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= = = Casualties of Cool and Z2 ( 2012 – present ) = = =
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After Deconstruction and Ghost , Townsend announced a new album , Casualties of Cool , with which he started to work after the release of Epicloud . The album features Ché Aimee Dorval ( from Ki ) on vocals and Morgan <unk> on drums . Townsend described the album sounds like " haunted Johnny Cash songs " and " late night music " , highlighting it will be different than anything he has done before . Townsend referred the music of the album to be " closest to his heart " at this point of his life , and that it is an important and satisfying project he doesn 't want to rush .
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The album was completed on November 2013 , and a bonus disc was also made for the album , containing the leftover material from the main album as well as songs from Ghost 2 , the unreleased compilation of leftover tracks from Ghost . Originally in 2012 , Townsend stated that this album will be the sixth and the last album in the Devin Townsend Project series , but he ultimately confirmed that Casualties of Cool is its own project . Townsend also started a crowdfunding campaign through PledgeMusic to support the release of the album . The funding quickly reached its goal , and all additional funds were put directly to Townsend 's upcoming projects . Casualties of Cool was released on May 14 , 2014 . The album was re @-@ issued worldwide on January 15 , 2016 containing an additional DVD with live footage from the 2014 concert at the Union Chapel in London .
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From 2009 , Townsend worked on a long @-@ running album project called Z ² , a sequel to the album Ziltoid the Omniscient ( 2007 ) . Originally in 2012 , he teased he " may have just written the heaviest thing he 's ever done " for the album , and told there might a surprising lack of Ziltoid himself appearing on the album . However , in August 2013 , a London @-@ based radio station <unk> Radio aired the first episode of Ziltoid Radio , a satirical radio show hosted solely by Ziltoid , this being one element of the Z ² project . Townsend also discussed a " <unk> " or " Ziltoid TV " is preceding the album . Later Townsend stated he has found the project hard to schedule and work with amidst touring and writing , stating " it takes a lot of effort " to keep the content with tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humour entertaining .
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After writing ideas for over 70 songs , Townsend stated he is finally going to finish the whole project , followed by the announcement the album will be released on October 27 , 2014 . The recording process started in May 2014 , and the final project includes the album , a Ziltoid TV program and a live show , with a " big graphic novel comic " and a documentary . The album itself is a double album , with disc one being the main album and disc two featuring Devin Townsend Project material ; according to Townsend , the album 's theme is " Ziltoid against the world " . The Devin Townsend Project disc is called Sky Blue and the Ziltoid disc is called Dark Matters .
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After finishing the album , Townsend stated the project was " punishing " and an " absolute nightmare to complete " due to amount of material against tight schedules . He also described the hardship of the project by telling " if he was ever going to start drinking [ again ] , the last months would have been it " , but now " he 's starting to get excited again " . Later , " after the chaos of finishing it had subsided " , Townsend stated he is really satisfied with the result .
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Townsend recently discussed at least a year @-@ long hiatus , beginning after the Z ² show taking place at the Royal Albert Hall on April 13 , 2015 . During the indefinitely long break Townsend intends to " recharge his batteries " , " get some inspiration and experiences " and to " see what the next chapter holds " for him .
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In 2014 , Devin recorded a ' poppy sounding ' song in Los Angeles with producer Brian Howes , but has decided against releasing . Devin mentioned he is against the project being contrived due to the current hard rock undertones in popular music . He described it as a " lukewarm heavy metal Devin song " . On December 11 , 2015 Townsend announced via Twitter that he was recording vocals for a song by Steve Vai .
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As of April 2016 , Devin is in the middle of recording the seventh DTP album , entitled Transcendence at Armoury Studios in Vancouver .
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= = Personal life = =
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Townsend has been married to Tracy Turner , his girlfriend since he was 19 . She gave birth to their first son , <unk> Liam <unk> Townsend , on October 4 , 2006 . He is a vegetarian .
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= = Musical style = =
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= = = Projects = = =
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Townsend designed his two main projects , the aggressive Strapping Young Lad and his more melodic solo material , as counterparts . Strapping Young Lad 's music was a diverse mix of extreme metal genres : death metal , thrash metal , black metal and industrial metal . Townsend 's solo material blends many genres and influences , with elements of atmospheric ambient music , hard rock and progressive rock , along with pop metal and arena rock . He described it as " a highly orchestrated type of expansive music based in hard rock and heavy metal . Dense and produced with a large amount of ambient elements . " Despite Strapping Young Lad 's greater mainstream acceptance , Townsend identifies more with his solo material , and has never intended Strapping Young Lad to be the focus of his music .
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= = = Production style = = =
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As a self @-@ proclaimed " fan of multitracking " , Townsend has developed a trademark production style featuring an atmospheric , layered " wall of sound " . Townsend has drawn critical praise for his productions , which " are always marked by a sense of adventure , intrigue , chaotic atmospherics and overall aural pyrotechnics " , according to Mike G. of Metal Maniacs . Townsend mainly uses Pro Tools to produce his music , alongside other software suites such as Steinberg Cubase , Ableton Live , and Logic Pro . Townsend 's musical ideas and production style have drawn comparisons to Phil Spector and Frank Zappa . Townsend has carried out the mixing and mastering for most of his solo work himself . He has also mixed and remixed work for other artists such as Rammstein , August Burns Red and Misery Signals .
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= = = Playing style = = =
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Townsend mainly uses Open C tuning for both six and seven string guitar . He now also uses Open B tuning and Open B flat tuning ( Open C tuning tuned a half and a whole step down respectively ) on his six string guitars . Townsend 's technique varies from fingerpicking , power chords and <unk> to sweep @-@ picked arpeggios and tapping techniques . He is also known for his heavy use of reverb and delay effects . He has expressed that he has no taste for shred guitar , saying that " Musically it doesn 't do anything for me " and that he only solos when he thinks that he can within the context of the song .
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= = = Vocals = = =
|
[
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Townsend 's employs a variety of vocal techniques in his work , including screaming , growling or even falsetto . His vocal range has been noted to be over 5 octaves ( C2 to F7 ) .
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= = = Influences = = =
|
[
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Townsend draws influence from a wide range of music genres , most prominently heavy metal . Townsend has cited , among others , Judas Priest , W.A.S.P. , Frank Zappa , Broadway musicals , ABBA , new @-@ age music , <unk> France , King 's X , Morbid Angel , <unk> , Grotus , Jane 's Addiction , Metallica , Cop Shoot Cop and Fear Factory as his influences , and has also expressed his admiration for Meshuggah on several occasions , calling them " the best metal band on the planet " . Townsend lists Paul Horn and Ravi Shankar as the " two most important musicians in his life " . The two songs that Townsend credits with changing the way he thought about music are " The Burning Down " by King 's X , and " Up the Beach " by Jane 's Addiction . City was influenced by bands such as Foetus and Cop Shoot Cop , and The New Black 's influences were Meshuggah , and " more traditional metal " like Metallica . He is also influenced by orchestral and classical composers such as John Williams , Trevor Jones and Igor Stravinsky .
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= = Discography = =
|
[
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= Zagreb Synagogue =
|
[
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The Zagreb Synagogue ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) was the main place of worship for the Jewish community of Zagreb in modern @-@ day Croatia . It was constructed in 1867 in the Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia within the Austrian Empire , and was used until it was demolished by the fascist authorities in 1941 in the Axis @-@ aligned Independent State of Croatia .
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The Moorish Revival synagogue , designed after the <unk> Tempel in Vienna , was located on modern @-@ day Praška Street . It has been the only purpose @-@ built Jewish house of worship in the history of the city . It was one of the city 's most prominent public buildings , as well as one of the most esteemed examples of synagogue architecture in the region .
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Since the 1980s , plans have been made to rebuild the synagogue in its original location . Due to various political circumstances , very limited progress has been made . Major disagreements exist between the government and Jewish organizations as to how much the latter should be involved in decisions about the reconstruction project , including proposed design and character of the new building .
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= = History = =
|
[
796,
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Encouraged by the 1782 Edict of Tolerance of Emperor Joseph II , Jews first permanently settled in Zagreb in the late eighteenth century , and founded the Jewish community in 1806 . In 1809 the Jewish community had a rabbi , and by 1811 it had its own cemetery . As early as 1833 , the community was permitted to buy land for construction of a synagogue , but did not have sufficient money to finance one at the time .
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By 1855 , the community had grown to 700 members and , on October 30 of that year , the decision was made to build a new Jewish synagogue . The construction committee , appointed in 1861 , selected and purchased a parcel of land at the corner of Maria Valeria Street ( now Praška Street ) and Ban Jelačić Square , the central town square . However , a new urban planning scheme of 1864 reduced the area available for construction , and the community decided to buy another parcel of 1 @,@ 540 square metres ( 16 @,@ 600 sq ft ) in Maria Valeria Street , approximately 80 metres ( 260 ft ) south of the original location .
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= = = Design and construction = = =
|
[
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Franjo Klein , a Vienna @-@ born Zagreb architect , was commissioned to build the synagogue . Klein , a representative of romantic historicism , modeled the building on the Viennese <unk> Tempel ( 1858 ) , a Moorish Revival temple designed by Ludwig Förster . It became a prototype for synagogue design in Central Europe . Zagreb Synagogue used the already developed round arch style ( <unk> ) , but did not adopt Förster 's early oriental motifs .
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The composition of the main facade , with its dominant drawn @-@ out and elevated projection and the two symmetrical lower lateral parts , reflects the internal division into three naves . At ground @-@ floor level , the front was distinguished by the three @-@ arch entrance and <unk> , whereas the first @-@ floor level had a high triforium with an elevated arch and the <unk> rosettes on the staircases .
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The synagogue occupied the greater part of the plot , facing west . It receded from the street regulation @-@ line in accordance with the rule then still enforced in Austria – Hungary , prohibiting non @-@ Catholic places of worship from having a public entrance from the street . The synagogue had a wider and slightly higher central nave and two narrower naves ; unlike Förster 's synagogue in Vienna , it did not have a <unk> plan .
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Construction began in 1866 and was completed the following year . The synagogue was officially consecrated on September 27 , 1867 , a ceremony attended by representatives of city and regional authorities , Zagreb public figures , and many citizens . It was the first prominent public building in Zagreb 's lower town , and its architecture and scale aroused general admiration and praise .
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= = = 19th and early 20th century = = =
|
[
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With the new synagogue , an organ was introduced into religious service . The small minority of Orthodox Jews found this change to be intolerable , and they began to hold their services separately , in rented rooms .
|
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In the 1880 earthquake , the synagogue suffered minor damage and was repaired the following year .
|
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Largely due to immigration from Hungary , Bohemia and Moravia , the Jewish population of Zagreb quickly grew in size : from 1 @,@ 285 members in 1887 to 3 @,@ 237 members in 1900 , and then to 5 @,@ 970 members in 1921 . The synagogue became too small to accommodate the needs of the ever @-@ growing community . In 1921 a renovation was undertaken to increase the number of available seats . A 1931 plan to increase the capacity to 944 seats was ultimately abandoned . A central heating system was installed in 1933 .
|
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764,
317,
4318,
16930,
1080,
373,
6589,
287,
26539,
764,
220,
198
] |
= = = Demolition during World War II = = =
|
[
796,
796,
796,
1897,
50014,
1141,
2159,
1810,
2873,
796,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
During the 1941 collapse of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia under the Axis invasion in the April War , the Independent State of Croatia was created . It was ruled by the extreme nationalist Ustaša regime . The Ustaša quickly started with the systematic persecution of the Jews , modeled after the Nazi Germany approach , and at times even more brutal . Racial laws were introduced , Jewish property was confiscated , and the Jews were subjected to mass arrests and deportations to death camps in Croatia and abroad .
|
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29489,
602,
284,
1918,
11665,
287,
28975,
290,
10522,
764,
220,
198
] |
In October 1941 , the newly installed mayor of Zagreb , Ivan Werner , issued a decree ordering the demolition of the Praška Street synagogue , ostensibly because it did not fit into the city 's master plan . The demolition began on October 10 , 1941 , proceeding slowly so as not to damage the adjacent buildings ; it was finished by April 1942 . The whole process was photographed for propaganda purposes , and the photographs were shown to the public at an antisemitic exhibition first held in Zagreb . It was also shown in Dubrovnik , Karlovac , Sarajevo , Vukovar and Zemun , as an illustration of the " solution of the Jewish question in Croatia " .
|
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4610,
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366,
764,
220,
198
] |
A fragment of the film footage of the demolition was discovered five decades later by the film director <unk> <unk> during research for his 1993 documentary feature , Decline of the Century : Testimony of L. Z. ; 41 seconds of the film survives . This footage was also shown in Mira Wolf 's documentary , The Zagreb Synagogue 1867 @-@ 1942 ( 1996 ) , produced by Croatian Radiotelevision .
|
[
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286,
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8235,
1267,
837,
4635,
416,
48853,
5325,
72,
1258,
5024,
764,
220,
198
] |
The synagogue 's eight valuable Torah scrolls were saved due to an intervention by Leonardo Grivičić , an entrepreneur and industrialist who lived next door from Mile Budak , a minister in the Ustaša government . He was also close to Poglavnik Ante Pavelić and the Third Reich 's ambassador to Croatia , Edmund Glaise @-@ Horstenau . Although Grivičić did not have a significant political role in the Independent State of Croatia , he was considered trustworthy . On October 9 , 1941 , he learned about the regime 's plan to start the demolition of the synagogue on the following morning . By that evening , Grivičić secretly relayed the information to the synagogue 's chief cantor , Grüner , and during the night , the Torah scrolls were moved to safety .
|
[
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1755,
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32138,
547,
3888,
284,
3747,
764,
220,
198
] |
Shortly after the destruction of the synagogue , the Catholic archbishop of Zagreb Aloysius Stepinac delivered a homily in which he said : " A house of God of any faith is a holy thing , and whoever harms it will pay with their lives . In this world and the next they will be punished . " .
|
[
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] |
The only surviving fragments of the building — the wash @-@ basin and two memorial tables from the forecourt , as well as some parts of a column — were saved by Ivo Kraus . He pulled them from the rubble shortly after the end of World War II . The wash @-@ basin and the memorial tables are now in the Zagreb City Museum . The column fragments are kept by the Jewish Community of Zagreb .
|
[
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198
] |
= = Reconstruction efforts = =
|
[
796,
796,
45060,
4040,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
= = = 1945 – 1990 = = =
|
[
796,
796,
796,
15761,
784,
6303,
796,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
Only one in five Croatian Jews survived the Holocaust of World War II . Between 1948 and 1952 , nearly one half of the surviving members of Jewish Community of Zagreb opted for emigration to Israel , and the community dropped to one @-@ tenth of its pre @-@ war membership . The Yugoslav communist regime nationalized virtually all real estate owned by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , including the plot in Praška Street . All this , combined with the new regime 's general hostility toward religion , made reconstruction of the synagogue nearly impossible .
|
[
5514,
530,
287,
1936,
48853,
6771,
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262,
18661,
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21794,
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3016,
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2063,
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1866,
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31,
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663,
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262,
649,
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705,
82,
2276,
23594,
3812,
5737,
837,
925,
25056,
286,
262,
41953,
3016,
5340,
764,
220,
198
] |
After World War II , the vacant site of the former synagogue was used as a makeshift volleyball court . The volleyball court made way for a prefabricated department store building , constructed in 1959 . The department store was completely destroyed in a fire on December 31 , 1980 , and was subsequently dismantled . Despite some earlier ideas about a permanent department store building on the same spot , and a 1977 architecture competition for its design , no construction took place . Instead , the parcel was turned into a parking lot , which it remains to this day .
|
[
2293,
2159,
1810,
2873,
837,
262,
23957,
2524,
286,
262,
1966,
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645,
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262,
25232,
373,
2900,
656,
257,
7647,
1256,
837,
543,
340,
3793,
284,
428,
1110,
764,
220,
198
] |
After 1986 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb began to consider a Jewish cultural center and a memorial synagogue . Two architects , Branko <unk> and Boris <unk> , both of whom participated in the failed 1977 department store competition , came forward on their own accord and contributed their ideas for a new Jewish center in Praška Street . <unk> 's vision was ultimately not accepted by the Jewish community ; instead , plans were being made for the construction of the cultural center and a synagogue , following an international architecture competition . However , despite support for the project both within Yugoslavia and abroad , the issuance of necessary permits was either stalled or denied by the municipal government . The project was not developed .
|
[
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5761,
373,
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6292,
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5582,
2055,
2162,
2427,
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3352,
547,
852,
925,
329,
262,
5103,
286,
262,
6467,
3641,
290,
257,
41953,
837,
1708,
281,
3230,
10959,
5449,
764,
2102,
837,
3805,
1104,
329,
262,
1628,
1111,
1626,
37777,
290,
10522,
837,
262,
30145,
286,
3306,
13892,
373,
2035,
29759,
393,
6699,
416,
262,
13474,
1230,
764,
383,
1628,
373,
407,
4166,
764,
220,
198
] |
= = = 1990 – present = = =
|
[
796,
796,
796,
6303,
784,
1944,
796,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
By the autumn of 1990 , after the first democratic elections in Croatia , the municipal government finally approved the project . An architectural competition was planned for January 1991 . Political turmoil in the country , followed by the breakup of Yugoslavia and the Croatian War of Independence ( 1991 – 1995 ) , caused the project to be put on hold again . In 1994 President of Croatia Franjo Tuđman said to Jakov <unk> , Council member of the Zagreb Jewish community , that they should build the new synagogue at the site of the former synagogue , which will be funded by the Croatian government . <unk> declined the offer believing to be inappropriate when 1800 Catholic churches are left destroyed at the time , during Croatian War of Independence .
|
[
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363,
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2055,
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326,
484,
815,
1382,
262,
649,
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379,
262,
2524,
286,
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1966,
41953,
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543,
481,
307,
10588,
416,
262,
48853,
1230,
764,
1279,
2954,
29,
7392,
262,
2897,
14773,
284,
307,
15679,
618,
21431,
7835,
14422,
389,
1364,
6572,
379,
262,
640,
837,
1141,
48853,
1810,
286,
20153,
764,
220,
198
] |
In the meantime , the Jewish Community of Zagreb sought to legally reacquire its property . The Croatian <unk> law was enacted in 1996 , and the Praška Street parcel was finally returned to the community on December 31 , 1999 . By 2000 , reconstruction activities were invigorated again . An investment study was submitted to the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb in July 2004 and revised in October 2004 . The architecture competition was planned for 2005 . However , a 2005 rift in the Jewish Community of Zagreb resulted in formation of a splinter Jewish community , Bet Israel , led by Ivo and Slavko Goldstein .
|
[
554,
262,
14324,
837,
262,
5582,
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302,
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34806,
287,
2901,
5472,
290,
15556,
287,
3267,
5472,
764,
383,
10959,
5449,
373,
6027,
329,
5075,
764,
2102,
837,
257,
5075,
36788,
287,
262,
5582,
8108,
286,
1168,
363,
34806,
8724,
287,
9978,
286,
257,
4328,
3849,
5582,
2055,
837,
5147,
2692,
837,
2957,
416,
314,
13038,
290,
34314,
7204,
45655,
764,
220,
198
] |
In September 2006 , the Government of Croatia formed a construction workgroup . It was decided that the project , estimated at the time at HRK 173 million ( US $ 30 million ) , would be partially financed by the Government of Croatia and the City of Zagreb , and that both Jewish organizations should be represented in the workgroup . However , the involvement of Bet Israel was deemed unacceptable by the Jewish Community of Zagreb , which is the sole owner of the Praška Street property , and which also sees itself as the sole legal representative of the Zagreb Jewish community . As a consequence , the community and its president , <unk> Kraus , refused further participation in the project under the set conditions .
|
[
554,
2693,
4793,
837,
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1111,
5582,
5745,
815,
307,
7997,
287,
262,
670,
8094,
764,
2102,
837,
262,
9750,
286,
5147,
2692,
373,
10762,
18010,
416,
262,
5582,
8108,
286,
1168,
363,
34806,
837,
543,
318,
262,
6195,
4870,
286,
262,
21127,
32790,
4914,
3530,
3119,
837,
290,
543,
635,
7224,
2346,
355,
262,
6195,
2742,
8852,
286,
262,
1168,
363,
34806,
5582,
2055,
764,
1081,
257,
12921,
837,
262,
2055,
290,
663,
1893,
837,
1279,
2954,
29,
21553,
385,
837,
6520,
2252,
10270,
287,
262,
1628,
739,
262,
900,
3403,
764,
220,
198
] |
Further disagreements existed about the design and character of the new building . Facsimile reconstruction , while feasible , was not seriously contemplated . There was a general agreement that the new building should also have a cultural as well as commercial purpose . While the Jewish Community of Zagreb envisioned a modern design reminiscent of the original synagogue , the Bet Israel advocated building a replica of the original synagogue 's facade , perceiving it as having a powerful symbolism . Opinions of architects , urban planners , and art historians were also divided along similar lines .
|
[
7735,
37990,
11196,
546,
262,
1486,
290,
2095,
286,
262,
649,
2615,
764,
13585,
14323,
576,
25056,
837,
981,
23498,
837,
373,
407,
6411,
39496,
764,
1318,
373,
257,
2276,
4381,
326,
262,
649,
2615,
815,
635,
423,
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355,
880,
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5068,
4007,
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2893,
262,
5582,
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286,
1168,
363,
34806,
32295,
257,
3660,
1486,
24960,
286,
262,
2656,
41953,
837,
262,
5147,
2692,
25828,
2615,
257,
30069,
286,
262,
2656,
41953,
705,
82,
43562,
837,
36974,
1412,
340,
355,
1719,
257,
3665,
36913,
764,
8670,
259,
507,
286,
29518,
837,
7876,
33596,
837,
290,
1242,
21262,
547,
635,
9086,
1863,
2092,
3951,
764,
220,
198
] |
In 2014 and 2015 , the Jewish Community of Zagreb presented new plans for a 10 @,@ 600 m2 ( 114 @,@ 000 sq ft ) multi @-@ purpose Jewish center and synagogue in Praška Street .
|
[
554,
1946,
290,
1853,
837,
262,
5582,
8108,
286,
1168,
363,
34806,
5545,
649,
3352,
329,
257,
838,
2488,
11,
31,
10053,
285,
17,
357,
17342,
2488,
11,
31,
12877,
19862,
10117,
1267,
5021,
2488,
12,
31,
4007,
5582,
3641,
290,
41953,
287,
21127,
32790,
4914,
3530,
764,
220,
198
] |
= 1806 Great Coastal hurricane =
|
[
796,
1248,
3312,
3878,
43513,
23964,
796,
220,
198
] |
The 1806 Great Coastal hurricane was a severe and damaging storm along the East Coast of the United States which produced upwards of 36 in ( 91 cm ) of rainfall in parts of Massachusetts . First observed east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August , the hurricane arrived at the Bahamas by 19 August . The disturbance continued to drift northward and made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina on 22 August . The storm soon moved out to sea as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , persisting off of New England before dissipating south of Nova Scotia on 25 August as a markedly weaker storm . Several French and British military ships were damaged out at sea . In the Carolinas , salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries suffered considerably , and several individuals were killed . Wharves and vessels endured moderate damage , with many ships wrecked on North <unk> barrier islands . A majority of the deaths caused by the hurricane occurred aboard the Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , with 21 of the ship 's 48 passengers killed and $ 171 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) in damage to its cargo . Upon arriving in New England , reports indicated extreme rainfall , though no deaths were reported ; in all , the hurricane killed more than 24 individuals along the entirety of its track .
|
[
383,
1248,
3312,
3878,
43513,
23964,
373,
257,
6049,
290,
14790,
6388,
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1829,
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2582,
3888,
503,
284,
5417,
355,
257,
21743,
362,
2488,
12,
31,
7548,
23964,
319,
262,
311,
2001,
343,
784,
20531,
23964,
2344,
5046,
837,
2774,
9665,
572,
286,
968,
4492,
878,
32008,
803,
5366,
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17711,
32586,
319,
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4141,
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3517,
2422,
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547,
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379,
5417,
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2923,
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283,
1158,
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24067,
10768,
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2258,
1279,
2954,
29,
13054,
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317,
3741,
286,
262,
7040,
4073,
416,
262,
23964,
5091,
15500,
262,
8049,
2488,
12,
31,
287,
2488,
12,
31,
11891,
18479,
286,
2409,
12480,
265,
554,
1616,
837,
968,
8221,
837,
351,
2310,
286,
262,
4074,
705,
82,
4764,
10405,
2923,
290,
720,
28369,
2488,
11,
31,
12877,
357,
1248,
3312,
11403,
1267,
287,
2465,
284,
663,
15892,
764,
14438,
14820,
287,
968,
4492,
837,
3136,
8203,
3257,
25807,
837,
996,
645,
7040,
547,
2098,
2162,
287,
477,
837,
262,
23964,
2923,
517,
621,
1987,
3925,
1863,
262,
21818,
286,
663,
2610,
764,
220,
198
] |
= = Meteorological history = =
|
[
796,
796,
25582,
2770,
2106,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
The Great Coastal hurricane of 1806 was first noted far east of the Lesser Antilles on 17 August . Weather historian David M. Ludlum followed the disturbance 's track to the Bahamas by 19 August ; intense winds persisted until 21 August , however , approximately 150 mi ( 240 km ) east of the Bahamian island of Eleuthera . Steering currents brought the storm northward , and it approached Charleston , South Carolina on 22 August , where a generally easterly flow preceded the storm indicated its passage far east of the city . The hurricane made landfall at the mouth of the Cape Fear River in North Carolina later that day , though the earliest impacts from the storm started several days earlier , with gusts initially toward the northeast but later curving southwestward . Reports of similar wind shifts throughout the region suggested that the gale persisted , stationary , for several hours . It eventually moved back out to sea while south of Norfolk , Virginia , departing the region on 24 August . The hurricane maintained 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while offshore , equivalent to a Category 2 system on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . While offshore New England , the gale featured a swath of winds 90 mi ( 150 km ) wide , and was last observed just south of Nova Scotia on 25 August slightly weaker , with sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) .
|
[
383,
3878,
43513,
23964,
286,
1248,
3312,
373,
717,
4367,
1290,
7627,
286,
262,
12892,
263,
3738,
21718,
319,
1596,
2932,
764,
15615,
18026,
3271,
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24177,
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388,
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28629,
3181,
262,
6388,
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904,
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290,
340,
10448,
26070,
837,
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5913,
319,
2534,
2932,
837,
810,
257,
4143,
1396,
353,
306,
5202,
27165,
262,
6388,
8203,
663,
10066,
1290,
7627,
286,
262,
1748,
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383,
23964,
925,
43682,
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262,
5422,
286,
262,
15725,
16132,
5866,
287,
2258,
5913,
1568,
326,
1110,
837,
996,
262,
14555,
12751,
422,
262,
6388,
2067,
1811,
1528,
2961,
837,
351,
35253,
82,
7317,
3812,
262,
24287,
475,
1568,
1090,
1075,
26283,
904,
764,
17905,
286,
2092,
2344,
15381,
3690,
262,
3814,
5220,
326,
262,
308,
1000,
33264,
837,
31607,
837,
329,
1811,
2250,
764,
632,
4191,
3888,
736,
503,
284,
5417,
981,
5366,
286,
32134,
837,
6025,
837,
37717,
262,
3814,
319,
1987,
2932,
764,
383,
23964,
9456,
352,
2488,
12,
31,
5664,
5415,
12605,
13520,
286,
9796,
16462,
357,
19038,
10571,
1220,
289,
1267,
981,
18479,
837,
7548,
284,
257,
21743,
362,
1080,
319,
262,
311,
2001,
343,
784,
20531,
23964,
2344,
5046,
764,
2893,
18479,
968,
4492,
837,
262,
308,
1000,
8096,
257,
50176,
286,
13520,
4101,
21504,
357,
6640,
10571,
1267,
3094,
837,
290,
373,
938,
6515,
655,
5366,
286,
17711,
32586,
319,
1679,
2932,
4622,
17642,
837,
351,
12605,
13520,
286,
5441,
16462,
357,
7982,
10571,
1220,
289,
1267,
764,
220,
198
] |
= = Impact = =
|
[
796,
796,
17677,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
The hurricane damaged several vessels while still drifting at sea , dispersing and damaging Jérôme Bonaparte 's fleet and dismasting the 74 @-@ gun French ship of the line Impétueux , which later landed near Cape Henry .
|
[
383,
23964,
9694,
1811,
14891,
981,
991,
38193,
379,
5417,
837,
39895,
278,
290,
14790,
449,
42445,
27083,
1326,
7979,
499,
32074,
705,
82,
11026,
290,
18099,
9222,
262,
8915,
2488,
12,
31,
2485,
4141,
4074,
286,
262,
1627,
9855,
25125,
518,
2821,
837,
543,
1568,
11406,
1474,
15725,
8616,
764,
220,
198
] |
In Charleston , South Carolina , the hurricane washed aground several ships and uprooted numerous trees , though damage to the city harbor was minimal . The lighthouse on North Island flanking Winyah Bay collapsed under high winds , and in Georgetown proper , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since the 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane , despite its storm surge being of a lesser size . A cotton field covering 94 acres was ruined nearby . At Smithville , North Carolina , numerous ships experienced damage , while considerable destruction to structures was observed , with many wharves wrecked . Meanwhile , at Wilmington , the hurricane inflicted widespread damage , with many wharves severely damaged , and significant losses sustained by salt , sugar , rice , and lumber industries . The gable sections of three masonry houses were destroyed by wind or water , and wooden houses suffered especially badly , with many obliterated and those under construction flattened . One individual died after a wall collapsed and several slaves were killed , one by drowning , at local plantations . At Bald Head Island , the United States Revenue Cutter Service vessel Governor Williams was stripped of its foremast and subsequently ran ashore before being repaired and continuing on its journey . A second boat owned by the agency , the Diligence , was tethered at port in Wilmington and endured no damage ; similarly , little impact occurred at New Bern . Throughout the storm , several vessels and supplies of stranded sailors were driven aground along the North <unk> coast . On the Bogue Banks , the remains of the Adolphus and Atlantic were discovered , and at the Core Banks , a dead body was washed ashore , partially eaten by fish .
|
[
554,
26070,
837,
2520,
5913,
837,
262,
23964,
18989,
556,
744,
1811,
7937,
290,
31921,
5191,
6409,
7150,
837,
996,
2465,
284,
262,
1748,
25451,
373,
10926,
764,
383,
46371,
319,
2258,
5451,
781,
15230,
370,
3541,
993,
4696,
14707,
739,
1029,
13520,
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290,
287,
31393,
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23964,
373,
3177,
284,
307,
262,
5290,
1201,
262,
1248,
3023,
3738,
328,
6413,
784,
26070,
23964,
837,
3805,
663,
6388,
13853,
852,
286,
257,
14494,
2546,
764,
317,
15985,
2214,
9505,
10048,
16051,
373,
20484,
6716,
764,
1629,
4176,
4244,
837,
2258,
5913,
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6409,
7937,
5924,
2465,
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981,
11091,
8166,
284,
8573,
373,
6515,
837,
351,
867,
348,
283,
1158,
44770,
764,
11214,
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379,
47251,
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262,
23964,
27010,
10095,
2465,
837,
351,
867,
348,
283,
1158,
15052,
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837,
290,
2383,
9089,
12605,
416,
8268,
837,
7543,
837,
11464,
837,
290,
34840,
11798,
764,
383,
308,
540,
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286,
1115,
285,
38950,
7777,
547,
6572,
416,
2344,
393,
1660,
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290,
13510,
7777,
6989,
2592,
11234,
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351,
867,
35722,
515,
290,
883,
739,
5103,
45096,
764,
1881,
1981,
3724,
706,
257,
3355,
14707,
290,
1811,
13384,
547,
2923,
837,
530,
416,
32249,
837,
379,
1957,
49441,
764,
1629,
17048,
7123,
5451,
837,
262,
1578,
1829,
20197,
49160,
4809,
8837,
10807,
6484,
373,
18818,
286,
663,
1674,
47616,
290,
12412,
4966,
45817,
878,
852,
27457,
290,
8282,
319,
663,
7002,
764,
317,
1218,
8848,
6898,
416,
262,
4086,
837,
262,
29328,
328,
594,
837,
373,
28408,
6083,
379,
2493,
287,
47251,
290,
24067,
645,
2465,
2162,
12470,
837,
1310,
2928,
5091,
379,
968,
6206,
764,
24581,
262,
6388,
837,
1811,
14891,
290,
9416,
286,
28553,
29996,
547,
7986,
556,
744,
1863,
262,
2258,
1279,
2954,
29,
7051,
764,
1550,
262,
347,
5119,
19566,
837,
262,
3793,
286,
262,
1215,
10196,
385,
290,
10596,
547,
5071,
837,
290,
379,
262,
7231,
19566,
837,
257,
2636,
1767,
373,
18989,
45817,
837,
12387,
17065,
416,
5916,
764,
220,
198
] |
Moderate damage occurred upon the hurricane 's arrival in Norfolk , Virginia . Winds toppled a number of newly built structures and chimneys , uprooted trees and fences , and washed two watercraft aground . After the storm , alterations to the shoreline around the Chesapeake Bay permitted the full establishment of a town at Willoughby Spit . The Rose @-@ in @-@ Bloom was caught in the hurricane while offshore of Barnegat Inlet , New Jersey , en route to New York City from Charleston , but was struck by a large wave which overturned the ship , resulting in the deaths of 21 of its 48 passengers and the loss of $ 171 @,@ 000 of its $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1806 USD ) cargo . The vessel only barely stayed afloat , with 30 bales of cotton preventing it from sinking entirely ; survivors were ferried to New York by the British brig Swift , which had then been traveling toward St. John 's , Newfoundland . The hurricane produced strong gusts within the vicinity of New York City , and at Belleville , New Jersey , several peach trees were defoliated and uprooted . Cape Cod , Massachusetts was struck by heavy rain and observed minor damage to its port . At Edgartown , meanwhile , an individual witnessed torrential rainfall , recording that a barrel was filled with 30 in ( 76 cm ) of water , and estimating total rainfall reached 36 in ( 91 cm ) there , where the storm devastated local crops and beached five cargo ships . At Brewster , meanwhile , severe damage to crops and <unk> was noted , and 18 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall was recorded . Reports in Boston , however , indicate more modest rainfall amounts , with a precipitation rate of 0 @.@ 40 in ( 1 @.@ 0 cm ) per hour noted .
|
[
43668,
2465,
5091,
2402,
262,
23964,
705,
82,
10325,
287,
32134,
837,
6025,
764,
22608,
48757,
257,
1271,
286,
8308,
3170,
8573,
290,
18205,
20141,
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31921,
5191,
7150,
290,
35771,
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290,
18989,
734,
1660,
3323,
556,
744,
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2293,
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29858,
284,
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15191,
1370,
1088,
262,
28250,
49528,
4696,
10431,
262,
1336,
9323,
286,
257,
3240,
379,
2561,
619,
1525,
48377,
764,
383,
8049,
2488,
12,
31,
287,
2488,
12,
31,
11891,
373,
4978,
287,
262,
23964,
981,
18479,
286,
2409,
12480,
265,
554,
1616,
837,
968,
8221,
837,
551,
6339,
284,
968,
1971,
2254,
422,
26070,
837,
475,
373,
7425,
416,
257,
1588,
6769,
543,
27153,
262,
4074,
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7186,
287,
262,
7040,
286,
2310,
286,
663,
4764,
10405,
290,
262,
2994,
286,
720,
28369,
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11,
31,
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11546,
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11,
31,
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357,
1248,
3312,
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1267,
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764,
383,
8837,
691,
8523,
9658,
45759,
837,
351,
1542,
275,
2040,
286,
15985,
12174,
340,
422,
27141,
5000,
2162,
13644,
547,
11354,
2228,
284,
968,
1971,
416,
262,
3517,
24393,
15608,
837,
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= Forward Intelligence Team =
|
[
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Forward Intelligence Teams ( FITs ) are two or more police officers who are deployed by UK police forces to gather intelligence on the ground and in some circumstances , to disrupt activists and deter anti @-@ social behaviour . They use cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . An unsuccessful legal challenge has been made against their use of overt surveillance , but in 2009 the Court of Appeal ruled that they must justify retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . Any retained information is recorded on the Crimint database .
|
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Political activists have criticised FITs and said that they feel the aim of FIT deployment during protests is to prevent legal protests . Journalists have also complained that FITs attempt to stop them photographing protests and that they conduct surveillance of journalists . A campaign group , Fitwatch , formed in 2007 that aim to obstruct FITs and conduct sousveillance on the officers . Two members of the group were arrested at the 2008 Climate Camp on obstruction charges . A similar police surveillance unit , the Video Intelligence Unit is operated by Greater Manchester Police . In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing .
|
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= = History and Purpose = =
|
[
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FITs were first formed in the early 1990s , as part of the Public Order Intelligence Unit ( <unk> ) , a section of the Public Order Branch of the Metropolitan Police . They initially targeted football fans , hunt saboteurs and political protesters ( since at least 1996 ) , using cameras , camcorders and audio recorders to conduct overt surveillance of the public . The police officers wear full uniform , and are intended to be a highly visible presence . Their uniform is sometimes different from normal police officers in that the upper half of their yellow fluorescent jackets is blue . Civilian photographers are also employed by the police to work alongside FITs . According to Scotland Yard , the aim of FIT teams at protests is to record evidence of protesters in case disorder occurs later on at a protest .
|
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More recently the teams ' purpose has been extended to routine police work on low @-@ level crime and anti @-@ social behaviour and police forces throughout the UK now have their own FITs . Despite the implication in their name that their function is to merely gather intelligence , they are also intended to have a deterrent effect . This approach has been reported to work in reducing reports of anti @-@ social behaviour at times when FITs are deployed in specific neighbourhoods . Jacqui Smith , then Home Secretary praised Operation Leopard that used FITs to target youths , in <unk> , Essex stating :
|
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" Operation Leopard is exactly the sort of intensive policing that can bring persistent offenders to their senses ... Relentless filming of them and their associates throughout the day and night "
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Linda Catt , an activist , has suggested that their tactics are " designed to intimidate people and prevent lawful dissent " . This view is echoed by a police debriefing of their operations at the 2008 Camp for Climate Action which praised FITs at the event for disrupting activists .
|
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In June 2010 , the Home Office announced it would review the use of FITs during public order policing . The move was influenced by the discovery that information collected by FITs , included that which was unrelated to suspected crimes , for example recording who made speeches at demonstrations .
|
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In October 2010 , FIT officers in plain clothes were spotted by a press photographer at a protest against companies avoiding tax , despite Commander Bob Broadhurst telling a parliamentary committee in May 2009 , that only uniformed officers distinguishable by their blue and yellow jackets were involved in gathering intelligence at protests . The Metropolitan Police told The Guardian that it was necessary to deploy plain @-@ clothed officers to " gather information to provide us with a relevant and up @-@ to @-@ date intelligence picture of what to expect " . It was the first time that FITs are known to have been deployed in plain clothes .
|
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= = Legal issues = =
|
[
796,
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16027,
2428,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
Liberty brought a judicial review of the overt surveillance practices in May 2008 , which was decided in favour of the police , however the police were asked to clarify their evidence to the Court of Appeal , following an investigation by The Guardian newspaper .
|
[
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] |
In May 2009 , the Court of Appeal ruled that photographs collected by FITs of people who have not committed a criminal offence can no longer be kept . The ruling was made after Andrew Wood , an arms trade activist , was photographed after challenging the management of Reed Elsevier at their AGM over them organising arms trade exhibitions . Wood argued that police had harassed him and infringed his right to privacy by photographing him . Lord Collins of <unk> said that the police presence had a " chilling effect " on people who were protesting lawfully . FITs have not been banned but they must now justify the retention of photographs on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis . As a result of the ruling the Metropolitan Police 's public order unit , <unk> was forced to delete 40 % of the photos of protesters that it held .
|
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In a report about the policing of the 2009 G @-@ 20 London summit protests , Denis O 'Connor , the chief inspector of constabulary , stated that the routine use of FITs at protests " raises fundamental privacy issues and should be reviewed " . He also said that there was " confusion " over the role of FITs and advised that the Home Office should issue guidance over the legality of the surveillance of protesters and the retention of images .
|
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] |
= = Information processing = =
|
[
796,
796,
6188,
7587,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
The information that FITs collect is stored on the Crimint database , which is used daily by police officers to catalogue criminal intelligence . People are listed by name allowing police to determine which events individuals have attended . Photographs obtained by FITs are used to produce " spotter cards " consisting of people 's photographs which allows officers to identify people at future events that they attend . For £ 10 , people are able to obtain a list of protests that they have attended from the data held on Crimint under laws in the Data Protection Act 1998 .
|
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] |
= = Academic response = =
|
[
796,
796,
31421,
2882,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
A 2006 report , The Economics of Mass Surveillance calculated that the use of FITs at mass gatherings involves gathering intelligence on roughly 1 @,@ 200 people to record the actions of one person . The report also noted that most of the people on " spotter cards " , used by the police photographers , were those involved in the organisation of protests and that FITs also attend meetings where demonstrations are organised .
|
[
317,
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220,
198
] |
= = Criticism = =
|
[
796,
796,
10056,
11965,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
Fitwatch ( formed in early 2007 ) campaign against FITs by actively obstructing their operations , and by passively opposing their operations by photographing units ( a form of sousveillance ) .
|
[
25048,
8340,
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] |
In June 2009 , The Guardian released video evidence recorded by a FIT at the 2008 Climate Camp of alleged police brutality against two female members of Fitwatch . The women had asked police officers to reveal their shoulder numbers , as at least four officers had not displayed them . The women attempted to photograph the police officers for evidence , but were forced to the ground , restrained with handcuffs , and had their legs bound with straps . They were then placed in restraint positions , arrested , charged and held in custody for four days , including three days in HMP <unk> , before they were released on bail . The police later retracted all the charges against the women . The women lodged a complaint with the IPCC over the incident . The journalist George Monbiot commented on this case , saying that " the police are turning activism into a crime " and that " the FITs ' methods appear to have been lifted from a Stasi training manual " . He claimed that " anybody who is politically active is filmed , identified , monitored , logged , and cross @-@ checked " . A police debrief into the operation at Kingsnorth praised the deployment of FITs saying that they were " highly effective and gained good intelligence and disruption " .
|
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] |
Three members of Fitwatch were convicted for obstructing FIT officers in June 2008 as they attempted to photograph those attending a No Borders meeting in London . In July 2010 the Inner London Crown Court overturned the men 's convictions , with the judge stating that the protesters ' human rights may have been violated by the FIT officers .
|
[
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On 15 November 2010 , the hosts of the Fitwatch blog were asked by the Police National E @-@ Crime Unit to take down the website due to it " being used to undertake criminal activities " . The request came after a post on the blog after the 2010 student protest in London , which advised students of actions they should take if they were concerned that they were photographed at the demonstration , such as cutting their hair and disposing of clothing they were wearing . Emily Apple , one of the founders of the site told The Guardian , " Nothing in that post [ giving guidance to student protesters ] has not been said before on our blog or on other sites " . On 17 November 2010 , the Fitwatch website returned , hosted on a web server outside of the UK .
|
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] |
The National Union of Journalists ( NUJ ) has criticised FITs for their surveillance and sometimes violent harassment of working journalists . Marc Vallee , who was hospitalised by police after documenting a protest , has said that the teams limit freedom of the press and called on the Home Office to confirm that the police had no right to restrict the work of photojournalists . Bob Broadhurst , who is in charge of public order policing at the Metropolitan Police , said in a statement to the NUJ in 2008 that journalists , " on the production of a valid form of accreditation will be able to continue with their work " . The NUJ are to make a formal complaint to the Information Commissioner due to the Metropolitan Police failing to provide details on the surveillance of journalists under the Freedom of Information Act . Bob Broadhurst told photographers at an NUJ conference that he had no faith in the National Press Card ( a form of press pass ) despite journalists needing to prove that they are bona @-@ fide <unk> to an independent authority before they are issued .
|
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] |
The BBC TV series Panorama produced an episode entitled What ever happened to people power ? in July 2009 which discussed the use of FITs in targeting activists and journalists .
|
[
383,
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779,
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287,
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7941,
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9046,
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198
] |
= = Similar police units = =
|
[
796,
796,
11014,
1644,
4991,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
Greater Manchester Police operate a Video Intelligence Unit , whose plainclothes officers confront and video certain freed prisoners as they leave prison after serving their sentences . They also record footage of people involved in anti @-@ social behaviour on the streets . The aim is to give other police officers up to date information on the appearance of people who have broken the law . Video footage thus collected is constantly replayed on TV screens in rooms where officers complete their paperwork . Footage that they have recorded has also been uploaded onto YouTube in an attempt to catch people they believe have <unk> . This has resulted in several offenders being sent back to prison after breaching licence conditions . Since the unit was launched in 2006 more than 900 people have been filmed by the unit . Not all of these people are suspects in crime however , people can be filmed if they are thought to associate with prolific offenders or if they have been stopped in an area of high crime under suspicious circumstances . Kieran Walsh , a civil liberties lawyer , said the unit 's work " could have implications " for the force under Article 8 of the European Convention on Human Rights - the right to privacy . He believes that filming must be a " proportionate and reasonable " response to a crime and that this does not appear to be the case as people are being targeted over what they might do in the future . It is uncertain as to how long data collected by the unit is to be kept but GMP currently anticipate it will be stored for 5 years .
|
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481,
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198
] |
= Trinsey v. Pennsylvania =
|
[
796,
33822,
4397,
410,
13,
9589,
796,
220,
198
] |
Trinsey v. Pennsylvania 941 F.2d 224 was a case decided by the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit that confirmed the validity of special elections held without a primary under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments to the United States Constitution . The case came about due to the death of H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , in a plane crash on April 4 , 1991 . Under the Seventeenth Amendment , state legislatures may give the Governor the power to appoint officials to fill temporarily vacant Senate seats until a special election can be held , and Pennsylvanian law contained a statute executing this and requiring no primaries for the special election . Instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidates . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a voter and potential candidate , asked the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania to declare the statute unconstitutional as a violation on the Fourteenth and Seventeenth amendments , because the lack of a primary removed his right to properly vote for candidates and delegated that power to political parties .
|
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1829,
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329,
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3015,
329,
5871,
290,
49711,
326,
1176,
284,
1964,
4671,
764,
220,
198
] |
After deciding that the statute 's subject matter necessitated the strict scrutiny approach , the District Court decided on June 10 , 1991 that it was an unconstitutional violation of the right to vote for and select Senate candidates . This decision was appealed to the Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit , who decided against the use of the strict scrutiny approach and , in its absence , ruled that the statute was not a violation of the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments . Academics have been critical of both the decision reached and the approach used , with one suggesting that the " substantial state interests " test used in Valenti v. Rockefeller would be more appropriate .
|
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] |
= = Background = =
|
[
796,
796,
25353,
796,
796,
220,
198
] |
On April 4 , 1991 H. John Heinz III , one of the US Senators from Pennsylvania , was killed when his chartered plane collided with a helicopter inspecting its landing gear . Under the Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution , the legislature of each state has the power to permit the governor to fill the vacant seat until a special election can be held . In Pennsylvania , this power had been delegated , and Governor Robert P. Casey signed a writ on May 13 , 1991 , declaring November 5 the date for a special election and temporarily appointing Harris Wofford to fill Heinz 's now @-@ vacant seat . Under Pennsylvanian law , there was no need for a primary in such a situation ; instead , both the Democrats and Republicans would each internally select their candidate , who would run in the special election . John S. Trinsey Jr . , a member of the Pennsylvanian electorate and potential candidate , challenged the constitutionality of this law , claiming that it violated his rights under the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments .
|
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Trinsey argued that , by failing to allow for primaries , the state legislation prevented him from getting to select a candidate of his choice , and that this violated the Fourteenth Amendment ; the terms of the statute ( and absence of a requirement for primaries ) also allegedly infringed the rights of the electorate under the Seventeenth Amendment , which required the selection of Senators by popular vote ; Trinsey 's complaint was that the legislation had effectively delegated the power to choose candidates to political parties rather than the electorate . Accordingly , Trinsey filed a motion for a declaratory judgment to state that the statute was unconstitutional , and also requested that Wofford be removed from his seat . Counsel for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania , joined by the office of the Governor , argued that the constitution did not require the holding of primary elections to fill vacancies , and that the statute " protected valid and compelling state interests in protecting the validity of the electoral process and limiting the term of a [ <unk> ] appointed Senator " .
|
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= = Judgment = =
|
[
796,
796,
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796,
220,
198
] |
The case was first heard in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania , where , following oral arguments , the judge dismissed both Trinsey 's motion to remove Wofford and the Commonwealth 's motion to dismiss . On June 10 , 1991 , however , the District Court declared the statute unconstitutional , stating that it violated both the Fourteenth and Seventeenth Amendments due to the failure to ensure " popular participation " through the use of primary elections . This decision was reached following an analysis of the legislative history of the Seventeenth Amendment and electoral processes ; based on this analysis , the court concluded that the Pennsylvanian use of a nomination process before a special election implied a right to vote , which was violated by the lack of a primary and necessitated a strict scrutinising of the legislation . After considering the evidence , the court concluded that " the interests the Commonwealth put forth in support of the statute could not outweigh the infringement of the right to vote " , leading to the conclusion that the statute governing special elections was unconstitutional .
|
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