boost",
"their",
"importance",
"by",
"splitting",
"their",
"accounts",
"or",
"or",
"sending",
"transactions",
"to",
"other",
"accounts",
"to",
"mimic",
"economic",
"activity",
".",
"Because",
"Po",
"##I",
"scores",
"sum",
"to",
"unity",
",",
"other",
"rational",
"actors",
"should",
"take",
"the",
"same",
"actions",
".",
"This",
"would",
"cause",
"the",
"expected",
"benefit",
"to",
"disappear",
".",
"Compared",
"to",
"Po",
"##W",
"mining",
",",
"the",
"advantage",
"that",
"can",
"be",
"gained",
"by",
"gaming",
"Po",
"##I",
"is",
"minimal",
".",
"In",
"Po",
"##W",
",",
"miners",
"who",
"buy",
"specialized",
"mining",
"hardware",
"have",
"a",
"large",
"advantage",
"over",
"those",
"who",
"use",
"only",
"commonly",
"available",
"video",
"cards",
".",
"As",
"of",
"this",
"writing",
",",
"an",
"equal",
"amount",
"of",
"money",
"can",
"buy",
"either",
"(",
"1",
")",
"two",
"video",
"cards",
"with",
"combined",
"800",
"M",
"##has",
"##h",
"/",
"s",
"of",
"mining",
"power",
"or",
"(",
"2",
")",
"a",
"specialized",
"AS",
"##IC",
"mine",
"##r",
"with",
"800",
",",
"000",
"M",
"##has",
"##h",
"/",
"s",
".",
"The",
"difference",
"between",
"the",
"mining",
"power",
"of",
"(",
"1",
")",
"and",
"(",
"2",
")",
"is",
"approximately",
"1000",
"##x",
".",
"In",
"Po",
"##I",
",",
"due",
"to",
"the",
"constraints",
"of",
"the",
"algorithm",
",",
"an",
"actor",
"perfectly",
"gaming",
"the",
"system",
"will",
"get",
"an",
"advantage",
"well",
"less",
"than",
"an",
"order",
"of",
"magnitude",
".",
"In",
"other",
"words",
",",
"Po",
"##I",
"gaming",
"will",
"not",
"result",
"in",
"a",
"significant",
"q",
"##ual",
"##itative",
"advantage",
"over",
"actors",
"with",
"the",
"same",
"balance",
"who",
"do",
"nothing",
".",
"For",
"the",
"case",
"where",
"controlled",
"accounts"
] | NEM White paper | 670 |
tate of an account. A newly created transaction
that has not yet been included in a block is called an unconfirmed transaction.
Unconfirmed transactions are not guaranteed to be included in any block.
As a result, unconfirmed transactions have no effect on the account state. The account
state is only updated when a transaction is included in a harvested block and thereby
confirmed.
Different types of transactions exist. Each type has a specific purpose, e.g. transfer
XEM from one account to another or c | [
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"all",
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"a",
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",",
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"10",
"##b",
"shows",
"that",
"the",
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"can",
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"when",
"more",
"nodes",
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".",
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",",
"the",
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"##s",
"decreased",
"after",
"a",
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"because",
"the",
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"changed",
"such",
"that",
"the",
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"nodes",
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"no",
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",",
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".",
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".",
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".",
"6",
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",",
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"##EM",
"around",
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"their",
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"score",
".",
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"##link",
"##ing",
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",",
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"##link",
"##ing",
"X",
"##EM",
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"just",
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".",
"Page",
"37",
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"a",
")",
"(",
"b",
")",
"1",
"10",
"100",
"1",
",",
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"##uding",
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"##y",
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"60",
"I",
"##m",
"p",
"o",
"r",
"##t",
"a",
"n",
"c",
"e",
"s",
"c",
"o",
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"##y",
"##bil",
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"c",
")",
"Figure",
"10",
":",
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"##nces",
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"million",
"X",
"##EM",
"with",
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"40",
"million",
"X",
"##EM",
"sent",
"via",
"out",
"##link",
"##ing",
"value",
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".",
"The",
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"X",
"##EM",
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",",
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"the",
"S",
"##y",
"##bil",
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"a",
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"X",
"##EM",
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",",
"(",
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"##s",
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"##EM",
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",",
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"(",
"c",
")",
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"-",
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"##y",
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")",
",",
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"C",
"##I",
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"10",
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"and",
"solid",
"lines",
"denote",
"the",
"mean",
".",
"Page",
"38",
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"54",
"7",
".",
"7",
"Nothing",
"-",
"at",
"-",
"St",
"##ake",
"Problem",
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] | NEM White paper | 671 |
tate of an account. A newly created transaction
that has not yet been included in a block is called an unconfirmed transaction.
Unconfirmed transactions are not guaranteed to be included in any block.
As a result, unconfirmed transactions have no effect on the account state. The account
state is only updated when a transaction is included in a harvested block and thereby
confirmed.
Different types of transactions exist. Each type has a specific purpose, e.g. transfer
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] | NEM White paper | 672 |
onvert an account to a multisig account. Since
transactions consume resources of the p2p network there is a fee for each transaction. The
fee depends on the transaction type and other parameters of the transaction.
Transactions have a deadline. If a transaction is not included in a block before its
deadline, the transaction is considered expired and gets dropped by the network nodes.
The following sections describe the different transaction types.
4.1 Transfer transactions
A transfer transaction is us | [
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"is",
"ne",
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".",
"In",
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"words",
",",
"the",
"cost",
"of",
"creating",
"a",
"block",
"is",
"so",
"low",
"that",
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"is",
"easy",
"to",
"create",
"a",
"block",
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"all",
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"##s",
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"In",
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",",
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"-",
"at",
"-",
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"problem",
"does",
"not",
"exist",
"when",
"Pro",
"##of",
"of",
"Work",
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"using",
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".",
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"NE",
"##M",
",",
"the",
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"a",
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"is",
"ne",
"##gli",
"##gible",
".",
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"-",
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"-",
"stake",
"problem",
",",
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"##M",
"caps",
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"difficulty",
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"also",
"limits",
"the",
"length",
"of",
"the",
"chain",
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"can",
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"un",
"##wo",
"##und",
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"resolution",
".",
"As",
"described",
"in",
"sub",
"##section",
"5",
".",
"1",
":",
"Block",
"difficulty",
",",
"the",
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"difficulty",
"change",
"rate",
"is",
"capped",
"at",
"a",
"maximum",
"of",
"5",
"%",
".",
"If",
"an",
"attacker",
"has",
"considerably",
"less",
"than",
"50",
"%",
"of",
"the",
"harvesting",
"power",
"of",
"the",
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",",
"this",
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"creation",
"time",
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"'",
"s",
"secret",
"chain",
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"be",
"much",
"higher",
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"the",
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"in",
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".",
"This",
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"time",
"difference",
"will",
"make",
"it",
"unlikely",
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"the",
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"s",
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"In",
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"the",
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".",
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".",
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"##aring",
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"stake",
"As",
"sub",
"##section",
"7",
".",
"5",
":",
"Cal",
"##cula",
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"I",
"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
"Score",
"##s",
"shows",
",",
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"balance",
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"account",
"is",
"a",
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"score",
".",
"Taking",
"the",
"vest",
"##ed",
"balance",
"as",
"the",
"\"",
"stake",
"\"",
"used",
"in",
"cu",
"##rre",
"##ncies",
"implementing",
"the",
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"##of",
"-",
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"-",
"St",
"##ake",
"(",
"Po",
"##S",
")",
"algorithm",
",",
"it",
"could",
"be",
"argued",
"that",
"Po",
"##S",
"and",
"Po",
"##I",
"are",
"similar",
".",
"In",
"order",
"to",
"explore",
"the",
"differences",
"and",
"similarities",
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"Po",
"##S",
"and",
"Po",
"##I",
",",
"the",
"NE",
"##M",
"and",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"transaction",
"graphs",
"were",
"analyzed",
".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"was",
"chosen",
"due",
"to",
"the",
"relatively",
"large",
"size",
"of",
"its",
"user",
"base",
"and",
"transaction",
"graph",
".",
"As",
"of",
"April",
"29",
",",
"2015",
",",
"the",
"NE",
"##M",
"transaction",
"graph",
"had",
"1",
",",
"45",
"##6",
"harvesting",
"-",
"eligible",
"accounts",
"(",
"see",
"sub",
"##section",
"7",
".",
"1",
":",
"Eli",
"##gi",
"##bility",
"for",
"En",
"##tering",
"the",
"I",
"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
"Cal",
"##cula",
"##tion",
")",
".",
"In",
"October",
"2014",
",",
"approximately",
"one",
"month",
"of",
"data",
"from",
"the",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"network",
"was",
"downloaded",
"and",
"analyzed",
".",
"54",
",",
"68",
"##3",
"accounts",
"were",
"harvesting",
"-",
"eligible",
"when",
"BT",
"##C",
"amounts",
"were",
"normal",
"##ized",
"to",
"NE",
"##M",
".",
"Am",
"##ou",
"##nt",
"normal",
"##ization",
"was",
"done",
"by",
"multi",
"##p",
"##lying",
"the",
"BT",
"##C",
"amounts",
"by",
"the",
"market",
"cap",
"ratio",
"."
] | NEM White paper | 673 |
onvert an account to a multisig account. Since
transactions consume resources of the p2p network there is a fee for each transaction. The
fee depends on the transaction type and other parameters of the transaction.
Transactions have a deadline. If a transaction is not included in a block before its
deadline, the transaction is considered expired and gets dropped by the network nodes.
The following sections describe the different transaction types.
4.1 Transfer transactions
A transfer transaction is us | [
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"is",
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"If",
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".",
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"##hr",
"##oni",
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",",
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"multiple",
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".",
"7",
".",
"8",
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".",
"5",
":",
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".",
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"-",
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".",
"In",
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"to",
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"similarities",
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"##S",
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"Po",
"##I",
",",
"the",
"NE",
"##M",
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"##co",
"##in",
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"graphs",
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".",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"was",
"chosen",
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"the",
"relatively",
"large",
"size",
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"its",
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"graph",
".",
"As",
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"29",
",",
"2015",
",",
"the",
"NE",
"##M",
"transaction",
"graph",
"had",
"1",
",",
"45",
"##6",
"harvesting",
"-",
"eligible",
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"(",
"see",
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"##section",
"7",
".",
"1",
":",
"Eli",
"##gi",
"##bility",
"for",
"En",
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"the",
"I",
"##mpo",
"##rta",
"##nce",
"Cal",
"##cula",
"##tion",
")",
".",
"In",
"October",
"2014",
",",
"approximately",
"one",
"month",
"of",
"data",
"from",
"the",
"Bit",
"##co",
"##in",
"network",
"was",
"downloaded",
"and",
"analyzed",
".",
"54",
",",
"68",
"##3",
"accounts",
"were",
"harvesting",
"-",
"eligible",
"when",
"BT",
"##C",
"amounts",
"were",
"normal",
"##ized",
"to",
"NE",
"##M",
".",
"Am",
"##ou",
"##nt",
"normal",
"##ization",
"was",
"done",
"by",
"multi",
"##p",
"##lying",
"the",
"BT",
"##C",
"amounts",
"by",
"the",
"market",
"cap",
"ratio",
"."
] | NEM White paper | 674 |
ed to transfer XEM from one account to another. A message
of at most 1024 bytes can be attached to each transfer transaction. In the case of an
encrypted message, only 960 bytes can contain custom data because the salt and the IV
data are part of the encrypted message.
Fees for transfer transactions are divided into two parts:
β’ .05 XEM per 10,000 XEM transferred, capped at 1.25 XEM
β’ .05 XEM per commenced 32 message bytes (messageLength / 32 + 1).
Both fee parts are added to give the final fee.
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"vs",
"."
] | NEM White paper | 675 |
10 of 54
4.2 Importance transfer transactions
NEM allows an account to lease its harvesting power to another account through an
importance transfer transaction. This is known as delegated harvesting. This allows the
original account to use its importance to harvest on a remote server (such as a virtual
private server (VPS)) without needing to have its private key openly exposed on the
server. In fact, this feature allows accounts in cold storage to harvest without putting
any funds at risk.
The fee | [
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for an importance transfer transaction is .15 XEM.
4.2.1 Activating
An account can enable delegated harvesting by sending a special importance transfer
transaction that specifies the delegated account.
After the importance transfer transaction is accepted by the network, 360 confirma-
tions are needed before delegated harvesting activation is complete.
During the activation period, only the original account can harvest but the delegated
account cannot. After the activation period, only the delegated a | [
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"(",
"1",
".",
"0",
")",
",",
"with",
"accounts",
"sorted",
"in",
"as",
"##cend",
"-",
"ing",
"order",
".",
"G",
"##rap",
"##hs",
"are",
"plot",
"##ted",
"on",
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"y",
"-",
"axis",
"with",
"a",
"log",
"scale",
",",
"allowing",
"a",
"clear",
"comparison",
"between",
"stake",
"and",
"importance",
"scores",
",",
"and",
"accounts",
"are",
"on",
"the",
"x",
"-",
"axis",
".",
"Page",
"42",
"of",
"54",
"(",
"a",
")",
"(",
"b",
")",
"Figure",
"12",
":",
"NE",
"##M",
"transaction",
"graphs",
"where",
"node",
"sizes",
"denote",
"normal",
"##ized",
"(",
"a",
")",
"importance",
"scores",
"and",
"(",
"b",
")",
"vest",
"##ed",
"balance",
"##s",
".",
"Normal",
"##ization",
"is",
"described",
"in",
"sub",
"##section",
"7",
".",
"8",
":",
"Co",
"##mp",
"##aring",
"importance",
"to",
"stake",
".",
"Page",
"43",
"of",
"54",
"8",
"Time",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"\"",
"You",
"spend",
"too",
"much",
"time",
"on",
"e",
"##phe",
"##mer",
"##as",
".",
"The",
"majority",
"of",
"modern",
"books",
"are",
"##mere",
"##ly",
"wave",
"##ring",
"reflections",
"of",
"the",
"present",
".",
"They",
"disappear",
"very",
"quickly",
".",
"You",
"should",
"read",
"more",
"old",
"books",
".",
"The",
"classics",
".",
"Goethe",
".",
"\"",
"-",
"Franz",
"Ka",
"##f",
"##ka",
"L",
"i",
"##ke",
"most",
"other",
"cry",
"##pt",
"##o",
"cu",
"##rre",
"##ncies",
",",
"NE",
"##M",
"relies",
"on",
"time",
"stamps",
"for",
"transactions",
"and",
"blocks",
".",
"I",
"##dea",
"##lly",
",",
"all",
"nodes",
"in",
"the",
"network",
"should",
"be",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##onized",
"with",
"respect",
"to",
"time",
".",
"Even",
"though",
"most",
"modern",
"operating",
"systems",
"have",
"time",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"integrated",
",",
"nodes",
"can",
"still",
"have",
"local",
"clocks",
"that",
"de",
"##via",
"##te",
"from",
"real",
"time",
"by",
"more",
"than",
"a",
"minute",
".",
"This",
"causes",
"those",
"nodes",
"to",
"reject",
"valid",
"transactions",
"or",
"blocks",
",",
"which",
"makes",
"it",
"impossible",
"for",
"them",
"to",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##ze",
"with",
"the",
"network",
".",
"It",
"is",
"therefore",
"needed",
"to",
"have",
"a",
"s",
"##ync",
"##hr",
"##oni",
"##zation",
"mechanism",
"to",
"ensure",
"all",
"nodes",
"agree",
"on",
"time",
".",
"There",
"are",
"basically",
"two",
"ways",
"to",
"do",
"this",
":",
"1",
".",
"Use",
"an",
"existing",
"protocol",
",",
"such",
"as",
"N",
"##TP",
"2",
".",
"Use",
"a",
"custom",
"protocol",
"The",
"advantage",
"of",
"using",
"an",
"existing",
"protocol",
"like",
"N",
"##TP",
"is",
"that",
"it",
"is",
"easy",
"to",
"implement",
"and",
"the",
"network",
"time",
"will",
"always",
"be",
"near",
"real",
"time",
".",
"This",
"has",
"the",
"disadvantage",
"that",
"the",
"network",
"relies",
"on",
"servers",
"outside",
"the",
"network",
".",
"Using",
"a",
"custom",
"protocol",
"that",
"only",
"relies",
"on",
"the",
"P",
"##2",
"##P",
"network",
"itself",
"solve",
"##s",
"this",
"problem",
",",
"but",
"there",
"is",
"a",
"trade",
"off",
".",
"It",
"is",
"impossible",
"to",
"guarantee",
"that",
"the",
"network",
"time",
"is",
"always",
"near",
"real",
"time",
".",
"For",
"an",
"overview",
"over",
"different",
"custom",
"protocols",
"see",
"for",
"example",
"[",
"12",
"]",
".",
"NE",
"##M",
"uses",
"a",
"custom",
"protocol",
"in",
"order",
"to",
"be",
"completely",
"independent",
"from",
"any",
"outside",
"entity",
".",
"8",
".",
"1",
"Gathering",
"samples",
"Each",
"node",
"in",
"the",
"network",
"manages",
"an",
"integer",
"number",
"called",
"offset",
"which",
"is",
"set",
"to",
"0",
"at",
"start",
".",
"The",
"local",
"system",
"time",
"in",
"mill",
"##ise",
"##con",
"##ds",
"in",
"##cre",
"##mented",
"by",
"the",
"offset",
"(",
"which",
"can",
"be",
"negative",
")",
"is",
"the",
"network",
"time",
"(",
"again",
"in",
"mill",
"##ise",
"##con",
"##ds",
")",
"of",
"the",
"node",
".",
"After",
"the",
"start",
"up",
"of",
"a",
"node",
"is",
"completed",
",",
"the",
"node",
"(",
"here",
"##aft",
"##er",
"called"
] | NEM White paper | 677 |
ccount can harvest but
the original account cannot.
4.2.2 Deactivating
An account with delegated harvesting activated can disable delegated harvesting at any
time by sending a special importance transfer transaction that specifies the delegated
account.
After the importance transfer transaction is accepted by the network, 360 confirma-
tions are needed before delegated harvesting deactivation is complete.
During the deactivation period, only the delegated account can harvest but the original
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".",
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"13",
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".",
"Page",
"45",
"of",
"54",
"Fi",
"##lter",
"##s",
"are",
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">",
"1000",
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")",
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"decrease",
"as",
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"'",
"s",
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"##time",
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".",
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"a",
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"offset",
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"##s",
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"3",
".",
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"on",
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".",
"In",
"other",
"words",
","
] | NEM White paper | 678 |
annot. After the deactivation period, only the original account can harvest but
the delegated account cannot.
4.3 Multisig related transaction types
NEM natively supports m-of-n multisignature accounts.
NEM multisig transactions have been designed with flexibility in mind. Any other
Page 11 of 54
transaction (as of now: importance transfer, transfer, aggregate modification), can be
wrapped in a multisig transaction.
A Multisig transaction itself cannot be wrapped inside another multisig transactio | [
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"This"
] | NEM White paper | 679 |
n.
4.3.1 Aggregate modification transactions (multisig modification)
Creating a multisig account An account can be converted into a multisig account
by sending a special aggregate modification transaction that is signed by the multisig
account. The transaction specifies information about the cosignatories. The number of
cosignatories is limited to 32.
Subsequently, no transactions can be initiated from the multisig account.
Modifying a multisig account After a multisig account has been created, a cosi | [
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"data",
"local",
"node",
"partner",
"node",
"response",
"+",
"random",
"data",
"signature"
] | NEM White paper | 680 |
gna-
tory can be added or removed by wrapping an aggregate modification transaction in a
multisig transaction. A single modification transaction can add one or more cosignatories
but can remove at most one.
β’ When adding cosignatories, all existing cosignatories must co-sign the transaction.
β’ When removing a cosignatory, all existing cosignatories except for the one being
removed must co-sign the transaction.
The fee for an aggregate modification transaction is a flat fee of 0.5 xem, no matter
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".",
"Page",
"50",
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"54",
"9",
".",
"3",
".",
"2",
"Re",
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"##resh",
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",",
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"-",
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"(",
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")",
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"meta",
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".",
"This",
"step",
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"prevent",
"an",
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"incorrect",
"information",
"about"
] | NEM White paper | 681 |
difications you make.
where the term 'modification' refers to the addition or deletion of a cosignatory.
4.3.2 Multisig signature transactions
NEM uses multisig signature transactions for letting cosignatories sign a multisig trans-
action.
The fee for such a signature transaction is always .15 XEM. The fee is deduced from
the multisig account, not from the cosignatory's account.
A multisig signature transaction can only be included in the block chain if the corre-
sponding multisig transaction has b | [
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"Page",
"51",
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"54",
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"-",
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"-",
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"Page",
"52",
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] | NEM White paper | 682 |
een included in the block chain. An orphaned multisig
signature transaction will never be included in the block chain.
Page 12 of 54
4.3.3 Multisig transactions
As mentioned earlier, any transaction can be wrapped in a multisig transaction.
To send XEM from a multisig account to another account, a transfer transaction must
be wrapped. The multisig wrapper transaction has a fee of .15 XEM. This fee is added
to the usual transfer transaction fee.
The following example shows the steps that must be tak | [
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] | NEM White paper | 683 |
en in more detail:
Assume that a multisig account (M) has a balance of 1000 XEM and has three cosig-
natories (A, B, C) and 100 XEM needs to be transferred from M to another account
X.
Any of the three cosignatories can initiate the 100 XEM transfer. Assuming that
B initiates the transfer and A and C cosign, the following steps must happen for the
transaction to be accepted:
1. B creates a regular, unsigned transfer transaction that has the multisig account as
the "signer" and the transfer amount as 100 | [
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Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices: A Future Perspective and Implementation
Blockchain Technology for Smartphonesand Constrained IoT Devices:
A Future Perspective and Implementation
Konstantin Zhidanov β‘, Sergey Bezzateev οΏ½, Alexandra Afanasyeva οΏ½,Mikhail Sayfullin β‘, Sergey Vanurin β‘, Yulia Bardinova οΏ½, Aleksandr Ometov β
β‘ Enecuum HK Limited, Hong KongοΏ½ ITMO university, St. Petersburg, Russia
οΏ½ Saint Petersburg State University of Telecommunications, St. Petersburg, Russi | [
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 686 |
Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices: A Future Perspective and Implementation
Blockchain Technology for Smartphonesand Constrained IoT Devices:
A Future Perspective and Implementation
Konstantin Zhidanov β‘, Sergey Bezzateev οΏ½, Alexandra Afanasyeva οΏ½,Mikhail Sayfullin β‘, Sergey Vanurin β‘, Yulia Bardinova οΏ½, Aleksandr Ometov β
β‘ Enecuum HK Limited, Hong KongοΏ½ ITMO university, St. Petersburg, Russia
οΏ½ Saint Petersburg State University of Telecommunications, St. Petersburg, Russi | [
8093,
7147,
1394,
3529,
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 687 |
aβ Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
Email: ceo @ enecuum.com
Abstract β The blockchain technology is currently penetratingdifferent sides of modern ICT community. Most of the devicesinvolved in blockchain-related processes are specially designedtargeting only the mining aspect. At the same time, the useof wearable and mobile devices may also become a part ofblockchain operation, especially during the charging time. Thepaper considers the possibility of using a large number of con-strained devices supp | [
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 688 |
aβ Tampere University, Tampere, Finland
Email: ceo @ enecuum.com
Abstract β The blockchain technology is currently penetratingdifferent sides of modern ICT community. Most of the devicesinvolved in blockchain-related processes are specially designedtargeting only the mining aspect. At the same time, the useof wearable and mobile devices may also become a part ofblockchain operation, especially during the charging time. Thepaper considers the possibility of using a large number of con-strained devices supp | [
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orting the operation of the blockchain. Theutilization of such devices is expected to improve the efficiencyof the system and also to attract a more substantial number ofusers. Authors propose a novel consensus algorithm based ona combination of Proof-of-Work (PoW), Proof-of-Activity (PoA),and Proof-of-Stake (PoS). The paper first overviews the existingstrategies and further describes the developed cryptographicprimitives used to build a blockchain involving mobile devices. Abrief numerical evaluation of | [
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orting the operation of the blockchain. Theutilization of such devices is expected to improve the efficiencyof the system and also to attract a more substantial number ofusers. Authors propose a novel consensus algorithm based ona combination of Proof-of-Work (PoW), Proof-of-Activity (PoA),and Proof-of-Stake (PoS). The paper first overviews the existingstrategies and further describes the developed cryptographicprimitives used to build a blockchain involving mobile devices. Abrief numerical evaluation of | [
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the designed system is also providedin the paper.
Keywords β blockchain, distributed systems, networks, applica-tions, future perspective
I. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
The introduction of Bitcoin by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008had a significant impact on digital society [1]. As a first step,Bitcoin-like cryptocurrencies seemed an extremely innovativealternative financial paradigm. However, underpinning it lies afascinating technological breakthrough: blockchain technology.The applications that could previous | [
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 692 |
the designed system is also providedin the paper.
Keywords β blockchain, distributed systems, networks, applica-tions, future perspective
I. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
The introduction of Bitcoin by Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008had a significant impact on digital society [1]. As a first step,Bitcoin-like cryptocurrencies seemed an extremely innovativealternative financial paradigm. However, underpinning it lies afascinating technological breakthrough: blockchain technology.The applications that could previous | [
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ly work only throughtrusted centralized entities can now operate without any con-stant connection to the authority while maintaining the samesecurity and improving the overall system functionality [2].This distinguishing feature has extended the implementationof blockchain beyond conventional cryptocurrency area [3].
The main idea behind blockchain itself lies in the conceptof trust [4]. This idea is based on the fact that partiesinteracting in the system do not necessarily know or trust eachother but sti | [
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ll have an opportunity to transact securely. Theuse of blockchain eliminates the need for the involvement andcontinuous maintenance by the centralized 'trusted' authority,thus, enabling the network to operate in a distributed manner.True to its name, the records of transactions between nodesin a blockchain network are organized in a data structure
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 695 |
chain". The blockchain ismaintained as appending only local replicas of itself by thenodes participating in the replicated consensus process. Due tothe blockchain property of immutability, it can be abstracted asa transactional system that enables a consensus to form withinits participants [5]. The consensus holds unique probabilisticproperties and can thus be leveraged as a fundamental buildingblock for adaptive middleware that offers both deterministicand probabilistic consensus.
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operation is based on a speciallydesigned devices β miners, i.e., nodes attempting to solve thecomputational puzzles, in other words, to reach the Proof-of-Work (PoW) [6] for new block creating, and profit from themonetary compensation associated with it. Briefly speaking,a block contains' nonces' that a miner must set in such away that the hash of the entire block is smaller than a knowntarget, which is typically a very small number. The difficulty ofmining should be adjusted dynamically throughout the l | [
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The possibility to customize and style along with tech-nological enhancements towards small-scale electronics andmodern applications make handheld and wearable devices astrong contender in the Internet of Things (IoT) technologicalrace [8]. Almost one billion wearable devices are expected tojoin the IoT family by 2021 [9]. Said fascinating developmentis a driving force behind the convergence of the physical anddigital worlds that promises to create an unprecedented IoTmarket of 1 | [
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] | Blockchain Technology for Smartphones and Constrained IoT Devices A Future Perspective and Implementation | 699 |
Subsets and Splits