Version Notes: Version 0.2 dated August 31,2020 1. A separate Section has been added on Recital flow and pause. 2. More articulation has been done on Swarabhakti 3. More explanations shall be provided after going through Classical SikshA texts in future. We are awaiting English translation of some of these Classical texts.

Contents 1 Veda Recital Concepts & Rules ....................................................................................... 6

Contents Veda Recital Concepts & Rules ............ceccsecssseeeecsseeeeeesseeenessaeeeeseeaeseseaaeesesenaeensseesaeenaas 6 1.1 The Separator ‘|’ AN ‘||? ........::ccc:scceceeeeeeeee cess eeeeeeseeaeeeeseseeeeeseseneeeeeeeees 6 2 Rules for Anuswara 2.1 BaASICS........2ccccceeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeaeeeeeeseeecaeeeeeeaeaeeseseaecaeeeseseeeeeeeseeeeeeees 2.2 Reading the Veda books/texts.............:c::e:cceeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 10 2.3. anuswAram followed by Consonants Examples: ...........2::::c0e1ee 11 2.4 Not to Convert ‘n’ into AMNUSWAMM .............cccceeceeee eee eeeee ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 14 2.5 AmUSWAraim i OM 2. cee eee cece eee ee ee neeeeeeee eens ee eeeeeeee ee eeeeeeeeeeeeeeenaeee 14 3 ANUNASIKAM 1... eeeeeteeeeeee eet eeeee eee eeeee eee neeee eae eee eee eaee ease eeeeaeaeaeesaeseeeeseaeseeesaneseeeeeeeneeeeeeeenees 16 3.1 Relative strength of ANUNASIKAMN...........22:::cccceecceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 18 3.2. No anunAsikam for Sandhi-formations 4 Rules for ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ 4.1 Rules fOr QIN (W) -.eseseeececeeseeeetceeeeeeseseseene nets canes neeeneneeneneteneeteneaeneaeaeaees 20 4.2 Normally ‘M’ merges with following vowel ..............:::::s:::seeeeeeeeeeee 24 4.3 Swaras (Vowels) ~ Exception ...........scsccccseesseeeeeeteneeeetseneneneneeeaes 25 4.4 Rules for Gg ( ).....cceseccessceeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeseeeeeeeeeneeesnaaeaesseaeesseeeeeneeeeeeaes 29 4.5 Application of (gm) or (gg) —with lighter Stress .................::eeeeee 32 4.6 Swaram rules or acquisition by gm and QQ...........:::::ccceeseeeeeeeeeeeeees 34 4.7 Rendering of ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ from Other Veda Schools.................20+ 37 5 Special Vedic recital RuUICS.............cccessseeeessceeeessseeeseseeeeeesseeseeesaeeeeseaeseeseaeeeessseeeessanees 39 5.1 Extension of ‘r’( Z, J, B) or SwaraBhaktti ...........cscseeeessessseseeeeeees 39

<table><tr><td>Veda 1.1</td><td>Recital Concepts &amp; Rules The Separator ‘|’ AN ‘||? ........::ccc:scceceeeeeeeee cess eeeeeeseeaeeeeseseeeeeseseneeeeeeeees 6</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">RUMeS for ANUSWALa .......cecceececeneeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeseeeeeeeseeeeesaessaeeeaeeseaeseaaeasaeeeseeesaeeseeeeeaeeeeeaeeas 9</td></tr><tr><td>2.1</td><td>ST (eee 9</td></tr><tr><td>2.2</td><td>Reading the Veda books/texts.............:c::e:cceeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 10</td></tr><tr><td>2.3.</td><td>anuswAram followed by Consonants Examples: ...........2::::c0e1ee 11</td></tr><tr><td>2.4</td><td>Not to Convert ‘n’ into ANUSWAM 1.00.0... cee cece eneeeeeeeeeeeeseeeneeeeeeeeeneeneees 14</td></tr><tr><td>2.5</td><td>AnuswAram in OM 2....... ees</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">AMUNASIKAM 2... see eeeceeeee een eneee eee eeeeee ne eeeeeeueeeeeeeaseeeaeaeaeesaeaseeessaeneaeseasseeeesesseaeeseseneaeneeeneatans</td></tr><tr><td>3.1</td><td>Relative strength of ANUNASIKAMN...........22:::cccceecceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 18</td></tr><tr><td>3.2.</td><td>No anunAsikam for Sandhi-formations ...........ccsecseeeeeeeneeeeeeeneeeeees 19</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Rules for ‘Qim’ and ‘QQ) ........eccceeeeeesceeneeeeeeeesaeeeeeeensaeesaeeesseeseseeseaaeseaeesaeaeseeeeeeeseeseeseseensaes 20</td></tr><tr><td>4.1</td><td>Rules fOr QIN (W) -.eseseeececeeseeeetceeeeeeseseseene nets canes neeeneneeneneteneeteneaeneaeaeaees 20</td></tr><tr><td>4.2</td><td>Normally ‘M’ merges with following vowel ..............:::::s:::seeeeeeeeeeee 24</td></tr><tr><td>4.3</td><td>Swaras (Vowels) ~ Exception ...........scsccccseesseeeeeeteneeeetseneneneneeeaes 25</td></tr><tr><td>4.4</td><td>Rules for Gg ( ).....cceseccessceeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeseeeeeeeeeneeesnaaeaesseaeesseeeeeneeeeeeaes 29</td></tr><tr><td>4.5</td><td>Application of (gm) or (gg) —with lighter Stress .................::eeeeee 32</td></tr><tr><td>4.6</td><td>Swaram rules or acquisition by gm and QQ...........:::::ccceeseeeeeeeeeeeeees 34</td></tr><tr><td>4.7</td><td>Rendering of ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ from Other Veda Schools.................20+ 37</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Special Vedic recital RUIOS..............cccccccsssesecessneeeeeseeeeeeesseeeeessaeeeesseaeseseaeeesesenaeensssesenens 39</td></tr><tr><td>5.1</td><td>Extension of ‘r’( Z, J, B) or SwaraBhaktti ...........cscseeeessessseseeeeeees 39</td></tr></table>

Extension of ‘I’ ( Z, J, B) or SwaraBhakti ...........cscsceeesesseeseseeeeeees 41

Extension of Halants at the end of the Statement: .......................... 47

5.3.1 Special note on ‘n’ at the end of the Statement: .............................................. 49

Statement: ........................................................................................................ 55 5.6 Areas to give pause when words cannot be taken together ........... 57 5.7 Areas with no distinct/full sounds for letters ................................... 61 5.7.1 Combinations of ‘n’,’th’ ...................................................................................... 61 5.7.2 The word ‘Ru’ after two halant letters: .............................................................. 63 5.8 Extension/Pause before Vowels ......................................................... 63 5.9 Halant “h” followed by Nasal Letters ................................................ 65 6.1 SamhitA and components................................................................... 68 6.2 Reference in prAtiSAkyam: ................................................................ 69 6.3 Common Approach: ............................................................................ 71 6.4 Words combinations: .......................................................................... 72 6.5 Ending is a Vowel sound: ................................................................... 72 6.5.1 Combination of Vowels ...................................................................................... 73 6.5.2 Formation of Avagraha ...................................................................................... 75 6.5.3 Generation of different Vowel sound ................................................................ 77 6.5.4 Sandhi not performed ........................................................................................ 80 6.6 Ending in Visargam ............................................................................. 81 6.6.1 Substitution of Letter ......................................................................................... 81 6.6.2 Visarga is dropped ............................................................................................. 83 6.6.3 Change of letter .................................................................................................. 84 6.6.4 Avagraha is formed ............................................................................................ 85 6.7 An anuswAram at the end: ................................................................. 86 6.7.1 AnuswAram combines with following Letter ................................................... 86 6.7.2 AnuswAram becomes (gm) or (gg) ................................................................... 87

<table><tr><td>5.6</td><td>Areas to give pause when words cannot be taken together........... 57</td></tr><tr><td>5.7</td><td>Areas with no distinct/full sounds for letters ..............:::ccesseeeeees 61</td></tr><tr><td>5.7.1</td><td>Combinations of '17,’th’ ...........cccccccccssssssceeeeeseeessessssceeeeeeseeeeesassnsaeeeeeeeeeeeaesssseanees 61</td></tr><tr><td>5.7.2.</td><td>The word ‘Ru’ after two halant letters: ...........cccssccesseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 63</td></tr><tr><td>5.8</td><td>Extension/Pause before Vowells............::::cccs::ccesseeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeees 63</td></tr><tr><td>5.9</td><td>Halant “h” followed by Nasal Letters .................ce:seceeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 65</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">Overview Rendering flow and PauSe ..........:::ccseccscceseeeeeeeeeeseeseeeeeseeeseeeeesaeeeeaeensaeeeeeeees 68</td></tr><tr><td>6.1</td><td>SamhitA and COMPOMNENMS............cccescscseecseeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeeessaseeaeaeeaeeeee 68</td></tr><tr><td>6.2</td><td>Reference in prAtiSAkyam: ...........::ccc:sccceceseceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeees 69</td></tr><tr><td>6.3</td><td>COMMON Approach: ......... cece ee eeeeeeeesensseasaeeaeeeeeeeeeeeseeeessesenesaeaaes 71</td></tr><tr><td>6.4</td><td>Words combinations: ........2.....c:c:scccccesseeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeesesseeeeeseeseneeeeees 72</td></tr><tr><td>6.5</td><td>Ending is a Vowel SOUNG: ...........::cccceseeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeceeeeneeeeeeeeeeeeeeenes 72</td></tr><tr><td>6.5.1</td><td>Combination of Vowel ls ..........cscccsscecescesseeeseeeeseeeeeeeeeeaeeseeeeeeeeeeeeasesaesesaeeneeeeeeeaeee 73</td></tr><tr><td>6.5.2</td><td>Formation of Avagraha ...........sccccscecescesseeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeaeeseaeeeeaeeeeeaeesaesesaesneeeeeeeaeeee 75</td></tr><tr><td>6.5.3</td><td>Generation of different Vowel SOUNG .........:ccs:cceseeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeesaeenseeeseeeesee 77</td></tr><tr><td>6.5.4</td><td>Sandhi not performed ...........:ccccccssccecessneeeesseeeeesseeeeesesaaeensseaesessaeeesesenaeensseesanens 80</td></tr><tr><td>6.6</td><td>Ending in Visargam ...........2:.cccccsesccceceeeeeeee sense eeeeeeeeeeeeceeseseeeeeeseeeeeeeeees 81</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.1</td><td>Substitution of Letter ..........cceccccsecececeeseeeeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeseeseeeeeseeeeeeaeesaeeesaeeneaeeseeeeene 81</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.2</td><td>Visarga is dropped... +183</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.3</td><td>Change Of letter ..........ccceccessceessceseeeeeeceeseeeeeeeeseeeeeaeeesaeeseeeeseaeeeseaeesaeeesaeeneeeeeeeeeee 84</td></tr><tr><td>6.6.4</td><td>Avagraha is fOrmea ..........ccccceecceeeeeeeeceeneeeeeeeeseeeeeaeeeeaeeseeaeeeeeeeeeaeesaesesaeeneaeeeeeaeees 85</td></tr><tr><td>6.7</td><td>An anuswAram at the end: .........2::cccecseeeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeneeeeeee 86</td></tr><tr><td>6.7.1</td><td>AnuswAram combines with following Letter ...........:::cc:ccssceeeceeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee 86</td></tr></table>

6 Overview Rendering flow and Pause ............................................................................ 68

6.7.3 AnuswAram is retained ...................................................................................... 89 6.7.4 AnuswAram is recited differently ...................................................................... 90 6.8 Ending is a halant ................................................................................ 91 6.8.1 Halant forms a Swarayukta/Samyukta akshara: .............................................. 91 6.8.2 Halant joins next letter with only letter pause .................................................. 92 6.8.3 There is substitution of Letters ......................................................................... 94 6.8.4 Usage of special Sandhi Rules .......................................................................... 96 6.9 General Rule of combination : ............................................................ 98 6.10 Recital flow should match with Padam in SamhitA: ........................ 98 6.11 Some Special Rules for SikShA ....................................................... 103 7.1 Rules from prAtiSAkyam................................................................... 110 7.2 Explanation with Examples .............................................................. 111 7.3 Examples for words with dheerga letters ....................................... 114

<table><tr><td>6.7.4</td><td>AnuswAram is recited</td><td>differently.............:c:ccscceeseeeeseeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeesaeeneeeeeeeeeeee 90</td></tr><tr><td>6.8</td><td>Ending is a halant</td><td>.............cccccceccceceeeeseeceeeeeeceeeeeeeeeeeeeee sense seseeeeeeeeeeeees 91</td></tr><tr><td>6.8.1</td><td>Halant forms a Swarayukta/Samyukta akshara:</td><td>.........c:cccssceeeeesseeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeee 91</td></tr><tr><td>6.8.2</td><td>Halant joins next letter with only letter</td><td>PaUSe............::ccsseseeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeneeeneenees 92</td></tr><tr><td>6.8.3.</td><td>There is substitution of Letters ........ ccc</td><td>ccseceseesseeseeseessseeeesseesseeseesseeseoeseeseaees 94</td></tr><tr><td>6.8.4</td><td>Usage of special Sandhi Rules.</td><td>............::ccceccesseceeeeeeeseeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeesaeeeeaeenseeeeeeeeee 96</td></tr><tr><td>6.9</td><td>General Rule of COMbINAtION 3.0.0.0... cesses ener</td><td>eeeeeeeeseeeneeeeeeeseneeeeees 98</td></tr><tr><td>6.10</td><td>Recital flow should match with Padam in SamhitA:</td><td>.......... cesses 98</td></tr><tr><td>6.11</td><td>Some Special Rules for SiIKSNA ......... cee</td><td>eeeseeeseseseeeseeeseeeeenenenees 103</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Different Applications of (Qim) ANC (QQ).......:ccsscccecceeeceeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeaeeseeeeeseeseeeeeeeaeeseeeeee 110</td></tr><tr><td>7.1</td><td>Rules from prAtiSAkya.</td><td>............:::cecccceeesseeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeees 110</td></tr><tr><td>7.2</td><td>Explanation with Examples</td><td>..............c.c:cccssseseeeeeeeeeeeeseeesseaseeeeeeeeees 111</td></tr><tr><td>7.3</td><td>Examples for words with dheerga letters</td><td>................::::ccessseeeeeeees 114</td></tr></table>

7 Different Applications of (gm) and (gg) ....................................................................... 110

Different interpretation of Rule ......................................................... 115

A statement is marked with a separator ‘|’ in books indicating the end of a statement. (paadam or leg). For easy reference let us call this separator as Ruk-Stop or Vedic Full-Stop. While reciting, a pause must be given before the start of the next statement. (2nd paadam or leg ).

When the Chandas/MantrA ends, it is marked as ‘||’ (double vertical line) at the end of the statement. (last paadam of the Chandas/MantrA) .The Concept of Chandas is statement with predefined number of Letters / aksharas with well defined grammer rules. (Example: “Gaayatri Chandas”, “Anushtup Chandas” etc).

Examples of Chandas shall be provided in a separate Article – Basics of Veda - Chandas

A statement with a set of words ending with a separator is called a ‘Ruk’ in Veda. Note: The last aksharam/letter of a statement ending with either of the separators (Ruk) cannot have an anudAttam (lower) swaram.

d car reer act ste BT oT OL Wat Was Tl spam L4&3 erojeu DaCgramaiA BUCon L483 YJ JS u 42a II | | Do MID AU Mn: aerrexd ana Memo BU ao _ BENIN I

ZI Zûx— hM– sªp– C¥¸x—tpziy– s¥dx— hM e¡k G–Zx h—¥p–t || This is from Bhaagya Suktam as rendered together. But when it is rendered in a

split form, as in Udaka Shanti, the original statement first part will be as follows

with no AnudAtta for ‘mi’. The letter ‘mi’ has infact acquired AnudAtta to support upcoming ‘sa’ which is udAttam, due to combining two statements.

wpcoming Ga which is udAttam, due to combining two statements. d car rar a Se ft wT Ot Ua wae Tl sigam L4,%, erojeu geen ama | eno Geo L483 UT Jsr u 4COlgwy || Mo MID BN cea aeren annie | I I Flemo BU aly aQBmd SEAIAN Il ie Saer ofa | gd yy! SoS oi | eplb Lous, u, iC, Gg ,ouervul § Wash) | Qld U4 5,oveNg IF cuCroimuLd Ojscsr, Gs,a1vw! §,L0as8 | I l G00 813 — MoVANMdaco 1 ~~ ou 1 1 G00 813 — MoVANMdaco Bdecno eBravs Wann) |

The first statement does not have an anudAtta/lower swaram since the yam in “vareyNyam” is the last aksharam of a Ruk and does not acquire any swaram. The second statement vareyNyam is combined and the yam acquires anudAttam swaram to support upcoming ‘Ba’ which is udAttam.

The Start of a Ruk, the first akshara of the word/padam generally cannot be a Dheerga Swarita. But there are exception. The only exception we see is with the letter OM and the rest due to Sandhi Rules:

Example: at Teme | ait Tag: | at Tare | Sit eR | glo 55, UgJAML | elo HS,0UTWY: | eb HSTHLOM | HS OV H WILD | 90 MBLENUADO | 90 MVBIOD}2 | 690 MBIONO | 6300 MLATIM 0 |

Some Special rules due to Sandhi will be articulated in our Article on Dheerga Swaritam. One example is shown below where the first letter acquires Swaritam due to Sandhi Rule.

I I I I a aera Te | ae | | ¥ I I . ye I DMWIH TL Cus, TTWIH 6TH Gus, I s | ¥ @: enEURCO@MMe “COB MCOMWMMNo CAB GP

Similar statements with swaritam or dheerga Swaitam will appear as the first letter, if a Nitya Swara (Swaritam) is formed. E.g of words are

Kindly refer to our Article on Pada Paatam and Swara Flow for details.

The letters which are derived from base vowel Anuswara, ‘am’ (AÇ)

are all called AnuswAras. (Classical text reference is ‘anusvAraH’)

Example, ‘kam,tam,ram,sam,Sham, yam’. MÇü, iÉÇ , UÇ, xÉÇ, zÉÇ, rÉÇ,

Dheerga letters and conjunct consonant letters with dot are also anuswAra letters only.

In Sanskrit , zÉÇMüUç , will be read as zÉƒ¡ûUç and not as zÉqÉçMüUç. The ‘Xèû’

follow if the first letter is from ‘ka’ vargam. That is aÉÇaÉÉ will be read as aÉ…¡ûÉÉ and

The ‘m’ in the middle of the statement/word is presented as anuswAra. The ‘m’ at the end of the statement/Padams are represented as ‘m’ without anuswAram dot. But in modern books, it has become a pratice to print a word with ‘m’ ending with anuswAra. This is not preferred in the classical text.

There are differing views given in PS by various Rishis/Mahans of the past. PS 17-1 SaityAyana says that the nasal quality is stronger in anuswAra and the nasal mutes. (nasals of Consonant letters ~g,~j,N,n,m) PS 17-2 Kauhaliputra says that it is the same everywhere. PS 17-3 BhAradvAja rishi says it is faint in anuswAra compared to nasals of Consonants.

Currently VedaVMS compilations use anuswAram symbols at the end of the statements and words. It might take us some effort to represent them as ‘m’ due to the volume of compilations already released.

Generally the ‘m’ at the end of the statement/word shall have lesser nasal twang/tinge. Readers shall correctly pronunce the ‘m’ at the end of the statement. Also remember to follow the teachings of your Guru. The representation is not affected in Tamil and Malayalam languages as the ‘m’ is represented separately.

In Veda text reading, the convention followed in books may be different.

The fifth letter (nasal letter of the class) of the ka, cha, ta,Ta, pa varga , that is Xèû, gÉç , hÉç , lÉç, qÉç (WûsÉliÉç) will follow the letter with anuswAram of the respective varga.

zÉÇMüUç will be read as zÉƒ¡ûUç, aÉÇaÉÉ will be read as aÉ…¡ûÉÉ.

This rule will be extended while combining the end of Anuswara at the end of the first word with the first letter of the following word. Note: Readers must note the convention followed in a specific book. Many popular books printed for Veda Students print the vAkyam/SamhitA

as it is “to be read”. So these rules are already applied to the text while

compiling the book like zÉƒ¡ûU. Some print with AnuswAram only like zÉÇMüU.

Note: Vedavms compilations are printed with anuswAram and readers must recite correctly with substituting nasal class of the following letter. PS 5-27 says – “ a “m”, when followed by a mute, (Consonant) the ‘m’ becomes the nasal of like position(nasal of the Consonant) with it. Let us see examples:

As written in the book To be read as Rule applied afi at amp eaiyreroib eg Gamma annileome ea] eanomm \ afer alten am ofigmrerol s9° GAMITS oor nnnileoa ata) _ BjEanoM | Use of FA for ‘ca’ vargam Use of @ ‘for ‘F vargam Use of ore} ‘for ‘ol vargam guts a Sodom 6 GLO, gre 3 Use of x for ‘ca’ vargam Use of @ ‘for ‘F

5 gpodlom@ys Co, vargam Use ot BO) ‘for ‘ol isaileme 2! CO, vargam (sailor Biey 2! CO, I I I I wa safaea Tafa Use of ' for ‘ta’ 1 1 vargam paapsiyib peapsny Use of ff’ for ‘5 Ce,cunss un | Sous sound — |v" Meme Memo Use of fi for ‘@y’ BBAITILHI@o Baal rslewo vargam ast Sard af fer i voGysigCLir, ast Sarat af fer i VoGysigCL ir, anuswAram rendered as it is no change since the following letter is of ‘pa’ vargam where ‘Mm’ needs to be used. anuswAram rendered as it is no change since the

<table><thead><th colspan="2" rowspan="3">isaileme 2! CO,</th><th rowspan="3"></th><th rowspan="3">5 gpodlom@ys (sailor Biey</th><th rowspan="3">Co, 2! CO,</th><th rowspan="3">vargam Use ot BO) vargam</th><th rowspan="3">‘for ‘ol</th></thead><thead><th colspan="2"></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></thead><thead><th colspan="2"></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></thead><tr><td>I I wa safaea</td><td></td><td>I I Tafa</td><td></td><td>Use of '</td><td>for ‘ta’</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2">1 paapsiyib</td><td></td><td></td><td>vargam</td><td rowspan="2">for ‘5</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>1 peapsny</td><td></td><td>Use of ff’</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Ce,cunss</td><td>un</td><td>| Sous</td><td>sound —</td><td>|v"</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Meme</td><td></td><td>Memo</td><td></td><td>Use of fi</td><td>for ‘@y’</td></tr><tr><td>BBAITILHI@o</td><td></td><td>Baal rslewo</td><td></td><td>vargam</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tart</td><td></td><td>eam</td><td></td><td>anuswAram</td><td>rendered as</td></tr><tr><td>ser</td><td></td><td>ser</td><td></td><td>it is no change following</td><td>since the letter is of ‘pa’</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>vargam where</td><td>‘Mm’ needs</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="3">voGysigCLir,</td><td></td><td></td><td>to be used.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td>VoGysigCL ir,</td><td></td><td>anuswAram</td><td>rendered as</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2"></td><td></td><td></td><td>it is no change</td><td>since the</td></tr></table>

T IT usiné 4 SOT LIT 6OTIT LD I GlUOENYO eaniomoe I it} Mloraflwomdo T TT usins 4 SOT LIT 6TIT LO | GlUOENYO eaniombe I it} Mloraflwomdo vargam where ‘ib needs to be used. anuswAram rendered as it is no change since the following letter is of oy vargam where ‘m’ needs to be used. aa arrarat-Fara US vos; gob Hours I WO) veorn0mde Maw ara -areerat- far US vos; cor Bours I WO) veownomofn Boom Use of Ft for ‘ta’ vargam asi is a part of ‘ta’ vargam only. Use of i for § vargam as 5 is a part of 8 vargam only. Use of ® > for io} vargam as m is a part of iS) vargam only.

<table><tr><td>T IT usiné 4 SOT LIT 6OTIT LD</td><td>T TT usins 4 SOT LIT 6TIT LO</td><td>vargam where ‘ib needs</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">I GlUOENYO eaniomoe</td><td>|</td><td>to be used.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>GlUOENYO eaniombe</td><td>anuswAram rendered as</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="3">I it} Mloraflwomdo</td><td>I it}</td><td>it is no change since the</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Mloraflwomdo</td><td>following letter is of oy</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>vargam where ‘m’ needs to be used.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">aa arrarat-Fara</td><td>ara -areerat- far</td><td>Use of Ft for ‘ta’</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>vargam asi is a part of</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">US vos; gob Hours</td><td>vos; cor</td><td>‘ta’ vargam only.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>US Bours</td><td>Use of i for §</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2"></td><td></td><td>vargam as 5 is a part of</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>8 vargam only.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">I WO) veorn0mde</td><td>I WO) veownomofn</td><td>Use of ® &gt; for io}</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>vargam as m is a part of</td></tr><tr><td>Maw</td><td>Boom</td><td>iS) vargam only.</td></tr></table>

The normal representation of mantra “OM SAntiH SAntiH SAntiH” is

“AÉåÇ zÉÉÇÎiÉ–È zÉÉÇÎiÉ–È zÉÉÇÎiÉþÈ || “ since the ‘n’ that follows SA is not ‘m’ and

<table><tr><td>at safe:</td><td>“</td><td>since the</td><td>ota follows SA is</td><td>not 0</td><td>and</td></tr></table>

Another major rule is that, OM when uttered at the beginning of the Statement shall not be me merged with the following akshara.

2. OM shall not be joined with following akshara to make a Swarayuka or Samyukta Akshara.

3. There should be distinct pause between OM and the following word.

4. The exceptions given for OM is for O(gm) suvaH, O(gm) Satyam in Yajur veda paatam and further the six words that follow in the following mantra from MahaNArAyaNOpaniShad

ait ere | gib 55, UaML | abo MAlMUADO | Here the ‘M’ of OM can be rendered as ‘n’ because of the following letter is of ‘ta’ varga and the ta varga nasal is ‘n’ so it can be

Generally, OM should have a pause and not merged with the following

Note: Many learners render “OM NamO BhagavatE Rudraya” as “OnnamO Bhagavathe Rudraya”. Our guide clearly has instructed us that as per SikSha, there should not be Sandhi but avasana/pause. Similarly, “OM namO NarAyaNAya” is rendered without pause and with sandhi as “OnnamO NarAyaNAya”. This is sub-optimal way of rendering.

5. The above reference book also give examples that OM ShAnti ShAnti ShAnti shall be rendered without OM subjecting to Sandhi ie, it is not O(gm) ShAnti.

Note: The convention of rendering HariH OM is different though there is a common thread of reciting HariH OM in the Southern Part of India. This is being covered in a propsed Article on Basics of Veda Recital – Conventions.

When the anuswAram is followed by the Semi-vowel group letters, ya,la,va, the ‘m’ of the anuswAram is recited with the respective sounds of yya,vva,lla with a nasal twang. Basically when we say ’m’ of the anuswAram, the lips close and our sages have given us the techniques/rules to pronounce the instances with necessary changes to make the recital smoother. AnunAsikam is marked with the sign Æ ; some books print the same without the small horizontal line shown above. This is marked before the letters starting with ‘ya.la.va’ group. Sometimes the nasal sound along with l,y,v (WûsÉliÉç) is also marked to catch the attention of the reader.

When ‘l’ follows the nasal letter ‘n’ , the n becomes AnunAsikam.

PS 5-28 -Followed by a semivowel, it becomes a nasal of like quality with it. PS 5-29 - But not when followed by r. PS 5-25 – Both t and n, when followed by l, become l. (covered in Consonant Sandhi Rule Article) PS 5-26 - The n becomes nasalized l. Note: This rule is not only applicable across words but also in combination of Padams that create a new word.

As written in the book To be read/recited as af ay it 1 . JI, I CGRUTIMWS NBRo BWIECO CC) M9 MNBEo BWICO _— _

I i : I 2 81 55101b “alam LITUD | ¥ | anyermae AEM a19U0 : a l l 2 5),5 10 fue (50m LITUD DBL OMOAAUAUEEM nlOVO Example of ‘I’ after ‘n’ copenib “Gaon s Gans aac mers¥re) Cho CAIDCH : vat anso1 (00S Goons aAamMNM CARIOCA CRIDGH weet a arn fg “eter ay coat ar are eMS RT JCal eur o1(\peioL Oi pOGEON Cs | ABAD AIO coon, eB e Here the padam consists of two parts — sam + vathsaraH; so nasal is applied.

<table><tr><td rowspan="3">I i I 2 81 55101b | anyermae</td><td></td><td></td><td>:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>:</td><td></td><td>a</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>¥ | AEM</td><td>“alam LITUD | a19U0</td><td>l 2 5),5 | DBL</td><td>10 fue (50m | OMOAAUAUEEM</td><td>l LITUD | nlOVO</td></tr><tr><td>Example</td><td>of ‘I’ after</td><td>‘n’</td><td>:</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>copenib</td><td>“Gaon s</td><td>Gans</td><td>vat anso1</td><td>(00S</td><td>Goons</td></tr><tr><td>aac</td><td>» “CBIOCH&gt;</td><td>! CBIOCAs</td><td>I aAamMNM</td><td>CARIOCA</td><td>I CRIDGH</td></tr><tr><td>weet a</td><td>arn fg</td><td>“eter ay</td><td>coat ar</td><td>are eMS</td><td>RT</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">JCal eur o1(\peioL Oi pOGEON Cs</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ABAD</td><td>AIO coon,</td><td>| eB e</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Here the</td><td>padam consists</td><td>of two parts —</td></tr></table>

svins ss Mo NILA . " Here the padam constituents are v6 5 » TOGO sam+yanti; so nasal is applied.

<table><tr><td>svins ss Mo NILA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>.</td><td>Here the padam constituents are</td></tr><tr><td>v6 5</td><td>" TUG! sam+yanti; so nasal is applied.</td></tr></table>

Note: Some books print the vaakyam with words as it is to be read without AnunAsikam symbol. Some books also mark the anunAsikam symbol. It must be noted that advanced books for readers do not indicate AnunAsikam symbols. Students must take note of the conventions used in the book. In all our Compilations anunAsikam shall be marked distinctly before the following ‘y.’v’ or ‘l’ letters. Kindly note this convention and render mantras correctly.

The letter ‘y’ is sourced at the front-middle of the mouth, the letter ‘l’ is more to the front as it is dental and ‘v’ is labial (lip based). When we try to recite anunAsikam, the strength of ‘y’ is a little stronger, the strength of ‘l’ is light and the strength of ‘v’ is lighter.

A learner should not be over conscious of stressing the nasal sound and by practice make it easier and smooth. Kindly observe the anunAsikam effect by listening to recital by Pandits; you will observe how light and effortless the ‘vva’ is and compare it with the rendering of anunAsikam with ‘lla’ and ‘yya’, for letters va,la,and ya following anusvAram.

If Vowel Sandhi creates a combination of newly formed letters with

Examples of words with Sandhi Explanation sRuNomi#A +mA generates sRuNomyA I I ee ! itr ImA. This is not the occurrence of y after , , la word after anusvAram. It is rendered 91,5 UUDWIT-LD WL & out together with a small pause after yA to indicate presence of Sandhi. vo @eCovorn {BLiMon i} | BOBO 01V0 59-0 5} OUD cages BBB .! 2 Here the Padams for Sandhi are staumi _ + Agnim, that creates staumyagnim; so ithis example to similar to the above. . o I AASB cA Brs1,Car I ay oByurilo MoLlemo

<table><tr><td>I I TRA ata</td><td>sRuNomi#A +mA generates sRuNomyA</td></tr><tr><td>i} | BOBO 01V0 59-0 5} OUD</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cages BBB</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>I eaten afer</td><td>Here the Padams for Sandhi are staumi + Agnim, that creates staumyagnim; so</td></tr><tr><td>I AASB cA Brs1,Car</td><td>ithis example to similar to the above.</td></tr><tr><td>I ay oByurilo MoLlemo</td><td></td></tr></table>

The rules for ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ are applicable only in Yajur Veda. When an anuswAram is followed by the letters in the Group of ‘ra,sa.Sa,Sha,ha’, the ‘M’ in the anuswAram is converted to (gM) .

The standard representation in printed books is “W *. Some books print it without the tail like “w “There are few more representations depending of the time of printing and readers must acquaint themselves with the representation in that book. This sound emanates from the back of the mouth (slightly above throat) with a light nasal effect. Please do not read it as ‘gum’ ; some Tamil books represent this in words as Gib which is not correct sound representation.

Original words/padams As represented in Veda Rule books/Vakhyam aÉýhÉÉlÉÉÿliuÉÉ aÉýhÉmÉþÌiÉÇ aÉýhÉÉlÉÉÿliuÉÉ aÉýhÉmÉþÌiÉóè anuswAram before W WûuÉÉqÉWåû WûuÉÉqÉWåû

I 5 3 6001 6OTIT [5 ELIT l 6 cvOLBIID ama TLOGam B00 | MEMIMIADII I 5 3 6001 6OTIT [5 ELIT l 5 om Si AournGam B00 | MEMIMIADII anuswAram before an anuswAram before an AW) BEro | LOSI 45 4 B10 oat Renna AW) BEro | anuswAram before & anuswAram before eno anuswAram before om

fae Prt SMbuns.s4t0 oA 2S) (DOA (oy) Aleoozza faery Rai S0iMS 51,0 I ang 25) oi¥Bev00 Aleoozza anuswAram store anuswAram before uD anuswAram before w y q I a \ io Ae oe l A § wesioll Bjocno I CBOMUo) anuswAram before a anuswAram before eno anuswAram before om at are: anuswAram before z

I SHCHT Berd aM: \ I SHCHM prserS eu: anuswAram before am Il . a Il LITGEMS UIs UGE S WITS ! \ MeAMNd Mecano anuswAram before an moeers ae T (nIG2IOBMOM) noe _— (nIG2IDBWIM) ] . ] A : Gor TTT A 2 anuswAram before 1 | *Very commonly found Gey aT If word. LOW aspibers: anuswAram before @AW oso | ° I o UGOLERS3S 2 ol I I GOL 24H | ne) aca anuswAram before om

4.2 Normally ‘M’ merges with following vowel When anuswAram precedes a vowel like a, aa, e, ee etc, based on the

construction of the words in Vedas, the ‘M’ may combine with the a, aa, e, ee to have ma, maa, mi, mee as a natural Swarayukta Akshara i,e. Vowel based consonant.

Original words/padams As represented in Veda books/Vakhyam Rule applied rgd og eat UGameSsb Oss Tee a UGanPsiblisye ‘M’ +i has secome fi erreurs} atveuad) AROANAWo aUN30 ajoynny Opes quay) quay) ] ] ] ] ageat a a AF: aga a qa: M’ +u has secome UTAH WIND 25 ural ,win Bs

<table><thead><th></th><th>books/Vakhyam</th><th></th></thead><tr><td>rgd og eat</td><td>Tega TY Taret</td><td>‘M’ +i has secome</td></tr><tr><td>UGameSsb Oss</td><td>Gamo sObSTY</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ero cues)</td><td>eroeuero gs) ajoynny Opes</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>reabileabl| _ (()</td><td>reabileabl| _ (()</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>] ] ageat a dq aa:</td><td>argenga &amp; Fe</td><td>M’ +u has secome</td></tr><tr><td>UTAH WIND 25</td><td>I LIT LI sunBs</td><td></td></tr></table>

ேத… நம†: ேத… நம†: gx–t¡hõxI— D–Z gx–t¡hõx—i¡–Z ¥Z– ¥Z– diJ— diJ—

However when a vowel is follows the specific noun/pronoun class with dheerga aksharaa ‘An,’In’ or ‘Un’ ending, the ‘n’ becomes anuswAram ‘m’ subject to grammar rules, and it becomes ‘gm’ to indicate that it is not originally ‘m’ but ‘n’. In case the ending is ‘In’ or ‘Un’ an ‘r’ is added’ to indicate that the Padam is ‘In’ or ‘Un’ ending. The examples provided are indicative only.

Some Examples observed in SamhitA and from common known mantras are given below:

Original words/padams As represented in Veda Rule books/VAkyam T.S.1.2.14.1 Sound “An” before vowel UÉeÉåý uÉÉqÉþuÉÉýlÉç CpÉåþ lÉ UÉeÉåý uÉÉqÉþuÉÉýóèý CpÉåþ lÉ | C Þ C ராேஜ… வாம†வா…9.… ராேஜ… வாம†வா…óè… இேப†4 இேப†4 ந ந

T MICE NIDA aloes I apes fea) I I MICE NIDA aly Beacn T.S.4.5.1.4 1 1 I I Sound “Affi” before fearear ana a faarear array ik vowel Jl I I Sy, 2 , 2) anuved Guim anupev Gut urrgemrunly I LIM 6001 UIT & | als | i} i} afluoee1s9 ANuvoeeaisyo enuoemaso i} onsoamayo ao l Bo TS 1.3.8.2 Sound “Aif’ before + _ + z NL \ Cegcureit> Bat ,ould eanior + BOCWI0 | _ y z \ \ Gs,omy Bah oud | vowel th, 941,99

<table><thead><th>M0622 NMIDANI l apes mM</th><th>MOdCE2 NMIDANID ceM</th><th></th></thead><tr><td>T.S.4.5.1.4 1 1 fearear ana a</td><td>I I faarear array ik</td><td>Sound “Affi” before vowel</td></tr><tr><td>Jl anuved Guim I</td><td>I I anupev Gut urrgemrunly</td><td>Sy, 2 , 2)</td></tr><tr><td>LIM 6001 UIT &amp; |</td><td>als</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>| afluoee1s9 i}</td><td>i} i} ANuvoeeaisyo enuoemaso</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>onsoamayo ao l</td><td>Bo</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TS 1.3.8.2 + _ + z NL \</td><td>_ y z \ \</td><td>Sound “Aif’ before vowel</td></tr><tr><td>Cegcureit&gt; Bat ,ould</td><td>Gs,omy Bah oud</td><td>h, oa, OO</td></tr><tr><td>eanior + BOCWI0</td><td>|</td><td></td></tr></table>

TS 1.3.14.8 tay + G5 cure + @an eacuocd + san \ Gp, Bon ean Ban Sound “Av "before vowel 2 Qo T.S.5.6.1.2 Padams - sarvAn | agnin | aPsuShadaH wat ar (updated after review of Samhita Pada Paatam) weil Freee eroijeu TY Bis,omy junragCsir, avécu0ly aunty 1 i} aN} nueso l a | l aioa becoming l , eITM AIO before vowel ST , A, GO When dheerga ‘nin’ is followed by Vowel ‘a’ marked in blue, ‘n’ becomes ‘gm’ and a ‘r’ is added to make

<table><thead><th rowspan="3">TS 1.3.14.8 tay + G5 cure + @an eacuord + san \</th><th></th><th rowspan="3">Sound “Av "before vowel 2 Qo</th></thead><thead><th></th><th>Gp, Bon</th><th></th></thead><thead><th></th><th>ean Ban</th><th></th></thead><tr><td>T.S.5.6.1.2</td><td>(updated after review of</td><td>l ar. our</td></tr><tr><td>Padams - sarvAn | agnin | aPsuShadaH</td><td>Samhita Pada Paatam)</td><td>, l</td></tr><tr><td>wat ar</td><td>weil Freee</td><td>aioa becoming</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>l , eITM AIO</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>eroijeu TY Bis,omy</td><td>before vowel ST ,</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>junragCsir,</td><td>A, GO</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>When dheerga is followed by Vowel ‘a’</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>avécu0ly aunty 1 i} nN) nUuceBd</td><td>‘nin’ marked in blue, ‘n’ becomes ‘gm’ and a ‘r’ is added to make</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

T.S.4.2.8.3 I ar | are | ay eur | cussrarvuBesr | I 21 | m9 exmery ee i} oa Padam - vA | vanaspatin | anu Note : ‘n’ of tin becomes (gm) and anu becomes Fanu after (gm) T.S.1.4.42.1 ate a | a | qe: | eeu | Osseo st | atu | DOB, | a0! Lovoyad | | on | Owe | | wie Way Tw Fat Ba) Seb You bGCEM, Bal VIMY al A\ewo Example similar to above; preceding sound ‘Un’. ‘apa’ becomes “rapa” after (gm)

I I Here sound before 34 bal 34 ACM -Adw cue vowel is Un. ‘anu’ becomes “ranu” AS Coot SYS Out 2164Ceor Sy Soun-d750y after (gm) ygsneit S10) ps0) | CREUN (HO1O- BOEMN (HO1-|\ HOLY oye it ~ on)

Important Note: This application of rule is based on the usage of ‘An, In, Un based on context and the usage of the same is firm as per Grammar note. When this rule is not applied, normal rule of joining halant ‘n’ would only follow. There are specific set of rules defind along with words in

PS also gives list of words that would retain their ‘n’ without change. Example : paSUn + ava = paSunava, rudrAn+ajAyat = rudrAnajAyat

The basic rule for application of ‘gg’ is same as in ‘gm’ except that the letter following the anuswAram are Samyukta akshara conjuncts (joint letters) starting with s,S,Sh,h. Examples, sra,shra,hla,sya,sva,Sca. In a joint letter, the start is a base letter like s,S,Sh,h after completing m sounding (gm),

it would be difficult to combine them. So (gg) is a unique sound to smoothen the flow of the rule applied for (gm).

(gg) is aÉç + aÉç= (aaÉç). Printed in the books as ò, òè with or without the tail.

Original words/padams As represented in Veda books/Vakhyam Rule T.S. 1.2.14.1 Note :The word is tapUMShi which is represented as tapU(gm)Shi as per grammar. SyiDeiowss,Con sufveus Con 6° EMeUIT one i} 22). ano anuswAram before joint letter starting with q, Ho, ay With Shi tagnE, it becomes ShfagnE. (Vowel Sandhi) vei I vu anuswAram before a joint letter starting with

LvDUDLb . * ayo BBB, ov, o l COT LI,CUbS jt 4 = ‘os oni Bajo — CBU Mo ' _ Vo | BOUND} BOUND} I I anuswAram before a joint letter starting 1. 1. with x1, UU , UO LOT SY WILD LOTS WILD comes Blo. —_ — ADMHO Mo I I anuswAram before Teeny water Teenie i a joint letter starting LO Sb . with U, emo, UGao? sil UGamPsibibsny sivaucivg alos

<table><thead><th>QyuiuDuDLD</th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th>a,</th><th>eno,</th><th>mw</th></thead><tr><td colspan="7">! O I L Oui 5</td></tr><tr><td>wong</td><td>Be</td><td>|</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>| BOUND}</td><td></td><td>| BOUND}</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wre Bret</td><td></td><td>w 6</td><td>I’</td><td>a</td><td>anuswAram joint</td><td>before letter starting</td></tr><tr><td>tors</td><td>voflutd</td><td>crs</td><td>l . Ho</td><td></td><td>with 21,</td><td>UD , UO</td></tr><tr><td>ao OO (Ww</td><td></td><td>como</td><td>Bo.</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>before</td></tr><tr><td>3</td><td>water</td><td>Tarrry</td><td>f</td><td>a</td><td>anuswAram joint</td><td>letter starting</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">UG 0079 SiO Spud l os LGA sObSTY with U, emo,</td></tr><tr><td>arouird</td><td></td><td>Palos</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

Some books follow the convention of having a single shape like ñè , ñ where the stress on (gg) is light. The rule here is when the anuswAram is a long letter, the (gm) or (gg) becomes (g). We follow only one convention of indicating ‘ò’ As per our guide, the light (g) is not used in classical books or Grantha Sources. According to our Guide, the (gm) and (gg) have one mantra and not half. But while rendering Veda Mantras, the stress on (gg) becomes lighter when it is preceded by a long vowel sound like aa, ee, uu and becomes stronger when the preceding letter is short and specially mahaprAna letters.

Explanation by one Guru: When (gm) is followed by a Conjunct Cosonant, you cannot recite four halants’ effect g,m, two halants of the following Conjuct Consonant, (gg) from the centre of the throat normalises that to ineffect of saying three. When a long letter is uttered and you try to give full effect to (gg) there is a slight distortion or perhaps strain so (gg) is lightened with same maatra time scale. Kindly follow the style of you Guru but your recital must be stress free and free flowing after initial practice. We are giving some examples for readers to observe this sound effect:

I I The (gg) is sandwitched Tajvevs aaa between a long letter SU and followed by Consonant sthA. I uUge vetvgMevoe Cr 6UITULI GIULITEOT The effect on (gg) will naturally be lighter.

<table><thead><th>eaveaearh</th><th>ar</th><th></th><th>The (gg) is sandwitched</th></thead></table>

i} 1 cumyveyovene.e AMALy9eB | ] ] avert arch | I SUL VEIUs Con ey? QM eur oR Bern ajent The (gg) is sandwitched between a long letter pU and followed by Consonant Shya. The effect on (gg) will naturally be lighter. I I I I aint nang eat rary . . o | VUGWIG sort 4 (65 Topo Boas 8 ousarronmy Geromo: eUOseMd cnywoomow iWon | | Similar to above. After nA(gm) __| the following letter is 80; you cannot stress (gm) it will be lighter with (g) being prominent. So many students from formal pAtashalaas recite this as (g) only. Remember maatra is not shorter. vei I vu Here (gg) follows a short letter giving time to stress the (gg) without strain. (gg) is fully heard.

<table><thead><th></th><th>i}</th><th>1</th><th></th></thead><thead><th>cumyveyovene.e</th><th></th><th>AMALy9eB |</th><th></th></thead><tr><td>] ] avert | SUL VEIUs oR Bern</td><td>arch Con ey? QM ajent</td><td>I eur</td><td>The (gg) is sandwitched between a long letter pU and followed by Consonant Shya. The effect on (gg) will naturally be lighter.</td></tr><tr><td>eat army</td><td>cafe</td><td>farary Br</td><td>Similar to above. After nA(gm) the following letter is 80; you</td></tr><tr><td>UDG Gert 4</td><td>(65</td><td>Topo</td><td>cannot stress (gm) it will be lighter with (g) being prominent. So many students from formal</td></tr><tr><td>aoals I.</td><td>ousarronmy</td><td>Geromo:</td><td>pAtashalaas recite this as (g) only. Remember maatra is not</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">eUOseMd cnywoomow iWon | | shorter.</td></tr><tr><td>vei</td><td>I vu</td><td></td><td>Here (gg) follows a short letter giving time to stress the (gg)</td></tr></table>

| en (gg) follows a short letter dra Tegattgy ae and (gg) being swaritam, the (gg) gets full effect and firmer. LGanes.Nibsoy alos asyeynny noice Bley

<table><tr><td>|</td><td></td><td>i} eee</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ae</td><td>|</td><td></td><td>(gg) follows a short letter dra and (gg) being swaritam, the</td></tr><tr><td>asyeynny</td><td>noice</td><td>Bley</td><td></td></tr></table>

Special Note: The representation of gm and gg is not differentiated in some classical books compiled in the past. The Student is expected to learn the rendering from the Guru. Even in recent compilations, there is slight difference is usage of gm in place of gg of vice versa in books based the schools, sound effect and also application of higher levels of Grammar rules from classical texts. This is covered in Section 7. The Learners are requested to refer such differences with the Guru and follow the teachings as per that School. We have made only a standard representation.

2. If an anuswarAm is marked with Swaritam, the Swaritam will be taken over by the gm or gg; the first letter preceding gm or gg cannot be a Swaritam.

Examples: eeating TAET shall become qaqa tated Gam SOs Mb aiveusivs shall become I UGanrsiisoy alos i} al,@yanymatliaso ou) shall become ajeynnyoolieay cui)

Note: In old books or classical texts combined by Scholars, the Swaritam is marked on the letter before ‘m’. e.g dra in the above example.

3. If the anuswAram is marked with anudAtta, both the letters (base letter plus ‘m’ which becomes gm or gg) shall follow the anudAtta Swara only. That is if the previous letter is an anudAtta, the gm and gg will acquire the same, since it is an extension.

wat a: Peat tarry fete I l unin sung acu, Bb, UUGWIGeorIT 4.5 Tom aoas oust Gerom: I I I BGT ou: APCSU,GuT CS,orony aMG@s,Guu,Gwn | | elroy cs Mm. | | | | CUdsEMD WS (WO MWe AIMD ny | | | MEAD A G1Olemesso EBAUId BEWEBs9 Note: Some Readers get a doubt why it is not Devanaa(gg)

Note: Some Readers may get a doubt why it is not Devanaa(gg) hRudayebhyo. Specially highlighted in Green. ‘hRu’ is a Swarayukta Akshara (Consonant) a combination of h + Ru (a vowel) and it is not a Samyukta Akshara (Conjuct Consonant) formed by more than two consonants

The Vakyam from other Vedas like RuK, Sama and Atharva have been incorporated or compiled into Yajur Veda Samhita. In these cases, ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ are used as a part of Yajur Vedic style of rendering of these mantras. Let us see Sree Suktam as an example which follows Rig Veda Style of rendering, which has no ‘gm’ or ‘gg’ .

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There is no ‘gm’ or ‘gg’ used in Rig Veda after the varNaam, Chandraam (anuswAram) which are followed by ‘ha’. However, the mantra ‘Gandhadvaaraam duraadharshaam” is available in NarayanOpanishad in Yajur Veda text. Therefore it has become a common practice to render this mantra with ‘gm’ by Yajur Veda students and ‘gm’ is used in many books and followed in recital as well. Some Gurus state that while reciting mantras in Krishna Yajur Veda, the style of Krishna Yajur Veda shall be followed.

When the letter X, i, @ is followed by letters of class (a, ow , 1),

as a rule the ‘r’ is extended to double its maatra value to one...instead of half.. Here we take ‘r’ together with these letters the distinction of the sound is sometimes lost. The sound of ‘r’ becomes ‘ru’.

Some schools recite this ‘r’ as if it is a ‘ru’ which is not advisable.

Some of the Veda Teachers we have been referring have clearly guided us saying “this should sound only like an extension of ‘r’ and the sound of ‘ru’ should be avoided during recital.” This extension of ‘r’ is recognized in classical text like Pratishakyam. as a distinct letter termed as Swarabakthi. This is a combination of ‘r’+’R’. So this is treated more as a Swarayukta Aksharam.

Other Schools of Veda Teachers want the student to give a pause without extending the ‘r’ so that the distinction of the sound is maintained during recital. Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but be open to change your style to during recital in a group if the “Lead Chanter” recites with another alternative. In SikSha material that we have referred so far, they insist not to give pause(avasAna) after Swarabhakti.

Representation in Books is different. It is normally printed with the ‘r’ over the following letter like ha, Sa, Sha. Some authors/books make it distinct by printing

Examples Comments ahay Gara AT frsige Lin Bloor ov bS SI, LIT 4&31D adfiass I I I BOUNIMY CronmaALN BOM aioe Swarabhakti of ‘r’ before ta aisgett eae Gout Goins) GAOL 4) gg5IlD | I | com 260i MY @RLIMo Swarabhakti of ‘r’ before

I I Swarabhakti of ‘r’ before . ‘ ’ ~ Sha Swarabhakti of ‘r’ before Clon C5,60 HPGCS SILL WILOGOS) | | Mead Gaal MIBRBem Mmesacrv} _ )

Note: We have started using a (dot) ‘.’ after ‘r’ in all our recent compilations. We are also trying to upgrade this convention in all our earlier compilations.

Rule 63 states that ‘l’ that comes before ‘Sa’ and ‘ha’ is Swarabhakti. Examples TS 1.1.2.1 Sataval.Sam | TS 2.1.2.4 mal.hAH |

q–Zp—«.q–I Æpy ¥kx—t s–tös—p«.qx– TS 2.1.2.4 L–iÉÉ qÉ––sÉç–.WûÉ AÉ sÉþpÉåiÉÉ ஏ…தா ம…7….ஹா ஆ ல†ேப4தா G–Zx i–m§–.tx B m—¥hZx

Rule 64 says that it is not SwaraBhakti when rIriShan, rIriShO, Na before akArisham comes. The repha varNam ‘ri’ coming before Ushman needs to be uttered normally without swarabhati effect.

mRutyu sUktam - TA 3.15.1 I Ad: USTY \ Loren: upg Glorgsaiyresr | CNIMAIIOIA | The ‘ri’ has to be recital along with ShO without any special rule normally aT AD Way LOI 0: upegn DO M8 (nIBoW O7 m® cnom Alec Similar to above example

Also not when N comes after, like in (TS 1.5.11.4) dadhikrAvNNo akAriSham |

Mus Uoezlms tt Though SikSha does not recognise it as Swarabakti; This needs to be noted as an area that there has to be a distinct pause before uttering NNO. Kindly read Section 5.4 on pause while rendering

Rule 65 – Also gives words which does not becomes swarbhakti with ru sound. Examples given in reference books are - svAruhamevainAm | svAruhA yasya | agnirvA aruShaH 4.1.3.4 | aruShaM miyedhya 4.1.3.4 | madhyamaruhat 4.7.13.3 | dIkShAmaruham |

TS 4.1.3.4 ; fer saat ret fred onl Sy gl Boor cy 1B) Cus 465 41 | afl WaaeUN Ge Mewes TS 4.1.3.4 Bat Baer ay | aMGEST ahleseg ANCHO anlemay aiGerag | MeMawy | TS 4.7.13.3 l aT arat Wee HES TOITA

2 ourGen 0595 4 05.5 L 41) SOOTULIT) L1-LO & 4 60": i} GM ANDEG2I9 ARLS— -8] 06M 5,0

Rule 68 – The Swarabhakti that comes after swaritam becomes pracaya. Note the following rules also. Rule 69 - The Dheerga Swaritam that forms before Swarabhakti remain only swaritam. The Swarabhakti could be an integral part of a word/padam or it gets formed due to Sandhi. But this section says that the Swarabhakti that comes after a dheerga letter as a part of the padam or word will get swaritam effect.

If the letter before Swarabhakti is anudAttam, then the effect of the anudAttam is also on the Swarabhakti.

TS 2.5.7.5 aed Gar sag tat TT LIS GAMLIMH-GGS Gag your JST [SOMS Ajo HAM genus. L9ENUBNID AQMO Here RuShEr.Rusher is one padam with Swarabhakti being the integral part of the Padam. ‘She’ is dheergam so the Swarabhakti ‘? is marked in Swaritam in professional publications. TS 4.3.13.6 I ao reg tort eMeigw§ Mayon’ GHTZQ9MT euero CRBONHO OIG £0 in padam vastoH is swaritam. Now visargam is F and since fia follows it becomes swarabhakti, the swaritam effect moves to ‘P)

<table><tr><td>TS 2. 5.7.5 araet Fea a L418 (oouus.</td><td>wae atat w al EGS</td><td>Here RuShEr.Rusher is one padam with Swarabhakti being the integral part of the Padam. ‘She’ is dheergam so the Swarabhakti ‘? is marked in Swaritam in professional publications.</td></tr><tr><td>egenudaio TS 4.3.13.6 cher aeaig, GHTZQ9MT euero @BOnYd AIC</td><td>ABMO FPrsrc emeign I Afas om</td><td>§ £0 in padam vastoH is swaritam. Now visargam is F and since fia follows it becomes swarabhakti, the swaritam effect moves to ‘P)</td></tr></table>

Here Swarbhakti r. is integral part of the Padam bAr.haspatyam.The bA here is not a swaritam. Due to Swara rule, bA a long letter acquires swaritam but its effect will not be on Swarabhakti. By rule 68 render it like pracaya (ekasruti)

TS 2.1.2.4 ayfendsty dat ace oro Ya STOOL Saf ¥ VUGeu SMD Litgi.anerousuim ANIMIANAALAS IY GUOIMD0 AID. ancrym 90 Here Swarbhakti r. is integral part of the Padam BAfhaspatyam.The bA here is not a swaritam. Due to Swara rule, BA a long letter acquires swaritam but its effect will not be on Swarabhakti. By rule 68 render it like pracaya (ekasruti) TS 1.3.14.1 Here Swarabhakti is formed due to Sandhi of agnil + ROtA which becomes agnir.hotA (visargam becomes f and because of following A becomes Swarabhakti) The Padam here for first example is juhvat+RuShiH+i@ta. Due to Sandhi t of juhat becomes ‘d’ in combination with Ru becomes dRU and visaragam of SiH becomes ‘?. Swarabhakti gets formed due to following HG. Second Example Sapta+RuShin, the R becomes bercores and because of following it is represented as Swarabhakti. In both examples the fi is also marked in anudAttam since the previous letter has anudAttam.

<table><tr><td>aufemisty dat area YaST bf ¥ VUGeu SMD Litgi.anerousuim aMlo@oaaays ly GUOIMD0</td><td>HOY Al Vall the Padam BAfhaspatyam.The bA here is not a swaritam. Due to Swara rule, BA a long letter acquires swaritam but its effect will not be on Swarabhakti. By rule 68 render it like pracaya (ekasruti)</td></tr><tr><td>AID. ancrym 90 TS 1.3.14.1</td><td>Here Swarabhakti is formed due to Sandhi of agnil + ROtA which becomes agnir.hotA (visargam becomes f and because of following A becomes Swarabhakti)</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Swarabhakti. In both examples the fi is also marked in anudAttam since the previous letter</td></tr></table>

Rule 70 – When the swarabhakti forms after a short letter, the effect of swaritam will be on that short letter before swarabhakti even if it is swaritam as per Padam. In this case, the swarabhakti is recited as anudAtta swara.

TS 1.6.12.2 Gealij.2.1 $455, voGSs10 eg an AIBras Worn The padam here is RUSHIH with swaritam on Sf. The visargam is ‘f’ so before following ‘ha’ it becomes swarabhakti. Since Shi is hrasva (short) letter; it will retain the swaritam and the following ‘swrabhakti +f)’ shall be recited in anudAttam.

<table><tr><td>TS 1.6.12.2 att</td><td>I pa</td><td>The padam here is RuSBiH with swaritam on Sf. The visargam is ‘f’ so</td></tr><tr><td>8 an</td><td>AIBras Worn</td><td>following +f)’ recited in anudAttam.</td></tr></table>

Note: VedaVMS books are being upgraded to represent the Swarkabhakti more appropriately,where a swaritam appears on the dheerga letter instead of swarabhakti, specially in Tamil.

A complete word can end with anyone of the following Consonant Halants as per Sanskrit Grammar

The maatra of a Halant is half. At the end of the statement, the word or padam ends with the Halant, it is extended for increased rhyme effect during Veda recital as a convention. If the Halant letter is pronounced normally with half time scale (maatra) it tends to look abrupt.

Example Comments . ! The extension holds adat ar ue aie ai good even if the last padam does not have a ero FeUuGSM LOM Lire) ure} orobsmy swaram. I AUBAIEMIAI aloaNlaloan) avancfal " rater , inceng ung , (nseas08@ 9, | Extension example for wre: stone Para ’

I Lg: Lup coors} enVvooILL,B (nl8}8 Lailemoonl alo. By I taty SRet att arf Ligegny fiGagn Cuong aya 1 (zzow OIMeaUd EAM aneoh Extension example for ‘n’ = GoromSsa97: ujoero ovale I COVISHUOs aAlOaAs MV! 008 Extension example for T I T y asreary feta: vag l l PNIVvEuToo. aNvveus: cy Sula i} i} BOBMVIIA AMIMS (1088 Extension example for ‘ng’.

The ‘n’ (lÉç, ù¢,©) at the end of a statement is extended and most of the books

mark the same with the extension in terms of indicating ‘nn’. Some books do not print ending ‘n’ as ‘nn’ and the readers follow their School of teaching.

Let us take some examples of statements ending with ‘n’ and see how it is represented. Please note that this seems to be a distinct method used in the southern part of India. Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but be open to make minor adjustment when you perform group recital with other Schools. We have started to standardise the representation of ‘n’ in our books to ‘nn’ after Short vowel sound as a convention and this would take some more time as we update each and every book periodically.

Example Comments The ‘n’ at the end of the I I _— _— I _— 7a statement is preceded by a Dheerga Akshara I egiTLAl Logg LA Lo Liglo Gevvfeuh) Seo a which has swaritam ; , (higher note). To s2omlazonle (aye an) vouoyad smoothen ending and flow of the statement, the swaritam effect is given to ‘n’. Traditional books mark the

swaritam over the ‘trU’. i vee 2a ero Hou Luyooth UDWITLO currggirt [noms W0s9a AID Same as above effect of the swaritam over ‘jA’ is effected over ‘n’. cory feat a umnéGrag Ucar genet i} i} alde(Maw} afleniemo exmofid Same as above. JCS, S6H,GouT wir) Ly ,susorr eho I I MCLAMD seBGAID MoM) SONS ailaico s6 Same as above. The Traditional swarm marking is over ‘Sya’ and the effect is given to ‘n’ I I No Swaram before ‘n’

Lorrenr: ug Ff filGaor Gongs asa i} 1 DOMS (eo O1eleaud ex0nieof ] ] fast wurvar eer | efluveur emumafoT cl vofe | | AflUdIN EJa1OeMJ9 allvobie No swaram before ‘n’ and ‘n’ is extended. I a SHSM, cui 1e560.1 oe | &OlWo 1s@0j 08H No swaram before ‘n’ and ‘n’ is extended. Qo sirGoorn W163 @HobTODTULIS, Luyegr oo a I I MDACM SI WLAMONDMO) (71820 fe No swaram before ‘n’ and ‘n’ is extended. No swaram before ‘n’

<table><tr><td>Lorrenr: ug Ff i} 1</td><td>filGaor</td><td>Gongs asa</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DOMS (eo</td><td>O1eleaud</td><td>ex0nieof</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>wurvar</td><td></td><td></td><td>and ‘n’ is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>] ] fast eer | efluveur emumafoT | | AflUdIN EJa1OeMJ9</td><td>cl</td><td>vofe</td><td>No swaram before ‘n’</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">allvobie</td></tr><tr><td>I a</td><td></td><td></td><td>No swaram before ‘n’ and ‘n’ is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>SHSM, cui 1e560.1</td><td>oe</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>| &amp;OlWo 1s@0j</td><td>08H</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>No swaram before ‘n’ and ‘n’ is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>Qo sirGoorn W163 I I MDACM SI</td><td>@HobTODTULIS, WLAMONDMO)</td><td>Luyegr oo a (71820 fe</td><td></td></tr></table>

I I LIM EAwDITevs) Houcro of ott | | (alae ocr, Mac ayr"@otd om Oo

Note: During continuous rendering, if a letter before ‘n’ is marked in Swaritam, the Swaritam effect is given on the letter before this ‘n’.

the Swaritam effect is given on the letter before this ‘n’. Please note the Dheerga Swaritam effect discussed in our article about short letters acquiring Dheera Swaritam after a short vowel like tasminth sarvam pratishtitham, tasminth suparNo madhukrith kulaaye.

In classical method of rendering, the end hrasva akshara/short letter with vowel sound and visargam is extended to twice its maatra to keep a good rhyming effect at the end. If you listen to Vedic rendering by Scholars, you will observe that the end akshara is extended by them. Generally when grahastas learn Veda, this aspect of elongation is not well stressed but by practice this aspect should be paid attention and rendered effectively as advised by a Vedic Scholar. Some examples are given below for readers to observe the rendering by Scholars. Most recent one (as of August 2020) is rendering available in Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam Channel (You Tube) Veda PaaraayaNam that started in

Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but while rendering with different School or Vedic pandits one needs to be aware of this practice to be in right synchronisation with them.

te Here the vowel sound a of veda is a wa 4g | extended but without rendering it as with the effect as ‘A’. It is heard Wl J OULD ‘cag, | as a being extended as hrasvam @ agQnlo ‘ens l aa at ey Fe | I ° . Sun CGhT G57 GL gt | EMD OLB ayo Similar to above example. Extension is made as ya..a without being heard as ‘yA’. I I fara 7: CAT “a | UilGeur 0b: orvP Lost ua | | | Wlenid Ms MVjaMd aay Similar to above example. Extension is made as ya..a without being heard as ‘VA’. fafeeresr ara l Sl,fuoréen cugirg.06ro | The extension of ‘e’ sound of si is made in such a way it is not heard or stressed as sl

<table><tr><td>au</td><td>ag</td><td></td><td></td><td>Here the vowel sound {a’ of veda is</td></tr><tr><td>Ww)</td><td>eed</td><td>‘cag, |</td><td></td><td>as with the effect as ‘A’. It is heard as a being extended as hrasvam</td></tr><tr><td>@</td><td>agQnlo</td><td>‘ens l</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Similar to above example.</td></tr><tr><td>aa I</td><td>at ey</td><td>Fe | ° .</td><td></td><td>Extension is made as ya..a without being heard as ‘yA’.</td></tr><tr><td>Sun</td><td>CGhT</td><td>G57 GL</td><td>gt |</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>EMD</td><td>OLB</td><td>ayo</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>fara</td><td>I 7:</td><td>I CAT “a |</td><td></td><td>Similar to above example. Extension is made as ya..a without</td></tr><tr><td>UilGeur</td><td>0b:</td><td>orvP Lost</td><td>ua |</td><td>being heard as ‘VA’.</td></tr><tr><td>Wlenid</td><td>| Ms</td><td>| MVjaMd</td><td>aay</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>fafeeresr</td><td></td><td>ara</td><td></td><td>The extension of ‘e’ sound of si is made in such a way it is not heard</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>l Sl,fuoréen</td><td>cugirg.06ro</td><td>|</td><td>or stressed as sl</td></tr></table>

T uM@lu00249 ausoaiens ] sat a ged HE | I aGET 5 PacGei iD: | i} DEMO O Mauens on l When a visargam sound comes in the extension is made of the vowel sound that comes with visargam ved ws | SMUSLU EO) WEN}s | The visaram sound of uH is extended. I . ° AHU,TeoW Hlagris Bly: | | BHOMVS orTnsericnil Visargam sound of iH is extended.

<table><thead><th>T uM@lu00249 ausoaiens</th><th></th><th></th></thead><tr><td>] sat a ged HE |</td><td></td><td>When a visargam sound comes in the extension is made of the vowel sound that comes with visargam</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">I aGET 5 PacGei iD: | i} DEMO O Mauens on l</td></tr><tr><td>ved ws |</td><td></td><td>The visaram sound of uH is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>SMUSLU EO) WEN}s |</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>Visargam sound of iH is extended.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">I . ° AHU,TeoW Hlagris Bly: |</td></tr><tr><td>| BHOMVS orTnsericnil</td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

Note: Try to recite along with the audio/video with your normal practice/method of rendering; you will see that the extension by Scholars is distinct.

A long letter/Dheerga akshara is rendered as a Plutam with vowel sound being extended to three maatra time scale at the end of the statement. This may not be highly stressed as a practice for new learners or householders. Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but while rendering with different School or Vedic pandits one needs to be aware to be in right synchronisation with them. We give some examples for Veda learners to observe this aspect of Veda rendering practice.

Example Comments ee eae eS EET DD GSWGCeu eveuremn DD GSWGCeu ofveureuDm | i} AYO se MvIOaNS AYOsCO M9 The ‘A’ vowel sound is extended normally to three maatraa in normal mode; an additional minor extension is made and not like rendering plutam which is different. _ I a aft Peart aa | ero Ly giBld ‘stupas sues eum Lo, I My BI Alo “AMlUdemo aus 0 Here the ‘A’ sound is extended.

<table><tr><td></td><td>The ‘A’ vowel sound is</td></tr><tr><td>aed ear et aT eveuremn</td><td>extended normally to three maatraa in normal mode; an</td></tr><tr><td>ofveureuDm | AYO se MvIOaNS AYOsCO</td><td>rendering plutam which is different.</td></tr><tr><td>ming</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>a aft Raat ae</td><td>Here the ‘A’ sound is extended.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">ero Ly giBld ‘stupas sues eum |</td></tr><tr><td>Lo, I My BI Alo “AMlUdemo aus 0</td><td></td></tr></table>

I ! Though it has dheerga Tard weuth st vat | swaritam additional extension of ‘ee’ is made. LinggruGs, Gymench oof Garg) List | i} i} (nAlBaleM COOANIEM’ GAIM) nse l Vowel sound ‘AH’ is Udet AT | a) _ extended. id oor s) LOM Gs, ,ouggamt | | aljmMany ao ennueamos facnfem: Similar to above example Area | Borsa oun eGooresD Bt | m'lennaio afles:ou1A08

<table><thead><th>I ! Tard weuth st vat | LinggruGs, Gymench oof i}</th><th>Garg) List i}</th><th>Though it has dheerga swaritam additional extension of ‘ee’ is made.</th></thead><tr><td>l Udet AT | a) _</td><td></td><td>Vowel sound ‘AH’ is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>id oor s) LOM Gs, ,ouggamt</td><td>|</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>| aljmMany ao ennueamos</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>facnfem: Area |</td><td></td><td>Similar to above example</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">Borsa oun eGooresD Bt |</td></tr><tr><td>m'lennaio</td><td>afles:ou1A08</td><td></td></tr></table>

When a word ends with ‘n’ and the next word follows with ‘vi’ ,ya, ra, ha, Ru , The words shall not be taken together since the sound effect becomes disturbed as nya, nvi which may incorrectly indicate as if a Sandhi exists. Some of these combinations are referred as Swaribhakti in SikShA texts. But some Vedic Student referred this as Swara-Samgj~jyAi which needs further reference. So please note the rendering of your Guru and style of your School to render them correctly. Some common examples of rendering with a

Example Comments I I Rendering together will make one hear a single word as ,; , | tanya. 56% wied@arou LOTWIWIT erofeutteoren i} i} more ean DMM. MUsaIoMal Me20aGaN I ! Some books may represent _ " an _ Ser ee ‘n’ +’Ru’ as nRu. But words are distinctly recited as a I at wey practice. Generally if a halant precedes Ru it is taken together as a Swarayukta

CUNT OT (GH aTOOT-H) yg UIT br I 60. Hu Lo GCS S85 ero & 4 sap’ Ste (gomo- -A1M 008 ne emosIa ies ree Mow son akshara. Kindly follow the style taught by your Guru. shampoo —— LOTS Wiervew I I AIANCADIM) 002308. anNaA/aUd AOBMMV! ‘n’ is followed by ‘ha’. Here ‘n’ is extended. Some Schools recite this as ‘rajanu’ with full ‘u’ sound which should be avoided. U sound shall be only half since ending with n would be little abrupt. l 7 a ] . I . l ASCOT wivostvanler wvoGero I I CRMOEUN voile’, @ven) Some books mark the lower swarm for ‘n’ also to make a distinction that ‘n’ should be a clear end to the word.

<table><tr><td>CUNT OT (GH aTOOT-H) yg UIT br</td><td>akshara. Kindly follow the style taught by your Guru.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">I 60. Hu Lo GCS S85 ero &amp; 4</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">sap’</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">airy (gomo- -A1M 008 ne emosIa</td></tr><tr><td>muowso ies ree I</td><td>‘n’ is followed by ‘ha’. Here ‘n’ is extended.</td></tr><tr><td>shampoo ——</td><td>Some Schools recite this as</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>‘rajanu’ with full ‘u’ sound</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>which should be avoided. U</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>sound shall be only half since</td></tr><tr><td>I I</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>AIANCADIM) 002308. anNaA/aUd</td><td>ending with n would be little abrupt.</td></tr><tr><td>LOTS Wiervew AOBMMV! l ]</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>7 a</td><td>Some books mark the lower swarm for ‘n’ also to make a</td></tr><tr><td>. I . l</td><td>distinction that ‘n’ should be a clear end to the word.</td></tr><tr><td>ASCOT wivostvanler wvoGero | | amaei nn vam Minem)</td><td></td></tr></table>

I I Frog Seetye gar eyo I olvas ea. aia GGSM ,6015 4 Neu GS TEOW ailvovoye. Aflayeworys ails LMM, anc 122 Same as above. Here ‘n’ is marked with an extension of lower swarm of the ‘tru’ I esr. fata Gear gi. gofoGusMSVOOUTi oN Ggutb I UG agireot amp BOeO s0ffl8 a ANEBWo alj@}a4dMaNo When a Dheerga letter precedes ‘n’ that should get right extension. Now the ‘n’ is extended so that nvi sound is not heard. Some schools recite this with swaritam and extension of ‘n’ instead of sva and this is not an ideal way orto afi tery erat ag Oey: A pause is given though the ‘n’ becomes ‘nj’ for clarity of recital.

<table><tr><td>I I Pag Reetas fagres oy a</td><td>Same as above. Here ‘n’ is</td></tr><tr><td>I olvas ea. aia GGSM ,6015 4</td><td>marked with an extension of lower swarm of the ‘tru’</td></tr><tr><td>Neu GS TEOW</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">ailvovoye. Aflayeworys ails</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">LMM, anc 122</td></tr><tr><td>I esr. fata</td><td>When a Dheerga letter</td></tr><tr><td>Gear</td><td>precedes ‘n’ that should get right extension. Now the ‘n’ is</td></tr><tr><td>gi. gofoGusMSVOOUTi oN Ggutb I</td><td>extended so that nvi sound is not heard. Some schools</td></tr><tr><td>UG agireot amp</td><td>recite this with swaritam and extension of ‘n’ instead of sva</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">BOeO s0ffl8 a ANEBWo alj@}a4dMaNo and this is not an ideal way</td></tr><tr><td>I i ety s WUT Maas Ag</td><td>A pause is given though the ‘n’ becomes ‘nj’ for clarity of recital.</td></tr></table>

is recited with a higher note in I Ham wuve crop -QIDU WIS many part of Southern India as | Can YI crv osm — > 7 , oy i | LATUBAIDUA MOM) WOM 58 cor a er Pause after n so that it does SoS at J not sound like ‘nthA’ z . . I MUSH. HTig., MD GCHT, hl5 or eu ¥ | anole. Morus] aflayewo myscrvus

We have started to standardise the representation of of this pause through a dot (.) after ‘n’ in our books. The ‘n’ will also be marked with anudAttam (practice started from Jan 2020 while revising books). This updation would take some more time as we take up each and every book periodically for review. The Users/learners shall confirm to the extension or pause as taught by the Guru.

During Recital, due to the combination of letters, some letters do not get a distinct sound. Vaikari means sound that emanates outside the mouth as distinctly heard. There is no ‘Vaikari’ meaning that the sound does not reverberate outside the throat; it stops at the throat. This is referred to as ‘Madhyama’. Kindly refer to Lalitha Sahasranama Bahsyam by

But in many South based Schools, they insist that the letter must be uttered even faintly to be heard so that proper vibration is created.

We give below indicative examples below. The student learns more of these examples as the learning gradually increases.

Example Comments I I I With the extension of ‘smi and afertarat Head port an extension of the same to ‘n’, I 1 the sound of ‘th’ is not distinct serviil ONT? LIC 6OOTIT 51455 during recital. If the ‘th’ is stressed and recited the recital l @oomus will not be smooth. iy | vu oonsleall M}aAIBEEM AW] ASO 12100"

I aged a: SIMTLOM | 00008 ace scm), ms I ee ° ° CMOLDTH3H ,UIHS! Ib: Here the ‘th’ does not emanate as a distinct sound; stops at throat only or will be heard as a whisper only I al ama u iba. HTWjee.or av) cuamof ous, anurioow) yori oa) aimayoiel Same as above. ujadeou, cua Brass el fezi=) /e(ealelaveye erveuitemit Same as above. The sound of ‘th; will be faint only mma asta zat I SIT gLOUDEU LD Gumagul tenn av) Here the sound of ‘n’ that follows ‘th’ is light and it not distinct during recital.

a I The combination of ‘t’,,°y’ and RU No) cannot be recited together smoothly. OSES) LO Gio ,6vIToofl, oo, nemwes0 Mm) So the ‘y’ sound is left out or becomes half silent. It is rendered as 7,4, O§

<table><thead><th>I</th><th>The combination of ‘t’,,°y’ and RU</th></thead><tr><td>i)</td><td>cannot be recited together smoothly.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>So the ‘y’ sound is left out or becomes</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>half silent. It is rendered as 7,4,</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>O§</td></tr></table>

It is difficult to recital two vowel sounds next to each other. Due to nature of the mantra, swaram and the intended sound/vibration effect, the Vowel Sandhi may not be applied/(exempted) or due to application special grammar rules. Kindly note that Pragraha words(words in duality) as specified in texts are not subject to Sandhi. These words are represented with ‘iti’ in Pada Paatam. They have long ‘ee’’uu’ .’ae’ or ‘O’ sounds.

Please read the Article on Vowel Sandhi that has been released separately. This rule is more applicable/effective/pronounced when the ending letter or the following Vowel letter is a Dheerga letter.

There are two methods that are taught to make the sound distinct.

The Pause should not result in a break effect please. Observe your Guru to improve the recitation and the style of either extending or pausing.

Example Comments wratiat [fet [= l sot Bolt Bon, now) énilevoo Gavs9 Basorys Here ‘a’ of asyAH does not form avagraha with visaH which becomes viSo and the Visarga in padam asyAH drops before adabdhaH, so needs to be recited distinctly. wrqfgerer frat pre far: soussyB ea Hin Blow allege irerv censor leo Brno Boros ANagyos The visargam in padam upamAH has dropped before asya and the recital has to be distinct with a pause. cafe Bet aor Feary 24,81,51 Bau EZ? OOIT 6OOTIT alwibsy, coy 50 2250 221. nMd6M allman, Visargam in padam adiyAH has dropped so pause required before Ajyam.

<table><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td rowspan="2">Here ‘a’ of asyAH does not form avagraha with visaH</td></tr><tr><td>wratiat [fet</td><td>[=</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>which becomes viSo and the</td></tr><tr><td>sot</td><td>l Bolt Bon,</td><td></td><td>Visarga in padam asyAH</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>drops before adabdhaH, so</td></tr><tr><td>now) énilevoo</td><td>Gavs9 Basorys</td><td></td><td>needs to be recited distinctly.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>The visargam in padam</td></tr><tr><td>argigerar ra</td><td>Ber fr:</td><td></td><td>upamAH has dropped before asya and the recital has to be</td></tr><tr><td>crouse</td><td>ion</td><td></td><td>distinct with a pause.</td></tr><tr><td>Blow allege</td><td>irerv</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>censor leo</td><td>Brno Boros</td><td>ANagyos</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>cafe Bet</td><td>aor Feary</td><td></td><td>Visargam in padam adiyAH has dropped so pause</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">24,81,51 Bau EZ? OOIT 6OOTIT alwibsy, required before Ajyam.</td></tr><tr><td>coy 50 2250</td><td>221. nMd6M</td><td>allman,</td><td></td></tr></table>

m1 amet a Example similar to above. \ merci Bjuorr Blu sioroucinsr et ee ! naH becomes nO and AT it aay Sty: aSveShu does not form avagraha here so needs 1 LOIT Cpe Bhivcaag tT Meg: distinct rendering of words. | no eno Bigev01034 ©1Claus I naH becomes na with WeSo rey TT dropping of visargam before vowel ‘U’ hence needs pause I LDS 46UG-F 95353514 sou stron Biscw between these words. I ANIME) ore’ oom Bomco

<table><thead><th></th><th>m1</th><th>amet a</th><th>\</th><th></th><th>Example similar to above.</th></thead><thead><th></th><th>merci</th><th>Bjuorr</th><th>Blu sioroucinsr</th><th></th><th></th></thead><thead><th>0</th><th></th><th>BB</th><th>Bho</th><th></th><th></th></thead><tr><td></td><td></td><td>!</td><td></td><td></td><td>naH becomes nO and</td></tr><tr><td>AT</td><td>it Cpe</td><td>aay Sty: ,; Bhivcaag</td><td>F</td><td></td><td>aSveShu does not form avagraha here so needs</td></tr><tr><td>LOI no</td><td>eno</td><td>| Bigev01034</td><td>flag: ©1Claus</td><td></td><td>rendering</td></tr><tr><td>J</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>naH becomes na with</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td>AWASo _</td><td>res AT _</td><td>_</td><td></td><td>oe dropping of visargam before vowel ‘U’ hence needs pause</td></tr><tr><td>LDS</td><td>46UG-F</td><td>95353514</td><td>sou stron</td><td>Biscw</td><td>between these words.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>I</td><td>ANIME)</td><td>ore’ oom Bomco</td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

When there is a Samyukta Akshara (Conjunct Consonant- Joint Letter) of “h’ followed by a letter of Nasal Class like ‘n,N, M’ , the ‘h’ is not distinctly recited; the ‘h’ takes over the Halant sounds of the following Nasal Letter with which it is formed. Simlar effect follows when ‘h’ is followed by ‘ya’ where ‘h’ sound tends more towards ya sound.

Kindly note that the sound of ‘h; sound not be stressed too much like the following Nasal class letter. ‘h’ comes from the base of the throat where as the nasal letters sound reverberates from the front of the mouth. So the pronunciation of these words take a middle path to make rendering smoother.

Example Comments . . ° — . . I . Ug aiDn sxediesrom LIN S .woib (eninneresr0 Mo (AILOQo While recital the sound stress on ‘h’ should not become full m as be heard as bramama. e is followed by 4 (nasal letter) @M is followed by LO (nasal letter) aN is followed by @ (nasal letter). @, @M, a0 takes the sound of nasalletter H , W , 0. wget aT 535 ,GW zy] AGL, GramMdo While recital the sound stress on ‘h’ should not become full n as be heard as Here, @m), af) takes the sound of nasal letter “{, oor, (an)

] feIaT TET Here @, @i), al takes the I SHFMFUM & SI i} sSMYMMsM] NS mM), While recital the sound stress on ‘h’ should not become full N as be heard as sound of nasal letter UL, cost ory Here the stress on ‘h’ will not be rat ada l heavy and moderate towards ~ ‘ya; sound but sound not fully I SAGEM GyoDGien ONSET | heard as guyyena LOlemd } Lae@mm

Note: Students should observe their Guru to learn the right pronunciation for combination of hva.hya, hla. In addition when we are new to learning, we tend to make the mistake of pronouncing hru as hRu or hRu as hru.

This Section gives an overview of how words/padams shall be rendered together and how and when pause/extension is given. Kindly be aware that there are differences between Schools in they way they take words together, give pause or elongate an akshara based their System. A learner should follow mainly the teachings of the Guru but become aware of some differences so when one perfroms any recital in a common function, one is able to make right adaptations.

Kindly refer to previous Section where some highlights have been discussed. This area cannot be articulated exhaustively but we are making an honest attempt so that Veda learners get some basic knowledge of the issues in rendering. It is incorrect to think that other methods/Schools of rendering are incorrect; you should have an open-mind set that keeps you improving gradually and one should be open to learning/adapting even after years of Practice/Recital.

Samhita is a Sanskrit may be interpreted as “well arranged or ordered” The root words, sam means “correct” and “proper/well,” and hita means “arranged” or “wholesome.” Other dictionary meaning we get are junction or combination of letters according to defined grammar rules. (may be taken as Sandhi in common parlance) and any methodically arranged collection of texts or verses. One Scholar says that is an arrangement of letters at ardha-mAtra kaala (time scale as it takes a small time) between letters like a garland of flowers. The natural pause between uttering two letters is called Virama, though it is a term used for pause. But the avasana is used in SikShA as a reference to taking a break, rest or stoppage. We will use the word letter pause and giving additional time as pause so readers of the document get a consistent reference.

Let us look at the constituent of SamhitA which is collections of texts or we call it as Veda mantras.

1. Padam - it is the lowest form a SamhitA can be broken up. 2. Word - it can be same as a Padam or a constituent of two or more Padams

3. Text – The word Text and Verse are used in classical books by Scholars. The Text here we are interpreting as a combining of many words that combine due to various Grammar Rules.

4. Verse/Ruk – Here we mean a separate Vedic statement which ends in a Ruk stop.

5. Mantra – It is a combination of more than one Verse/Ruk that gives a logical and complete meaning of the verses/Ruks. This is subject to Rules of Chandas or Vedic Meters. A mantra may be sometimes, represented in a single Ruk.

PS Chapter 22 Rule 13 - The verse-pause, pada-pause, pause for hiatus, and pause for hiatus in the interior of a word, are respectively of three moras, two moras, one mora, and a half-mora. When we refer to some Articles, the word mora has been taken as same as mAtrA, since the word mora is a very old and classical term. The way ancient text classifies the pause and the way we have defined the components of a SamhitA vary and it needs to be understood correctly in terms of the guideline given in PS. There are interpretation differences about pause when we read the Commentaries; so we have gone by practical guidelines given by our Scholar Guides. There are differences in the style Pause and extension of sounds are handled.

A learner should first become thorough with the way Guru teaches him.

The word ‘hiatus’ stands for the pause that is given between two vowels

PratiSAkyam makes a distinction between ‘hiatus’ (vowel pause) within

The following example is given to make the distinction clear to readers.

afer 3 A Fe uy jua SQL MohCS wna Sib “ENS 4,0 | BID1ayoo eM MABOo Oflewa tN Namauktim is a single padam with a combination of namaH + uktim; by rule visargam get dropped; ‘a’ and ‘u’ rendered to together will give incorrect sound. So a pause is given in the interior of the word between fia and @. VOT) Me Botnaten | | (WMO) BBB 10 ino u0@u5 Pratugam is not subject to Sandhi but a single padam; so a pause is given between pra and figam so vowel sounds donot combine. This a pause in the interior of a word/padam. l l qWed FE wa st a sue pices G539 Losiwied C5 I 5 QagGa The padam manyaVE becomes manyavVa before vowel sound U of uto. These are two padams so the pause is extended between Va and U distinguish there is a Sandhi. This Vowel pause between words is longer than the pause within a

The padam is aSvinau +uBau +AdhattAm. The au becomes A with a ‘v’ combined with following padam. So uBau become vuBau, but this vuBau has ‘au’ at the endwhich becomes ‘A’ before following vowel A of Adhattam. So there is a double word vowel pauses in this mantra.

The three things generally that shape up the rendering method/style of a learner are:

1. The style in which your Guru teaches and his School of Learning

2. The book that you follow and how the book represents these issues

3. Additional effort you put in terms of listening to Audios/Videos of Vedic Pandits, acquiring knowledge of each of these issues and of course, the practice that makes it perfect.

Note: This is a continuous process; some aspects discussed below will become clear as one reads our Articles on Visarga Sandhi, Vowel Sandhi, Consonant Sandhi and Avagraha.

If a reader is new to learning Vedas, donot try to understand everything that is articulated; become aware of the issues and use this as a guide to learn and improve recital.

If the representation in the book that you follow takes words together but your Guru teaches splitting the words or give pause you should kindly take note. Same is the case when words are represented separately but needs to be taken together. VedaVMS books represent words separately at many places to indicate that words are separate or there is a need for pause. But we are aligning words to match with Pada Paatam, on an on-going basis so that rendering is easier, but under the guidance of a qualified Guru.

Endings with s or r at the end of the Padam in noun form become Visargam.

Now let us discuss common occurrence of combinations of the ending akshara/letter in a word by above types.

A Vowel sound of a previous word is followed by first Vowel letter of the

Example Comments I I ub re afro: LSD LvoGusfBH 915 45 i} i} RB(Bo ale@uo Boucle W23(M8 paSyema #akShaBi leads to elongation as iA, it is customary to give a small pause after iA for Sandhi to indicate elongation. =m I is Hour Sfiloné-er eu ,L0er0) I M10 WN1@01G8d210 AIB.AC) giriSBaccA leads to elongation of Sa as BA. Similar to above example. war fk 3 oftea arora mGLon AGE jGal ule yr I | I TeoNUITSTTL MEAD MIe2I@GN! paricarAyataraNyAnAm leads to elongation of JA.

T ns@la1008G-O5M soMd0 l l pans Barrer I Ws Sibu AMSahvos O60 Aue BB ritua indraH + cat+ agniH+ca is the combination. ‘ca’#agni gives ‘Agni’. l I I nfs wat Mik sheet gery ! . . ee I ee . Lou) Lily egmLb ols § 49 QS, Hu nw (nISZ00 aL s0((31Wo BWM} Mayi+indra becomes may/fidra, This is similar with a combination of two short ‘i’ that becomes long T.

When we try to render without pause, the words combination does not sound smoother. It is customary to indicate an occurrence of a Sandhi with a small pause, without effect of a break.

Example Comments a ~ aGorA * apApakAsini, the ‘a’ a following long ‘a’ becomes avagraha, then this avagraha I SEONG HT Eutusmuiet takes half the vowel sound of previous letter and normally a i} MMIOENDIDO9 Proaimouslon’ pause is given; But a break effect may occur and an opposite meaning may be intended. So Gurus want you to give an extension to indicate presence of ‘a’ without saying full ‘a’. Rendering avagraha correctly improves through practice. f Similar to above example _ NT combination of yA followed by ‘a’ of asmAn forms avagraha. suunfforo.onssr, ONUvEUs m@okryors ANIM

<table><tr><td>apifsorranart</td><td>aGorA * apApakAsini, the ‘a’</td></tr><tr><td>5 OMCan 1 Eutusmuiet</td><td>avagraha, then this avagraha takes half the vowel sound of previous letter and normally a</td></tr><tr><td>| MMIOEN19 09 aro aldol) eageary Fart</td><td>pause is given; But a break effect may occur and an opposite meaning may be intended. So Gurus want you to give an extension to indicate presence of ‘a’ without saying full ‘a’. Rendering avagraha correctly improves through practice. Similar to above example combination of yA followed by ‘a’</td></tr><tr><td>suunfforo.onssr, ONUvEUs</td><td>of asmAn forms avagraha.</td></tr><tr><td>m@okryors ANIM</td><td></td></tr></table>

acaatag ees evamMenvtGwire Ceo Fas ir roof i} Muanlavemos3emM Fuwmioen Avagraha when followed by ‘a’. SOT LATO ~~) I LIG gVLOM oormr i} Mm AY} OAD EMO 1b) Avagraha forms after ‘O’ sound when followed by ‘a’. l I Il sengerst SacaaT . . I | a Wl Ugysinions 55 @S Sou (erin en oruo OO MWS A double avagraha symbol ss represents a word ending ‘A long vowel sound is followed by letter A. Here brahmA+Agatasrl. The pause will be longer.

Example I i" dart yatta MEUUIOUCS 07 yon 8 C5. 5 | DAMIER anna i vu CRAUZON ©) ‘devP#AgAt gives devyAgAt due to sandhi of ‘i with ‘A’ A short is given to indicate Sandhi. it} alo ay’ anwos29 Parama#iShti results in paramEShti. Combination of mati’ gives ‘FiIE’ (ae). A small pause for Sandhi is given. aes erat Usp iD DIB. L4SMeorrld ” (enspOABO SYOIMIo GE2yaHo An ‘ai’ sound is formed with a combination of a+E (ae). Here it is brahm@#Eva resulting in brahifiaiva

<table><thead><th>I i"</th><th>‘devP#AgAt gives devyAgAt</th></thead><tr><td>dart yatta</td><td>due to sandhi of ‘i with ‘A’</td></tr><tr><td>MEUUIOUCS 07 yon 8 C5. 5 | DAMIER anna eB NO)</td><td>A short is given to indicate Sandhi.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Parama#iShti results in paramEShti. Combination of mati’ gives ‘FiIE’ (ae).</td></tr><tr><td>it} alo ay’ anwos29</td><td>A small pause for Sandhi is given.</td></tr><tr><td>aes erat</td><td>An ‘ai’ sound is formed with a combination of a+E (ae). Here</td></tr><tr><td>Usp iD DIB. L, 4D MToorr Lb °</td><td>it is brahm@#Eva resulting in brahifiaiva</td></tr><tr><td>(enspOABO SYOIMIo GE2yaHo</td><td></td></tr></table>

I fraser eT: Tl ¥ I “ais Sy.oncon- sho CoB 5 i} Alas en06m—e( 7 BODO} NO O sound is formed with a combination of atu. Here is is tredha#UrugAya forming GAO. l I 1 + ane at _ Lou sGW eumPeucros HSIM- Bison | aro@ lamps ro-Bra1e"Imoo An ‘au’ is formed here with a combination of ‘a’+’O’ . kRutAyatOShadinAm becomes kRutA@uShadinAm I I aoe: ACE frarfr l ero agus oo} Sg i} i} nog. txoe-crvqywoo (nfl@oem) ‘sapta +RuShaya becomes saptafSfaya due to sandhi of a sound with Ru. This is Swarabhakti. Refer to previous Section on Swarabhakti which should be uttered like r+R I qeu: ager: punAtU+aGamarShaNaH are the Padams. ‘tu’+’a’ becomes Wa as per Sandhi.

<table><tr><td></td><td>combination of atu. Here is is</td></tr><tr><td>faraararor eae: Tl ¥ I “ais Sy.oncon- sho CoB 5 i} Alas en06m—e( 7 BODO} NO</td><td>tredha#UrugAya forming GAO.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>l I 1 + ane at _</td><td>An ‘au’ is formed here with a combination of ‘a’+’O’</td></tr><tr><td>Lou sGW eumPeucros HSIM-</td><td>. kRutAyatOShadinAm becomes kRutA@uShadinAm</td></tr><tr><td>Bison</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>| aro@ lamps ro-Bra1e"Imoo</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>I I aoe: ACE frarfr</td><td>‘sapta +RuShaya becomes saptafSfaya due to sandhi of</td></tr><tr><td>l ero agus oo} Sg</td><td>a sound with Ru. This is Swarabhakti. Refer to previous</td></tr><tr><td>i} i} nog. txoe-crvqywoo (nfl@oem)</td><td>Section on Swarabhakti which should be uttered like r+R</td></tr><tr><td>I qeu: ager:</td><td>punAtU+aGamarShaNaH are the Padams. ‘tu’+’a’ becomes</td></tr></table>

T Aue,ems syn Aajad asses ] ] maar q ii aa ouivivs B Bses Gio pul 8 Boro a GA Here mE which has ‘E’ sound becomes fila as per Sandhi. Then the words should have distinct pause. When recited fast or together it is heard as maRutanjaca, without pause. I aarat a say ae Tear ayGunt oun Q5,4 sojoub i} BHEaI0 avo may MBAUo The ‘ai’ sound becomes [AY sound when followed by a vowel letter. Then the pause should be distinct. l shea oat or ; _ q a Gerveoriteon éyr octane sou emaluas eruomom) (noo mS Ai] ouco al The ‘au’ sound of grAmaNyau becomes ‘Av’ due to Sandhi before u of urvaSl, v added to urvaSi becomes vurvaSl. The pause must be distinct between JANandnul This is similar to Medha sUktam example for vowel pause (hiatus) between words.

<table><thead><th>Aue,ems</th><th>syn</th><th>Aajad asses</th><th></th></thead><tr><td>] maar q ouivivs B</td><td>] ii aa Bses</td><td>Gio</td><td>Here mE which has ‘E’ sound becomes fila as per Sandhi. Then the words should have</td></tr><tr><td>pul 8</td><td>Boro a</td><td>GA</td><td>distinct pause. When recited fast or together it is heard as maRutanjaca, without pause.</td></tr><tr><td>aarat a</td><td>. say ae</td><td>I Tear</td><td>The ‘ai’ sound becomes [AY sound when followed by a vowel letter. Then the</td></tr><tr><td>ayGunt oun BHEaI0 l</td><td>Q5,4 avo may</td><td>sojoub i} MBAUo</td><td>The ‘au’ sound of grAmaNyau</td></tr><tr><td>shea ; q a</td><td>oat</td><td>or _</td><td>becomes ‘Av’ due to Sandhi before u of urvaSl, v added to urvaSi becomes vurvaSl. The</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>JANandnul This is similar to Medha</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>sUktam example for vowel</td></tr><tr><td>emaluas Maaco</td><td>eruomom) ol</td><td>(noo mS</td><td>pause (hiatus) between words.</td></tr></table>

| avdwio combine with U, distinct pause is given. wit T =Ft | cof our sont it} ovo aoa mamMd Here samlgl is a pragraha that is not subject to vowel Sandhi with following vowel u. I i 3 aT LOI SquiToun Ls GS) ain, | n9 asonoals uf woe dyAvApRuthivl is a pragraha; Mi does not have Sandhi with following vowel ‘a’. Fre ate The padams here are viSatat+urO which is pragraha.

There is a Sandhi that results in viSatOrO that does not combine with ‘a’.

These are subject to Visarga Sandhi. The results of the same could be

3. The first letter end vowel is changed. This may combine with following word or not.

Example Comments When Visargam becomes a uÉÉeÉþ¶É qÉå halant like s,S,Sh, then the letter pause occurs before the Visarga வாஜ†.ச ேம, substituted letter. Then here Sca needs to be rendered together. pxR—Ò ¥i There will only be letter pause between ja and Sca.

<table><thead><th></th><th>Example</th><th>Comments</th></thead><tr><td></td><td></td><td>pause occurs before the Visarga</td></tr><tr><td>euTso</td><td>GLO,</td><td>substituted letter. Then here S@a</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td></td><td>needs to be rendered together.</td></tr><tr><td rowspan="2">aroea Ul</td><td>ca</td><td>There will only be letter pause</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>between ja and Sca.</td></tr></table>

(fi gets the light stress) pio fBa\s@ur ju Hag ruA.,Coon | | malfaayoo00 Mlauesutlesm Sandhi. Pause is after kf. I 3 I a pio fiuBlcumu & l l maffiaioe Da Similar to above examples. SSI is taken together normally a letter pause after ma. . l se faa am Osa “aAtsioemih ale éyCin ©9830 ‘algal Moleen When the visargam becomes ‘f it needs rendering with next word but with a letter pause after

I a aaa rate | | ° ono WIGUDITeUTEsT Li ,6us) I om MeUDDAING BAI) §@ is SaH with its visargam dropped as per Rule. So a distinct pause should be made as if made between words. I I fay oH sus: I l How GSoim 2 LIUUMST: 088 Salludloo8 rudrAH has its visargam dropped to become rudfA and followed by ‘ a vowel; a pause is elongated little more than a word pause. i} eof BEN MBlEMUAAUAT . | . ° ° C55. HASzCT HHziU4G oucor or devAH has its visargam dropped to become deWA and followed by ‘®’ vowel so pause must be distinct like above example. dhl has its visargam dropped so a word pause must be

Example Comments I | can S370 Lif) Gooorr CU GOS 5 enn f OLB, aAl@leeMd AILeNAM) By rule hetiH with visargam becomes hefll before following letter ‘r’ as per Sandhi. So the pause must be distinct after uttering ‘tl’. Tet zanfraht ater om TeoQ St wives) {us I oop CAYMIM) MUBIOWIaIM1e This is similar to above rAjiH has become rAj] example where letter with visargam elongates. Tory Ue: Here apaH becomes apA before ‘r and word pause must be distinct.

<table><tr><td>aff</td><td>I ever ator ag</td><td>By rule hetiH with visargam</td></tr><tr><td>can</td><td>| S370 Lif) Gooorr</td><td>letter ‘r’ as per Sandhi. So the pause must be distinct after</td></tr><tr><td>CL (O01</td><td>EB]</td><td>uttering ‘tl’.</td></tr><tr><td>enn f</td><td>OLB, aAl@leeMd AILeNAM)</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ah om</td><td>ahh ae TeoQ St wives) {us</td><td>has become rAj] example where letter with visargam elongates.</td></tr><tr><td>oop</td><td>I CAYMIM) MUBIOWIaIM1e</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Tory Ue:</td><td>Here apaH becomes apA before ‘r and word pause must be distinct.</td></tr></table>

I I ALITUDSOTU 9.6000 ollt TeoQ: | | OnIOWB sqRi-2D O&rU8 _ (oa) om

Example Comments at The avagraha as per slkSha has _ the half the sound of its previous ii Seno S 341 ,Guit letter. Avagraha requires a Mead saVvlases so pause after it, but in practice many schools render it with an extension of ‘a’ sound in the second part instead of pause for distinction that ‘a’ is present. ~ I sor yet “ae | » I SUTLD YOQULD Ges, ¥ i} Poo ie alyayo cCOIB Similar example (ate SVT J ,CCUuH2Ig Here yO has dheerga swaritam and the pause/extension is made after completion of dheerga

¥jx˜„sôx© ¥bûræy– swaritam. Similar to above examples WåûQûÉåÅuÉþ ,ேஹேடா3Åவ† ,¥t¥Wx„p—

4. There is a substitution of anuswAram for rendering together with next word.

Example Comments I I They are taken together with a Tat Heo Aes 7 letter pause distinctly between ' ' ‘m’ and ‘Ru’ so that the word is 1636 or sedUbSTDBSE Gio not mistaken for mRu. I I WMESanmn Ar!4 amo-fifoa. fern] I + I Here there is a short pause is alk z _ qu: after yA to indicate Sandhi of letters. Ur ou 8 WIT Os CS LD:

GTUIANSSOMOM EO Mas I I : ! . o l sf ,ooMourjom Suen I I MIDUNIAIBENIo Malicvo Similar example; M plus a of agni form fill I I sierra Berg) GHeuev: I BOTVIAAN) C0213 | _— 2 aXe) asmAkafaastu; ma is formed.

Example Comments rorareat eal fae 5 aroroont jour 5 om Si aia TLOGam When a letter is followed by (gm) or (gg) there is a short pause.

MNenoMoanla Memal@) Similar to above WFaQ LO6OTT SEMOH vu i} WOhUaA AMD CNMVM) I Similar a pause after (gg) Ie] Similar to above.

Example Comments ; I I I as aug Pt a7 ‘wes seusm Ban Asem ‘wewsmn ©0409 Bleno @ wmexamm When anusvAram is retained normal word pause is given. — Gusnaxn onaliye Blooeano Similar example. mers Bell Te Laren gegeorony uns ploll Grovgns, i} i} (eninaiezeoemo fe (une Mom ey Here tow successive words with anusvAram have pause with following words.

<table><tr><td>; I I as aug Pt Wg @oor seusm ; I “me~xamm ©0409</td><td>I a7 Ban I Beno</td><td>W1gZG @hoot I MexemmM</td><td>When anusvAram is retained normal word pause is given.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Similar example.</td></tr><tr><td>W155 95 6° ROD</td><td>Gusnaxn</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>onaliye Blooeano</td><td></td><td></td><td>Here tow successive words</td></tr><tr><td>mers Bell</td><td>Te</td><td></td><td>with anusvAram have pause</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Laren gegeorony uns ploll with following words.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="4">Grovgns,</td></tr><tr><td>i} i} (eninaiezeoemo fe</td><td>(une</td><td>Mom ey</td><td></td></tr></table>

1 (sailor) 2! CO, I 2 I . 4 | a | oe . Baers oe CH zu HS afd Memo CBAIDILAS Wo | Similar example here M becomes ‘fi’ before ‘fa’ varga letter GB a ° l oO 16,0 SIU 551,67 I ror feo NEBo BUCO ] Here Mis nasalized before ‘YA’ and needs to be rendered together. ST Similar example M becomes nazalised before ‘Va’ and Wa needs to be rendered together.

Halant letters are subject to Consonant Sandhi with some exceptions and special rules.

1. Halant joins following vowel to form a Swarayukta/Samyukta akshara.

3. There is simple substitution of letter(s) – Normal Sandhi rules

4. Special Consonant Sandhi Rules are applied combining words with or without new letter formation

Example Comments . = vidvAn+amRuta join creates ‘na’ _ ge a short pause between dvA and fa is given to indicate sandhi of Zo; : I | “aN urea Qam u,018) | words. ‘nila.ofRM so Ban eco

<table><tr><td>: I I aa</td><td></td><td>vidvAn+amRuta join creates ‘na’</td></tr><tr><td>se watt</td><td></td><td>a short pause between dvA and</td></tr><tr><td>“ols curb</td><td>uous)</td><td>fa is given to indicate sandhi of</td></tr></table>

l l after —arear ARS LiflurtsiooFoLor BilciecL, puvanenn I ai@la1om-aeryornfalensseslovnslono asmAn+tariShTE give fa I I Tara: rapier set uve: vce epteu UGbCS, | | alUons nso ene0 AUe@,emrw paSUfmeva gives the letter nE. I aaa: He | I Sms Musrouss G® DORMS worses &}O} | tAntindriya combine creates ‘fi’

Example Comments When halant is followed by a xuÉ–ÎxiÉlÉÉå– oÉ×Wû–xmÉÌiÉþUç SkÉÉiÉÑ consonant, they are taken together with only with letter

erreurs) GIT Lg GOD SOUS GST 45 | Muay] emo muynnryOfBIBwoo a _ a pause. Here theare is no Sandhi of letters nor any of the rules explained in previous section become applicable. ere Pare: Gam Sjerv oneot-ei) (om 5) ennMlomyo Alpemaony Similar to above wit Gs Caw SiG ,cioLo | WMO EM enn oi Bam usjaye Similar to the above : < ! oe o ° 5 gCvO-§ 6p, CUUT} 595 ,suTerd I Bev008I2,"fBge00 62010 Similar to the above

<table><tr><td>erreurs)</td><td>pause. Here theare is no</td></tr><tr><td>Muay] a</td><td>Sandhi of letters nor any of the rules explained in previous section become applicable.</td></tr><tr><td>ere</td><td>Similar to above</td></tr><tr><td>Gam</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ennMlomyo</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Similar to the above</td></tr><tr><td>wit WMO</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>Similar to the above</td></tr><tr><td>5 gCvO-§</td><td></td></tr></table>

Example Comments " I In Consonant Sandhi the first re wed letter of a class here ‘t’ becomes, SHeroLonr TTL ,e3TWis third letter of its class here ‘d’ OOAD 200M before Soft Consonants and Vowels. tasmAt#VirADa, join leads to substitution of ‘t’ as ‘d’. Here the letters (@Nandivi must be recited distinctly with a letter pause. Here ‘d’ and ‘vi’ ; it should not be recited in one breath as dvi which many a times may bring unintended meaning. Le ‘etaf@tharvaSir.Sham is the Bf arsettt ‘nation Since i \ _ combination.Since it becomes log — ; J VUuty.agi “GCuums§ 4CS Ga a small pause is made after Mog da to indicate sandhi. ABMBLIBA! VOIB.nYo “CMOsWIEM J I 7 In ‘it’+’jagat’ combination, ‘t’ ar qeadfa_fire ; becomes {j’ before ‘ja’, ‘jja’ is WAT, hero erojeuh 5353 taken together with clear letter i} ond mayéaio- “eB pause between fjandijar

<table><tr><td>sHoauutyj.agia “GuinsS ,C5 J ABMBLO8A1 W18.cto “emoswilem</td><td>‘da a small pause is made after da to indicate sandhi.</td></tr><tr><td>I @LNnO Mayeaial— OB</td><td>pause between fjandijar</td></tr></table>

WwW Bold 551 oust I ODMIOIo MBIANAIM ews pause continusouly. This is similar to tattme becoming tanmE I af I T 55.7 bo Goon aus 1 BOIBAMILICLIOANI® Daridrafffllalohita becomes ‘nnl’. Take ‘n’ and ni with letter pause distinctly. cone LIMEEY ag ,SMyLd (arom ay Mo ShaT+hOtAram. Combination of T+h makes T as D and ho becomes Dho. Takes DDho with a letter pause. I By a my Cs ,ousufh 5b" O EKG EBMaMao In ‘tat’ + cakShur , ‘t? becomes ‘c’ that needs to be taken along with ca with a letter pause. Far eat Ufleur 10g 6705 1 eee Serco In tAn + juShTAm, n bcomes ~j nasal of ca varga. Recite ‘~j’ and ju with clear letter pause.

H&E o1D “Suing eu gpontioGam | €Q}NOD ALLEM"AeaN In asmABBlokAt, t becomes | , the 16 must be rendered with letter pause. our siupeigufl CS DGSW: | ABEHI AO Groajay Mpc ALOsy8 This is similar to above,amuShmin’s ‘n’ is nasalized.

Example Comments Frere Hr l I alluvev Gut ur soun als | | ANvoeess9 sruoamcuoly Bon Here the ‘n’ in bANavAn bcomes (gm) due to vedic grammar rule. There will be short pause after ‘gm’ before vowel.

wal Betyg reget crojounly Bs.,0ry Jun a9CErr, ! vécu0ly Bony nN aUeso \ Oe Here there are two (gm)s short pause makes the distinction that vedic Sandhi Rules exist. ero ijeurr sash Bean audaion The (gg) gets formed out of ahin, n becomes (@§j due to following joint letter + ca becoming S@al There is only letter pause between letters and are taken together but pause before next word sarvAn. Similar example

I In this example, ‘n’ doubles after \ vowel asmin. Brahmant+asmin, U1, amo eroLhleor here the B@iadiiia should be rendered distinctly with a letter pause.

<table><tr><td>In this example, ‘n’ doubles after</td></tr><tr><td>vowel asmin. Brahmant+asmin,</td></tr><tr><td>here the filandina should be</td></tr><tr><td>rendered distinctly with a letter</td></tr><tr><td>pause.</td></tr></table>

When a halant letter is followed by other Consonant with no Sandhi normally they are rendered together with a letter pause. When a word ends in vowel sound and is followed by another word with a Consonant, (normally with no Sandhi explained or other rules of joining, it is rendered distinctly as two words with a normal word pause. Note: Observe the nature of words joined like tatte, yatte, sante, santvA; even if they are given in the books separately, observe your Guru for rendering similar words. There is no need for extra word/padam pause. Readers must remember the exceptions are Swarabhakti and Swara Samgjyai explained in previous Sections.

Areas to take care is that ‘m’ may not be rendered along with following words like pra, pa, m; the intended meaning conveyed by SamhitA should not be changed, so a learner gets to grasp them by experience.

SamhitA is rendered by combination of padams and the padams shall be rendered distinctly in recital if they are represented separately in Pada Paatam as it is a mirror of SamhitA.

Padam with vAkyam Comments TS 1.2.13.2 Padams - pra | yacCa | pra yacCa shall be rendered mÉë | rÉ–cNû– | mÉë rÉþcNû– with pause as they are separate padams. If prayacca is a single padam, ர | ய…Wச…2 | ர ய†Wச…2 then, there will be just a letter pause and prayacca will be öe | j–Pâ– | öe j—Pâ– rendered continuously. TS 2.1.1.5 Padams- paSUn | pra | janayati Rendered as paSunpra yaccati mÉ–zÉÔlÉç | mÉë þ | eÉ–lÉ–rÉ–ÌiÉ– | and n will join p with letter pause and word pause before yaccati. mÉ–zÉÔlÉç mÉë eÉþlÉrÉÌiÉ– If prajanayati was a single padam, then it will be rendered ப…ஶூ9 | ர | ஜ…ன…ய…தி… | together with paSUnprajanayati ப…ஶூ9- ர ஜ†னயதி… e–q¢© | öe | R–d–j–Zy– | e–q¢© öe R—djZy– TS 1.7.6.7 punaH | A | laBate | Rendered as punarA labate (sandhi of A with visargam ‘r’ of

<table><thead><th>TS 1.2.13.2</th><th>Padams - pra | yacCa |</th><th>pra yacCa shall be rendered</th></thead><tr><td></td><td>I</td><td>with pause as they are</td></tr><tr><td>19 Bk? BOS</td><td>i A BS)</td><td>separate padams.</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>|</td><td>If prayacca is a single padam,</td></tr><tr><td>. o uy | WF,</td><td>. o | &gt; UT WEE,</td><td>then, there will be just a letter</td></tr><tr><td></td><td>i}</td><td>pause and prayacca will be</td></tr><tr><td>(al | Moll 2.0</td><td>&gt; (al Mal x0)</td><td>rendered continuously.</td></tr><tr><td>TS 2.1.1.5</td><td>Padams- paSUn | pra | janayati</td><td>Rendered as paSunpra yaccati</td></tr><tr><td>Te</td><td>I U1 aratt | &gt;</td><td>and n will join p with letter</td></tr><tr><td>Te WT</td><td>Wald</td><td>If prajanayati was a single padam, then it will be rendered</td></tr><tr><td>LUD 6 |</td><td>LIT | Remus | &gt;</td><td>together with BaSUABrajanayati</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">LIUUS 6or-LIT 22 6118)</td></tr><tr><td>140408 |</td><td>(al | BNOO | &gt;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">alVOyas (a enw</td></tr><tr><td>TS 1.7.6.7</td><td>punaH | A | laBate |</td><td>Rendered as punafA labate (sandhi of A with visargam ‘r’ of</td></tr></table>

I Qa: | at aad | > ae aad | | Lior: | Sh | 60 C5 | > Lyoor IT 60 ,C5 ALM IBD | LIBED | PanmMeo aisem punaH). Word pause between A and labate. TS 4.3.6.1 antarikSham | ca | Vi | bAdhatAm | arate 1 RE aERATT I > arate a fe arerat abs Msogid | & | Of | LIT,5 ,SMD ||> sibs ea965 & ofl U5 BMD CDAD Et4o lod | aft MNWM9o II I I > GWAC] AY0 21 AN MIOWMDo II Rendered as antarikSha~jca Vi bAdhaAm since preposition vi is a separate padam. TS 1.5.3.3 | punaH | agne | fF vader gr art > ‘hi’ Vartasva is rendered separately since they are distinct padams in BhU

<table><tr><td>Qa: |</td><td>at</td><td>aad |</td><td>I &gt; ae aad</td><td></td><td>punaH). Word pause between A and labate.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">| | Lior: | Sh | 60 C5 | &gt; Lyoor IT 60 ,C5</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">ALM IBD | LIBED | PanmMeo aisem</td></tr><tr><td>TS</td><td>4.3.6.1</td><td>antarikSham |</td><td>ca | Vi |</td><td>bAdhatAm |</td><td>Rendered as antarikSha~jca Vi bAdhaAm since preposition vi</td></tr><tr><td>arate</td><td></td><td>1 RE</td><td>aERATT I &gt;</td><td></td><td>is a separate padam.</td></tr><tr><td>arate abs</td><td>a fe Msogid |</td><td>arerat &amp; | Of</td><td>| LIT,5 ,SMD</td><td>||&gt;</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">sib silsoe &amp; of Lt BMD |</td></tr><tr><td>CDAD</td><td>Et4o</td><td>lod |</td><td>aft</td><td>MNWM9o II</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&gt;</td><td>I GWAC]</td><td>AY0 21</td><td>I AN MIOWMDo</td><td>II</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TS</td><td>1.5.3.3</td><td>|</td><td>punaH | agne |</td><td></td><td>‘hi’ Vartasva is rendered</td></tr><tr><td>S&amp;S</td><td>eee</td><td></td><td>orm CN</td><td></td><td>separately since they are distinct padams in BhU</td></tr></table>

l H) | aujgerva | Yoo: | Hb,Gon | > 6) alijserveu Loot & 601 | M1 | eM | aNMs | GeEUN | > oo I ~ am] aeb@MD aMNeN TS 1.5.2.2 indriye | prati | tiSAThati | aft oft fastt Qss Nw | oy$H | Hig. | > Carbs yNCU Lys) Hip B Dew | (Imo | layer | > erlaslew [alo Olayor Indriye prati tiShThati rendered distinctly as they are separate Padam. TS 1.6.10.5 manaH | aft 1 yar A: 1 > ‘pari QRUNNAti is rendered separately with word pause. In Second example that is rendered together as ParigRUANAti as it is one single 101 of 119

<table><tr><td>| | am] aeb@MD aMNeN TS 1.5.2.2 indriye | prati | tiSAThati | l sea | wet | frstt | &gt;</td><td></td><td>Indriye prati tiShThati rendered distinctly as they are separate Padam.</td></tr><tr><td>aft oft fastt</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Olayor TS 1.6.10.5 manaH |</td><td></td><td>‘pari QRUNNAti is rendered separately with word pause.</td></tr><tr><td>aft 1 yar A: 1 &gt;</td><td></td><td>In Second example that is rendered together as ParigRUANAti as it is one single</td></tr></table>

I oft Terfaat I l Lifl | S,@Gamoonnrgs) | oso: | > uf 5, (FaMsvan gs) Lo Geom Ser | | al@] | Myanemoel | ams | Bec) | > aid Mhanemool nemoscnv TS 1.6.7.1 devatAH | pUrvaH | cam: ot: | oftparfe l\> Gs,usm: | Yau: | Ufls,q5ainsvos | > G5 ,OusT: Lyijeu: LINS, Gamers) | | CBAUIMDS I aNGas | aPnpanemoa | >

¥b–pZx˜J | e¢ªp—J | e–ky–M£–t§YxZy— | ¥b–pZx–J e¢ªp—J ekyM£–t§YxZy–

Note: Our compilations are being adjusted and aligned to padams so that following your Guru is easier.

We give below some key rules learnt from SikShA recently and we will try to keep updating further studies in future also.

pra, ut, ni, A, niH, su, vi, sam eteByaH paraM viSramo na kAryaH | etatpadasamUhataH uttarapadena saMhitAsti cet yathA |

First Condition is they are separate Padams and are prepositions. All these padams should not be left separated from the following Padam if they can be or are joined in a Vaakyam.

The guidance given here is say it with the following Padam as in

Example of Padam vAkyam with Comments TS 1.2.8.1 Padams - suAyuShA | ut | vAkyam – svAyuShodoShadhInAm oShadhInAm |

<table><thead><th>Example of Padam</th><th>vAkyam with Comments</th></thead><tr><td>TS 1.2.8.1 Padams suAyuShA] ut | 8ShadhInAm |</td><td>vAkyam svAyuShodeshadhinAm</td></tr></table>

I raraat | aA | Birse ATH | I cone RT ono | OV10@) AHO | Tes LD‘Imo0 TS 6.3.1.6 Padams - kar.Shati | ni | anye | auld | ara | ai 006 | BEMBercu 6.040 | MMNeem, ] vAkyam — kar.Shati nyanye I | Oo ° ST.A8) BbudcirGus | &6.aUOl Mjen 5 TS 7.3.13.1 Bavantu | eti | prajA | wag | at: aT | vAkyam - BavantvA prajA I Us I ° Li Outs Lig rr BAN (A189 TS 2.2.1.1 Padam - tam | niH | avapat | oe Be vAkyam - tanniravapat # fier

<table><tr><td>I</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">raraat | aA | Birse ATH |</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">I cone RT ono</td></tr><tr><td>| OV10@) AHO | Tes LD‘Imo0</td><td>MVI0@}</td><td>| aUuwWwIMoY</td></tr><tr><td>TS 6.3.1.6 Padams - kar.Shati | ni | anye |</td><td>vAkyam —</td><td>kar.Shati nyanye</td></tr><tr><td>auld | ara |</td><td>aes</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>ai 006 | BEMBercu</td><td>si.oos)</td><td>DpiusnCu</td></tr><tr><td>6.040 | MMNeem, ]</td><td>SB.</td><td>Mjen 5</td></tr><tr><td>TS 7.3.13.1 Bavantu | eti | prajA |</td><td>vAkyam -</td><td>BavantvA prajA</td></tr><tr><td>sag 1 3 |</td><td>I Us</td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td>I ° . Loup eu Lig</td><td>rr</td></tr><tr><td colspan="3">BAN (A189</td></tr><tr><td>TS 2.2.1.1 Padam - tam | niH | avapat |</td><td>vAkyam -</td><td>tanniravapat</td></tr></table>

SLD | CUS | Mo | AIA!) | si Bijouus | vu Mo Site QIal@) TS 1.5.11.5 Padam - Mahim | U |Su | mAtaram | I waiq 13 | q | ATA | . out | | FAR | ons aan’ 18 | mv} nO.o vAkyam - mahimUShu mAtaram I wera Ara I ny) LOT STW ann rey 09 DOMOY Note: u becomes U as per Vedic grammar rule and su becomes SAU TS 2.5.12.5 vi | pAjasA | vi | jyotiShA I I I I ofl | umtgzeror | Ml | gaCuinslagr i} 1 also AB When such prepositions do not have sandhi and are separate, the pause is shorter than word pause. vi pAjasA vi jyotiShA I I f& orsrer f& setter I I SBUiehoor Al Bousshom i} Sc 1 E2040 M

<table><thead><th rowspan="2">sb Mo</th><th></th><th>Baus</th><th>|</th><th>si</th><th>Bijouus</th></thead><thead><th></th><th>|</th><th></th><th>AIA!) |</th><th>| Mo</th><th>vu Site QIal@)</th></thead><tr><td>TS</td><td>1.5.11.5 mAtaram |</td><td>Padam</td><td>- Mahim | U |Su | I</td><td>vAkyam -</td><td>mahimUShu mAtaram</td></tr><tr><td colspan="6">waiq 13 | q | ATA | . out wera Ara 1 Lo uorgsiw</td></tr><tr><td>aan’</td><td></td><td>| | 18 | mv}</td><td>FAR | ons nO.o</td><td>ann rey</td><td>09 DOMOY</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>Note: u grammar</td><td>becomes U as per Vedic rule and su becomes SAU</td></tr><tr><td>TS</td><td>2.5.12.5 I</td><td>vi |</td><td>pAjasA | vi | jyotiShA I</td><td>vi pAjasA I f&amp;</td><td>vi jyotiShA I orsrer f&amp; setter</td></tr><tr><td>ofl</td><td>|</td><td>I umtgzeror |</td><td>I Ml | gaCuinslagr</td><td>I</td><td>I SBUiehoor Al Bousshom</td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td>i} also</td><td>1 AB</td><td>i}</td><td>Sc</td></tr><tr><td>When</td><td>such</td><td>prepositions</td><td>do not have sandhi</td><td>1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>and</td><td>are</td><td>separate,</td><td>the pause is shorter than</td><td></td><td>E2040 M</td></tr></table>

Note: When two such prepositions occur one after the other without any Sandhi or as separate padam, they are taken together with letter pause. Kindly listen to rendering where they take prapra, sampra together. The concept becomes clear to the learner.

4, d, @, XS, g, a, q:, q, 3H, a, qd, (Bs, &, as, 2, aM, eroLD, 6u:, I, FFLD, oHeu, H1,) (|, 2, aM, 9, aN, MY, Als, M3, 00H, 66), ©)2,) Ud: el: Yad: feat Fars: | UeRed: Yasue Aiea Ae. I

na, ca, hi, u, ha, sma, vaH, nu, Im, vai, tu, eteByaH adhaH pUrvataH viSramo na kAryaH | padakUTataH pUrvapadena saMhitA cet. Here guideline is join them with previous padam when it joins.

Example of Padam vAkyam with Comments TS 4.7.11.2 Padams - vAjaH | ca | prasavaH vAjaSca prasavaSca | ca | uÉÉeÉþÈ | cÉ– | mÉë–xÉ––uÉÈ | cÉ– | uÉÉeÉþ¶É mÉëxÉ–uÉ¶ÉÉþ-ÌmÉ–eÉ¶É வாஜ†: | ச… | ர…ஸ……வ: | ச… | வாஜ†.ச ரஸ…வ.சா†- pxR—J | P– | öe–s–pJ | P– | pxR—Ò öes–pÒx TS 3.4.11.6 Padams – yat | cit | hi rÉiÉç | ÍcÉ–iÉç | ÌWû | rÉÍccÉ–Î®

oy SB ofa TS 6.1.11.6 Padams - tasmAt | u | Il Il : | or: | Serving | Bou | 81 MTOR | W40 ] a mg a I a — ero soro.om Bg fAIMVOWLD fan) mos 8B.050 TS 1.7.2.1 Padams-iti | Cinatti | iti | ha | uvAca nol 1 ce an | ele am ‘iti Cinattlti hovAca oft fot fra oy) 81,6088 Gaipitsurs ancl al @@e Banoo. TS 3.3.8.5 Padams - etena | ha | sma | vai | Metena ha sma vA RuShayaH

<table><thead><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th rowspan="2">SB ofa</th><th></th></thead><thead><th></th><th>oy</th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th><th></th></thead><tr><td>TS</td><td>6.1.11.6 Padams Il</td><td>tasmAt | u | Il</td><td></td><td></td><td>mg a a —</td><td>I</td></tr><tr><td>: | or: |</td><td>Serving |</td><td>Bou</td><td></td><td>|</td><td>ero soro.om Bg</td><td>fAIMVOWLD</td></tr><tr><td>81</td><td>MTOR | a</td><td>W40</td><td></td><td>]</td><td>fan) mos</td><td>8B.050</td></tr><tr><td>TS 1.7.2.1</td><td>Padams-iti</td><td>| Cinatti | iti</td><td></td><td>| ha |</td><td>‘iti Cinattlti hovAca</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>uvAca af |</td><td>fate ght</td><td>| Bee</td><td></td><td>|</td><td>oft fot</td><td>fra</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">O81 | 8,088) | QS) | BD | oy) 81,6088 Gaipitsurs</td></tr><tr><td>Blours</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td>ancl al</td><td>@@e</td></tr><tr><td>nol ele</td><td>acevo) am</td><td>| g00</td><td></td><td>an</td><td>Banoo.</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TS 3.3.8.5</td><td>Padams</td><td>etena | ha |</td><td></td><td>sma | vai</td><td>Metena ha sma vA</td><td>RuShayaH</td></tr></table>

I I I ccc | SSS I (HQ WI: i} i} as words in terms of Rule 142. l l aa cam Eu: GuGser a so aun l (2 WI: i} i} TS 1.6.8.4 Padams - prajApatil [vai | kaH | l oe I (seo TB | os | &: | TS 6.4.2.1 Padams - Vasatu | nu |naH | wag 1a1F | I o BE i} ‘tu’, ‘nu’ ‘na’ should be taken with letter pause only like previous example wag a4 1 on SIBB i}

<table><tr><td>I</td><td>I</td><td></td><td>as words in l</td><td>terms</td><td>of Rule l</td><td>142.</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">aa cam Eu:</td></tr><tr><td>I ccc | SSS</td><td></td><td></td><td>GuGser</td><td>a</td><td>so</td><td>aun</td></tr><tr><td>I (HQ WI:</td><td></td><td></td><td>l (2 WI:</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>i}</td><td></td><td>i}</td><td>i}</td><td></td><td></td><td>i}</td></tr><tr><td>TS 1.6.8.4 Padams - l oe</td><td>prajApatil</td><td>[vai | kaH |</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td>&amp;: |</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>(seo TB</td><td>os</td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>TS 6.4.2.1 Padams -</td><td>Vasatu | nu</td><td>|naH |</td><td>‘tu’, ‘nu’ ‘na’ letter pause example</td><td>should only</td><td>be like</td><td>taken with previous</td></tr><tr><td colspan="7">wag 119 | wag a4</td></tr><tr><td>| oo SE:</td><td></td><td></td><td>1 on</td><td>SIBB</td><td></td><td></td></tr></table>

TS 6.4.3.4 Padams - iti | Aha | uta | Im | ad BBs 0 HST 6OTEOT (LP: | coo | CoB | 220 | Gonaays | vAkyam — ityAhotem sagt Douce Soon vib Bfeo in TS 7.5.7.1 Padams - iti | te | tu | I oan La I O81 | C5 | BI | aie: 1 a0 | eo | WY, | AIDA: ‘iti te tvAva aft + faa

The following words have anusvÀra before s: ÌWû, mÉÑ, ÎeÉaÉÉ, ÎeÉbÉÉ, cÉqðÎxÉlÉã,

AiÉðqxÉrÉiÉç, AÉiÉÉðqxÉÏiÉç,MülÉÏrÉÉ, erÉÉrÉÉ, SìÉbÉÏrÉÉ, UbÉÏrÉÉ, ´ÉãrÉÉ, ¾ûxÉÏrÉÉ,

uÉxÉÏrÉÉ, pÉÔrÉÉðqxÉÈ, eÉÍ¤ÉuÉÉ, eÉÎblÉuÉÉ, ÎeÉÌaÉuÉÉ, eÉÏÌaÉuÉÉ,iÉÎxjÉuÉÉ, SÉµÉÉ,

SÏÌSuÉÉ, mÉÌmÉuÉÉ, mÉÏÌmÉuÉÉ, ÌuÉ²É, ÌuÉÌuÉÍzÉuÉÉ, zÉÑ´ÉÑuÉÉ, xÉxÉ×uÉÉ.

When this anuswAram is followed by s,Sh based on grammar, it becomes (gm) or (gg) based on the rules followed

a, Y, Alar, Alar, Fard\Conr, QS Evid, SAHMDEGS, GOL, Qumun, sor ,éewin, 7&,wi, voGywn4, amyjenSwin, euenSwin, Ly ,uumibenn:, QFaHlour, Q&,oomeun, AHA,oin, BAl,ounr,Fov§ our, HT,UveuT, FH,our, uiiMeun, Wein, Ns,oT, Naluleur, vovUdReull, eroery Gaul.

ty, e¡, RyMx3, RyNx4, P~Ii§sy¥d, AZ~Ii§sjZ§, BZx~Ii§szZ§,Kdzjx, Rõxjx, öbx4Nz4jx, kNz4jx,

¥öqjx, ötszjx, pszjx, h¢4jx~Ii§sJ, R±ypx, RN§4dypx, RyMy3px, RzMy3px,ZÓy2px, bx3qûx, bz3by3px, eeypx, ezeypx, pyb§3px, pypyqypx,

|| 16-14 || The vowels A, I, and U have anusvÀra, when they are followed by si or Shi final.

Rule 16-13 clearly states that ‘M’ is added before a letter when a suffix, particle is added with letter‘s’ or its converted form ‘Sh’.

Base Words+ Particle/Suffix As seen in Vaakyam TS 4.5.1.2 I fe + a: = aT feet: yet | ani + ons: = cub er: Lom cub er: UG aL@ i} anl + mug = anlire’s 09 aMWYavis al) a%o TS 4.5.3.1

fer + Ud = rae NST, + EVs = elon eros )no1I0 +c) -eftarnlervas l freayageat yMrat wearer lan ors l},Curunsivomsmb ethorlgcrodes §2 DAY Mdo om TS 1.2.14.4 ¢ Raney at §H),0u1 + erold = 8,8),0unfy arin § 3, oF 8,8,omTorb BQ IBIAS + MUA = a%atarervam, B58 araiaokorns TS 2.5.11.1 ar + a: = Bale: ons ,our+ero: = oni canon: enoGg ous ours

Afelo + mu: = anal: I avesai@iom al arolgecrvo TS 4.7.15.1 AAitrarcaq = Aare alenufleut+ erold = adeavBeungeroib oflanuaio + aon allnnwsinuodors evisioGam I aun lacan ‘anu upeneavacunyy “aul initniustasoly

Rule 16-14 states that anuswara is added when before dheerga ‘A’, ‘ee’ and U when ‘si’ or Shi is final

Base Words+ Particle/Suffix As seen in Vaakyam TS 1.2.14.1 Y v I ~ . Oo . | suyad supious,,con ag aM eur cna ran fdousseun 2} 0010 TS 3.4.9.1 I 5 65110 C5 ,oNeruD- 5 ost yorsan aoa gers eanieoygeolycr’es TS 7.1.2.1 I sang satifers wet . O . | o acunsyos sGun§ Wcinusar ObC5,

<table><tr><td>TS 1.2.14.1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">my</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">I suyad supious,,con ag aM eur</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">cna ran fdousseun 2} 0010</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">TS 3.4.9.1</td></tr><tr><td>5 65110</td><td>I C5 ,oNeruD- 5 ost yorsan</td></tr><tr><td>aoa gers</td><td>eanieoygeolycr’es</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">TS 7.1.2.1</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2">I sang satifers wet</td></tr><tr><td>. acunsyos</td><td>O . | o sGun§ Wcinusar ObC5,</td></tr></table>

Differing interpretation/application of these rules in Vedic books in representing (gm) and (gg)

I ma BS = se I suyea + Bié,cen = sulbeouss.con ez ameurr conn + neu = con Baayeun e2}aN10

Here, Shya (conjunct consonant) gets formed due to the Sandhi of ‘Shi’ and ‘a’ therefore, applying normal rule the (gm) becomes (gg).

Rule 16-15 states that the anusvaram shall not change even if the ‘I’ is altered. So some Scholars opine that the anuswAram represented as (gm) shall not be changed and the text for the above example is taken with (gm) as follows:

Some other areas this difference is found is when anuswAram is dheerga (long) ‘A’, ‘I’ and “U’ even when the following word is different.

recent satresmt 6 911, ¥orouun acun§¥eipuinCun WEz0 Veiowimeto - mow crvjoen9 222,008 aM so6alo cen, Bratsoni _

Differing Represenation fawargeant setdt yea 5 bp1,¥otounGun gcuin§ Yeinuincun g a wiez® WeiQuiTLiety igrwo¥ cvs0809 ceo AU JOEAIO W221 044901

TS 4.5.1.1 I ordtyar Tay TTT it AQMHYUIE orojourest - SQUDLI WIS. Bean YUM! audaioc Voe@Mrvs TS 4.7.10.2 I I I at -aatt aera, ait l I F FoF? -1L1 9 C EHO sdusmly voGyTs yi i} i} 2 1AU) B-W ELEM onjoof,

sieib vos enoijeurtesr - SQLDLI WIS. cnnn ya oudéaiond Voe@Mrvs TS 4.7.11.2 l l l aat ast oT, ait I I F FoF? -1L1 9 C EHO scbusmy voGyTs yi a1dro, B-Wexamnn On OOW,

TS 1.2.11.2 . I Il “rat sraraeit tarer ¢ I ; " euGen SLITEUs ,W eroeuneor . 1 “AIC21D BMaAlgAIWIW av19ano TS 1.3.9.2 eoGs ransom l STVEUTC OMIT IS , CUCL, Ero eoyoeomnoly muennodwimaarvo TS 15.7.6 maa yee

TS 1.2.11.2 . I Il “rat sraraetty taler ¢ I ; lI OuGET SILITEUG ,Y eroeut enor . 1 “AIC21D BMaAlgAIWwIW amv1dand TS 1.3.9.2 l warty Tareteat ret eoGs ramen l STVEUTCAMINTS , U6, ero Ld BMYO eomoy Muloeanodwimecvo TS 1.5.7.6 fay ay aha

<table><tr><td>voor énno</td><td>MYs¥ anaoil</td><td>Womdanoy</td><td>MSY anal</td></tr></table>

When this matter was referred to some Vedic Scholars, they say this is clearly a pAta bhedam in application of Rule. Some Scholars opine that when the words are different, and followed by a Conjunct consonant, it is better to use (gg) only as the rendering is easier.

Our guides have suggested us to use (gg) consistently when followed by a Conjunct Consonant. Our Compilations follow this advice. Readers are requested to follow the method taught/followed by their Gurus.

Discussion Draft

Basics of Veda Recital - 1

Version 0.2 August 31, 2020

Version Notes: Version 0.2 dated August 31,2020

1. A separate Section has been added on Recital flow and pause.

2. More articulation has been done on Swarabhakti

3. More explanations shall be provided after going through Classical

SikshA texts in future. We are awaiting English translation of some of these
Classical texts.

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Contents
1 Veda Recital Concepts & २५९७... ११११११११००१११.००० 6
1.1 The Separator ‘|’ AN (||... 6
2 Rules for Anuswara
2.1 |= 11“ அண அ அ அ அ னை
2.2 Reading the Veda 0ഠ0ഠ01൫൭/൮൦൭൯..............................................-::::::ം 10
2.3 anuswAram followed by Consonants Examples: ............................ 11
2.4 Not to Convert ‘n’ into ദബ്ഡടഥള്‍ണ...................................................-::. 14
2.5  AmUSWAraim ന OM :........................................................::. வ வ ககக ககக கககககக 14
3 11015111... 16
3.1 Relative strength of பாப்ப பண்ண ண அ அ அனை 18
3.2 110 anunAsikam for Sandhi-formations

4 Rules for ‘gm’ and ‘gg’

4.1 Rules 01 ന (6/0)... பபப வவ வ வ வவ வவ வக வ கவ வ வக ககக 20
4.2 Normally ‘M’ merges with following ५०५५९ ...................................... 24
4.3 Swaras (Vowels) ५ ©2(66011011 பபப வக வவ வவ வ ககக 25
4.4 २५९७5 ஜரை க க அ க கல்‌ 29
4.5 Application of (gm) or (gg) —with lighter ടട ............................... 32
4.6 Swaram rules or acquisition by gm and 69 ...................................... 34
4.7 २९५61110 of ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ from Other Veda Schools.................20+ 37
5 Special Vedic recital ९५169... १११११११००११८.०००००५५ 39
9.7 Extension of ‘r’( ट्‌, ¢, @ or SwaraBhaktti ......................................... 39
5.2 Extension of ‘I’ ( ट्‌, ¢, @ or SwaraBhakti ........................................ 41

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5.3 Extension of Halants at the end of the Statement: . .. 47
5.3.1 Special note on ‘n’ at the end of the Statement: ..................... பவ 49
5.4 Extension of Vowel Sound/Visargam at the end of the Statement52
5.5 Extension of Dheerga Letters to Plutam at the end of the
SC] eee 55
5.6 Areas to give pause when words cannot be taken together........... 57
5.7 Areas with no distinct/full sounds for letters ................................... 61

5.9 Halant “h” followed by Nasal Letters -------------------- 65
Overview Rendering flow and PauSe ,.- பபப பபப வவ வவ வவ வ ககக ககக க ககக கவ ககக கக ககக 68
6.1 SamhitA and components
6.2 Reference in prAtiSAKyaMm: ,, बबन 69
6.3 COMMON 0006: அ அ த ன ககக 71
6.4 Words Combinations: बबन 72
6.5 Ending is a Vowel 50110: ......------------ பபப வ வ ககக ககக க க கசக்க ககக கக ககக 72
6.5.1 Combination ग ४०५५९1७... 73
6.5.2 Formation of Avagraha ...........2 4 பபப கவ வவ வ ககக ககக ககக ககக வக்க க ககக கக ககக ககக ககக கக்க ககக கக ககக 75
6.5.3 Generation of different Vowel 5०८16... 77
6.5.4 Sandhi not performed ११ ககக ககக கசக்க ககக ககக 80
6.6 Ending in Visargam --------------- sense eeeeeeeeeeeeceeseseeeeeeseeeeeeeeees 81
6.6.1 Substitution of ലല न 81
6.6.2  ViSarga iS ५1००06५... 83
6.6.3 Change 0ர7!எ1ரனா.............../ யப பபச வவ வவ வ ககக ககக க ககக ககக கக ககக ககக ககக கக்க ககக க கக கக்க ககக கக்கம்‌ 84
6.6.4 Avagraha is 0111166... 85
6.7 An anuswAram at the ലഹ്‌: ன த அ அ அ ன னை 66
6.7.1 AnuswAram combines with following Letter .................................................. 86
6.7.2 AnuswAram becomes (Gm) OF (QQ) ..............................................................:..:: 87

6.7.3 AmUSWAram iS 6ദ0ലഠ............................... க க கக்க ககக கக கக்க ககக கக ககக கக கக ககக கக கலகல 89

6.7.4 AnuswAram is recited वालिना. 90
6.8 ६6109 15 3 [1111 ....-------------- 2222 பப பபப சவ வக பபப ககக பககக வ ககக ககக கக ககக கக ககக கக ககக 91

6.8.1 Halant forms a Swarayukta/Samyukta ലഭ: .............................................. 91

6.6.2 Halant joins next letter with only letter 0३056... 92

6.8.3 There is substitution of Letters

6.8.4 Usage of special Sandhi २५65...
6.9 General Rule of combination :
6.10 Recital flow should match with Padam in SamhitA: ........................ 98
6.11 Some Special Rules for 9165014... 103

7 Different Applications of (൭൩) ANC (9ഠ).........................................................:.:::::ം 110

7.1 Rules from ാഥ്ഡിടഷവന......................................................-:::ം 110
7.2 Explanation with Examples அண ண அ அ 111
7.3 Examples for words with dheerga 16425 ......................................- 114
7.4 Different interpretation of २५९... 115

1 Veda Recital Concepts & Rules

1.1 The Separator ‘|’ and ‘||’

A statement is marked with a separator ‘|’ in books indicating the end of a
statement. (paadam or leg). For easy reference let us call this separator as
Ruk-Stop or Vedic Full-Stop. While reciting, a pause must be given before the
start of the next statement. (274 paadam or leg ).

When the Chandas/MantrA ends, it is marked as ‘||’ (double vertical line) at the
end of the statement. (last paadam of the Chandas/MantrA) .The Concept of
Chandas is statement with predefined number of Letters / aksharas with well

9 ൧

defined grammer rules. (Example: “Gaayatri Chandas”, “Anushtup Chandas”
etc).

Examples of Chandas shall be provided in a separate Article - Basics of Veda -
Chandas

A statement with a set of words ending with a separator is called a ‘Ruk’ in Veda.

Note: The last aksharam/letter of a statement ending with either of the
separators (Ruk) cannot have an anudAttam (lower) swaram.

तंत्वा भग सर्व इल्नोहवीमि हनो भग पुर एता भवेह ॥
5756217 ।1453 ஸர்வ இஜ்ஜோஹவமி ஸ்னோ 11453 புர ஏதா
ப,வேஹ ||

॥ ॥
Mo MIO BN സര്‍വ ००९०२००0) Memo ഭഗ പൂര

ഏതാ வேம்‌ ॥
This is from Bhaagya Suktam as rendered together. But when it is rendered in a

with no AnudAtta for ‘mi’. The letter ‘Mi’ has infact acquired AnudAtta to support

upcoming Sa which is udAttam, due to combining two statements.

तंत्वा भग सर्व ടത്തി il भग पुर एता भवेह ॥
தந்த்வா 11453 ஸர்வ இஜ்ஜோஹ |

ஸ்னோ 11453 புர ஏதா (16690) ॥

തം ത്വാ ഭഗ സര്‍വ ഇജേജാഹവീളി |

॥ ॥
ரர ഭഗ പൂര ഏതാ ഭവേഹ ॥

| ओं भुव

ओं भूः ளர்‌ देवस्य धीमहि ।

ஓம்‌ பூ: தத்‌,ஸவிதுர்‌ வரேண்யம்‌ |

ஓம்‌ பு,வ:, பர்கோ. தேவஸ்ய 8410527 |

ஓம்‌ பூ, தத்‌,ஸ்விதுர்‌ = ம்‌ பர்கோ, தே,வஸ்ய த்‌ ,மஹி |

॥ ॥॥
ഓം ഭൂഃ - തത്സവിതൂര്‍വരേ

॥ ~ ॥ ॥ ॥
ഓം ഭൂഃ - തത്സവിതൂര്‍വരേ ദര്‍ഗാ ദേവസ്യ ധീമഹി |
The first statement does not have an anudAtta/lower swaram since the yam in
“vareyNyam’” is the last aksharam of a Ruk and does not acquire any swaram.
The second statement vareyNyam is combined and the yam acquires anudAttam
swaram to support upcoming ‘Ba’ which is udAttam.

The Start of a Ruk, the first akshara of the word/padam generally cannot be a
Dheerga Swarita. But there are exception. The only exception we see is with the
letter OM and the rest due to Sandhi Rules:

Example

ள்‌ तद्ब्रह्मा | ait daly ள்‌ तदात्मा | ள்‌ तश्सत्य |

ஓம்‌ 553 ப்‌, ரஹ்ம | ஓம்‌ தத்‌,வாயு ததா.த்மா |

88269810 |

ഓം (ஸூ | ഓം തദ്വായുഃ। ഓം തദാത്മാ | ഓം மை |

Some Special rules due to Sandhi will be articulated in our Article on Dheerga
Swaritam. One example is shown below where the first letter acquires Swaritam

due to Sandhi Rule.

| ॥ — ॥
वेद |
| „ ५ I
ராயதனம்‌ Cus,
' ५
രായതനം വേദ

॥ — ॥
वेद |
| „ ५ |
ராயதனம்‌ வேத,
! ५
രായതനം CAB Ge

Similar statements with swaritam or dheerga Swaitam will appear
as the first letter, if a Nitya Swara (Swaritam) is formed. E.g of words are

இ. , oa oo

लि Boo, ©

2.1 Basics

The letters which are derived from base vowel Anuswara, ‘am’ (अं )
Example, ‘kam,tam,ram,sam,Sham, yam’. क, त, र, 4, ar, a,

Dheerga letters and conjunct consonant letters with dot are

also anuswéAra letters only.

e+e =%,%+ ௭-4

क्‌+आं =a B+ =a

५

In Sanskrit , MAT , will be read as 184 and not as AHL. The “க: will

%

follow if the first letter is from ‘ka’ vargam. That is गंगा will be read as எனா and

not as गम्‌गा !

The ‘fi’ in the middle of the statement/word is presented as anuswAra.
The ஐ at the end of the statement/Padams are represented as ‘m’ without
anuswAram dot. But in modern books, it has become a pratice to print a word

with ന്‌ ending with anuswAra. This is not preferred in the classical text.

10

There are differing views given in PS by various Rishis/Mahans of the past.

PS 17-1 SaityAyana says that the nasal quality is stronger in anuswAra and
the nasal mutes. (nasals of Consonant letters ~g,~j,N,n,m)

PS 17-2 Kauhaliputra says that it is the same everywhere.

PS 17-3 BhAradvAja rishi says it is faint in anuswAra compared to nasals of
Consonants.

Currently VedaVMS compilations use anuswAram symbols at the end of the
statements and words. It might take us some effort to represent them as ‘m’
due to the volume of compilations already released.

Generally the ‘m’ at the end of the statement/word shall have lesser nasal
twang/tinge. Readers shall correctly pronunce the ‘m’ at the end of the statement.
Also remember to follow the teachings of your Guru. The representation is not

affected in Tamil and Malayalam languages as the ‘m’ is represented separately.

2.2 Reading the Veda books/texts

The fifth letter (nasal letter of the class) of the ka, cha, ta,Ta, pa varga ,
thatisS, >, 1, GA (हलन्त्‌)

will follow the letter with anuswAram of the respective varga.

MAT will be read as ङाङ्कर्‌, गंगा will be read as TT.

(Ka varga क, ग follow Anuswara)

This rule will be extended while combining the end of Anuswara at the
end of the first word with the first letter of the following word.
Note: Readers must note the convention followed in a specific book.

Many popular books printed for Veda Students print the vAkyam/SamhitA

11

compiling the book like 3T$<. Some print with AnuswAram only like ङांकर.

Note: Vedavms compilations are printed with anuswAram and readers must

recite correctly with substituting nasal class of the following letter.

PS 5-27 says — “a “ന്‌, when followed by a mute, (Consonant) the സ്‌

becomes the nasal of like position(nasal of the Consonant) with it.

Let us see examples:

2.3 anuswAram followed by Consonants Examples:

As written in the book

To be read as

Rule applied

दष

ஹவி ராஸம்‌
ஜுஹோத ன

ഹവിരാ സം

ജൂഹോതന |

பய

ஹவிராஸ
ലിബി
ஜுஹோதன

ഹവിരാ ரஷி

+
ജുഹോതന |

Use of இ: for ‘ca’

vargam
Use of @ ‘for ச:

vargam

Use of ഞ്‌ ‘for ‘ol

vargam

द्रविणं च मे

த்ரவி ணம்‌ ச மே,

னு मे

Use of x for ‘ca’

vargam

12

॥
ദ്രവിണം ചമേ,

ഖി ணஞ்ச மே,

॥
(isan ണഞ്ജി ചമേ,

vargam

vargam

a eal

न 2 ५

Use of ज्ञः for ‘ta’

| | vargam
நக்ஷத்ரம்‌ நக்ஷத்ரநி Use of நீ்‌ for த்‌
॥ ]
~ P ~ P vargam
४111171 தேடவமிந்த்‌ரியம்‌ 9
॥ ॥
നക്ഷത്രം படு | Use of ന്‌ for ത
| 1 ॥ ] vargam
ദേവമിന്ദ്രിയം | @^ 01८31०० | 9
ண்‌ Bt दे ண்‌ Bt दे anuswAram rendered as
it is no change since the
following letter is of ‘pa
തന്ന്‌ ന്ന്‌ vargam where ‘Mm’ needs
to be used.
ம்ரேஷ்டோ,, ம்ரேஷ்டோ,, anuswAram rendered as
தே ,வானாம்‌ தே ,வானாம்‌ following letter is of ‘LI

13

திரக்‌,னியானாம்‌ திரக்‌,னியானாம்‌ vargam where ம்‌ needs
ட ட to be used.

ശ്രേഷ്യോ ദേവാനാം ശ്രേഷ്യോ ९3119009 anuswAram rendered as

| |
(ठो) 200 [109009० | തിരഘിയാനാം। 8,
൬ त). following letter is of

vargam where ‘m’ needs

to be used.

| ॥
Wet -निवात തന IATA - பயன்‌ न्‌ for ‘ta’

vargam asi is a part of

॥ ॥ ‘ta’ vargam only.
01൭ ॥ 105 (णा [6 ॥

Use of நி for 5
நிவ ൬൭ நிவ ൬൭

vargam as ந்‌ is a part of
த vargam only.

Use of ന്‌ > for ത
vargam as ന is a part of

നിവാ ത ஜிய ത
चि चि ത vargam only.

॥ ॥
ശത ശാരദാന്ും ശത ८००००००

14

2.4 Not to Convert ‘n’ into anuswAm

॥

(ओं எ: அரன்‌: ङान्तिः ॥

This ‘n’ in ShAnti should not be represented ഒട anuswAram.

गं
ओं जति जाति ‡ || “ since the that follows SA is not ர and

would be an incorrect representation.
2.5 AnuswAram in OM :

Another major rule is that, OM when uttered at the beginning of the Statement
shall not be me merged with the following akshara.
Ghana DarpaNam Ref (99-104).
1. OM at the start shall be rendered in UdAttam.
2. OM shall not be joined with following akshara to make a Swarayuka or
Samyukta Akshara.
4. The exceptions given for OM is for O(gm) suvaH, O(gm) Satyam in Yajur
veda paatam and further the six words that follow in the following mantra
from MahaNArAyaNOpaniShad

ओं ere | ஓம்‌ 553 ப்‌, ரஹ்ம | abo തദ്ര്രഹ്മാ |

Here the ‘M’ of OM can be rendered as ‘n’ because of the following letter is
of ‘ta’ varga and the ta varga nasal is ‘n’ so it can be

ள்ள | இந்தத்‌, ப்‌, ரஹ்ம | ०0०७१५०० |

15

akshara.

Note: Many learners render “OM NamO BhagavatE Rudraya’” as
OnnamO Bhagavathe Rudraya”. Our guide clearly has instructed us
that as per SikSha, there should not be Sandhi but avasana/pause.
Similarly, “OM namO NarAyaNAya’ is rendered without pause and with
sandhi 85 “OnnamO NarAyaNAya’. This is sub-optimal way of rendering.
. The above reference book also give examples that OM ShAnti ShAnti
ShAnti shall be rendered without OM subjecting to Sandhi

ie, it is not O(gm) ShAnti.

Note: The convention of rendering HariH OM is different though there
is acommon thread of reciting HariH OM in the Southern Part of India.
This is being covered in 8 propsed Article on Basics of Veda Recital -
Conventions.

16

3 AnunAsikam

When the anuswAram is followed by the Semi-vowel group letters, ya,la,va,
the ‘m’ of the anuswAram is recited with the respective sounds of yya,vva,lla
with a nasal twang. Basically when we say ന്ന്‌ of the anuswAram, the lips close
and our sages have given us the techniques/rules to pronounce the instances
with necessary changes to make the recital smoother. AnunAsikam is marked

with the sign * ; some books print the same without the small horizontal line

shown above. This is marked before the letters starting with ‘ya.la.va’ group.

Sometimes the nasal sound along with Ly,v (हलन्त्‌) is also marked to catch the

attention of the reader.

When 1 follows the nasal letter ‘n’ , the n becomes AnunAsikam.

PS 5-28 -Followed by a semivowel, it becomes a nasal of like quality with it.
PS 5-29 - But not when followed by r.
PS 5-25 — Both t and n, when followed by |, become |. (covered in Consonant

Sandhi Rule Article)

PS 5-26 - The n becomes nasalized |.
Note: This rule is not only applicable across words but also in combination of
Padams that create a new word.

To be read/recited as

अगि a സ്യ;

अगि സ്യ;

ப்‌ ட ॥ ५
அக்னிம்‌ “பா கடர்பந்‌ 55146) 71 | 5317117 5384

I
9 അഗ്നിയ്യാ ഗര്‍ഭം ദധിരേ
അ യാ ഗര്‍ഭം ദധിരേ _ _

1 म 1
॥
உது,த்தமம்‌ “வருண பாற

॥ ५ ॥
யப. വരുണ പാശ

உது 355 மவ்விருண

பாய

ഉദുത്തമവ്വരുണ പാശ

Example of ‘I’ after ‘n’

ടെ
| |
நைனம்‌ “லோகே லோகே

aac ലോകേ ലോകേ

५.4
५.4
"५७ லோகே

നൈന ല്ലോകേ ലോകേ

ஏகோ வா அமுஷ்மில்லோகே

॥
ഏകോ വാ 01

Here the padam consists of two parts —
sam + vathsaraH; so nasal is applied.

18

ஸூம்‌ வச்‌ 29:

സംവഥ്സരഃ

ം ர Here the padam constituents are
റബ தி 00 இ! sam+yanti; so nasal is applied.

Note: Some books print the vaakyam with words as it is to be read without
AnunAsikam symbol. Some books also mark the anunAsikam symbol.

It must be noted that advanced books for readers do not indicate AnunAsikam
symbols. Students must take note of the conventions used in the book.

In all our Compilations anunAsikam shall be marked distinctly before
the following ‘y.’v’ or ‘I’ letters. Kindly note this convention and render

mantras correctly.

3.1 Relative strength of anunAsikam

The letter ‘y’ is sourced at the front-middle of the mouth, the letter 1 is more to the front as it is
dental and ‘v’ is labial (lip based). When we try to recite anunAsikam, the strength of ‘y’ is a
little stronger, the strength of 1 is light and the strength of ‘v’ is lighter.

A learner should not be over conscious of stressing the nasal sound and by practice make it
easier and smooth. Kindly observe the anunAsikam effect by listening to recital by Pandits;
you will observe how light and effortless the ‘va’ is and compare it with the rendering of

anunAsikam with 1௪ and 188, for letters va,la,and ya following anusvAram.

19

3.2 No anunAsikam for Sandhi-formations

‘m’ followed by y or v, then this should not be nasalized.

Examples of words with Sandhi

Explanation

| ॥
आदित्पक्या-म्युतवा श्रृणो -स्यामा
ஆதிடத்பஸ்யா-ம்யுதவா

ம்ருணோ ம்யாம £
॥

|
ആദിത്പശ്യാ-മ്യുതവാ

ശ ണോ-ത്യാമാ

sRuNomi#A +mA generates sRuNo
ImA. This is not the occurrence of y after
a word after anusvAram. It is rendered
ogether with a small pause after yA to

indicate presence of Sandhi.

॥
स्तौम्यग्निं नाथितो
1/1 நாதி 25

I
ay oByurilo നാഥിതോ

Here the Padams for Sandhi are stau
+ 2011111, that creates staumyagnim; so

his example to similar to the above.

20

4 Rules for ‘gm’ and ‘gq’

4.1 Rules for gm (9) for gm (Vv

The rules for ‘gm’ and ‘gg’ are applicable only in Yajur Veda.
When an anuswAram is followed by the letters in the Group of

‘ra,sa.Sa,Sha,ha’, the ‘M’ in the anuswAram is converted to (gM) .

(gM) ऽग्‌ +म्‌ = (ग्‌) or represented as (म्‌) in letters.

The standard representation in printed books is “W ^.

Some books print it without the tail like “w “There are few more

representations depending of the time of printing and readers must

acquaint themselves with the representation in that book.

This sound emanates from the back of the mouth (slightly above throat) with a
light nasal effect. Please do not read it as ; some Tamil books represent

this in words as கும்‌ which is not correct sound representation.

In slokas, is not used.

Let us see some common examples:

Original words/padams

As represented in Veda

books/Vakhyam

|

11 |
गणानान्त्वा गणप

ണ്ട്‌

॥ 1
गणानान्त्वा गणपति

tart

anuswAram before ह

21

[ர
& ண 76नाा [05677

॥
கணபதிம்‌

ஹவ ஈமஹே

ഓം | ഗണാനാന്ത്വാ
॥ ി
ഗണപതിം

ഹവാമഹേ

[ர

॥
க,ணபதிடு

ஹவாமஹே
॥

ഓം | ഗണാനാനത്ത്വാ

I
11.

anuswAram before an

anuswAram before ഹ

ക്ഷീരം സര്‍പിര്‍

മധൂദകം |

മധൂദകം |

anuswAram before &

anuswAram before ബസ

anuswAram before സ

22

|| |
काम विराजति
sii
வி ராஜதி

ദ്ധാമ

(०1०८०

I
വിരാജതി

ത്രി രൂപാ

I
വിരാജതി

anuswAram before

anuswAram before uD

anuswAram before ശ

യക്ഷ്മം സ്മൂമനാ

I
അസത്‌

|
ஏன இ असत्‌
a

|
அஸத்‌

மண்டி ¢.

I
അസത്‌

anuswAram before a

anuswAram before ஸ

न्व गक

तन्नो सिध्हः

23

प्रचोदयात्‌ प्रचोदयात्‌
ந்நோ ஹ
தந்நோ நாரஸிம்ஹ: தந்நோ "न्ग anuswAram before
वि ॥॥ ॥
ப்ரசோதஃயாத்‌ ப்ரசோதஃயாத்‌
! ॥
തന്നോ തന്നോ
ി anuswAram before ഹ
നാരസിഹേഃ 7
നാരസ്‌ 8
॥
പ്രചോദയാത്‌ ॥
- (^1€9 1203९92)
| ர |
मा : पुरुष जगत्‌ मा ewe: * anuswAram before
॥ , ॥ *Very commonly found
पुरुष जगत्‌ word.
மா ஹிம்ஸீ anuswaAram before ஸ
மா ஹிட்‌

1 ५ ॥ ப்‌
புருஷ்ஞ்‌ ஜகத்‌

ட்ட

പുരുഷം ജഗത്‌ |

| I
புருஷஞ்ஜக.த்‌ |

02 ൮

24

4.2 Normally ‘M’ merges with following vowel

‘M’ merges with following vowel

When anuswAram precedes a vowel like a, 88, 6, ee etc, based on the

construction of the words in Vedas, the ‘M’ may combine with the a, aa, e, ee to

have ma, maa, mi, mee as a natural Swarayukta Akshara i,e. Vowel based

consonant.

प्तं र என
ப்ருஹுதம்‌ இந்தரம்‌

|

வட்‌ स्वस्ति
|

ப்ருஹுூதமிந்த்ரவி

‘M’ +i has become

ஸ்வஸ்தி ஸ்வஸ்தி

॥ ॥ ॥
००१०० ഇന്ദ്ര പുരുഹുതമീന്ദ്ര
സ്വസി സ്വസി

ത ത

[ | | [
बाहू भ्य उत ते नमः बाहू भ्य ते नमः M’ + u has become
1) ॥ 1) ॥

பாடுஹுப்‌,யாம்‌ உத பாஹுப்‌,யாழுித

25

தே நம:

ബാഹുദഭ 4०० ഉത

॥
തേ നമഃ

தே நம:

॥
ബാഹുദഭ വാജി തേ

॥
നമഃ

4.3 Swaras (Vowels) Exception Vowels) “ Exception

However when a vowel is follows the specific noun/pronoun class with dheerga

aksharaa ‘An,’In’ or ‘Un’ ending, the ‘n’ becomes anuswAram ‘m’ subject to

grammar rules, and it becomes ‘gm’ to indicate that it is not originally ‘m’ but

‘n’. In case the ending is ‘In’ or ‘Un’ an ‘r’ is added’ to indicate that the Padam is

‘In’ or ‘Un’ ending. The examples provided are indicative only.
These are covered in PS Chapter 9 (Rules 20-24)

Some Examples observed in SamhitA and from common known mantras are

given below:
Original words/padams As represented in Veda mY
books/VAkyam
T.S.1.2.14.1 Sound

वामवान्‌ इभे
राजे वामवान्‌ इभे न
ராஜே வாமவான்‌.
இபே 45

array ச்ஸ்‌
राजे वामर ச்ஸ்‌ न |

I ॥
ராஜே வாம்வாடு acu,

ந

fA” before vowel

इ ©

26

॥ ॥
രാജേ (1200012 ജഭേന

7.5.4.5.1.4
| பட்ட | arora Sound “தரி” before

ன்‌ ണു उत ன்‌ என்டு हत vowel

J ॥ | उ, உ „©
விறல்யோ விறல்யோ 1.

I
ലന്യത്തഖന ൭ | உத

ர ॥ 1 ॥ ॥

1८2९6149 01८2९812 ബാണവാ

॥
0५००११००) ഉത | Bo
TS 1.3.8.2 Sound “88 before

देवन्‌ + ऊद्वम्‌
(स्यान, ஊட்‌டிவம்‌
വാന്‍, 8८५०० ।

देव இனா
| Bah oud
| 1

vowel

ॐ, ഉണ, DO

27

TS 1.3.14.8

देवन्‌ + ङ
தேடவான்‌ + இஹ
ദേവാന്‍ + ഇഹ |

aay ட
தே,வாடு இஹ
०५० ഇഹ

Sound AW "before

vowel

इ ©

T.S.5.6.1.2
Padams - sarvAn |
agnin | aPsuShadaH

எஸ்‌ ar

अ्सुषवो

ch

॥
இப்ஸுஷதே നച

(updated after review of

Samhita Pada Paatam)

॥
wat नी रफ्सुषदो

ஸர்வ ட கனிய

॥ I
TUenrarGHir,
ர்வ டது
॥ ॥
௫௦0) 14632

സം

|
ர *, O17 ;
॥
വാന്‌ becoming
|
ag , aim വാ

before vowel अ )

௮, അ

When dheerga ‘nin’ is
followed by Vowel ‘a’
marked in blue, ‘n’
becomes ‘gm’ and a ^”
is added to make
aPsuShadO as
raPsuShado

28

T.S.4.2.8.3
अनु
ar | वनस्पतीन्‌ । अनु
வா | வனஸ்பதீன்‌ |
|
அனு |
വാ വനസ്തതീന്‍
॥
டமா

Padam - vA | vanaspatin | anu

वनस्पतीन्‌
वा न

॥
வா வனஸ்‌ 711

2 १
വാ വനസ്പതിഴ്രനു

Note : ൩ of tin
becomes (gm) and
anu becomes Fanu

after (gm)

T.S.1.4.42.1

जहि அண | अप |
|

ஏ: |

ஐஹி | (न |

அப | Lb GB |

ജഹി | ശ്രതൂന്‍ |

॥ ॥
അപ | 0१८५६ ।

|
जहि ङान्रू रप मृधो
ஜஹி ஸமத்ரூ. ரப

ம்ருதோ,

ജഹി VIMY രപ

മൃധോ

Example similar to
above; preceding
sound ‘Un’. ‘apa’
becomes “rapa” after

(gm)

29

1 1 Here sound before
अग्ने करत्वाक्रतून्‌ अनु अग्ने क्रत्वा- ர. vowel is ui.

‘anu’ becomes “ranu”

அக்$னே க்ரத்வா- அக்‌,னே க்ரத்வா-க்ரதூட/ after (gm)

ല്‍ BO) ரது

അഗ്നേ ക്രത്വാ- |
അഗ്നേ (A2M10-(\ HOLY

ക്രതൂന്‍ അനു |

രനു

Important Note: This application of rule is based on the usage of ‘An, In, Un
based on context and the usage of the same is firm as per Grammar note.

When this rule is not applied, normal rule of joining halant ‘n’ would only

follow. There are specific set of rules defind along with words in
PrAtiSakyam for application of this rule.
PS also gives list of words that would retain their ‘n’ without change.

Example : paSUn + ava = paSunava, rudrAn+ajAyat = rudrAnajAyat
4.4 Rules for 00 (v_)

The basic rule for application of ‘gg’ is same as in ‘gm’ except that the letter
following the anuswAram are Samyukta akshara conjuncts (joint letters)
starting with s,S,Sh,h. Examples, sra,shra,hla,sya,sva,Sca. In a joint letter,

the start is a base letter like s,S,Sh,h after completing m sounding (gm),

30

it would be difficult to combine them. So (gg) is a unique sound to

smoothen the flow of the rule applied for (gm).

(gg) ।ऽ ग्‌ + T= (य्‌). Printed in the books as ७, ഴ്‌ with or without the tail.

| ^“ |

1.5. 1.2.14.

|
ட்டு जुहापतंगा

Note :The word is
tapUMShi which is
represented as
tapU(gm)Shi as per

grammar.

தபூம்ஷ்யகூனே
ஜுஹ்வா
|
തപുംഷ sem
|

ജൂഹ്വാ

|
டு जुहापतंगा

த nn 5 Cour

ஜுஹ்வா

का
॥

ജൂഹ്വാ

anuswAram before joint

letter starting with ष,

ஷ, ay

With Shi ദാല്‌, it
becomes 51५९.
(Vowel Sandhi)

ഞ്ഞി
பணி भवन्तु

joint letter starting with

31

211८000

|
ஸ்யோனா ப 46105)
ou FA
॥

ഭവന്തു

2110004 ஸ்யோனா

பவந்து

onal HO
॥

ഭവന്തു

a, ஸு, 0

रं र 1
॥ ५,
மாத ரம்‌ ஸ்ரியம்‌
മാതര ശ്രിയം

५ ൫ 1
॥ ५,
மாதர யம்‌
०००० Bo.

a joint letter starting

with 21, UD , (2

புருஹூதமிந்த்ரம்‌

ஸ்வ்ஸத

|
புருஹுதமிந்த்ரதி

ட்ட

with U, ബ, സ

32

പുരൂഹൂതമി പുരുഹൂതമിന്ദ്ര

സ്വസ്തി Boy

ത

4.5 Application of (gm) or (qg) —-with lighter Stress

Some books follow the convention of having a single shape like ५ , 9 where

the stress on (09) is light. The rule here is when the anuswAram is a long letter,
the (gm) or (gg) becomes (g).

We follow only one convention of indicating "യ്‌.

As per our guide, the light (g) is not used in classical books or Grantha Sources.
According to our Guide, the (gm) and (gg) have one mantra and not half.

But while rendering Veda Mantras, the stress on (gg) becomes lighter when it is
preceded by a long vowel sound like aa, ee, uu and becomes stronger when the
preceding letter is short and specially mahaprAna letters.

Explanation by one Guru: When (gm) is followed by a Conjunct Cosonant,

you cannot recite four halants’ effect g,m, two halants of the following Conjuct
Consonant, (gg) from the centre of the throat normalises that to ineffect of saying
three. When a long letter is uttered and you try to give full effect to (gg) there is a
slight distortion or perhaps strain so (gg) is lightened with same maatra time
scale. Kindly follow the style of you Guru but your recital must be stress free

and free flowing after initial practice.

Weare giving some examples for readers to observe this sound effect:

I | The (gg) is sandwitched
ஏ அஸ்‌ वायव्यान्‌

between a long letter SU and
followed by Consonant sthA

[
பரலபஸ்தாஎம்ச்க்ரே வாயவ்யான்‌ The effect on (gg) will naturally
be lighter.

33

॥ ॥
പശൂഴസ്പാഴശ്ചക്രേ വായവ്യാന്‍ |

[ |
னார்‌ Ward
| I
०५५०५९३० ஜுஹ்வா
॥ ॥
തപൂഴഷ്യഗ്നേ ജൂഹ്വാ

The (gg) is sandwitched
between a long letter pU and
followed by Consonant Shya
The effect on (gg) will naturally

| ॥ ॥ |
ङ्येनो ளாம स्वधिति ஸ்‌ मः
I
VUGUIGSIT ൭൭൧൪ (गा
ஸ்வதி ॥ ॥
ஸ்வதி 4திர்‌. வனானாயு ஸோம:
ശ്യേനോ ഗൃധാണാഴേ സ്വധിതിര്‍

| |

Similar to above. After nA(gm) |

the following letter is டு; you
cannot stress (gm) it will be
lighter with (g) being prominent.
So many students from formal
pAtashalaas recite this as (g)
only. Remember maatra is not

shorter.

|
ப்தி]: भवन्तु
॥
| ஸ்யோனா ப,வந்து

Here (gg) follows a short letter
giving time to stress the (gg)

without strain. (gg) is fully heard.

34

ആപശ നാ ഭവന്തു

(gg) follows a short letter dra
परहूतमि स्ति and (gg) being swaritam, the
(gg) gets full effect and firmer.
71111] ஸ்வஸ்தி

॥
പുരുഹൂത്മിന്ദര ¢

Special Note: The representation of gm and gg is not differentiated in some
classical books compiled in the past. The Student is expected to learn the
rendering from the Guru. Even in recent compilations, there is slight difference
is usage of gm in place of gg of vice versa in books based the schools,

sound effect and also application of higher levels of Grammar rules from
classical texts. This is covered in Section 7.

The Learners are requested to refer such differences with the Guru and follow
the teachings as per that School.

We have made only a standard representation.

4.6 Swaram rules or acquisition by gm and qq
The following rules apply for the swaram for gm and gg
1. There is no Dheerga Swaritam for gm and gg
2. If an anuswarAm is marked with Swaritam, the Swaritam will be taken over

by the gm or 99; the first letter preceding gm or gg cannot be a Swaritam.

35

Examples:

तमि agate
பு स्वस्ति shall become பு स्वसि

|
புருஹூத மிந்த்ரம்‌ ஸ்வஸ்தி shall become

ப்ருஹுதமிந்த்ரதி ஸ்வஸ்தி

॥
പുരുഹൂതമിന്ദ്രം സ്വസി shall become
ചട ത

॥
പുരുഹൂത്മിന്ദര 0010]
ച ത

Note: In old books or classical texts combined by Scholars, the Swaritam is
marked on the letter before ‘m’. e.g dra in the above example.

But swaram is applied on the (gg) sound/akshara only.

. If the anuswAram is marked with anudAtta, both the letters (base letter
plus ‘m’ which becomes gm or gg) shall follow the anudAtta Swara only.
That is if the previous letter is an anudAtta, the gm and gg will acquire the

same, since it is an extension.

Examples:

वामवाभ ह न,
क्येनो ത്സ स्वधिति वनानां लनः

36

नमो वः किरिकेभ्यो देवाना येभ्य

I |
unin sung இபே 45;
वि . वि ॥ ஸ்வதி ॥ ॥
ற்யேனோ 5354 487. வனா ஸோம:

॥ ॥ ॥
நமோ வ: கிரிகேப்‌,யோ தே,வானாஈ ஹ்ருதஃயேப்‌,யோ ന

| |
ie न
| | 1 | |
ശ്യേനോ WS (WO സ്വധിതിര്‍ വനാ 08
| 1 1 | |
നമോ വഃ കിരികേഭ്യോ ദേവാ ദയേഭ്യോ

Note: Some Readers may get a doubt why it is not Devanaa(gg)
hRUidayebhyo. Specially highlighted in Green. ‘hRu’ is a Swarayukta
Akshara (Consonant) a combination of h + Ru (a vowel) and

it is not a Samyukta Akshara (Conjuct Consonant) formed by more than

two consonants

T+ "० = ह ; ०. = BOD ; 5.४. ¢ ;

37

4.7 Rendering of ‘gm’ and ‘qq’ from Other Veda Schools

The Vakyam from other Vedas like RuK, Sama and Atharva have been
incorporated or compiled into Yajur Veda Samhita. In these cases, ‘gm’ and ‘gg’
are used as a part of Yajur Vedic style of rendering of these mantras.

Let us see Sree Suktam as an example which follows Rig Veda Style of

rendering, which has no ‘gm’ or ‘gg’ .

ணர்‌ हरिणीं |
दिरण्यवर्णा हरिणीं सुवर्ण ள்‌ |
हिरण्मयी | |
चन्द्र | लक्ष्मीं जातवेदो म आवह ॥

गन्धद्वारां avast नित्यपुष्टां करीषिणीं |

gant (or ளில்‌ सर्व भूतानां तामिहोपह्वये श्रियं ॥

I | I
ஹிரண்யவர்‌ ரிணிம்‌ வர்ண-ரஜதஸ்ரஜாம்‌ |
ணாம்‌ ஹ ஸு - on ।

057 ஹிரண்மயீம்‌ லக்ஷ்மீம்‌ ஜாதவேதோ; ம ஆவஹ |

கஃந்த,த்‌ வாராம்‌ து,ராத,ர்‌.ஷாம்‌ நித்யபுஷ்டாம்‌ கரீஷிணீம்‌ |
ஈஸ்வரீம்‌ (१५००५१५) ஸர்வபூ,தானாம்‌ தாமிஹோப
ஹ்வயே ஸ்ரியம்‌ ॥ 9

ഹിരണ ५०16910 ഹരിണീം സൂവര്‍ണ രജത്ര്രജാം |

०८0० ஹி १० ലക്ഷ്മീം ജാതവേദോ A ആവഹ ॥

ഗന്ധല്വാരാം ദുരാധര്‍ഷാം നിത്യപുഷ്ടാം കരീഷിണീം।

38

ul ॥

ഈശ്വരീം (or ०८०८०७१९) സർവഭൂതാനാം

_ | _ _ -
താമിഹോപഹ്വയേ ശ്രിയം ॥9
There is no ‘gm’ or ‘gg’ used in Rig Veda after the varNaam, Chandraam
(anuswAram) which are followed by ‘ha’. However, the mantra ‘Gandhadvaaraam
duraadharshaam’ is available in NarayanOpanishad in Yajur Veda text.
Therefore it has become a common practice to render this mantra with
‘gm’ by Yajur Veda students and ‘gm’ is used in many books and followed in
recital as well. Some Gurus state that while reciting mantras in Krishna Yajur

Veda, the style of Krishna Yajur Veda shall be followed.

39

5 Special Vedic recital Rules

5.1 Extension of ‘r’ (% த @) or SwaraBhakti of ^” ( 7 /7 @) or SwaraBhakti

Reference: Jata DarpaNam (Rule 62 - 75)

When the letter र्‌, [ர்‌ @ is followed by letters of class (स, ow , 00),

(पि, a9, ०५), (21, uv 2), (ह, am an) or (HE, G83),

as a rule the ‘r’ is extended to double its maatra value to one...instead of half..
Here we take ‘r’ together with these letters the distinction of the sound is
sometimes lost. The sound of 7 becomes ‘ru’.

Some schools recite this ‘r’ as if itis a ‘ru’ which is not advisable.

Some of the Veda Teachers we have been referring have clearly guided us
saying “this should sound only like an extension of ‘r’ and the sound of ‘ru’
should be avoided during recital.” This extension of ‘r’ is recognized in classical
text like Pratishakyam. as a distinct letter termed as Swarabakthi.

This is a combination of ‘r’+’R’. So this is treated more as a Swarayukta
Aksharam.

Other Schools of Veda Teachers want the student to give a pause without
extending the ‘r’ so that the distinction of the sound is maintained during recital.
Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but be open to change your style to
during recital in a group if the “Lead Chanter” recites with another alternative.

In SikSha material that we have referred so far, they insist not to give

pause(avasAna) after Swarabhakti.

40

Representation in Books is different. It is normally printed with the ‘r’ over the

following letter like ha, Sa, Sha. Some authors/books make it distinct by printing

the ry separately in Sanskrit.

In Tamil and Malayalam books, the ‘IJ. 2 always printed and represented

separately based on system of letters.

Some areas of examples are given below:

. ഭസ്ല്ടേ |

Comments

| |
ளா सन्तमथा भागं चिकीषति
71719 ஸந்தமதா, 11745310 சிகீநீஷதி

I I I
ഭാഗിനഴ്‌ സന്തമഥാ ഭാഗം ध) |

Swarabhakti of ‘r’ before

| |
तेन कोति स्पर्धितुं
| |
தேன கோஷ்ஹீதி ஸ்பர்த்‌,தி,தும்‌ *|

॥ |
തേന ९०००) സ്പൂര്‍ദ്ധിതും

41

நமோ ५5369 10,0൧൭ துப்‌,யமஸ்து

॥ ॥
നമോ ദേവി നിര്‍ജൂതേ ௫61001
ളു ത

Note: We have started using a (dot) ‘.’ after ‘r’ in all our recent
compilations. We are also trying to upgrade this convention in all our

earlier compilations.

5.2 Extension of ‘I’ ( ൨. 41, @) or SwaraBhakti of ‘I’ (7 @) or SwaraBhakti

Rule 63 states that ॥' that comes before ‘Sa’ and ‘ha’ is Swarabhakti.
Examples TS 1.1.2.1 Sataval.Sam | TS 2.1.2.4 mal.hAH |

TS 1.1.2.1

ത്ത്‌ वि रोह ணன்‌
८०००8०० “al ரோஹ

नण भ्नणा ०३.७४

42

TS 2.1.2.4

एता मलहा आ लभेता
ஏதாம ஆ லபே,தா
ഏതാ മ ആ ലഭേതാ

Rule 64 says that it is not SwaraBhakti when rlriShan, 1115110, Na before

akArisham comes. The repha varNam ‘ri’ coming before Ushman needs to be

uttered normally without swarabhati effect.

Examples - prajA(gm) rlriShan mota virAn | rlriSho mota vlrAn |

mRutyu sUktam - TA 3.15.1
| ४
मानः प्रजा५ रीरिषो मोतवीरान्‌ |

| |
மான: ப்ரஜா? ரீ மோதவீரான்‌ |

മോതവീരാന്‍ |

॥ ॥
20008 പ്രജാഴു രീ

The ‘ri’ has to be recital
along with ShO without any
special rule normally

Nakshatra sUktam — ArdhrA TB 3.1.1
| ள்‌

மா ந்‌: ப்ரஜா ர்‌ ன்‌ மோத வீரான்‌ |
டட ~ ത

മാ നഃ പ്രജാഴ രീ ന്‍ മോത വീരാന്‍

Similar to above example

43

ணா அகாரிஷம்‌ ஜிஷ்ணோ

॥
७1 അകാരിഷം ജിഷ്്രോരശ്വ

സ്യ വാജിനഃ॥

Though SikSha does not
recognise it as
Swarabakti; This needs
to be noted as an area

that there has to be a
distinct pause before

rar as al wich NNO.
Kindly read

Section 5.4 on pause
while rendering

Rule 65 — Also gives words which does not becomes swarbhakti with ru sound.
Examples given in reference books are - svAruhamevainAm | svAruhA yasya |

agnirvA aruShaH 4.1.3.4 | aruShaM miyedhya 4.1.3.4 |

madhyamaruhat 4.7.13.3 | dlkShAmaruham |

TS 4.1 3.4
वि धूममग्ने ret मियेद्ध्य

வி தூ,மமக்்‌,னே அ மியேத்‌,த்‌,ய

॥
വി ധുമ്മഗ്നേ അ മിയേദ്ധ്യ

TS 4.1.3.4 ല്‍ ।
हितो हितेष्वुषो वनेषु |
ஹிதோ ஹிதேஷ்‌

ഹിതോ ഹിതേഷ

|
வனேஷு |
॥

വനേഷു |

TS 4.7.13.3 `

1
आ वाचो मद्ध्य -मरुहद्‌ -भुरण्युरय

44

ட
ஆ வாசோ 1053841 1-

பு,ரண்யுரய-மக்‌னி:
॥

ആ വാചോ 0234 -

_ഭൂരണ്യുരയ

Rule 68 — The Swarabhakti that comes
Note the following rules also.

after swaritam becomes pracaya.

Rule 69 - The Dheerga Swaritam that forms before Swarabhakti remain only

swaritam. The Swarabhakti could be an

integral part of a word/padam or it gets

formed due to Sandhi. But this section says that the Swarabhakti that comes
after a dheerga letter as a part of the padam or word will get swaritam effect.

If the letter before Swarabhakti is anudAttam, then the effect of the anudAttam is

also on the Swarabhakti.

TS 2.5.7.5

भ्रातृव्यं कुरुत र ऋ एता

1141775 குவ்யங்‌-குருத
ரகுஷேர்வா ஏதா

LSOMS A fo കുരുത ९५५०

९९०५९012 ഏതാ

Here RuShEr.Rusher is one padam
with Swarabhakti being the integral part
of the Padam. ‘She’ is dheergam so the
Swarabhakti ¶ is marked in Swaritam
in professional publications.

TS 4.3.13.6 പര്‍
दोषा वस्तोर्‌ हविष्मती

தோஃஷா ஜி விஷ்மதீ
ദോഷാ (016 விஷ തീ

अ in padam vastoH is swaritam. Now
visargam is ர and since fia follows it
becomes swarabhakti, the swaritam
effect moves to 7.

www.ved

avms.in

45

TS 2.1.2.4

ലം शेतां aR erat
ஸு ஹி தாமைந்த்‌ 30 9

ற்வே தாம்‌ பார்‌ ஹஸ்‌ ப த்யாந்‌

ഹിതാമൈന്ദ്രീഴ ശ്വേതാം

ബാര്‍ ഹസ്ത ത്യാം

Here Swarbhakti r. is integral part of
the Padam BAfhaspatyam.The bA
here is not a swaritam. Due to Swara
rule, BA a long letter acquires swaritam
but its effect will not be on Swarabhakti.
By rule 68 render it like pracaya
(ekasruti)

TS 1.3.14.1
ae
नि षसादा
£நி ബൈന

Here Swarabhakti is formed due to
Sandhi of கார்ப்‌ + ROtA which
becomes agnir.hotA (visargam
becomes f and because of following A
becomes Swarabhakti)

The Padam here for first example is
juhvat+RuShiH+i@ta. Due to Sandhi t
of juhat becomes ‘d’ in combination
with Ru becomes dRU and visaragam
of SiH becomes ¶. Swarabhakti gets
formed due to following HO
Second Example Sapta+RuShin, the र
becomes [अ and because of
following it is represented as

Swarabhakti.

In both examples the fi is also marked
in anudAttam since the previous letter
has anudAttam.

46

Rule 70 — When the swarabhakti forms after a short letter, the effect of swaritam
will be on that short letter before swarabhakti even if it is swaritam as per Padam.
In this case, the swarabhakti is recited as anudAtta swara.

TS 1.6.12.2

ஆ ലല
൭21൭ தீர்க ஸ்ருத்தம
ஜீ

.ഹ ദീര്‍ഡശ്രുത്തമ

The padam here is RuShiH with
swaritam on क्ख. The visargam is ¶ so
before following ‘ha’ it becomes
swarabhakti. Since Shi is hrasva (short)
letter; it will retain the swaritam and the
following ‘swrabhakti +f)’ shall be
recited in anudAttam.

Note: VedaVMS books are being upgraded to represent the Swarkabhakti
more appropriately,where a swaritam appears on the dheerga letter instead

of swarabhakti, specially in Tamil.

47

5.3 Extension of Halants at the end of the Statement:

A complete word can end with anyone of the following Consonant Halants as per

Sanskrit Grammar

क्‌,ट्‌त्‌प्‌ङ्‌न्‌,म्‌,ल्‌. ட்‌,த்‌,ப்‌,ங்‌,ன்‌,ம்‌,ல்‌.
ॐ, S, ©), al, 68, 7), 9, யீ

The maatra of a Halant is half. At the end of the statement, the word or padam
ends with the Halant, it is extended for increased rhyme effect during Veda recital
as a convention. If the Halant letter is pronounced normally with half time scale

(maatra) it tends to look abrupt.

Examples of statements ending with Halants:

ன ரர कथात | Comments

. | The extension holds
सर्वतो मां पादि पाहि सम

good even if the last

padam does not have a

|
ஸர்வதோ மாம்‌ பாஹி பாஹி ஸம ந்தாதி swaram.

I
സര്‍വതോമാം പാഹിപാഹി 0௨௦௦௫

| ॥
Aa ea உப்ரசோதஃயாதி , പ്രചോദയാ

Extension example for
4

प्रभुः प्रीणाति विश्व

48

I
ப்ரபு,: ப்ரீணாதி விஹ்வபு,

॥
പ്രഭുഃ പ്രീണാതി alo. By

|
प्रजा, रीरिषो मोत वी
|
ப்ரஜா? ரீரிஷோ மோதவீரானி

॥
പ്രജാഴു്‌ രീരിഷോ മോത വീരാ

7"

^~ । ~ ജ്‌
सोऽक्षरः परमः स्व

॥
ஸோ$க்ஷர: பரமஸ்‌ സഖ

॥
സോടക്ഷരഃ പരമഃ സ്വരാ

न

I T
ओजस्वान्‌ विश्वतः प्रतय

ஓஜஸ்வான்‌. விஸ்வத: ப்ரத்யங்‌

॥ ॥
ഓജസ്വാന്‍ വിശ്വതഃ പ്രത 8

‘ng’.

49

5.3.1 Special note on ‘n’ at the end of the Statement:

The ‘n’ न्‌, ன்‌,ரூ) at the end of a statement is extended and most of the books

mark the same with the extension in terms of indicating ‘nn’.

Some books do not print ending ‘n’ as ‘nn’ and the readers follow

their School of teaching.

Let us take some examples of statements ending with ‘n’ and see how it is
represented. Please note that this seems to be a distinct method used in the
southern part of India. Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but be open
to make minor adjustment when you perform group recital with other Schools.
We have started to standardise the representation of ന in our books to ‘if’ after
Short vowel sound as a convention and this would take some more time as we

update each and every book periodically.

[ऋ ஈம்‌... Comments

जामिमजामिं । The ‘n’ at the end of the
२ २ प्रमृणीहि
-- _ प्रम्‌ _ उतर statement is preceded

by a Dheerga Akshara

॥ |
ஜ ஈமி மஜா மி ம்‌ ப்ரம்‌ മഞ്ഞണി ഗര്‍ which has swaritam

| | (higher note). To
ജാമിമജാമിം പ്രമൃണീഹി ശ്രതൂണ്‍ smoothen ending and

flow of the statement,
the swaritam effect is
given to ‘n’. Traditional

books mark the

50

swaritam over the ‘trU’.

I
प्रणीत्य മുന്ന്‌

ul
ஸ்தவ ப்ரணீத்ய ற்யாம வாஜானி
7 —
പ്രണീത്യ ശ്യാമ വാ

Same as above effect of
the swaritam over ‘jA’ is

effected over ‘n’.

पत्रेषु पिबतो जनात्‌

பாத்ரேஷு பிப்,தோ ஜனான்‌

॥ ॥
പാത്രേഷു പിബതോ ജനാന്‍

Same as above.

रथेना seat याति भुवना विप

| |
TCS oor 3தே,வோ யாதி பு,வனா

விபம்யன்னி

॥ ॥
61009 ടദേവോ യാതി 8101079

വിപശ്യജ

Same as above. The
Traditional swarm
marking is over ‘Sya’
and the effect is given to

7"

मानः प्रजा, रीरिषो मोतवी

No Swaram before ‘n’
and ‘n’ is just extended

to one maatra

51

மான: ப்ரஜா ர்ரிஷோ மோத ഖ്‌

॥ ॥
00008 പ്രജാഴു്‌ രീരിഷോ മോതവിരാജ

| |
विश्चा रूपाण्या वि
ഖിഥഖ ന ரூ பாண்யா வி பன்னி

॥ ॥
വിശ്വാ 67௨௦௭ വിശ

No swaram before ന

and ‘n’ is extended.

॥
कतिधा व्यकल्पयं
SHSM, வ்யகல்பயனன்‌

॥
കതിധാ വ ൃകല്യയണ്ണി

ள்‌ यज्ञत्रयतु प्रजा

| |
இமன்னோ யஜ்ஞன்னயது ப்ரஜானன்ன்‌

॥ ॥
ഇമന്നോ യജഞന്നയതു (2௦ இனி

No swaram before ‘n’

| |
प्रविष्णुरस्तु तवसस्तवीय

52

ப்ரவிஷ்ணுரஸ்து தவஸ ஸ்தவி

പ്രവിഷ

॥ |
Jom}, തവസ ५ |
om _ ത

ത

Note: During continuous rendering, if a letter before ‘n’ is marked in Swaritam,
the Swaritam effect is given on the letter before this ‘n’.

Please note the Dheerga Swaritam effect discussed in our article about short
letters acquiring Dheera Swaritam after a short vowel like tasminth sarvam

pratishtitham, tasminth suparNo madhukrith kulaaye.

5.4 Extension of Vowel Sound/Visargam at the end of the
Statement:

In classical method of rendering, the end hrasva akshara/short letter with vowel
sound and visargam is extended to twice its maatra to keep a good rhyming
effect at the end. If you listen to Vedic rendering by Scholars, you will observe
that the end akshara is extended by them. Generally when grahastas learn Veda,
this aspect of elongation is not well stressed but by practice this aspect should be
paid attention and rendered effectively as advised by a Vedic Scholar.

Some examples are given below for readers to observe the rendering by
Scholars. Most recent one (as of August 2020) is rendering available in Tirumala
Tirupati Devasthanam Channel (You Tube) Veda PaaraayaNam that started in
April 2020.

Kindly follow the method taught by your Guru but while rendering with different
School or Vedic pandits one needs to be aware of this practice to be in right

synchronisation with them.

53

[ப நாமம்‌ |

Comments

य एवं “dg |
ய ஏவம்‌ ६०४७ |

യ ഏവം വേര്‍ |

Here the vowel sound ഒ of veda is
extended but without rendering it
as with the effect as ‘A’. It is heard

as a being extended as hrasvam

ar at रुद्‌ मयु |

தயா நோ (537 GL gt |

നോ രുദ്ര മൃഡയ |

Similar to above example.
Extension is made as ya..a without

being heard as ‘yA’.

| |
शिवो எ: सुमना भव ।
॥॥ 611 ந்‌: ஸுமனா ५५०५ |

॥ ॥
ശിവോ നഃ സുമനാ aay |

being heard as ‘VA’.

गिरिशाच्छा वदामसि ।

॥
Sl,fuoréen ०,७१८.०) |

The extension of ‘e’ sound of si is
made in such a way it is not heard

or stressed as sl

54

T
ഗിരിശാല്ലാ വദാമ |

I When a visargam sound comes in
उतो त इषवे नमः |

the extension is made of the vowel

sound that comes with visargam

உதோ த இஷவே நம்‌: |

॥
ഉതോ ത ഇഷവേ നമഃ |

extended.

! ॥ The visaram sound of uH is
हस्ते बभूव ते धनुः |

I Visargam sound of iH is extended.

॥
ஆபு,_ரஸ்ய நிஷங்க,நிஜ |

|
ആഭുരസ്യ നിഷങ്ഗ്രമിഃ |

Note: Try to recite along with the audio/video with your normal practice/method of

rendering; you will see that the extension by Scholars is distinct.

55

A long letter/Dheerga akshara is rendered as a Plutam with vowel sound being

extended to three maatra time scale at the end of the statement.

This may not be highly stressed as a practice for new learners or householders.

School or Vedic pandits one needs to be aware to be in right synchronisation

with them. We give some examples for Veda learners to observe this aspect of

Veda rendering practice.

| ss Example = |

Comments

मृत्यवे ग्वार मृत्यवे स्वाहा ॥

ம்குத்யவே ஸ்வாஹா ம்குத்யவே

ஸ்வாஹா |
॥

മൃത്യവേ സ്വാഹാ മൃത്യവേ സ്വാ

The ‘A’ vowel sound is
extended normally to three
maatraa in normal mode; an
additional minor extension is
made and not like rendering

plutam which is different.

स भूमिं विश्वतो वृत्वा

ero பூமிம்‌ “விர்வதோ வ்குத்வா

॥ 1 ॥
സ ഭൂമിം വിശ്വതോ ஷை |

Here the ‘A’ sound is

extended.

vedavms@gma

il.com

56

1 ! Though it has dheerga
प्रजापते रोहिणी वेतु पल्ली ।

swaritam additional

extension of ‘ee’ is made.

ப்ரஜாபதே ரோஹிணீ வேது பத்னீ |

॥ ॥
പ്രജാപതേ രോഹിണീ വേതു പത്തി |

॥ Vowel sound ‘AH’ is
पनन्त AT |
> > ച extended.

புனந்து மா தே,வஜனா: |

॥
പുനന്തു മാ வலரா |

I ॥ Similar to above example
नीलग्रीवा |

நீலக்‌,ரிவா விலோஹிதா: |

॥ ॥
നീലഗ്രീവാ വിലോഹിതമ |

57

5.6 Areas to give pause when words cannot be taken together
When 8 word ends with ‘n’ and the next word follows with ‘vi’ ,ya, ra, ha, Ru ,
The words shall not be taken together since the sound effect becomes disturbed
as nya, nvi which may incorrectly indicate as if a Sandhi exists.

Some of these combinations are referred as Swaribhakti in SikShA texts.

But some Vedic Student referred this as Swara-Samgj~jyAi which needs
further reference. So please note the rendering of your Guru and style of your
School to render them correctly. Some common examples of rendering with a
pause or minor extension are given below:

These are indicative examples only.

| हषा) = | Comments

I I Rendering together will make
. ஏளன मायया सर्वानव यजामहे

one hear a single word as

tanya.

॥ ॥
தான்‌. யஜ்குஸ்ய மாயயா ஸரவானவ

॥ ॥
താന്‍. യജ്ഞസ്യ മായയാ സര്‍വാനവ

യജാമഹേ

I | Some books may represent
ட " ` + _ भ्य പ ധ്‌ as nRu. But words
are distinctly recited as a

ऋभून्‌
ऋभून्‌ यक्षान्‌ practice. Generally if a 1181817
AN _ _ \

precedes Ru it is taken

together as a Swarayukta

58

|
வஸூூன்‌ ($® ऽ 6्ना-क 35५16

ன்‌. ந்‌ Gy ன்‌.

॥
மருதோ$த, orgs Ww

யக்ஷ £ன்‌”

വസുൂന്‍ ദ്രാനാ-ദിത്യാന്‍ മരുതോടഥ

ഭൂ ക്ഷാന്‍

0090042

akshara. Kindly follow the

style taught by your Guru.

वहन्त्वेना हविषा मादयस्व

வ ஹந்த்வேனா ராஜன்‌. ஹவிஷா

மாதயஸ்வ

I I
വഹത്ത്വനാ രാജന്‍. ഹവിഷാ

മാദയസ്വ

‘n’ is followed by ‘ha’. Here ‘n’
is extended.

Some Schools recite this as
‘rajanu’ with full ഡ്‌ sound
which should be avoided. U
sound shall be only half since
ending with n would be little

abrupt.

| |
अग्ने 4௭% ६
ப்‌ I ட்‌ ॥
ASCOT ॥8। | 269] uuGero
I I
അഗ്നേ യശസ്വിന്‍. യശസേ

Some books mark the lower
swarm for ‘n’ also to make a
distinction that ‘n’ should be a

clear end to the word.

59

| ॥
विङान्नून्‌. विमृधोनुद ன हनू रुज
|
விறத்ரூன்‌. விம்ருதோ,னுத,

விவ்குத்ரஸ்ய

॥
വിശ്രതൂന്‍. വിമ പൃരധോനുദ 00014
॥

ത്രസ്യ ഹനു രൂജ

Same as above. Here ‘n’ is
marked with an extension of

lower swarm of the ‘tru’

॥
दास्योऽश्वान्‌. विन्देय पुरुषानहं
த ஈஃஸ்யோஸ்வான்‌. விந்தேய ம்‌

புருஷானஹம்‌

ദാസേ ॥ +.

വിന്ദേയം പുരുഷാനഹം

When a Dheerga letter
precedes ‘n’ that should get
right extension. Now the ‘n’ is
extended so that nvi sound is
not heard. Some schools
recite this with swaritam and
extension of ‘n’ instead of sva

and this is not an ideal way

| [|
என்னு जंभयन्‌ श्सर्वाश्च यातु

A pause is given though the
‘n’ becomes ‘nj’ for clarity of

recital.

While reciting Rudra Kramam,

the vaa is not extended but ‘n’

60

॥
அஹிஸ்ச ஸர்‌ -ஜம்ப,யந்த்‌,

I
അഹീയശ്ച ன ட்ட ജംഭയന്‍

ഥ്സര്‍വാശ്ച യാതു ധാന്യഃ

is recited with a higher note in
many part of Southern India

as

ணி வக
ட

ஜா. ताडि विमृधो नुदस्व

“வி ഗത. தாடி; OND GCS It,
நுத,ஸ்வ

ட ] റി ரி ॥
வாமனர்‌. താഡി വിമൃധോ നുദസ്വ

Pause after n so that it does

not sound like ‘nthA’

We have started to standardise the representation of of this pause through

a dot (.) after ന in our books. The ‘n’ will also be marked with anudAttam

(practice started from Jan 2020 while revising books). This updation would take

some more time as we take up each and every book periodically for review.

The Users/learners shall confirm to the extension or pause as taught by the Guru.

61

5.7 Areas with no distinct/full sounds for letters

During Recital, due to the combination of letters, some letters do not get a
distinct sound. Vaikari means sound that emanates outside the mouth as
distinctly heard. There is no ‘Vaikari’ meaning that the sound does not
reverberate outside the throat; it stops at the throat. This is referred to as
‘Madhyama’. Kindly refer to Lalitha Sahasranama Bahsyam by

Great Scholar Shri Anna Subramania lyer. (Sloka 81)

But in many South based Schools, they insist that the letter must be

uttered even faintly to be heard so that proper vibration is created.

5.7.1 Combinations of ‘n’,’th’

We give below indicative examples below. The student learns more of these

examples as the learning gradually increases.

| च्व = | Comments

i I I With the extension of ‘smi and
मधुकृत्‌ कुलायी । ,
> =^ Ny _ an extension of the same to ‘n’,

॥ | the sound of ‘th’ is not distinct
தஸ்மி -ஸ௦”பர்ணோ மது,ககுத during recital. If the ‘th’ is

| stressed and recited the recital
குலாயீ will not be smooth.

॥ ॥
തസ്മിന്‍ സുപര്‍ണോ മധുകൃത്‌

കുലായീ

62

ஸ்‌ ம்‌ F535 யந்து ந:

॥
സമര്‍ദ്ധ്യന്തു നഃ

Here the ‘th’ does not emanate
as a distinct sound; stops at
throat only or will be heard as a
whisper only

| I
அர இ स वनस्पतिभि
அக்‌னி.ராயுஷ்மாந்துஸ
வனஸ்‌ பதி பி,

॥
അഗ്നിരായുഷ്ടാ call ஸூ

|
may ole)

भविष्यद्‌ वषट्‌ सवदा

ப,விஷ்யத்‌, ன ஸ்வாஹா |

ഭവിഷ്യദ്‌ വഷട്‌ ഥ്സ്വാഹാ

Same as above. The sound of

‘th; will be faint only

| | [॥
गामश्वं பின்‌ स नो ஏஎரி-
का 30 ஸ்வம்‌ போஷயிதீன்வா 60

நோ 101 738 53530600

I I
ഗാമശ്വം 1. 0 emo

Here the sound of ‘n’ that follows
‘th’ is light and it not distinct

during recital.

63

ய்‌

മൃഡാ തീദൃശേ

5.7.2 The word ‘Ru’ after two halant letters:

1 The combination of ൮7 and RU
तु मण्डलानि

cannot be recited together smoothly.
| _ னி
இத்ய்குது மண்ட_ஃலானி,

॥
oo, മണ്ഡലാനി

So the ‘y’ sound is left out or becomes

half silent. It is rendered as 0, த்‌ ௫,

டை

5.6 Extension/Pause before Vowels

It is difficult to recital two vowel sounds next to each other. Due to nature of the
mantra, swaram and the intended sound/vibration effect, the Vowel Sandhi may
not be applied/(exempted) or due to application special grammar rules.

Kindly note that Pragraha words(words in duality) as specified in texts are not
subject to Sandhi. These words are represented with ‘iti’ in Pada Paatam.

They have long ‘ee’’uu’ .’ae’ or ‘O’ sounds.

Please read the Article on Vowel Sandhi that has been released separately.
This rule is more applicable/effective/pronounced when the ending letter or the

following Vowel letter is a Dheerga letter.

1. One extend the sound of the previous letter faintly or

2. Pause before the Vowel is pronounced or recited.

64

The Pause should not result in a break effect please. Observe your Guru to
improve the recitation and the style of either extending or pausing.

Some examples are given below:

Comments

பவர்‌ ப்பு
Bis
11. தஸ்யா 31154;
|
പായൂര്‍വിശോ ല്‍സ്യാ അബ്ബ:

Here ‘a’ of asyAH does not
form avagraha with visaH
which becomes viSo and the
Visarga in padam asyAH
drops before adabdhaH, so

needs to be recited distinctly.

॥
coe fon fi
TOL 96 95 SOL உபமா

இஸ்ய விஷ்டாஸ்‌

സബൂദ്ധ്നിയാ ഉപമാ രസ $ വിഷ്യാഃ

The visargam in padam
upamAH has dropped before
asya and the recital has to be

distinct with a pause.

| |
दि यं जुषाणा वियन्तु

ஆதிஃத்யா Bau ஜுஷாணா வியந்து,

॥ |
ആദി ஐ. ജൂഷാണാ വിയന്തു

Visargam in padam adiyAH
has dropped so pause

required before Ajyam.

65

| ` मा आशा இ Example similar to above.
\

ப்ராஸ்மா ஆமா இம்‌ குண்வன்ன்‌

(५० ആശാ ஸ்ம ബ്വന്ന്‌

! naH becomes nO and
मा नो ay रीरिषः

aSveShu does not form

avagraha here so needs

॥
மா நோ இங்வேஷு ரீரிஷ distinct rendering of words.
॥ ग 1
മാ നോ അംശ്വഷു രീരിഷഃ
J naH becomes na with
मघवज्छग्दि तव ന്‌
ட ட ட dropping of visargam before

vowel ‘U’ hence needs pause

[
LDS 46UG-F 95353514 sou தன்ன ५५५. between these words.

I
00100160 २] തവ തന്ന ஜூலை

5.9 Halant “h” followed by Nasal Letters

When there is a Samyukta Akshara (Conjunct Consonant- Joint Letter) of “h’
followed by a letter of Nasal Class like ‘n,N, M’ , the ‘h’ is not distinctly recited;
the ‘h’ takes over the Halant sounds of the following Nasal Letter with which it is
formed. Simlar effect follows when ‘h’ is followed by ‘ya’ where ‘h’ sound tends

more towards ya sound.

66

Kindly note that the sound of ‘h; sound not be stressed too much like the

following Nasal class letter. ‘h’ comes from the base of the throat where

as the nasal letters sound reverberates from the front of the mouth.

So the pronunciation of these words take a middle path to make rendering

smoother.

| हषा |

Comments

|
ளை प्रथमं

ப்‌,ரஹ்மீஜஜ்ஞானம்‌ 11151010

ബ്രഹ്മജജ്ഞാനം പ്രഥമം

While recital the sound stress on ൩ should
not become full m as be heard as

ह्‌ is followed by 4 (nasal letter)

ஹ்‌ is followed by LO (nasal

letter)

ഹ്‌ is followed by 0) (nasal
letter).

ह्‌, ஹ்‌, ഹ്‌ takes the sound of

nasalletter म्‌ , ൧, 0.

मद्ध्ये अहां

535 ,GW a

മദ്ധ്യേ അഹ്നാം

not become full n as be heard as

Here, ஹீ, ഹ്‌ takes the

sound of nasal letter न्‌, oor, ന്‌

67

അഞ तु

Servs ONS WI) ~ ந்து
ടസ്ത്രിത sn) NS ന്തു

not become full N as be heard as

sound of nasal letter Ul, ண்‌ 610)

TS 4.6.7.1 |
त्रितो yer व्रतेन |
த்ரிதோ G3

ത്രിതോ ടഃ"

॥
ன வ்ரதேன |
~ |

വ്രതേന |

Here the stress on ‘h’ will not be

heavy and moderate towards

'ya; sound but sound not fully
heard as guyyena.

Note: Students should observe their Guru to learn the right pronunciation for

combination of hva.hya, hla. In addition when we are new to learning,

we tend to make the mistake of pronouncing hru as hRu or hRu as hru.

68

6 Overview Rendering flow and Pause
This Section gives an overview of how words/padams shall be rendered together
and how and when pause/extension is given. Kindly be aware that there are
differences between Schools in they way they take words together,
give pause or elongate an akshara based their System. A learner should
follow mainly the teachings of the Guru but become aware of some differences
so when one perfroms any recital in a common function, one is able
to make right adaptations.
Kindly refer to previous Section where some highlights have been discussed.
This area cannot be articulated exhaustively but we are making an honest
attempt so that Veda learners get some basic knowledge of the issues in
rendering. It is incorrect to think that other methods/Schools of rendering are
incorrect; you should have an open-mind set that keeps you improving gradually

and one should be open to learning/adapting even after years of Practice/Recital.

Samhita is a Sanskrit may be interpreted as “well arranged or ordered”

The root words, sam means “correct” and “proper/well,” and hita means
“arranged” or “wholesome.” Other dictionary meaning we get are

junction or combination of letters according to defined grammar rules.

(may be taken as Sandhi in common parlance) and any

methodically arranged collection of texts or verses.

One Scholar says that is an arrangement of letters at ardha-mAtra kaala
(time scale as it takes a small time) between letters like a garland of flowers.
The natural pause between uttering two letters is called Virama, though it is a
term used for pause. But the avasana is used in SikShA as a reference

to taking a break, rest or stoppage.

We will use the word letter pause and giving additional time as pause so
readers of the document get a consistent reference.

69

Let us look at the constituent of SamhitA which is collections of texts or
we Call it as Veda mantras.

1. Padam - it is the lowest form a SamhitA can be broken up.

2. Word - it can be same as a Padam or a constituent of two or more Padams
which gives a specific meaning.

3. Text - The word Text and Verse are used in classical books by Scholars.
The Text here we are interpreting as a combining of many words that
combine due to various Grammar Rules.

4. Verse/Ruk — Here we mean a separate Vedic statement which ends in a
Ruk stop.

5. Mantra — It is a combination of more than one Verse/Ruk that gives a
logical and complete meaning of the verses/Ruks.

This is subject to Rules of Chandas or Vedic Meters.
A mantra may be sometimes, represented in a single Ruk.

6.2 Reference in prAtisAkyam:

PS Chapter 22 Rule 13 - The verse-pause, pada-pause, pause for hiatus
and pause for hiatus in the interior of a word, are respectively of

three moras, two moras, one mora, and a half-mora.

When we refer to some Articles, the word mora has been taken as same
as mAtrA, since the word mora is a very old and classical term.

The way ancient text classifies the pause and the way we have defined the
components of a SamhitA vary and it needs to be understood correctly

in terms of the guideline given in PS. There are interpretation differences
about pause when we read the Commentaries; so we have gone by practical
guidelines given by our Scholar Guides. There are differences in the

style Pause and extension of sounds are handled.

The word ‘hiatls’ stands for the pause that is given between two vowels

so that the distinction of vowel sounds are retained.
We shall call it Vowele-pauiseé for our understanding.

70

PratisAkyam makes a distinction between ‘hiatus’ (vowel pause) within

a word or padam and or between words/padams.

| च्व = |

Comments

॥
भूयिष्ठां ते amete विधेम ॥
ഫില Css ०5७० 06541

|
ഭൂയിഷ്യാം തേ ॥ வு்‌ വിധേമ ॥

Namauktim is a single padam
with a combination of namaH +
uktim; by rule visargam get
dropped; ‘a’ and ‘u’ rendered to
together will give incorrect
sound. So a pause is given in
the interior of the word
between fia and च

ஸ்ரயது ப்றவிக,முக்த,மவ்யத,யத்‌,

॥ ॥
ശ്രയതു 2१००० 410९010

Pratugam is not subject to
Sandhi but a single padam; so a
pause is given between pra and
figam so vowel sounds donot
combine. This a pause in the

interior of a word/padam.

॥ ॥
नमस्ते सुद्‌ मन्य त इषवे
நமஸ்தே (537 மன்யவ்‌ உதோ

॥
த இஷவே

The padam manyaVE becomes
manyavVa before vowel sound ध
of uto. These are two padams
so the pause is extended
between Va and ப distinguish
there is a Sandhi. This Vowel
pause between words is

longer than the pause within a

71

T
നമസ്നേ 016 മന്യവ DEMS 0
ത _ ட

ഇഷവേ

word.

| ॥
मेधां मे எளி கள னள
மேதா,ம்‌ மே அம்வினா-வுபா,வா.

0110
॥ []
മേധാം മേ അശ്വിനാ-വൂദാ-
I
വാധത്താം

The padam is aSvinau +uB
+AdhattAm. The au becomes A
with 8 ഡ്‌ combined with following
padam. So பப become vuBau,
but this vuBal has ‘au’ at the

endwhich becomes ‘A’ before

following vowel A of Adhattam.
So there is a double word vowel

pauses in this mantra.

6.3 Common Approach:

The three things generally that shape up the rendering method/style

of a learner are:

3. Additional effort you put in terms of listening to Audios/Videos of

Vedic Pandits, acquiring knowledge of each of these issues and

of course, the practice that makes it perfect.

Note: This is a continuous process; some aspects discussed below will

become clear as one reads our Articles on Visarga Sandhi, Vowel Sandhi,

Consonant Sandhi and Avagraha.

72

If a reader is new to learning Vedas, donot try to understand everything that is
articulated; become aware of the issues and use this as a guide to learn and
improve recital.

If the representation in the book that you follow takes words together but your
Guru teaches splitting the words or give pause you should kindly take note.
Same is the case when words are represented separately but needs to be
taken together. VedaVMS books represent words separately at many places
to indicate that words are separate or there is a need for pause.

But we are aligning words to match with Pada Paatam, on an on-going

basis so that rendering is easier, but under the guidance of a qualified Guru.

6.4 Words combinations:

The ending of any word could be with

1. A vowel sound like a,e,u,ae,ai, O, au etc (short or long)

2. A Visarga sound with either short or long letters

3. An anuswAram with short or long letters.

4. A halant ending like k,t,p,T,n,~g.
Endings with s or r at the end of the Padam in noun form become
Visargam.

Now let us discuss common occurrence of combinations of the ending

akshara/letter in a word by above types.

6.5 Ending is a Vowel sound:
following word, it is subject to Vowel Sandhi.
The Vowel Sandhi results in the following:
1. Combination of Vowels into a new letter with elongation

2. Formation of Avagraha

73

3. The previous vowel and/or next letter sound becomes

a different vowel sound

4. Vowel Sandhi is not performed and words are taken distinctly

6.5.1 Combination of Vowels

Ref Article - Basics of Veda —-Vowel Sandhi in Articles Page

| s«sExample

Comments

| ॥
We புற ளை:
பத்ரம்‌ பஸ்யேழாரக்ஷபி,ர்‌

॥ ॥
ഭദ്രം പശേ Boucle യജത്രാഃ

paSyema #akShaBi leads to
elongation as iA, it is customary
to give a small pause after [8

for Sandhi to indicate elongation.

ല്‌ वदामसि

I
த்வா പ്ലം வதாஃமஸி

I
ത്വാ ഗിരി ഭയം വദാമസി

90538888൧൧. 16905 to elongation
of Sa as BA. Similar to above

example.

नमो निचेरवे पर्चर्शर्यानं
நமோ நிசேரவே பரிசராயா-

| ॥ ॥
ரண்யானாம்‌ നമോ 07169 12601

paricarAyataraNyAnAm leads to
elongation of JA

74

T
പരിചരാത്തു-രണ്യാനാം

॥ ॥
मुखादिन्द-श्चाग्निश्च
|
11111

॥ ॥
മുഖാദിന്ദ്ര PBIB uric |

indraH + ©8+ agniH+ca is the

combination. ‘ca’#agni gives
‘Agni’.

| | |
मयि प्रजां எனி इद्दियं दधातु

| |
மயி ப்ரஜாம்‌ ols § 49 8057५
മയി പ്രജാം മതീ ഇന്ദ്രിയം

ദധാതു

Mayi+indra becomes ൩൭൮൫8൦൫൭,
This is similar with a combination
of two short ‘i’ that becomes long
1.

धू
I
தி വം 35145
சிமி |

பிம்‌ UpadadhAti - இருப

gets formed with a combination

of two short ‘u’s.

75

When we try to render without pause, the words combination does not sound
smoother. It is customary to indicate an occurrence of a Sandhi with a small
pause, without effect of a break.

6.5.2 Formation of Avagraha

Ref Article - Basics of Veda - Avagraha in Articles Page

| s«sExample Comments

I aGorA + apApakAsini, the ‘a’
तनूरघो्चुःपापकाडिनी

following long ‘a’ becomes

avagraha, then this avagraha

॥
தனூரகோ, ரா போபகாமினீ takes half the vowel sound of
previous letter and normally a
॥
തനുരഘോരാ ുപാപകാശിനീ pause is given; But a break

effect may occur and an
opposite meaning may be
intended. So Gurus want you to
give an extension to indicate
presence of ‘a’ without saying full
‘a’. Rendering avagraha correctly

improves through practice.

மய்ய ட்ட ப
_ ९ ._ combination of yA followed by ‘a
of asmAn forms avagraha.

தய ரீஸ்‌ மான்‌, விற்வத

००४०0०८४ വിശ്വത

76

നി്‌ ഉണ

॥
ஸ்ஹ்ஸ்ரயோஜனே (२ தூன்வானி

॥
സഹസ്രയോജനേ வயி

Avagraha forms after ‘E’ sound

when followed by ‘a’.

வரவாக

॥
ந பகு ரமாணாய
॥

ന പഗുരമാണായ

Avagraha forms after ‘O’ sound

என்னி रुतत्वया

|
ரஜா

Il
1 (൫൭ த்வயா
ബ്ര്മാജുഗത്രശീ

രുത ത്വയാ

A double avagraha symbol 5

represents a word ending ‘A long
vowel sound is followed by
letter A. Here brahmA+Agatasrl.

The pause will be longer.

77

6.5.3 Generation of different Vowel sound

Ref Article - Basics of Veda — Vowel Sandhi in Articles Page

| Example |

Comments

I I
वैश्वदेवी पुनती ta
வைஸ்வதேஃவீ புனதீ പി

॥
വൈശ്വദേവീ പുനതീ

‘devP#AgAt gives devyAgAt
due to sandhi of 1 with ‘A’

A short is given to indicate
Sandhi.

॥
ധും, விராஜா

॥
விஷ വിരാജാ

ParamatiShti results in
paramEShti. Combination of
mati’ gives 185 (ae).

A small pause for Sandhi is

given.

ब्रह्मैव भूतानां SIS

"नण பூத்‌ £ானாம்‌

ப்‌ ட்டு ഭൂതാനാം ९2२५०१०

An ‘ai’ sound is formed with a
combination of a+E (ae). Here

it is brahm@#Eva resulting in

brahifiaiva

78

|
विचक्रमाण-स्त््वरगायः ॥

v ட ட ப்‌ ॥
"வசக்ரமாண.ஸ்த்ரேதேரூரு காஃய:

0०००7 - नत) 8096) ८००

0 sound is formed with a

combination of atu. Here is is

tredha#UrugAya forming GO

ரர்‌ वरिवस्कृतादपधीनां

பு,வந்தயே வாரிவஸ்க்குதா-

I
யெளஷ தீனாம்‌

॥
വാരിവസ്ത 5 00-BBruwmoo

An ‘au’ is formed here with a
combination of ‘a’+’O’ .
kRutAyatOShadinAm
becomes kRutA@uShadinAm

| |
TORS: எள प्रियाणि

॥
ero 1

॥ ॥
ஸஙுஇி.அலடஸவு 00 പ്രിയാണി

‘sapta +RuShaya becomes
ട്വ ഒ due to sandhi of
a sound with Ru. This is
Swarabhakti. Refer to previous
Section on Swarabhakti which

should be uttered like r+R

|
वरुणः സുന്നി

|
வருண: புனாத்விக,மர்‌.ஷண:

punAtU+aGamarShaNaH are
the Padams. ‘tu’+’a’ becomes
Wa as per Sandhi.

79

T
வள ^1} 072@10010204461)8

wae ஜர்‌ எர

ട്രം மே
ലയശ്ചവ ரி இமை ചമേ

60॥ 10

Here mE which has ‘E’ sound
becomes [8 as per Sandhi.
Then the words should have
distinct pause. When recited

fast or together it is heard as

maRutanjaca, without pause.

धवि 1
आपो वा say सर्व विश्वा
ஆபோ வா இத ஸர்வம்‌

॥
ആപോ വാ ९००५ സര്‍വം

The ‘ai’ sound becomes [AY
sound when followed by a
vowel letter. Then the pause

should be distinct.

|
शारिष्ट-नेमिश्च सेनानि ராரா
பி _
ள்‌ च
ஸேனானி 57310 गन्म

നേമിശ്ച സേനാനി (००

ല്ലീര്‍വശി ച

The ‘au’ sound of grAmaNyau
becomes ‘Av’ due to Sandhi
before u of urvaSl, v added to
urvaSi becomes vurvaSl. The
pause must be distinct
between वत्त

This is similar to Medha
sUktam example for vowel

pause (hiatus) between words.

80

6.5.4 Sandhi not performed

| Example

Comments

கல்பயந்தி ears youd
०९०० ९०९५०

Kalpayantl is a dual verb that is
not subject to Vowel Sandhi.
These type of words are called
Pragraha.

So to indicate that the நி does not
combine with U distinct pause is

given.

[|
समी त्मना |
ஸமீதீ உரஸா த்மனா

॥
സമ ய ९००५० ത്മനാ

Here saml€l is 8 pragraha that is
not subject to vowel Sandhi with

following vowel u

मा സുരി अभि

॥
மா த்டயாவாப்குதி,இ அபி,

॥
മാ ദ്യാവാപൃഥില്ലീ അഭി

dyAvApRuthivl is a pragraha;
त्रि does not have Sandhi with

following vowel ‘a’

त मनप

The 0868115 here are

viSatat+urO which is pragraha.

81

வதனி ககா
भा അന്തരിക്ഷ

There is a Sandhi that results in
viSatOF@ that does not combine
with ‘a

6.6 Ending in Visargam

Ref Article - Basics of Veda - Visarga Sandhi in Articles Page

1. The Visarga letter is substituted with another letter.

2. Visarga is dropped.

3. The first letter end vowel is changed. This may combine with

following word or not.
4. Avagraha is formed.
6.6.1 Substitution of Letter

| चवा = |

Comments

| a
मे
ர
curren ioe மே,
॥
വാജി മേ

When Visargam becomes a
halant like s,S,Sh, then the letter
pause occurs before the Visarga
substituted letter. Then here S@a
needs to be rendered together.
There will only be letter pause

between ja and Sca.

82

|

நமஸிதே
ட!

The letter pause is between ‘ma’
and stE. இரத is rendered

together.

॥ |
नम( ஸ்‌ ककुभाय ௫ம்‌
(fi gets the light stress)

| | ॥
१८(@०७।५५। நிஷங்கி,ணே

॥
"गिर ० ००० നിഷങ്ഗിണേ

Similar to above. The visargam
become [8 sounding jihnvAmulya.
Refer to Article on Visarga
Sandhi. Pause is after kf.

॥ ॥
நமஜிரிவாய ச

॥ ॥
ण ച

Similar to above examples.
SSI is taken together normally a

letter pause after ma.

ध्विष्ण |
इदं Roy चक्रमे
இதம்‌ “விஷ்ணுர்‌ விசக்ரமே

५ 1 ர ।
ഇദം വിഷ്ണു വിച്രര്രമേ

When the visargam becomes ¶
it needs rendering with next word

but with a letter pause after ¶

83

6.6.2 Visarga is dropped

| Example

Comments

|
a यज्ञो वान्‌ भवति |

॥
ബ யஸோவான்‌ பவதி

I
സ യശോവാന്‍ ഭവതി

ह्न is SaH with its visargam
dropped as per Rule. So a
distinct pause should be made

as if made between words.

॥ ॥
दिव रुं उपश्रिताः
Huw ருத்ர உபஸ்ரிதா:

० ഉപശ്രിതാഃ

rudrAH has its visargam dropped
to become rudfA and followed by
धि a vowel; a pause is elongated

little more than a word pause.

॥
வளி अग्रे तदवृवन्न्‌

தேவா அக்‌,ரே த்தப்‌, ருவன்ன்‌

eB അഗ്രേ തദപ്രുവന്ന്‌

devAH has its visargam dropped
to become റല and followed by
தி vowel so pause must be

distinct like above example.

ரி से

0 has its visargam dropped
so a word pause must be

distinctly given.

84

ம்‌ T
0085510५ | ரக்ஷஸே

॥ ॥
५.1 രക്ഷസേ

6.6.3 Change of letter

ன sExample = | Comments
व परिणो व By rule hetiH with visargam
U 998
_ रदस्य q arg becomes ൮ before following

ஹேதீ ருத்‌ரஸ்ய பரிணோ
வ்ருணக்து

|
०.० ©] (3004 പരിണോ വൃണക്തു

letter ‘r’ as per Sandhi. So the
pause must be distinct after

uttering ‘tl’.

र्न रक्षिता ന്ന്‌

ராஜீ ரக்ஷிதா யஸ்சாதி,பதிர்‌

I
oop രക്ഷിതാ യശ്ചാധിപതിര്‍

This is similar to above rAjiH
has become rAj] example
where letter with visargam

elongates.

| |
अपारन्युष्णि-म रक्षः

Here apaH becomes a
before ‘r and word pause must

be distinct.

85

I |
அபாஸ்ன்யுஷ்ணி மபா ரக்ஷ:

॥ ॥
०१००८५17 രക്ഷഃ
ച്‌ ~न नौ) _

6.6.4 Avagraha is formed
| ജഭണ്ലം | Comments

The avagraha as per slkSha has
the half the sound of its previous
letter. Avagraha requires a
pause after it, but in practice

many schools render it with an

extension of ‘a’ sound in the
second part instead of pause for

distinction that ‘a’ is present.

. . ya | Similar example
sot पुष्पं वेद |

ழூ I
போம்‌ புஷ்பம்‌ வேத,

டர ॥
£... 1194० വ്വേദ

பப்‌ and the pause/extension is made

ஸ்மான்‌ த்‌,வேஷ்டி after completion of dheerga

Here yO has dheerga swaritam

86

സ്മാന്‍ வேஷி swaritam.

॥ | ॥ Similar to above examples
ST ,GamGLi,Seu ,€^0 വ

6.7 An anuswAram at the end:

These are also subject to normal combination rules.
The results could be as follows:
1. The anuswAram combines with following Letter
2. The anuswAram becomes gm or gg.
3. The anuswAram is retained and two words don’t combine.

6.7.1 AnuswAram combines with following Letter

| चवा = | Comments
at I I मे They are taken together with a
_ न कल्पन्ता- _ letter pause distinctly between

‘m’ and ‘Ru’ so that the word is

| |
யஜ்ஜேன கல்பந்தா-நீஞுக்ச மே not mistaken for mRu.

I I
യജേഞന കല്ുന്മാ-ജിക്ച മേ

॥ ते ॥ Here there is a short pause is
बाहु हि ച नमः after yA to indicate Sandhi of
letters.

ഗണം தே நம:

87

T T
6110 ^/9¶ 8420 @) തേ നമഃ

॥ ॥
നണ്ണി तपसा
த ॥ ர்ணாந்‌ த ॥ ஸா

I I
(१०८11016ना1०० തപസാ

Similar example; M plus a of

ഒറ്റ്‌ form ആ

எனகவ केवलः

॥ ॥
அஸ்மாகழீஸ்து கேவல:

॥ ॥
गण्वप०दत കേവലഃ ॥
മ ത

asmAkafaastu; ma is formed.

6.7.2 AnuswAram becomes (gm) or (qq)

| च्व = |

Comments

गणानान्त्वा गणपति वाम

1॥
9ணானாந்த்வா கணபதி

(2 7106621)

When a letter is followed by (gm)

or (gg) there is a short pause.

88

८629009 70.19 ഗണപതി

I
कन्ध സ്മൂംനാ അസത്‌

Similar to above

|
पररह भवन्तु
ட ॥ ட
24110110 னா பவந்து
॥
ആപശ്മു നാ ഭവന്തു

Similar a pause after (gg)

७ ൫ 1
॥ ५,
மாதர யம்‌
०००० Bo.

Similar to above.

89

6.7.3 AnuswAram is retained

| Example ആ

Comments

எள்‌ कलय wt எள்‌

ஞூ I |
யஜ்ஞேன கல்பதாழி Ban யஜ்ஞேன

॥
യജേഞന കല്പത നോ യജേഞന

॥
N

When anusvAram is retained

normal word pause is given.

யத கஸ்ஸம்‌ 9. தீரஹா
தி ப ००१००

Similar example.

जल स

ப்‌,ரஹ்ம ஜஜ்ஞானம்‌ ലം
10 1

॥ ॥
(90० (மஜி வர

Here tow successive words
with anusvAram have pause

with following words.

90

6.7.4 AnuswAram is recited differently

| Example

Comments

ணன मे

த்ரவி ணஞ்ச மே,

‘Mca becomes ~jca so that is
taken together with letter pause
between Na and 868

(नन வ CO,
| न्दे | ர
ய்‌
| |
நக்ஷத்ரநி தேஃவமிந்த்‌ஃரியம்‌

॥ ॥
படு | ദേവമിന്ദ്രിയം |

Similar example here M

becomes ‘fi’ before ‘fa’ varga

letter 08

|
अजि गर्भ दधिरे
711 । கடர்பந்‌ 5384617

I
COUN ഗര്‍ഭം ദധിരേ

Here Mis nasalized before ‘YA’
and needs to be rendered

together.

Similar example M becomes
nazalised before ‘Va’ and Wa

91

| |
உது,த்தமவவருண பாற

ഉദുത്ത ஸு പാശ

6.8 Ending is a halant

Halant letters are subject to Consonant Sandhi with some exceptions and special
rules.
The result of combination could be

2. Halant joins the next letter to be rendered together

3. There is simple substitution of letter(s) - Normal Sandhi rules

4. Special Consonant Sandhi Rules are applied combining words with or

without new letter formation

6.8.1 Halant forms a Swarayukta/Samyukta akshara:

8 | | भवति vidvAn+amRuta join creates ‘na’
ച 56 भव a short pause between dvA and
08 is given to indicate sandhi of

Zo; ^ I ॥
(ध இஹ ப,வதி | words.

¥ ர்‌ ! ! ரி
'പിദ്വാത്ജ്ൃത ഇഹ ഭവത്‌

92

| |
परिपात-मस्मा-रिष्ेभिरश्चिना

பரிபாதமஸ்மா நீரிஷ்டேபி, ரஸ்வினா

|
71 11

asmAn+tariShTE give fa

| |
uaa: पशग वरुन्धे

| l
1110621: "णा வருந்தே ,

॥ ॥
പശവഃ गि വരുന്ധേ

085 (दिह gives the letter ஈட்‌.

எதனா
: कुरु |

தானிந்த்‌,ரியாவத: குரு

॥
DORMS ००7०४ കുരു |

tAntindriya combine creates ‘fil

6.8.2 Halant joins next letter with only letter pause

| ரர ப்ப ப = |

Comments

स्वस्तिनो वृहस्पति

When [1818111 is followed by a
consonant, they are taken

together with only with letter

93

ஸ்வஸ்தி நோ ப்‌,ருஹஸ்பதிர்‌ தூதா,து

|
00101 നോ ബൃഹസ്പതി ധാതു
ത _ ட ^

pause. Here theare is no
Sandhi of letters nor any of
the rules explained in
previous section become

applicable.

னரா எப

I
ஹேதிரஸ்மான்‌-வ்குணக்து

I
ഹേതിര ஸூ 200 വൃണക്തു

யா தே Caw SiG ஷ்டம

॥
യാതേ யமி... மம்‌

Similar to the above

: रद
! உட ப்‌ ப்‌
൭൭൪൧൫൭ ധോ £ர்த்‌த்‌, வாஸ்‌

I
ദശോദീചീര്‍ ഭശോര്‍ദഭ്ധ്വാ

94

| Example

Comments

11 I
तमाह जायत

॥ ॥
தஸ்மா

(0916 0914)
a

ராட,ஜாயத

രാഡജായത

In Consonant Sandhi the first
letter of a class here ‘t’ becomes,
third letter of its class here ‘d’
before Soft Consonants and
Vowels. tasmAEWirADa, join
leads to substitution of ‘t’ as ‘d’.
Here the 6115 இணைவார்‌ must
be recited distinctly with a letter
pause. Here ‘d’ and ‘vi’ ; it should
not be recited in one breath as
dvi which many a times may

bring unintended meaning.

षं "योऽधीते

1 ர்வறார்‌.ஷம்‌ ८0175 445

ag

1 യു
மப ശീര്‍.ഷം യോടധീതേ

‘etaf@tharvaSir.Sham is the
combination.Since it becomes
02] a small pause is made after

da to indicate sandhi.

यथा என்ட ॥

யதா, நஸ்‌ a +
|
യഥാ നസ്സര്‍വമി-ജ്ജൂഗദ

|
5353

In ‘it’+’jagat’ combination, ‘t’
becomes 4: before ‘ja’, ‘jja’ is
taken together with clear letter

pause between [त्व

यजं तदाहवनीयो

In व्‌ ளா” , ¶' becomes ന

which should be taken with letter

95

ய

൭൧൧ ததா) ஹவனியோ

I
९0@16)10 തദാഹവനീയോ

pause continusouly. This is
similar to tattme becoming

tanmE

| ள்‌ |
7. |
न", லலோஹித

॥
ദരിദ്രങ്തിലലോഹിത

0बता श्त 01118 becomes
‘nnl’. Take ‘n’ and nl with letter

pause distinctly.

கானம்‌ षड्की तारं

ப்ராஞ்ச Y ag

தாரம்‌ ்‌

പ്രാഞ്ചഴ്‌ ഷ താരം

ShaT+hOtAram. Combination of
T+h makes T as D and ho
becomes Dho. Takes DDho with

a letter pause.

~

cated

T ॥
க்ஷுர்‌ தே,வஹிதம்‌”

॥ |
MAW ठ ദേവഹിതം

In ‘tat’ + cakShur , ‘t? becomes ‘c’
that needs to be taken along with

ca with a letter pause.

शिवा दस्तु

८96 மதஃஸ்தா ஷ்டாந்‌
தேஃவேப்‌,யஸ்‌
I 1॥
ശിവാ മദസ്ധാ- 0499
ത്ത =

In tAn + juShTAm, n 06071165 ~j
nasal of ca varga. Recite ‘~j’ and

ju with clear letter pause.

ய்‌ டட

In tat+Sam, ‘t’ becomes ‘c’ and
‘Sa’ becomes Ca. Take c and Ca

together with letter pause.

96

vy

I
தச்ச,ம்‌ யோரா வ்குணீமஹே

॥
യ്യോരാ വൃണീമഹേ

11

അ സ്പൂ 2

In ടടന്ധ്ടീഠഗ്‌, t becomes | , the
18 must be rendered with letter

pause.

००य्‌८
“J This is similar to
एको वा अमुष्मि मृत्युः ,
__ _~ =» above,amuShmin’s ‘n’ is
॥ ப்‌
வா அமுஷ்மி கே ம்ருத்யு: nasalized.
॥
ഏകോ വാ അമുഷ്ടി । ட മൃത്യുഃ
6.8.4 Usage of special Sandhi Rules
| Example Comments

| ॥
(ண்‌ बाणव हत
॥ ॥
6८०७०७५१ "न्न्य als

| |
വിശല്യോ வள வதி Bon |

Here the ‘n’ in bANavAn bcomes
(gm) due to vedic grammar rule.
There will be short pause after

‘gm’ before vowel.

97

ठ Ty रपसुषदो

| ॥
ஸர்வாஜி (11 Tuer aeGH,

॥
സര്‍വ 0 @ 21109463
५ സം

Here there are two (gm)s short
pause makes the distinction that

vedic Sandhi Rules exist.

[|
सर्वान्‌

॥
ஸர்வாஞ்‌

அஹி

॥
അഹീ സര്‍വാന്‍

The (gg) gets formed out of 3൮൨,
n becomes [88] due to following
joint letter + ca becoming 888
There is only letter pause
between letters and are taken
together but pause before next

word sarvAn.

Similar example

भविष्यद्‌ वषदु्स्वाहा
11466290 153 ति = ஸ்வாஹா

When 18 is added before
(15111111 letters, the ‘th’ and here
8 are taken together with a
letter pause. Some scholars give

additional pause. Note the style

of your school.

98

| In this example, ‘n’ doubles after
பவ \ vowel asmin. Brahmant+asmin,
ப்‌, ரஹ்ம ஸ்மின்‌ here the இணர்‌ should be

॥ ചഃ .
7 rendered distinctly with a letter
(6100) സ്പിന്‍

pause.

When a halant letter is followed by other Consonant with no Sandhi

normally they are rendered together with a letter pause.

When a word ends in vowel sound and is followed by another word with a
Consonant, (normally with 06 Sandhi explained or other rules of joining

it is rendered distinctly as two words with a normal word pause.

Note: Observe the nature of words joined like tatte, yatte, sante, santvA;

even if they are given in the books separately, observe your Guru for rendering
similar words. There is no need for extra word/padam pause.

Readers must remember the exceptions are Swarabhakti and Swara
Samgjyai explained in previous Sections.

Areas to take care is that ‘m’ may not be rendered along with following words like
pra, pa, m; the intended meaning conveyed by SamhitA should not be changed,

so a learner gets to grasp them by experience.

6.10 Recital flow should match with Padam in SamhitA:

SamhitA is rendered by combination of padams and the padams shall be
rendered distinctly in recital if they are represented separately in Pada Paatam

as it is a mirror of SamhitA.

99

We give below some examples where a Padam/Word is given as

combined or a split of two padams:

Padam with vAkyam

Comments

TS 1.2.13.2 Padams - pra | yacCa |
]

प्र । यच्छ । > प्रयच्छ

11 ക 11 ॥ ക

ப்ர | யச்ச, | > ப்ர ഖേ

॥
(al । Moll > (al Mal
— ०0 2.0

pra yacCa shall be rendered

with pause as they are
separate padams.

If prayacca is a single padam,
then, there will be just a letter
pause and prayacca will be

rendered continuously.

TS 2.1.1.5 Padams- paSUn |
|
WH । प्र ` । जनयति । >

|
पड्ून्‌ प्र जनयति
பூன்‌ | ப்ர | ஜனயதி | >
LIUUS 6or-LIT ஜனயதி

പശൂന്‍ । (al | ജനയതി । >

॥
പശൂന്‍ പ്ര ജനയതി

Rendered as paSunpra yaccati |

and n will join p with letter
pause and word pause before
yaccati.

If prajanayati was a single

padam, then it will be rendered

together with paSUnprajanayati

TS 1.7.6.7 punaH | A] laBate |

Rendered 85 01786 labate

(sandhi of A with visargam ‘r’ of

100

॥ ॥
पुनः | आ । लभते | ¬> पुनरा लभते

| |
புன: | ஆ | லப,தே | 5புனரா லப,தே

പുനഃ ആ । ലഭതേ | -> ௩106௦ ലഭതേ

punaH). Word pause between
A and labate.

TS 4.3.6.1 antarikSham | ca | Vi | bAdhatAm |

|
अन्तरिक्षम्‌ । च । वि । बाधताम्‌ ॥ >

अन्तरिक्षं चवि बाधतां ॥

அந்தரிக்ஷம்‌ | 5 | 6 | பாதாம்‌ |
அந்தரிக்ஷஞ்‌ ௪ வி பா,த,தாம்‌ |
അന്തരിക്ഷം । ०।। വി । ബാധതാം ॥

| I
ക അന്തരിക്ഷം ച വി 61120290 ॥

Rendered as antarikSha~jca Vi
bAdhaAm since preposition vi

is a separate padam.

TS 1.5.3.3 | punaH | agne |

|
नि । वर्तस्व மா: எள்‌ >

‘ni’ vartasva is rendered
separately since they are
distinct padams in BhU
sUktam.

101

| |
नि वर्तस्व पुनर्न
நி | வர்தஸ்வ | புன: | அக்‌்னே | >
நி வர்தஸ்வ புனரக்‌,ன

॥
നി । വര്‍തസ്വ । പുനഃ | GeEUN | >

॥ ॥
നി വര്‍തസ്വ പുനരഗ്ന

TS 1.5.2.2 indriye | prati | iShThati |
इन्दिये । प्रतीति । तिष्ठति । >

aft परति तिष्ठति
80597601 | ப்ரதீதி | Hig 28 | >
வேந்த்‌,ரியே ப்ரதி திஷ்ட,தி

ഇന്ദ്രിയേ | പ്രതീതി । Olayon | >

॥
വ്വേന്ദിയേ പ്രതി തിഷ്ടതി

Indriye prati tiShThati rendered
distinctly as they are separate

Padam.

TS 1.6.10.5 manaH |

परि । गृह्णाति । मनः । ¬>

‘pari QRUNNAti is rendered
separately with word pause.
In Second example that is

rendered together as

ParigRUANAti as it is one single

102

पार गृह्णातिमना

பரி | & ருஹ்ணாதி | மன: |>

பரி &, ருஹ்ணாதி ഥത്ഞേണി

പരി | ഗൃഹ്ണാതി । ०08 । അസി |

| ॥
PF പരി ഗൃഹ്ണാതി മനോടസി

TS 1.6.7.1 devatAH | pUrvaH |

parigRuhNat |
देवताः पूर्वः । परिगृह्णाति । >

|
देवताः पूर्वः परिगृह्णाति
தே,வதா: | பூர்வ: | பரிக்‌, குஹ்ணாதி |

> தேஃவதா: பூர்வ: LIS, குஹ்ணாதி

॥ |
ദേവതാഃ | ^1} 20118 । പരിഗൃഹ്ണാതി |
>

॥
ദേവതാഃ aNBas പരിഗൃഹ്ണാതി

padam, with only letter pause

between ri and gRu

103

Note: Our compilations are being adjusted and aligned to padams so that

following your Guru is easier.

6.11 Some Special Rules for SikShA
We give below some key rules learnt from SikShA recently and we will try to
keep updating further studies in future also.

Jata DarpaNam: Rule 141
प्र, 3d, नि, आ, निः, सु, वि, सम्‌ (ப்ர, உத்‌, நி, ஆ, நி; ണ, வி, ஸம்‌)

(வ, ഉത്‌, നി, ആ, നിഃ, സു, വി, ஸல) एतेभ्यः परं विश्रमो न कार्यः|

एतत्पदसमूहतः उत्तरपदेन संहितास्ति चेत्‌ यथा |

pra, ut, ni, A, niH, su, vi, sam eteByaH paraM viSramo na kAryaH |

etatpadasamUhataH uttarapadena saMhitAsti cet yathA |

First Condition is they are separate Padams and are prepositions.

All these padams should not be left separated from the following Padam
if they can be or are joined in a Vaakyam.

SaMhitA with only letter pause.

Example of Padam vAkyam with Comments

TS 1.2.8.1 Padams - suAyuSh | vAkyam — svAyuShodeshadhinAm
8ShadhInAm |

104

1
Ta | | |
ച \
५ ॥ ५,
ஸ்வாயுஷர்‌ | உத்‌ 1 8 னாம்‌ |
' 1
സ്വായുഷാ | ஹ்ஹ നാം

ടിടിസി
_~ _
५ ॥ >
ஸ்வாயு 3095 , 6011 9
' 1
സ്വായു ഷധീനാഴ്‌

TS 6.3.1.6 Padams - kar.Shati | ni | anye |

कर्‌.षति | नि। अन्ये |
7 1
കര്‍.ഷതി | 11 |

vAkyam — kar.Shati nyanye

कर्‌षति a

கர்‌.ஷதி நீயின்யே

|
കര്‍.ഷതി மடு ழ்‌

TS 7.3.13.1 Bavantu | eti | prajA |

பதாக பர.

vAkyam - BavantvA prajA

भवन्त्व

भवन्त्व प्रजा

1 ५ 11
ப,வந்த்வா பர்கா
SBS പ്രജാ

TS 2.2.1.1 Padam - tam | niH | avapat |

तम्‌ | र वपत्‌ |

vAkyam - tanniravapat

* இரா

105

தம்‌ | 919 |

Mo |

വപത്‌ |

தந்‌ நரீவபத்‌
॥ v
തം Morne’

TS 1.5.11.5 Padam -

महीम्‌ 13 ണു.
anne ഉ സു 1 മാതരം |

vAkyam - mahl mAtaram
]
महीमू मातर
॥
ம 10751 \/
| മാതരഴ്‌

Note: u becomes U as per Vedic

grammar rule and su becomes SAU

TS 2.5.12.5 vi | pAjasA | vi | jyotiShA
वि । पाजसा वि । ज्योतिषा
॥ வி | ஜ்யோதி
வி பாஸா । ஷா |

When such prepositions do not have sandhi
and are separate, the pause is shorter than

word pause.

vi pAjasA vi jyotiShA
वि पाजसा वि ज्योतिषा
| |
வி பாஜ ஸா வி ஜ்யோதி ஷா
॥
SHB ലി
ജ്യോതിഷാ ॥

106

Note: When two such prepositions occur one after the other without any Sandhi or as separate
padam, they are taken together with letter pause. Kindly listen to rendering where they take

prapra, sampra together. The concept becomes clear to the learner.

Jata DarpaNam: Rule 142

न, च, , उ, ह, स्म, oF म्‌, a, तु, (ந, & ஹி, 2, am, ஸ்ம, வ. நு,
ஈம்‌, வை, து) (ന, ച, ഹി, ഉ, ഹ, ரூ, വഃ, നു, ഈമ്‌, വൈ, തു)
एतेभ्यः अधः पूर्वतः विश्रमो न कार्यः | पदकूटतः पूर्वपदेन संहिता चेत्‌. ॥

na, ca, hi, u, ha, sma, vaH, nu, Im, vai, tu, eteByaH adhaH pUrvataH
viSramo na kAryaH | padakUTataH pUrvapadena saMhitA cet.

Here guideline is join them with previous padam when it joins.

TS 4.7.11.2 Padams - vAjaH | ca | prasavaH | vAjaSca prasavaSca
வாஜஸ்ச ப்ரஸவ்சர்‌.
॥
ட்‌. Ba

| ca |

TS 3.4.11.6 Padams - yat | cit | hi

107

ப
விஜி

TS 6.1.11.6 Padams - tasmAt | ப |

तस्मात्‌ ऽयम्‌
எ: | | ्‌
ஸு: | தஸ்மாத்‌ உ இல்யம்‌ |
സഃ | തസ്മാത്‌ | ശ്യം |

स तस्माद्‌ என்‌

eno 11211
സ തസ്മാ മ്മൂശ്യം

TS 1.7.2.1 Padams-iti | Cinatti | iti | ha |

uvAca

ചി ച്‌
ചി |
உவாச

॥ ॥
ഇതി | ഛരിനത്തി | ഇതി | ഹ |

വാച |

‘iti Cinattlti hovAca

ल्त രസ്ന ௭௭

இதி சினத்‌ தீதி ஹோரவாச
ഇതി உரிவி
വാച

TS 3.3.8.5 Padams - etena | ha | sma | vai |

RuShayaH |

Metena ha sma vA RuShayaH
Here ha, sma, VA (vai originally
becomes VA before vowel) should

have only letter pause. Not treated

108

| |
एतेन | உண்பர்‌ | ऋषयः |

I
ஷய:

॥ ॥
ngs) | क्तन्‌ ടം

as words in terms of Rule 142.

| |
मेतेन cam ऋषयः

|
ஷய:

॥ ॥
coro) क्त ४५.०४

TS 1.6.8.4 Padams - 0 ज | kaH |
प्रजापतिः 14

प्रजापतिः 14 | कः |

वि |

|
८५८० 018888 ௮

TS 6.4.2.1 Padams - Vasatu | nu | ദ്വ |

wag त । त
.
: |

வல்‌

‘tu’, ‘nu’ ‘na’ should be taken with
letter pause only like previous

example
எரர்‌
॥
வது
॥

109

TS 6.4.3.4 Padams - iti | Aha | uta | Im |

ம.
இதி | ஆஹ | &5 । ஈம்‌ |

அனன்னமு: |

ப்பட பப்ப

അനന്നമുംഃ |

vAkyam - ityAhotem

॥
हहत पनल
॥
இத்யாஹோதேம்‌ னன்ன

॥
1

TS 7.5.7.1 Padams - iti | te | tu |
|
इति । ते । तु । वाव |
|
இதி | தே | து வாவ
^
ഇതി । CH | நை വാവ

‘iti te tvAva

ന്റ്‌ റ്‌ त्वाव
இதி தே தவாவ
ഇതി തേ ത്വാവ

110

7 Different Applications of (qm) and (gq)

7.1 Rules from prAtiSAkyam
Rule Chapter 16 || 16-13 ||

The following words have anusvAra before s: हि, पु, जिगा, जिघा, ata,

>

अतंम्सयत्‌, adie ater, ज्याया, द्राघीया, रघीया, श्रेया, हसीया,
वसीया, भूरयाँम्सः, எள, जघ्निवा, जिगिवा, जीगिवा,तस्थिवा, எள,
दीदिवा, पपिवा, पीपिवा, विद्रा, विविहिवा, ङश्रुवा, ससृवा,

When this anuswAram is followed by s,Sh based on grammar, it becomes (gm)

or (gg) based on the rules followed

ஹி. பு, ஜிகா; Har, சஸினே, HF 10670५15,
ஆதாம்ளூத்‌,கனியா, ஜ்யாயா, த்ரா,கீ௪யா, ரகீ,யா, ஸ்ரேயா,
ஹ்ரஸயா, வஸ்யா, பூ,யாம்ஸ:, ஜக்ஷிவா, ஜக்‌_னிவா,
ஜிகி,வா, ஜீகி,வா,தஸ்தி,வா, தா.ற்வா, 58358361, பபிவா,

Wein, வித்‌,வா, விவிஸறிவா, (एणी (का, ஸஸ்ருவா.

ഹി, പു, ജിഗാ൯൩, ജിഘാര്‍, ച-ംമ്സിനേ, അത-ംമ്സയത്‌,

ആതാ-ം്സീത്,കനീയാ, ജ്യായാ, ദ്രാര്‍ഡഘീര്‍യാ, രഘീര്‍യാ,

111

ശ്രേയാ, (ഹസീയാ, 01004९00, 8160-௦206, ജക്ഷിവാ,
ജഘിര്‍നിവാ, ജിഗി൩വാ, ജീഗി൩വാ,തസ്ഥിപവാ, 32900 ९12,
ദീ൩ദി൩൮ാ, പപിവാ, പീപിവാ, 01300 019, വിവിശിവാ,

ശുശ്രൂുവാ, സസ്ൃവാ.

|| 16-14 ||
The vowels A, /, and U have anusvAra, when they are followed by si or Shi final.
||16-15 || Even when the / is altered.

Not, under any circumstances, in a dissyllabic word.

7.2 Explanation with Examples
Rule 16-13 clearly states that ‘M’ is added before a letter when a suffix, particle is
added with letter’s’ or its converted form ‘Sh’.

Some example we come across normally are given as examples

Base Words+ Particle/Suffix As seen in Vaakyam

TS 4.5.1.2

|
fé + सीः = ள்‌: मा feet: पुरुषं
I
ஹி + oS: = anfi¥ens: மா cub er: புருஷஞ்‌

॥
ഹി + 004 = anon’ മാ 11. പുരുഷം

TS 4.5.3.1

112

frat + सत = raga

ஜிகா, + ஸத்‌ = ஜிகா, ஸத்‌

ജിഘാ സത്‌ ജിഡാദ്ലീസത്‌

|
जिघाश्चसद्भ्यो मुष्णतां पतये

4111 ന്ഥ

em

(1 49 മുഷ്ടതാം

TS 1.2.14.4

दीदिवा + सम्‌ = daar

രണ്ട്‌ द्यून्‌

83536207 + ஸம்‌ = 6൭ന്‌ ஸமனு த்‌யூன்‌
தீதி, வாடீஸம்‌

ആര്‍ദിവാ + സമ്‌ = १179० ദ്യൂന്‍
ലീദിവാ്ല്‌സ്മ്‌

TS 2.5.11.1

विद्रा + सः = age:

65 ,oull+erv: = oni canon:

॥
सदेवत्वाय fare
००७७ .6u த்வாய

வி த்‌,வா்ஸே £

113

01312 + 00: = വിലാസ:

I
സദേവത്വായ വില്വാഴ്സോ

TS 4.7.15.1

विवििवा+सम्‌ = ணா

விவிஸ்ரிவா ஸூம்‌ =
62962006) ॥ ம்‌
० 0121012 + സമ്‌

விவிரிஙீஸம்‌

ല്ല
‘ova १0111
ஸ்‌ மீமஹே

വിശി ലവവിവിശിവാഴ്ച

I
സമീമഹേ

Rule 16-14 states that anuswara is added when before dheerga ‘A’, ‘ee’ and

U when ‘si’ or Shi is final

114

7.3 Examples for words with dheerga letters

Some common examples that we can find are given below

Base Words+ Particle/Suffix

As seen in Vaakyam

TS 1.2.14.1

॥
டய abe Wer

I
०५९०५ ०५०५९३९० ஜுஹ்வா
ठो १९ വി ०६५ ൃഗ്നേ ജുഹ്വാ
TS 3.4.9.1
देविकाङछन्दा्चैसीव
छन्दासि देविकाङछन्दा्चैसीव
சந்தா ஸி தே,விகாஸ்‌. சந்தா ஸமீவ
व) ദേവി वा
TS 7.1.2.1
ய்‌ டப
ज्योतीषि ज्योती டப रुन्धे
ட ப ॥ ५

acunsyos ९०५४ ५.०५ ருந்தே,

115

|
ജ്യോതീഴ്ഷി ജ്യോതീഴഷ്യവ രുന്ധേ

7.4 Different interpretation of Rule

Differing interpretation/application of these rules in Vedic books in representing

(gm) and (gg)
Take an example:

1
ட்ட + अगन = ட்டு ने Wer
॥
०५९ + 1 = 1 | ஜுஹ்வா
conn + അഗ്നേ = 1 ജുഹ്വാ

Here, Shya (conjunct consonant) gets formed due to the Sandhi of ‘Shi’ and ‘a’

therefore, applying normal rule the (gm) becomes இ
Rule 16-15 states that the anusvaram shall not change even if the ‘I’ is altered.
So some Scholars opine that the anuswAram represented as (gm) shall not be

changed and the text for the above example is taken with (gm) as follows:

1

॥
०५९ + 1 = ട്ടേ ஜுஹ்வா

116

॥
conn + അഗ്നേ = டடம ജുഹ്വാ

Some other areas this difference is found is when anuswAram is dheerga

(long) ‘A’, 1” and “U’ even when the following word is different.

Normal Represenation Differing Represenation

സി: യിരി [उढन्दा्स्यापो ज्योतीष्यापो
டடம ட்டம்‌

சந்தா சஸ்யாபோ சந்தா ப்ஸ்யாபோ
த்யோதீஏஷ்யாபோ த்யோதிட்ஷ்யாபோ
. 1.
॥ धट ९ 6241 1711610 . ।
ന யஜூ9ஷ்யாபஸ்‌
9 9 fe) 9 ॥।
ശന്ദാഴ ०४५०९५० ०००१७ ०५०९ സ 9९०10 ஜே (णीषु

ഷ്യാപോ மவ வ
_ 2 ഷ്യാപോ യജുഴ്ഷ്യാവ

117

TS 4.5.1.1
ll ll
अही श्च सर्वान्‌ जंभयन्‌ अहश्च सर्वान्‌ जंभयन्‌
ப்‌ ட I ட
००१४८०७ ஸர்வான்‌ - அஹி സ ஸரவான -
ஜம்ப,யந்த்‌, DU AWS.

1॥
॥ അഹീ
അഹീയഴശ്ച സര്‍വാന്‍ ഹ ९८२ ॥

ജംഭയന്‍

ജംഭയന്‍

TS 4.7.10.2 TS 4.7.11.2

चक्षुर्‌-यजेन कल्पता रोर aaa कल्पता रोर
சக்ஷுர்‌.யஜ்ஞேன கல்பதாட சக்ஷுர்‌.யஜ்ஞேன கல்பதாடு
ஸ்ரோத்ரம்‌ ஜ்ரோத்ரம்‌
പക്ഷൂര്‍-യജേഞന കല്ലതാ്, ച കഷൂര്‍-യജേഞന ०९५००९६

0050௦ ശ്രോത്രം

118

TS 1.2.11.2
"वचो யம்‌ ॥
"वचो अपावधीष्च स्वाहा

५ ॥ , ॥
வசோ ००४५६ ஸ்வாஹா

த ॥ 1॥
വചോ ( സ്വാഹാ

"वचो எண்ட்‌ ॥

तचो अपावधी५ स्वाहा

Il

g ॥ .
வசோ பாவத்‌, ஸ்வாஹா

த ॥ 1॥
വചോ അപാവധിഴ്ച സ്വാഹാ

TS 1.3.9.2

|
யய | स्वाहोर्ध्वनभसं
ஸ்தே கானா

|
ஸ்வாஹோர்த்‌ ५०।6क। 146 ம்‌
ட்ப |

൫൨ _

I
സ്വാഹോര്‍ധ്വനഭസം

15 1.3.9.2

|
warty स्वाहोर्ध्वनभसं

ஸ்தே ஈகானாம்‌

I
ஸ்வ ஈஹோர்த்‌, வன 1140) 10

സ്ലോ ००0०

I

TS 1.5.7.6

॥
रततर्‌ द ty हन्ति

தத ர்‌. ஹாதி ००५ GY ஹந்தி

TS 1.5.7.6

॥
रततर्‌ हा ay हन्ति

தத ர்ஹா? ००5 GY ஹந்தி

119

I 1 ॥
ശതതര്‍ഹാ MSY ഹന്ത്‌ ८०० 2०0०६ 0५६५ ഹന്തി

When this matter was referred to some Vedic Scholars, they say this is clearly a
pAta bhedam in application of Rule. Some Scholars opine that when the words
are different, and followed by a Conjunct consonant, it is better to use (gg) only

as the rendering is easier.

Our guides have suggested us to use (gg) consistently when followed by a
Conjunct Consonant. Our Compilations follow this advice.

Readers are requested to follow the method taught/followed by their Gurus.

Basics of Veda Swaras -1

Version 0.2 January 1, 2021

Version Notes: Version 0.2 dated January 1,2021

This Version replaces old version with Version 0.2. dated January 1, 2021.

This Version has additions for special types of Padams and Section 1.13
has been added in this Version 0.2

In this version corrections pertaining to pracaya becoming a part of
ekasruti is correctly marked.

1. Para 1.61 explanation to PS PS 21-11 - had a deletion error and should
be corrected as follows:

The reading of Rule 10 and 11 together refers that if, notes other than udAtta or Swarita follow
the Swarita, (which are unmarked like udAttam) then it becomes EkaSruti at note lower than

udAtta; similar to the teachings of Panini. (Refer Para 1.1.3 Rule PS 1-44)

1. The Book, Basics of Veda Swara and Recital, has been now split into two
volumes; this one is on Basics of Swara and the other part has been
released on Basics of Veda Recital.
2. In this Version we have newly added specific areas like

a. Explanation of Pracaya with link to terms used in pAnini’s
AshtadhyAyi like Sannatara, EkaSruti

b. A concept note on sliding between Swaras

c. A note on how Swaras flow in a Vedic Statement

d. Concept of Vikrama

Contents

1 Veda SWalr as .--------- ceeeceecceeeeeeese cence ப்பப பப்பி பய்ப் ப்ப பயபபய்பவ பப்ப பயய பபப யய 5
1.1 = 9५/३1व5: பபப பபபப்ப்ப்ப்ப்ப்பப்ப்ப்ப்ப்ப்பப்பப்ப்ப்ப்ப்பபப 5
1.1.1 (16118 (उदात्त) ee 5
1.1.2 ५0412 (अनुदात्त)... ०००००००० 5
1.1.3 Swarita (स्वरितः) னை ண த ண ணை கை 6
1.1.4 Dheergha Swarita: (दीर्घ स्वरित)... 7
1.1.5 Example of SwaralmS: ...................................................:........ 7
1.2 Notes from Sage Paanini’s ഡഠ0൦൨............................................ 8
1-3 Marking Conventions ...............்‌ி்‌.்‌்்‌..்.பபபைைபபபபப 9
1.3.1 Swarams of Single Akshara/Letter: ................................... 10
1.3.2 Swarams of Joint | 11615... 11
1.4 Pracaya: (प्रचय) before ഖന ............................................ 13
1.4.1 Pracaya: (प्रचय) after ട്ഡാഥ്ദന............................................ 13
1.5 Sannatara as ளி... 13
1.5.1 ല്ബ്ിം൩..........................................::.-:::ം 13
1.6 EkaSruti as defined in 00... 14
1.6.1 ല്ബ്സിം൩..........................................:...-::.ം 14
1.7 Examples of Sannatara/Pracaya ........................................... 14

1.8 Examples of அபரா... 15
1.9 Valid ഗഠേമബ്പാനദധിം ~.) /- | - 17
1.10 Conceptual Explanation of Sliding of Swaras..................... 19
1.10.1 Sliding to udAttam from a short anudAttam letter........ 19
1.10.2 Sliding to udAttam from a long udAttam letter.............. 19
1.10.3 Sliding of Swaritam for a short letter ------------------------------ 20
1.10.4 Sliding of Swaritam for a long 16116. ---------------------------- 21
1.11 The Swara notes with its ।6\५615.......-- 22

1.12 Normal patterns of Swaram flow in a Vedic Statement: ....23

1.12.1 The start is a Pracaya or Sannatara, ............................... 23
1.12.2 The start is an anudAttam (due to following udAttam).24
1.12.3 If the start 15 ധഠ൧൫൭൬൩.......................................::.::ം 25
1.12.4 The variant to Rule 12.2 and 12.3 പാഠഡഗ൦......................... 26
1.13 Special words and 03റ്ദണട ௨ ட... 30
1.13.1 Words/Padams without पत्वा) ---------------------------------- 30
1.13.2 Words with first letter as Swaritam ................................. 32
1.13.3 Words with udAttam and anudAttam as start............... 33
1.14 அரவா௨௦ாொ௦ல................்‌.்‌ீ..வபவபஉஉபபபபபபப(பபபபபபபபப 35

1 Veda Swaras
1.1 Swaras:
This document articulates the subject of Veda Swaras and basic conventions
applicable to Krishna Yajur Veda only. Vedic Swaras have been the base of
Classical Indian Music and have said to have emanated from Sama Veda which
has seven swaras. (Sapta swaras). Yajur Veda has basically three main swaras
and one supplement/variant Swara. Throughout the book the word Swara
denotes scale note/accents of recital and not to Vowels.

Let us see the basic Swaras in Yajur Veda.

1.1.1 UdAtta (उदात्त)

This Swara is rendered in the normal pitch note in ones voice.

For practical purposes, we refer this as the medium note (or normal) since that
letter is rendered normally without any raise or lowering of the (basic) pitch.
An UdAtta akshara is left unmarked and normally printed.

Classical text call it as high note (ucCair UdAttaH). PA Book 1 Ch 2 Rule 29.
PS 1-38 -“ A syllable uttered in a high tone is acute(udAtta).”

This is referred as ‘acute’ note in books by Western Authors in English.

That is there is no Swaram marking for this note in books.

1.1.2 AnudAtta (अनुदात्त) (अनुदात्त )

This Swara is rendered as perceived in the lower note is anudAtta.
PA Book 1 Ch 2 Rule 30
PS 1-39 - In a low tone, grave (anudAtta)

9

The letters/aksharas are marked with ‘

(an underline symbol) below it.

This is referred to as “grave” note by Western Authors in English.

1.1.3 Swarita (स्वरितः)

This Swara is rendered in the upper note compared to UdAtta.
The letters are marked with “ ல (an upper stroke above the letter).

PA Book 1 Chapter 2 Rule 31 — “The vowel that has the combination udAtta
and anudAtta is said to be Swarita.

Rule 32 — “of this Swarita, the first portion is udAtta, to the extent of half a
measure or prosodial length (read as maatra time scale)

PS 1-40 - Their combination is circumflex (Swaritam).

(Their means the combination of udAtta and anudAtta)

This is referred as ‘cicumflex’ note by Western Authors in English.

PS 1-41 -

“If this circumflex/swaritam, in case it immediately follows an acute/udAtta,
the first part of this swaritam, to the extent of half a short vowel,

is uttered in a yet higher tone.”

PS 1-42 -The remainder has the same tone with acute/udAtta.

PS 1-43 Along with the consonant, too.

PS 1-44 Or the part following is uttered in a lower tone.

This indicates it may be rendered in a lower tone than udAtta and matches with
EkaSruti concept of pAnini discussed later.

PS 1-45 Or in the same tone with grave/anudAtta.

PS 1-46 Its beginning is the same with acute/udAtta; its remainder is the same
with grave/anudAtta: so say the teachers.

This matches with Rule 31 mentioned above in PA that swaritam is a
combination of udAtta and anudAtta.

PS 1-47 “It is all a slide, say some.(teachers)”

Explanation : When we utter a swaritam or dheerga swaritam,

we donot only go up in terms of our tone/accent but descend to the meet recital
requirement of the following akshara/letter. Essentially there is a smooth slide
upwards and downwards while we move from one swara to another in

combination. (Explained in उनतत.

Generally all the slide will tend towards UdAtta at end.

1.1.4 Dheergha 52119; (दीर्घ स्वरित) Swarita: (दीर्घ स्वरित

This swara is rendered in the upper note like Swarita for twice the time
(Maatra) scale applicable to the letter for which it is marked.

The Dheergha Swarita is marked as “ । 4 above the letter.

This is an extension of Swarita only through elongation of time of rendering.
Kindly refer to our article on Dheerga Swaritam.

1.1.5 Example of Swarams:

ओं | നന്നി गणि, हवामहे कवि हैवीना- पम वस्तमं |

ஓம்‌ | கணானாந்தவா कणर्‌ ஹவாமஹே தவிம்‌

தீவீனா.பமஸ்ர்‌.வஸ்தமம்‌ |

I
ഓം | ഗണാ ന്ത്വാ ഗണപതിഴു ഹവാമഹേ കവിം
I I

॥
കവീനാ-മു Bre Bo |

गः ர, क. वी, प — are all AnudAttas(lower notes)
58 58 8 of ப - are all AnudAttas(lower notes)

८, ഗ, ക, വീ, പ - are all AnudAttas (lower notes)

are all Swaritas(upper note)

are all Swaritas (upper note)

is Dheergha Swaritam (elongated upper note)

Rest all unmarked aksharas/letters can be considered as udAttas

(medium or normal notes for the first level understanding).

But we will detail more concepts like Pracaya/EkaSruti in the following
Sections.

1.2 Notes from Sage Paanini’s work
As per Sage Paanini’s rules/sutras as quoted by books/scholars and
explanations given to us by a scholar: (also available on Internet)

1. UdAtta, AnudAtta and Svarita are 3 kinds of Swaraas.
2. Hrasva, Dheergha and Pluta are three kinds of Kaalaas.
(time durations for recital)
3. UdAtta be rendered in — niSAda(ni) gAndhAra(ga),
AnudAtta be rendered in RiShabha (ri), Dhaivata (da) and
Swarita to be rendered in Sadja (sa), Madhyama (ma) and
Panchama(pa). (terms in brackets are musical notes)
UdAtta, AnudAtta and Swarita are the three basic Swaras.
Dheergha Swarita is an extension of Swarita.
Therefore, Scholars say that there are only three basic Swarams in Yajur Veda.

Hrasva (short letters), 0166018 (long letters) and Pluta (letters with three or
more maatra) are the three kinds of Kaalaa (time duration for letters).

Pluta is also relevant in normal Sanskrit texts, but is more used in

Veda recital since Maatra the base for recital is three or more.

Pluta is applicable only to the vowel sound ‘a’,’i’ or ‘u’ of a letter.

UdAtta is rendered in the swaram of Nishada (Swaram ‘Ni’ in Music) or
(Refer to Article on Sanskrit Letters)

AnudAtta is rendered in the swaram note of Dhaivata (Swaram ‘da’ in Music)

or Rishaba (Swaram ‘Ri’ or Re in Music).

Swarita is rendered in the swaram note Sadja (Swaram ‘sa’ in Music),

If a beginner relates the Vedic swaras to the Musical Notes, it becomes
easy to learn and avoid early mistakes.

Pa re RE (or Pa) that corresponds to UdAtta, AnudAtta and

Swarita in normal course. When we open our mouth and speak normally the
sound emanates or vibrates in a pitch that is equal to Gandhara.

(the swaram ‘Ga’ in music).

It would take a good practice to render the recital of Veda with “da’,”ni” “sa”
at the higher pitch of one’s voice. Please listen to some renderings on the
Internet where high pitch is used for the Veda recital; this is where

“da’,’ni” “sa” equivalent notes are used for udAtta, anudAtta and swarita.
(as per Sage Paanini’s rule)

Lets us ponder... what a great system they have evolved to recite Vedas.
We should pray and thank all the great sages!! Please also note that during
Vedic recital/functions, we also touch our head during nyasam to
remember (being thankful) the Rishi (who gave or compiled the mantra) by
uttering their name for the respective Mantras, Prasna, Slokas etc.

1.3 Marking Conventions

When Swaras are marked in books, the swaram marks are placed as follows:
1. When itis single akshara, the swara sign is marked above or below that
letter directly whether it is Swarita, AnudAtta or Dneerga Swarita.
2. When it is a Conjuct or joint letters, the Swarm is marked below or above
the second part/last part of that Conjunct which represents the vowel

sound.

10

This convention has a clear logic based on how the swaram is rendered

which is explained below:

1.3.1 Swarams of Single Akshara/Letter:
While rendering Veda, each letter must be clearly uttered along with the Swara

and with the Maatra scale for the same. When a single akshara is marked with
the a swaram like

ग, ൭, वी, 5, 5, al, ८0, &, AT

We increase our pitch to match the Swaritam or reduce our pitch to match a
anudAtta and this change does not happen instantly, but happens
progressively and felt very clearly only at the time of completion.

This is why many teachers call it as slide referred in PS 1-47 quoted above.
The effect of the anudAtta is given when we come to the end of the letter.

If it is a Dheerga letter, the effect is towards the middle of vowel sound of that
letter. In the aforesaid example, the lower note

of ‘Vee’ is chanted in the second part of vee (ie in “E”).

॥ 1॥ ॥
In Dheerga Swaritam, like ना, நா, നാ, the effect of Dneerga swaritam

is more clear when we utter the ‘aa’ in the ‘na’.

अव वक्ता | अव रो । यद्‌ भृतं என எனி
அவ வக்தாரம்‌ | அவ ஸ்ரோதாரீம்‌ |

யத்பூ தம்‌ WEF 11461 |

| | y
അവ வசை | അവ ०८००० | യദ്ഭൂതം Wa) ००५ |

11

When a short Anuswaram has Dheerga Swaritam, the effect of the dheerga
swaritam is felt more towards the uttering of the ‘M’ in the Anuswaram.

Note: In Sanskrit, Anuswaram has a dot and the swaram marking appears on top
of that letter. In Tamil and Malayalam the letter is represented as two and the
marking may appear above the letter before ‘M’. The reader should remember
the ‘M’ sound is the integral part of the Anuswara aksharam. Please note that in
Malayalam, it may be represented differently if old lipi or based on which font is
followed.

1.3.2 Swarams of Joint Letters
When we raise our pitch to swarita, it becomes more pronounced in the second

| ॥ ॥
part only. While reciting the அ, UU, (0, we feel the effect of the swarita

only while completing the ‘ra’. We cannot recite/utter “Sra” together in swarita

without stress.

Similarly while reciting the word, 5४8, स्य in AnudAtta, we start our descend of

pitch after ൪, (स्‌ 5) and is achieved fully only when uttering the य ya).

We cannot fully render the ‘sya” as a whole in lower swaram smoothly or
without break.

This is the reason for marking the second part of the letter with swaram in
books. The thumb rule is that the swaram should be chanted only at the end of a
compound letter where a full letter/Vowel sound is represented.

When we continuously render a full word in lower note (anudAtta),
It appears as if the effect of the lower note takes effects from the first part of a
letter and extends till the last “AnudAtta”

6.0.
| ॥

॥
प्रवेपानाय मृत्यवे | ஊன னி ளன उग्रात्‌

12

|
पावमानी-स्स्वस्त्ययनीः ॥, STRATA अभि |

I ॥
ப்ரவேபானாய ம்ருத்யவே |
ப்‌ ॥ ப்‌ ക ப்‌ ப்‌
அத்யாறானா-த.தீபானாத்‌ஃயச்ச © HITS

I
பாவமானீஸ்‌ ஸ்வஸ்த்யயனீ: || ബന്ണത്ഞങ്ങയങ அபி, ||

പ്രവേപാനായ ALM Ca |

|
അത്യാശനാദതീ-പാനാദ്യച്ച ഉഗ്രാത്‌ ;

|
^120100004 பரமு ॥ സാശനാനശനേ അഭി |

In these lines, the (long) Dheerga letters and joint letters with anudAtta which
follow another anudAtta will have complete effect being recited in the lower
swaram.

Important Note: The Swaram has full effect only किती न्त

of the letter.

Note: A beginner to Veda, while reading in Tamil tends to look at அஸ்ய
as அஸ்ய; ifitis rendered as அஸ்‌-ய, there is a break effect;

the descend of swaram to WI, will be abrupt and rendering is not smooth.

அஸ்ய is அ + ബല (aconjuct Consonant or joint letter).

After ©| is uttered, we start to descend in the letter ബല after uttering ஸ்‌,

then the effect of rendering becomes correct.

13

The students shall initially observe the Guru as to how the joint letters are
rendered with swaram. (Also see Section 1.10)

1.4 Pracaya: (घ चय्‌) before UdAttam

The Word Pracaya means accumulation, gathering, collection,

difference of the terms in a progression. So when a number of aksharas/letters
are recited together as a collection in same note/accent/swara scale,

they are termed Pracaya.

As per Vedic recital rule, at the start of a Padam or a Vedic Statement till an
udAttam (or a Swaritam) occurs all previous letters are marked as anudAttam

and rendered in a same note together.

1.4.1 Pracaya: (घ चय्‌) after Swaritam (ण्‌ dq ) after Swaritam

Scholars traditionally call the accumulation of Swaras after a Swarita also as
Pracaya. In a Vedic Book, there will be no swaram marking for this Pracaya since
it occurs after a Swaritam.

< readers must note that in practice we tend to give
to the letters marked (or unmarked) in Pracaya.

1.5 Sannatara as defind in PA

1.5.1 Definition
Book1 Ch 2 40 - when anudAtta vowel(s) (with Padam perspective)
followed by udAtta or Swarita, they become sannatara which is rendered
lower than anudAtta. This is similar to the example given in the Pracaya
before udAtta. So Panini in his work clearly recognises the Pracaya beofre
udAtta (or Swarita) as Sannatara.
The convention in rendering is that this Sannatara is recited ina

swara note [6WerthanlanudAtta as per Scholars.

14

1.6 EkaSruti as defined in PA

1.6.1 Definition
Book 1 Ch 2 39 - When words are glued together, then the anudAtta

accents (here the reference is with respect to Padams) become ekaSruti

if Herelarelprecededibylalswarita and are pronounced monotonuously.

This is a distinction that pAnini brings in for the Pracaya after Swaritam and
defines it as EkaSruti.

The convention in rendering is that ekaSruti is rendered in a swara
note lower than udAtta as per Scholars. But differences are also

found between Schools.

PS 21-10 -

“Of grave(anudAtta) syllables following a circumflex(Swarita) in samhitA

herelisipracaya, having the tone of acute (udAtta).

PS 21-11 - But not when an acute (udAtta) or circumflex (Swarita) follows.

The reading of Rule 10 and 11 together refers that if, notes other than udAtta or

Swarita follow the Swarita, (which are unmarked like udAttam) then it becomes
EkaSruti at note lower than udAtta; similar to the teachings of Panini. (Refer

Para 1.1.3 Rule PS 1-44 Or the part following is uttered in a lower tone.)

1.7 Examples of Sannatara/Pracaya
Some examples, where a set of anudAttams that come before udAtta that we
come across in normal Vedic recital are given below:

All letters marked in Blue are a set of

டப இ anudAtta swarams applying Pracaya
rule till udAtta ‘ 4
பி, இயூ marking is as per PA.
ഭി note lower than anudAtta.

We tend to recite the Sannatara in a

It should be noted that ‘Sa’ before ‘nE’

15

is an anudAttam for which the note of
regular anudAttam is applied; so you
hear that it is being recited slightly
higher than pracaya.

But after ‘nE’ (udAtta) is recited, the 8
in இட! is rendered in regular anudAtta
note.

॥
ஸ்த்வமா-மாஸ்தே
யூ

സ്വമാ-ശാസനേ
ത ത

As as notes above.
applied/appears till udAtta ‘ ,
marking is as per PA.

சி will get regular anudAttam note and
recited higher than first two letters.

ரேவ

As per notes above. Till ‘
இய marking is as per PA.

Pracaya as per some Schools.

The swara is adjusted to anudAtta once
FRU is reached since following ‘tyu’ is
udAttam.

Examples of EkaSruti: EkaSruti:

1.8

Some typical examples are:

गणपति हवामहे कविं

a HAY ஹவாமஹே கீவிம்‌
ഗണപതിഴ്‌ ഹവാമഹേ കവിം

After the (pa) Swaritam marked in
Yellow. The following letters without
swaram marked in brownish grey is
EkaSruti as per PA. But still referred as
Pracaya by Scholars/some classical
texts. We tend to recite the EkaSruti
part in a note/swara scale lower than
UdAtta but we descend fully to
anudAtta for Ra

rode

ராயஸ்போஷா யஜமானஸ்ய
ஸந்து |

Similar to above example. EkaSruti
carries till end of the Ruk after
Swaritam ¶8'

Here the Pracaya(EkaSruti) is not
followed by any UdAtta/Swarita. So it
may be recited in the same note as
UdAtta. PS 21-11 referred in 1.6.1

16

രായസ്ടോഷാ യടമാനസ്യ

സന്തു ॥

त: ६

நமோ ஹிரண்ய பா, ஹவே
॥

ஸேனான்யே

നമോ ഹിരണ ൮ ബാഹവേ

ബനാ ९6024

After ‘ra’ Swaritam, we tend to recite
the EkaSruti in a swara note lower than
UdAttA. Since there is a word pause,
we start with ‘B@’ in a note lower than
anudAttam before nA so as to rightly
raise the swaram for ‘nyE’.

The Padam for SenAnyE is SE
pracaya, AA anudAttam followed by
Swaritam nyE (dheerga swaritam in
Pada paatam). So you very clearly hear
during recital that after bAhavE the 88
of sEnAnyE is recited at note lower
than AA which is anudAttam indicating
itis pracaya.

इमं मै गंगे यमुने सरस्व Uae

இமம்‌ 537१153 யமுனே
I

नि" UTS! Hi)

ഇമം മേ ഗംഗേ യമുനേ

1
സരസ്വത്തി ശുതുദ്രി

In this example after swaritam ‘mE’ the
ekaSruti part is rendered till sva ina
note lower than udAtta but as fi is
reached, we descend to anudAtta.

Note for Students: When Guru teaches kindly observe the

movement/sliding of notes (swaras) carefully. The level of the Swara

change may be distinct or not so distinct based on the School of rendering.

17

1.9 Valid combinations of Swaras
In Krishna Yajur Veda, the letters/aksharas with different Swaras follow one

another. But there are some rules. This following table may help a beginner to

understand the combination of Swaras in two successive letters:

When the

is or has (see

The Mextletter can have the following Swaras.

below)
AnudAtta UdAtta =“ Dheerga
Swarita
AnudAtta Yes. Variation | Yes. Variation | Yes. Variation

(lower note)

UdAtta
(medium
Note)

Yes. Variation

Swarita (high

note)

Dheerga

Swarita

Out of the sixteen possible combinations of Swaras, four combination does not

occur as arule. That is a Swaritam will never be followed by another

Swaritam or Dheerga Swaritham and in the same way, a Dheerga Swaritam

will never be followed by another Dheerga Swaritham or Swaritam.

18

Now out of the remaining 12, two combinations, AnudAtta followed by another
AnudAtta and UdAtta followed by another UdAtta are not really variations of
Swaras. Leaving these two, there are 10 different combinations of Swaras
between successive letters/aksharas. This can be considered like the concept of

“Dasavita gamagas’” in Music for variating notes/swaras.

Note: In Krishna Yajur Veda Samhita, sometimes two successive letters are
marked with Dheerga Swarita and Swarita Combination (Kampa Swara).
Since two Upper notes cannot be rendered together, the first the Dneerga
Swaritam is recited as it is, the same is rendered as a AnudAtta (lower note)
by extending the letter by one Maatra and then the next Dheerga Swaritam
and Swaritam is rendered. This is a distinct recital technique since

two swaritams cannot be rendered together. Thus, the combination given

in the above table stands valid. Examples of Kampa Swaram are given in Article
on Padam Paatam and Swara flow.

Notes: Take three- letters -combination words of the above with two swarams
present and check the tone/pitch of your voice to say that you have learnt the
slide and the shift from one Swaram to other is not abrupt.

Remember, it is practice that makes one perfect.

Our Gurus are struggling/working hard for us to get it right.

19

1.10 Conceptual Explanation of Sliding of Swaras

We give below an example of sliding between short and long letters for
anudAttam and Swaritam when there is no pause or space between words

and the letters are next to each other in a single word.

1.10.1 Sliding to udAttam from a short anudAttam letter

Let us take the word asya with ya in anudAttam followed by an udAttam.

The Components of this word is ‘a’ udAttam, ‘s’ udAttam, y =udAttam and

the ‘a’ of ya in anudAttam. நு half maatrat+ a half maatra) = ya one maatraa.
The recital of ats+y is in udAttam note. Now the descend starts at the end of
contact of tongue after ‘y’ the slide it not entirely downwards but must be raised
to meet, the upcoming udAttam.

The recital or utterance of ‘a’ will be as follows in a maatra scale of half.

Half-Maatraa of vowel sound ‘a’ in ‘ya’

1.10.2 Sliding to udAttam from a long udAttam letter
Let us take the word asyA with yA in anudAttam followed by an udAttam.

The Components of this word is ‘a’ udAttam ‘s’ udAttam y =udAttam and

the ‘A’ of yA in anudAttam. yA = 2 maatraas டூ half maatraa + A one and half
maatraa). The recital of atst+y is in udAttam note. Now the descend starts at the
end of contact of tongue after ‘y’ the slide it not entirely downwards but must be

raised to meet, the upcoming udAttam.

20

The recital or utterance of ‘A’ will be as follows in a maatra scale of one and a

half.

One and half Maatraa time scale of ‘A’ of yA

Here the descent will be more pronounced due to length of swara ‘A’.

1.10.3 Sliding of Swaritam for a short letter
Let us take the word asya with ya in Swaritam followed by an udAttam.

the ‘a’ of ya in Swaritam.

The recital of ats+y is in udAttam note. Now the ascent starts at the end of
contact of tongue after ‘y’ the slide it not entirely upwards but must be lowered

21

1.10.4 Sliding of Swaritam for along letter

Let us take the word asyA with yA in Swaritam followed by an udAttam.

the ‘A’ of yA in Swaritam.

half.

One and half Maatraa time scale of ‘A’ of yA.

Here the ascent will be more prominent due to length of swara ‘A’.

Notes: The slide may not be symmetrical always. This is for a basic
understanding. The occurrence of pause will slightly vary the slide.

You should carefully follow the swara reflections in Guru’s teachings and his
recital. Swara slide will vary based on the formation of Swaras in specific mantra
or statement. In Dheerga Swarita, the variation will be more pronounced due to

elongation of the Swara. The Curves are explained above will be higher or lower.

22

1.11 The Swara notes with its levels
The basic swaras anudAttam, udAttam, Swaritam with the variants of Sannatara,

EkaSruti and Dheerga Swaritam has different levels of accent/swara effect which

is given below:

Lowest Sannatara/Pracaya before udAttam Lower than anudAttam*
Lower anudAttam of long letter Lower than anudAttam*
Low anudAttam of short letter anudAttam
EkaSruti Normal in one note Lower than udAttam
Normal udAttam any type of letter Normal udAttam
high Swaritam of short letters Normal Swaritam

Little higher

Swaritam of long letters

Little higher reach*

Swaritam after udAttam

higher Dheerga Swaritam of long letters after | Still higher reach*
anudAttam
Highest Swaritam of long letters with 06608 | Highest possible reach

“indicates the levels may be same depending on the SikShA and practices.

The level of Swara effect has to be realised by Practice over a period of time.

The levels given above are conceptual based on theory.

Some Vedic schools would adhere to their scheme of producing the Swara

effect. Kindly use these as guidelines to bring in distinct variation with due

practice. Kindly follow the teaching style of your Guru.

23

1.12 Normal patterns of Swaram flow in a Vedic Statement:

Main rule is that if there is an udAttam, the swaram prior to that is an

anudAttam and the swaram next to this udAttam shall be Swaritam.

The udAttam becomes the prime determinant of marking Swaram.
Note: The flow of swarams in vaakyam/mantra is based on the joining of
words with due consideration to the Udatta occurrence.

Interested readers are requested to read our Article on Pada Paatam

and Swara Flow (Article No 11)

1.12.1 The start is a Pracaya or Sannatara,

| | यजते Here MVE is udAttam. All the
(cat aid | start letters “sAngraha” at the

start of the statement are

॥
ஸாங்க்‌, ரஹண்யேஷ்ட்யா யஜதே | | marked in Pracaya(being

Sannatara). But ha is

॥
സാംധ്രഹ്ഡ്യാ യജതേ | anudAttam which should get

its place with right note.

ज्ञास्ते Here Biva is udAttam. All the
7 | start letters “suprajA” at the

॥
எமுப்ரஜா மா-றாஸ்தே | marked in Pracaya(being
॥ Sannatara). 12 as
ரவ 20 ௫920-௦080 | anudAttam should get its

note correctly.

24

| |
என்னா मेवा वसुन्धे |

I
न्त இரவ

Here “இ” 15 udAttam. All the
start letters “samvathsa’” at
the start of the statement are
marked in Pracaya(being
Sannatara).”sa” before [8
should get its right

anudAttam note.

1.12.2 The start is an anudAttam (due to following udAttam)

பபப வு
மிஹுங்கி,ரித்ர தாங்குரு மா
८025-9 B10) മാ

is anudAttam. WA is udAttam
and ‘gi’ is Swaritam.

‘r’ is EkasRuti. ‘tfa’ is also
EkasRuti but it acquires
anudAttam before udAttam [8

| 1. wv
Ba व विति गीते
| |
அஸெள யோ 56169115

நீலக்‌,ரீவோ

1 I
അസ്യ യോ ടവസര്‍പതി

॥
നീലഗ്രീവോ

(ഒട anudAttam. Bau is udAttam
and ‘yO’ is Swaritam. Va is
anudAttam before இ udAttam
and irpa Swaritam. “ti” is
ekasruti, but acquires
anudAttam to support udAttam

पि ; la is ensuing Swaritam and

grlvo is ekasruti.

25

1.12.3

If the start is udAttam

मते ह

| |
நமஸ்தே ருத்ர bil
॥ ॥
ரஷ രു ஜவ

Statement starts with | - in
udAttam so ‘ma’ is Swaritam.
te rudra’ is EkaSruti.
“manyava” follows a standard
set with anudAttam, udAttam

and Swaritam

a पवनो दै
| , ॥
ப்ரி தே © னோ

ஹேதிரஸ்மான்‌

1 I
வனி തേ Bnsemo

ഹേതിരസ്മാന്‍

Statement starts with ‘Ba in
udAttam so ‘ri’ is Swaritam.

18 15 anudAttam because of
upcoming udAttam 88

no’ is ekasruti; ‘Hé’ and {ti are
both anudAttam; क्त्‌ is
udAttam.

1.12.4 The variant to Rule 12.2 and 12.3 above
1. udAttam need not always be followed by Swaritam if that letter after

udAttam is followed by another udAttam then it becomes U+ AD+U

| wv
னி ,
॥ ட
நஜ ஜன வா
॥
नहत ஜல வ

‘Si’ is anudAttam, 8 udAttam;
‘na should be Swaritam in
normal flow. But it is not but ‘na
acquires anudAttam because of
following udAttam ‘Wa

धिय च fier

| ॥
நம்‌ _ 1 ^

॥ ॥
ഉഭയം ഇം

तविं udAttam; ‘ma? should be
Swaritam in normal flow. But it is
not but അദ acquires anudAttam
because of following udAttam
जी. yAya and ya are ekasruti
after Swaritams Gri and byA. ‘a

is anudAttam before udAttam

2. udAttam can be followed by one other udAttam

| |
ப

|
ഞ്ജ പം
॥
படவ

ദ is anudAttam. ‘Bau’ is
udAttam. The following ‘Ya is
also udAttam. (based on Padam
and also Vaakya flow) Still எக
(does not become Swaritam)

remains anudAttam because

27

upcoming டு is udAttam

अन्नं एकपा- கோ पुरस्तात्‌

| தத ॥
அஜ Four இதத காத்‌ புரஸ்தாத்‌ |
അജ 1 ௫30௦௫

॥
പുരസ്പാത്‌ |
_0 ത

‘@’ is anudAttam. 18 is udAttam.
The following 8 is also
udAttam. (based on Padam and
also Vaakya flow) ‘ka’ is
Swaritam Still BA (does not
become Swaritam) remains
anudAttam because upcoming
80 is udAttam

3. But there can be a number of udAttams formed due to sandhi rules

T.S.1.2.11.1
oe गाय
1
ராய पमण ५
॥
മാഷ രള

is udAttam; Ya which should
become swaritam in terms
becomes anudAttam because
of following 8 (which is prA+i),
She’ udAttam and ‘Ba’ udAtta.

gA is Swaritam in normal flow.

T.S.1.8.1.1
ட்ப
|
ஹஸ:

mu is anudAttam because of
following 818 (which is inja+i),
‘ma’ udAttam and ‘m+a(gm)’
atm) is also udAtta.

ha is Swaritam in normal flow.

28

| | பு

4. If Swaritam occurs the following pattern can be

a. EkaSruti followed by udAttam or Swaritam

| ட்‌ I

യിന്‌
இத்‌ உ ॥

பய்வோச ததி அத்தர்‌

ப்ரீத,மோ

॥
டல்‌

॥

இல்‌ start udAttam. ‘ddhya’
swaritam. “vocadadhi is
ekasruti then followed by a
standard set of anudAttm (Va)
udAttam (iA) swaritam (pra).
But dadhi is to be rendered as
pracaya as itis a part of padam
adhivaktA where a,dhi,va are
all marked in anudAttam. Va is

regular anudAttam.

0. anudAttam after Swaritam

| | I

था Teese

யதா, நஸ்‌ 1 ടം
©, സ്്്ര്‍വമി-ജജഗദ

@ at start udAttam. ‘thA’
swaritam. ‘fla’ is anudAttam
since following 8 of sarvam is
udAttam.

29

c. udAttam after Swaritam if the first swaritam is formed due to

Swara Rule.
T.S. 1.3.14.3 VO is anudAttam. The ‘tya’
| | swaritam is formed by a
wat ങ്ങ combination of ti (udAttam and a
| anudAttam) SYA in normal
தவோ தீயிஸ்யாம்‌ course is a udAttam and the
| following ma is again swaritam.
തള്ള ത്യിശ്യാമ This formation occurs when
swaritam is formed due to
sandhi rules. Refer Pada
Paatam Article

d. anudAttam after Swaritam if the second swaritam is formed due

to Swara Rule.

T.S.2.2.5.4 ae’ is anudAttam; [8 udAttam.

ഞ്ഞ Then ‘te’ gets swaritam.
तेजस्व्यत्नाद
_ 48 is again anudAtam. வ!
| | (udAttam) and ‘a’ (anudAttam)
ஏவ தேஜஸ்வ்யன்னாத, of annAda forms ஒரு as

| । swaritam due to Sandhi rule.
ഏവ തേജസ്വ 4011998

The normal formal/regular order is anudAttam, udAttam and Swaritam;

normally but not necessarily with ekaSruti. This is like a Set.

30

1.13 Special words and Padams
1.13.1 Words/Padams without udAttam

There are words/Padams which we come across without udAttam; these words
have pracaya, udAttam and Swaritam due to the grammatical formation of these
words. This finds a special place in PA and are normally formed words with
Swaritam with conjunct consonants of y, |, ४ after an anudAttam.

[
शिवा यातत तया | is a Swaritam

06017 1111 யா தவ தயா formed after anudAttam anudAttam ‘ra
- - The padam is Sa pracaya, [8

ശിവാ மவ യാ തവ തയാ anudAttam and {YA Swaritam. Note

that afer
udAttam vA of ShivA

1]
सर्वाश्च | ॥ is a Swaritam
ஸர்வாஸ்ச யாதுதா ein: formed after anudAttam dhA. YA and tu
are pracaya; but they have not

സര്‍വാശ്ച യാതുധാസ്പ്യഃ acquired swaram.

|
जनेऽभिदोहं नष्याश्चरामसि | , ഷ്യാ is formed after

anudAttam nu

31

| 5.4 . Ma is pracaya but has acquired
Gon 57453 amb

|
மனுஷ்யரம்‌.சராமஸி |

॥
ജനേ ടഭിദ്രോഹം

` ॥
മനൂ്രശ്വരാമസി |
|
ae: । |

| are Swaritams respectively formed
நம: யச யச,

॥ after snudAttam രീ; கா, நீ. 5௦,
പ്ളം രം.

kindly note that there are number of നീ These two words do not have

such words in anuvAkam 7 of Rudram

Swaritam after udAttam ham.

. pracaya/sannatara.
itself.

Swara Rule: The Swaritam formed in such words as
its Swaritam for an upcoming udAttam. These Swaritams are called “nityA” in

technical term. These must be rendered firmly during recital.

If you see the first example, या | णान யா, ட യാ

The WA does not acquire anudAttam before following YA which is udAttam.
The yA should

note while rendering.

and it will retain its udAttam

32

These types of words may give up its Swaritam at end due to Sandhi of words
or formation of avagraha. These will be dealt in separate article later.

1.13.2 Words with first letter as Swaritam

There are words which are formed with Swaritam as first letter due to Sandhi of
component padams or grammar rule. Here such Swaritam must be rendered

firmly. These Swaritams are also referred to as “nityA”

| Here the “ரமி” is formed with a
कपर्दिने च च , |
_ _ _ Sandhi of 880; to be rendered
| firmly
கபர்தி,னே 5 வயிப்தகேறாய ச

॥ ॥
കപര്‍ദിനേ ച വ്യുപ്പകേശായ ച

പച यजामहे Here the tritambakam forms
a यजामहे வ. Should not be heard as
“tri”. Should be rendered firmly.
(1 *பஜாமஹே

ത്ത്രിംബകം “യജാമഹേ

Note: When Gurus ask you to render it firmly we should not raise the ‘v’ or ‘try’ as
Swaritam. Only വ ഒ ഒ part should get Swaritam it has a short ascend and

descend but should be distinctly heard as being firm.

33

1.13.3 Words with udAttam and anudAttam as start

There are specific words/padams that start with an udAttam but followed by an

anudAttam and then another udAttam. These are exceptions to normal rule as it

is a part of the padam/word formation in itself. Let us see two common examples

of these types of padams/words.

तय
ஸ்பத
வனிஸ்பதய:

Here the word starts with Va udAttam,
followed by anudAttam 18 as an
exception, next again an udAttam ‘spa

Then comes Swaritam ‘ta’

॥
च
|
स्पतिः

Here the word starts with BRu udAttam,
exception, next again an udAttam spa
Then comes Swaritam ‘ti’. While
reading continuously, the first letter

should not be construed as ekasrulti.

Note: the உணவை of the previous word shall acquire anudAttam before

this first letter udAttam.

Examples:

Chamakam TS 4.7.5.1

| சானா
सिकताश्च मे श्रमे,

Here ‘mE’ acquires
anudAttam before the first
letter udAttam [8

34

| ॥
ஸூகதாஸஹ்ச , வனஸ்பதயஹ்ச மே,

॥ ॥
സികതാശ്ച മേ, ല്വിനസ്ൂതയശ്ച മേ,

| I
यज्ञनीर्‌ ന്റ്‌ ന്നാണ്‌
யஜ்ஞுனீர்‌ இருஹஸ்‌ பதி-ருக்த 72/05 rye
യജ്ഞനീര്‍ नण

©) 81000300}

Here “ബല്‌ is an udAttam so
the anudAttam falls on gjya

(udaka Shanti —a(gm)homuca mantrA)
TS 2.3.13.1

| वनस्पतिषु
गृहेष्वपसोषधीषु, षु,
க்‌, ருஹேஷ்வ-ப்‌,ஸே rag தீ or
வின ஸ்ப தி ஷு

॥ |
NS &००५।९ 99५ ധീഷൂ ല്വനസ്ദതിഷു,

Shu acquires anudAttam to
support udAttam 18

35

1.14 Vikrama concept

PS 19-1 says — “Where a syllable of low tone (anudAttam) occurs
between two circumflex(Swaritam) syllables, or two acute(udAtta),
or two of which either one is acute(udAtta) and the other circumflex(Swarita),
that is Vikrama.”
Notes and Examples:
1. If the anudAttam comes in between two Swaritams, it will be referred as

Vikrama.

T.S.2.2.5.4 ‘te’ is swaritam. Ja is an anudAtam.

ലി Next Svya is swaritam

एव

> _ 4815 vikrama in terms of swara
between two Swaritams.

॥ ॥
ஏவ தேஜஸ்வ்யன்னாத,

॥

2. If the anudAttam comes between two udAttams it will be Vikrama.

| VE udAttam; ‘fa’ is anudAttam
~ त्वा | followed by udAttam ‘Wa

fa’ is a vikrama in terms of swara

I
८१ 01 தவா coming between two udAttams.

I
10 Blasco ത്വാ

36

3. If the anudAttam comes between one udAttam and one Swaritam it will be

Vikrama.

இ! | ‘thA’ swaritam. ‘fa’ is anudAttam s
-उ्जगद
_ ज्गगद 82 of sarvam is udAttam.
ഉദ is vikrama in terms of swara

] ॥
யதா, நஸ்‌ ஸர்வமிஜ்‌-ஜக,த, coming between a Swaritam and

| | udAttam.
യഥാ ന്ത്രിര്‍വമി-ജജഗദ

PS 19-2 says “According to Sage Kaudinya, when a Pracaya precedes the low

tone/anudAttam.
Note: The main advice given in classic text is Vikrama shall be recited with a

firm stress.

We have requested for translation of Swara SikShA and in future add

additional concepts and rules once translation is available.

Basics of Veda Swaras
and Vedic Recital-05

Chandas

Version 0.1 March 05, 2019

2 Chandas

Contents

1 Veda Basics — @11685 ....------------- பபப பபப பபப ய வவ வவ வலய 3
1.1 படா“ எப அ அ அ க 3
1.2 The Main Seven ரோலா025:.................4 பசிவ அ கவ்வ ககக வகக கக 3
1.2.1 PraNava Nyasa Reference: ------------------------------------------ ~ 5
1.2.2 ee 5

2 Gayatri लौावात25 222222 பபபச பப வவவவகவவ கக வவ ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக க கசக்க 7
2.1 [110त८ला0ा பபப வ பகவ ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக கக ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக ககக 7
2.2 Examples from Known Areas .................................................... 8
2.2.1 Examples of Gayatri [विव ............................................... 8
2.2.2 Examples of Gayatrees of Other 06५8 ..------------------------ 9
2.3 Examples of Other Gayattis ..................................................... 10
3 Anushtup Chandas -.--------- பபப பபப பபப வ வவ வ வவ வைகககககக க ககக 14
3.1 Examples from KNOWN ഒ/6ട.................................................... 14
3.1.1 ഗ്ടവഡടദ്ദടദ്നലനദണ....................................................... 14
3.1.2 131 ടദ്വമടമലനടന.......................................................: 15
3.1.3 C00] =] ee 17
3.1.4 Purusha பர்கா... பபப பகவ வவ கவ க ககக ககக ககக 18
3.1.5 Recital of Anushtup Chandas: ......................................... 19
3.2 00561५/व10715 ----------- த த அ த ன அ ன னை 19

3 Chandas

1 Veda Basics — Chandas

1.1 Introduction:
“ChandaH” ( छन्दः) refers to how the poetry or verse is constructed in

terms of certain well defined rules. The English reference word is ‘meter’.

A Chandas (Chanda:) has a rule of how many aksharas or there in a Chandas
and how it is distributed into distinct parts /legs/Paadams.

A person conversant with Tamil Grammar would know the specific area of
“Yappilakkanam’ (the grammar of poetry). This kind of metering a poetry verse
is common in all languages which we have normally come across in India.
Chandas represents a similar grammatical construction of poetry in Sanskrit.
Chandas is one of the six main parts (angas) of Veda.

There are a number of Chandas used in poetry and Vedas.

1.2 The Main Seven Chandas:

The Main Seven Chandas used in Sanskrit Poetry/Vedas are:
1. Gayatri: This Chandas has 24 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza/mantra

divided into 3 Paadas (parts/legs) of 8 Letters/Aksharas each.

2. Ushnik : This Chandas has 28 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza/mantra

divided into 4 Paadas of 7 Letters/Aksharas each.

4 Chandas

3. Anustup: This Chandas has 32 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza/ mantra
divided into 4 Paadas of 8 Letters/Aksharas each. Most of the Slokas in
typical classical Sanskrit uses this Chandas, most often recited being

Vishnu Sahasranamam and Lalitha Sahasranamam.

4. Brihati : This Chandas has 36 Letters/Aksharasin each stanzas or mantra
divided into four 4 Paadas (8 + 8 + 12 + 8) Letters/Aksharas.

5. Pangkti : This Chandas has 40 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza divided

into 4 Paadas of 10 Letters each (sometimes 5 Padas of 8 letters each)

6. Tristup: This Chandas has 44 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza divided into

4 Paadas of 11 Letters/Aksharas each.

7. Jagati: This Chandas has 48 Letters/Aksharas in each stanza divided into
4 Paadas of 12 Letters/Aksharas each.

Each of these Chandas has specific rules for how the akshara/letter patterns are
formed. We limit our discussions to basic understanding of Gayatri and Anushtup
Chandas only as these are often used. As our team studies more about other
Chandas and right examples are found in the common area/subjects of Vedic
recital in Krishna Yajur Veda, a discussion note will be prepared for the mutual
benefit of Veda learners.
Please there are a number of Chandas other than these main seven. A Rishi
could have also propounded a mantra with a nicCrut (modified/defective)
chandras. Viz. nicCrut Gayatrl ChandaH.. as in Ganapathi AtharvaSIr.,Sham.

We have restricted this note to what basics have been understood by us.

5 Chandas

1.2.1 PraNava Nyasa Reference:
During Sandhya vandanam, we pray/remember/thank main seven Chandas

during PraNavanyasa as follows:
प्रणवन्यासः

प्रणवस्य ऋषिर्‌. ब्रह्मा, देवी गायत्रिच्छन्दः , परमात्मा देवता ॥

भूरादि सप्त व्याहतीनाम्‌ - अत्रि- भृगु-कुत्स-वसिष्ट-गौतम- അന്ന
अङ्किरस ऋषयः ॥

गायत्री-उष्णिक्‌ -अनुष्ुप्‌- बृहती- पदङ्ी- ஏட जगत्यज्ञ्‌-छन्दाम्सि ॥
अग्नि-वायु-अक्ष-वागीस- वरुण- യ विश्च देवा- देवता ॥

1.2.2

ப்ரணவந்யாஸ :

ப்ரணவஸ்ய OAT ப்‌,ரஹ்மா, தேஃவீ காஃயாத்ரிச்ச்‌,ந்த:,
பரமாத்மா தேஃவதா ||

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6 Chandas

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പ്രണവന്യസഃ

പ്രണവസ്യ ஐரசி6 (്രഹ്മാ, ദേവീ ഗായ്രതിച്ഛുന്ദ: +

പരമാത്മാ ദേവതാ ॥

ഭൂരാദി സപ്പ വ്യാഹൃതീനാം - അത്രി- ഭൃഗു-കുത്സ-വസിഷ-

ത =

ഗൌതമ- കാശ്യപ-അങ്ഗിരസ ९००: ॥

ഗായ്ര്രീ-ഉഷ്ണിക്‌-അനുഷ്യുപ്‌-ബൃഹതീ-- പങ്ക്തീ- തൃഷ്ഠുപ്‌-
em = =

ജഗത്ൃശ്‌-ഛന്ദാംസി ॥

അഗ്നി-വായു-അര്‍ക്ക-വാഗീസ- വരുണ-- ഇന്ദ്ര- (1621

ദേവാ- ദേവതാ ॥

The main principle that we touch our head indicating remember/thank the
rishi who gave the mantra, touch the area above the mouth to remember
that the chandas be in your mouth(meaning proper recital) and touch the
heart, the Devata(s) who is/are worshipped be always in your heart.
Nyasam is the practice to concentrate your brain & heart and bring in the
spiritual forces you are worshipping into your Self.

Reader may also note that in the Eleventh Chapter of Chamakam reference to
“gift of verse “is made from “Chaturvigmsatischa me to
Ashtachatvaarigmscha me” indicating these seven Chandas.

(24,28 ,32,36,40,44,48)

7 Chandas

2 Gayatri Chandas

2.1 Introduction

Gayatri Chandas has been very often used in composing Gayatris for various
Devathas. The Chandas seems to get its name from the Gayatri Mantra which
follows Gayatri Chandas. The normal Gayatri Chandas in its original form has 24
letters of 3 Paadams of 8 letters each.

The normal recital shall be made as 2+1 Paadams and many books mark the
separator accordingly. Some schools insist on recital by each Paadam.

That is each Ruk consists of eight letters and there must be distinct pause

between Paadams.

There are many variants of Gayatri Chandas. They are generally referred to as
NicCrut Gayatrl Chandas. The meaning of the word “NicCrut” stands for untie or
loosen. Some term this as defective also taking dictionary meaning.

But scholars interpret it as modified Gayatris. Letters may vary from the
standard Gayatri Chandas, example 22 letters, 25 letters and 26 letters. Then the
method of recital is also defined by the Composing Rishi/Saint/Poet.

First we shall see some examples of Gayatri Chandas.

8 Chandas

2.2 Examples from Known Areas

2.2.1 Examples of Gayatri Mantra

| ll
at aca fe तुर्व एय | (Paadam 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

| |
भ र्गो द्‌ वस्य धीम हि | (Paadam 2)

॥ ॥
धि योयो नः Tae यात्‌ ॥ (Paadam 3)
ஓம்‌ தத்‌,ஸ்விதுர்‌ வரேண்யம்‌ |
பர்கோ, தேஃவஸ்ய தீமஹி தி,யோ யோன: ப்ரசோதயாத்‌ |
1॥
ஓம்‌ த த்‌ஸ வி துர்‌ வ ரே ஸண்யம்‌ | (Paadam 1)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6

॥ |
ப, ர்கோ; தே; வ ஸ்ய தீ, ம ஹி | (Paadam 2)

॥ i
84 Gur யோ ன: ப்ரர சோ த; யாத்‌ || (Paadam 3)

9 Chandas

॥
ഓം ത ഥ്സ വി Me വ രേ ണ്യം। (Paadam 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

उ (6८09 ദേ വ സ്യ ധീ മ ഹി | (Paadam 2)

|
ധിയോയോ നഃ പ്ര ചോ ദ യാത്‌ ॥ (Paadam 3)

2.2.2 Examples of Gayatrees of Other Devata
| ]

|
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1 23 4 5678-12 345678

| ॥
त न्नोद न्तिःप्रचो द यात्‌ |
1 2/3 4 5 6 7, 8 ।
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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
வத்ர து ண்டா; ய தீ, ம ബി |

தந்நோ த; ந்தி: ப்ர சோ த; யாத்‌: ||

|
ത ത്പു രുഷാ യ വി Ba மே
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
|
ച ക്ര തുണ്ഡാ യ ധീ മ ഹി
~ ॥
ത ന്നോ 8 anole പ്ര ചോ ദ യാത്‌ ||

10 Chandas

| | | | [|
तत्पुरुषाय fase महादेवाय धीमहि | எள்‌ Sy: प्रचोदयात्‌ ॥
| | | | [|
नारायणाय विद्महे वासुदेवाय धीमहि । तन्नो विष्णुः प्रचोदयात्‌ ||

தத்புருஷாய வித்‌, மஹே மஹாதேவாய 8410590 |
தந்நோ G50: ப்ரசோத_யாத்‌ |

நாராயணாய வித்‌, மஹே வாஎுதே,வாய தீமஹி |
தந்நோ விஷ்ணு: ப்ரசோதயாத்‌ |

തത്പുരുഷായ വിദ്മഹേ മഹാദേവായ ധീമഹി |
തന്നോ രുദ്രഃ പ്രചോദയാത്‌ ||

നാരായണായ വിദ്മഹേ വാസുദേവായ ധീമഹി |

॥ [॥
തന്നോ വിഷ്ണുഃ പ്രചോദയാത്‌ ||

Now please check the other two Gayatris of Rudra and Vishnu.

They follow the same form and pattern. Many a times the swaram acquisition
shall be very similar.

2.3 Examples of Other Gayatris
| | |
व ज्र न खा यविदद dae mada दि।
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
| ll
तन्नो ना रसि हःप्रचो द यात्‌ ॥
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 Chandas

Note: Total letters 26 ; third paadam has 10 to aaccomodate the name of
the Devata.

வஜ்ரநகா,ய வித்‌, மஹே தீக்ஷண_த, சஷ்ட்ராய 84105929 |

தந்நோ நாரஸி Yam: ப்ரசோத,யாத்‌ ||

வ शशा ந கா, ய்‌ வி 5310 ஹே
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
தீக்ஷண 53 ஷ்ட்ரா ய்‌ 84 ம ബി

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

த ந்நோ நா ர OY am: Uy சோ 53 யாத்‌ ॥
1 2 34 5 6 7 8 9 10

Note: Total letters 26 ; third paadam has 10 to accomodate the name of the
DevatA.

വ (ஐ ന ഖാ യ വി ദ്മ ഹേ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

॥
തീ இவ்ள BY (70 യ wl മ ani

|

[॥
ത ന്നോനാ ര MATIY ഹഃപ്ര ചോ ദ MO® ||

Note: Total letters 26 ; third paadam has 10 to accomodate the

12 Chandas

name of the DevatA.

भास्क र यविद्यटैमहद्दुतिकरयधीमदि।
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
எள்ள दित्यःप्र चोद यात्‌ ॥

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Note: Total letters 26 ; First and Second paadams together has 17 letters
(instead of 16) and the third paadam has one more letter. (9 instead of 8)

பா,ஸ்கராய வித்‌, மஹே மஹத்‌,த்‌,யுதிகராய 8410590 |
தந்நோ ஆதித்ய: ப்ரசோத,யாத்‌

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பா, ஸ்க ராய வி 5,0 ஹே
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ம ஹ 6,44 திக ரா ய § 0 ஹி |

6 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
I ॥

த ந்நோ ஆ தி; த்ய: ப்ர சோ த, யாத்‌ |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9

॥ ॥

ഭാ സ്മ രായ വി 3 ഹേ

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

13 Chandas

മ an ஐ नके] ॐ © ® WI മ ഹി
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

॥ [॥
ത ന്നോ ആ 3) @48 (nt ചോ ദ WOM ||
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Note: Total letters 26 ; First and Second paadams together has 17 letters (instead of 16)
and the third paadam has one more letter. (9 instead of 8)

It is important to note that Veda mantras are more like poetry and the defined
rules of grammar may not be always followed. Vedas are said to be older than
the times scholars see the definition/emergence of modern Sanskrit grammar
and related rules.

The Gayatris with different aksharas other than 24 letters have different names.
The rishi who composed the mantra has a definite way to express the meaning.
Then they also teach their students as to how the verse shall be recited.

In modern times, we see many variants of Gayatri for various types of Deities,
Sidda Purushas and also Gurus. The level of acceptance is different amongst
Vedic Schools.

14 Chandas

3 Anushtup Chandas
3.1 Examples from known areas

3.1.1 Vishnusahasranamam

विष्णु எனா स्तोत्र - इलोक १

fa ay विष्णुर्‌-व षट्का रो (Paadam 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

भू तभ व्य भव எ पुः | (Paadam 2) the Ruk Ends.
भू तकृत्‌ भू त मभु द्धा वो (Paadam 3)

Yara y त भा 9 नः ॥ (Paadam 4)
After 32 letters, end of the Chandas is indicated by ||

விஷ்ணு ஸஹஸ்ரநாம ஸ்தோத்ரம்‌ - மற்லோகம்‌ 1

ഖീ (06210 விஷ்ணுர்‌ -வ ag Lan ரோ
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (Paadam 1)

U4 ൭ U, ഖല படவ த்ப்ர பு: | (Paadam 2)
U4 ൭ 665 பூ, த 13553 பா, வோ (Paadam 3)

U4 5 50 பூ த UM, வ ந: || (Paadam 4)

15

Chandas

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7

ഭൂത ഭ വ്യ 3 വ

ഭൂ ത കൃത്‌ ഭൂ ത 83 ഭാ വോ

ഭൂതാത്മാ ഭൂ ത ഭാവ men

3.1.2 Lalita Sahasranamam

ललिता सहस्रनाम स्तोत्र _ उलोक ११८

am a fa a a at वि द्या (Paadam 1)
1 23 4 5 6 7 8

ലവി (ദ നയ്‌ वि ता | (Paadam 2)
வரார்‌ ௪ QT a t fa ar (Paadam 3)

ति We Ay कोटिका ॥ (Paadam 4)

(Paadam 1)

இ ^118 | (Paadam 2)

(Paadam 3)

(Paadam 4)

16 Chandas

லலிதா ஸஹஸ்ரநாம ஸ்தோத்ரம்‌ - பர்லோகம்‌ 118

ஆ த்மவி தூயா ഥ ஹா வி த்‌ஃயா (Paadam 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ஸீ வித்யா கா ம ஸே வி தா। (Paadam2)

ரீஷோட; (णा க்ஷ ரீ வி swim (Paadam3)

5) 52 டா கா ம கோ டி शा || (Paadam4)

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ആത്ത വി (319 മ ഹാ വി 342 (Paadam 1)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Wola 342 കാ മസേ വി താ | (Paadam 2)
ശ്രീഷോഡ ശാ ക്യ രീ വി ദ്യാ (Paadam 3)

ത്രി ഖു ടാ കാ മ കോ Sl GON (Paadam4)

17 Chandas

3.1.3 Rudram

॥ ॥ ॥ ॥
THAST मन्यव (?1) उतोत इषवे न मः। (?2)
12 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

॥ ॥ ॥ ॥
नमस्तेअस्तुधन्वने (P3)T es MT मुत ते न मः॥ (?4)

நமஸ்தே (537 மன்யவ உதோத இஷவே நம: |

நமஸ்தே அஸ்து த,ன்வனே பா,ஹுப்‌,யாமுத தே நம:

ந ம ஸ்தே ௬ தூர ம ன்ய வ (51)
உ தோ த இ ஷ வே ந ம: | (P2)
` ॥ இ हि |

ந ம ബഭേ ॐ ஸ்து 54 ன்வ னே (P3)

பா) ஹுப்‌யா மு த தே ந wo: || (4)
॥ ॥
ന മ സ്നേ രു (3 മ ന്യ വ (01)
॥ ॥
ഉതോ ത ഇ ^ വേ ന 28 ட (2)
ன ॥ ன ன ॥
ന മ സേ അ 0} ധ ന്വ നേ (൧3)
ത തം
॥ ॥
ஸூ aN} 8342 0] ത തേ ന 28 | (൧4)

Note: P1, P2, P3, P4 indicate the number of the Paadam.

18 Chandas

3.1.4 Purusha Suktam

| | |
सहसखन्ञीर्षाप्‌.रुषः । (21) सहस्राक्षःसह सख पात्‌ । (22)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

| नवि | | .
सभूमिंविश्चतोवृत्वा। (P3) ഭയ്യ लं । (P4)
ஸஹஸ்ரஸார்‌.ஷா புருஷ: | ஸஹஸ்ராக்ஷஸ்‌ ஸஹஸ்ர்பாத்‌ |
ബ பூமிம்‌ “விஸ்வதோ வ்குத்வா | அத்யதிஷ்ட,த்‌, த,ாங்கு_லம்‌ ॥
ஸஹஸ்ர ഗ്‌ ர்ஷாபு ர ஷூ| (Pt)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

ஸு ஹஸ்ரா கூ ബബ ஹ ஸ்ர பாத்‌ | (22)
ero 4 மிம்‌ வி നഖ தோ வ்ரு த்வா। (83)

॥
அத்ய தி ஷ்ட, 53.53 एणा ங்கு, od || (74)

|
സഹ സ്ര ശീ டூ പു രൂ ഷഃ। (21)
|
am ^ (09 ॐ५ ரூம. ഹ സ്സ പാത്‌ | (122)
॥ ५, ॥
സ ഭൂ മിം വിശ്വ തോ വ്യ ത്വാ। (൧3)
|
അത്യ തി ഷ്യ ദു ശാ ஸ்ர ലം | (24)

19 Chandas

3.1.5 Recital of Anushtup Chandas:

The Veda Gurus/Scholars recommend that the rule to recite the Anushtup
Chandas is to evenly recite the four parts of the Chandas clearly with a pause
between one Paadam and the following Paadam. A longer pause is given after
the second and third Padam where a Ruk Stop (|) appears.

It should not be long to create a break.

3.2 Observations

1. When we get into the Second Anuvaham of Rudram, starting with Namo
HiranyabAgaVe, each of the lines do not form a specific Chandas; it seems
the total recital of one Anuvaaham or a set of Anuvaaham completes the
Chandas from various Rishis combined together.

2. Similarly, in Purusha Suktam , the flow of the mantra starting with the para
“VedAhamEdam Purusham mahAntam” changes in terms of the number of
Aksharas per Padam.

Some expert level books and compilers give the Rishi, Chandas and DevatA
in their books indicating the Padams upto which that mantra starts and ends.
We observed that the Taittirlya Samhita mantra verses are full of many
mantras of various Rishis enjoined together at respective places to complete
the hymn on one DevatA with referene to the book compiled by Shri
Manohar Satwalekar, where such Rishi, Chandas, DevatA reference is

given.

and Vedic Recital-06

Krama Paatam

Version 0.2 March 8, 2019

2 Krama Paatam

Contents
1 Veda Basics — Krama 0ദദദ3ന........................................................: 4
1.1 al cele (0(e: (0) ee 4
1.2 Krama Paatam 025105: ,... ब 5
1.3 Elongation of 7ലഹഠില്ന....................................................-.....::.: 6
1.4 Swaram AcquiSition ...........................................-:.-:::ം 7
2 GaNanaamthvaa ഇത്വ്വാല............................................................... 9
3 Rudra Kramam ലരമ്പാം...............................................................: 16
3.1 Example from वतव एिवर्वा वा) ..................................................... 16

3 Krama Paatam

Version Notes — Version 0.2 dated March 8, 2019

1. The references to Swara changes have been added Version 0.1.
The Pada Paatam of Rudram example in Section 3.1 had swaram
marking errors, which have been corrected.

The concept of Pragrihya has been now better understood and the
notes for ‘utO iti’ in Rudram example (in 3.1) have been corrected.
The Examples given in Tamil have been changed to Latha (Google’s

Tamil Font) in Version 0.2

4 Krama Paatam

1 Veda Basics — Krama Paatam

Our Rishis and compilers of Veda had devised methods to ensure that the Veda

is not changed and there is a control. They have designed ways to ensure it is

well memorized and assimilated.

The Krishna Yajur Veda has five types of Vedic learning:

1.

Samhita Paatam - learning Vedas as they are recited

2. Pada Paatam - learning Vedas with the Padam of each and every word
3. Krama Paatam — a method to learn Veda in a specific order

4.
5

. Ghana Paatam - a different method of ordering words and reciting.

Jata Paatam - a different method of ordering words back and forth

The Pada Paatam is twice as powerful and effective in relation to Samhita

Paatam; Krama paatam is rated four times and Jata Paatam thousand times as

per a sloka referred to by scholars. Ghana Paatam is said to have infinite power

and effectiveness in relation in Samhita/Vaakya Paatam.

There are other types of Veda Paata (not often practiced by followers of Krishna
Yajur Veda)

1.

oa > ധ പപ

Maala Paataa
Shika Paata
Dhanta Paata
Dwaja Paata
Ratha Paata
Rekha Paata

5 Krama Paatam

The main purpose of these types of studies is to that the Vedas are protected
through distinct ways to repeat the contents of the mantra. Any unintended
change any of the method will conflict with the type of learning. The learning
becomes thorough. The Sruti is well protected to be handed over generations
through the word of mouth.

We shall concentrate on Krama Paatam in this note and Ghana Paatam ina
different note as they are more relevant to followers of Krishan Yajur Veda.
Krama Paatam becomes easier when one understands/studies the Pada
paatam. We have used the ‘term’ word and Padam interchangeabily in some
places so that beginners understand it easily. Padam is a lowest breakup of
Vaakyam as per Pada Paatam Principles (see separate Article on Pada Paatam),
whereas a word can have more than one Padam. A Padam which stands alone
cannot be taken as a word in terms of Classical Grammar. It may be prefix,

suffix, particle, verbal ending etc.

1.2 Krama Paatam basics:

The rules or principles of Krama Paata recital are as follows:

1. Assume there are seven words in a mantra as a Ruk.
We will number these words as 1,2,3,4,5,6,7

2. First recite 1,2 then 2,3 ,then 3,4 then 4.5, then 5.6, finally 6,7.

3. If the statement 4 is a word with two padams 4a and 40, before taking up
5,6; itis chanted as 4 iti 4a pause 4b. The student now grasps the details
of the Padams that make this word 4.

4. To indicate that the Ruk has ended a final recital of 7 iti 7.

5. Then the next Ruk is taken up as in Step 2.

6 Krama Paatam

6. All rules relating to normal Veda recital, Swaram rules, Vowel Sandhi
Rules, Visarga Sandhi Rules, Consonant Sandhi Rules and
other grammar rules are applied.

7. The Swaram markings and acquisition follow the normal Veda recital rules

and is clearly marked in the Pada Paatam.

1.3 Elongation of rendering
The rendering needs to be extended/elongated for the

last part of the word/padam, when it is

1) a Dheerga Swaritam or anudAtta Swaram and
the letter is

2a) 8 Dheerga letter (e.g. aa, ee, O,) OF

2b) a Anuswaram (letters ending as tam, sam, sham etc. with a dot in Sanskrit).

This is indicated through a “>” (arrow pointing to the right in our books for

convenience of readers). Kindly note there are slight differences in the Font
size/format of Sanskrit, Malayalam and Tamil texts. The Method of elongation
varies between few schools in actual practice. Please refer to your Guru for

further clarifications on rendering if the school of different.

Krama Paatam is normally rendered as two teams. When one team finishes the

rendering, the other team starts their recital.

7 Krama Paatam

1.4 Swaram Acquisition

1.

In Krama Paatam, the last aksharam in any of the rendering cannot be a
anudAttam (lower swaram) unless the last padam or word is fully marked

in anudAttam.

. A Dheerga letter marked in Swaritam in Pada Padam acquires Dheerga

Swaritam subject to rules.

. Rules of gm,gg needs to be applied when combining words ending in

Anuswaram.

. Generic Swaram rule is that if there is an AnudAttam assigned to a letter

in a word, the next letter shall be udAttam and the next one Svaritam.

. Also a contra rule is that if there is a Swaritam is assigned to a letter ina

word, the previous letter shall be udAttam and the letter previous to it

shall be anudAttam. This rule applies across two Padams or words.

. The Swaram may be acquired by a letter to support a Svaritam which is

coming up or an udAttam that has come up.

. There are words that do not acquire swaram as per Pada Paatam (like

Sam, dyau, yAH) and Vedic grammar rules from Sages, especially Sage
pAnini.

Let us see some patterns in GaNAnAm Thava...

roto, कवि நிரா प्र

Note:

1. Letter marked in അങ്ങ have Swaritam or Dheerga Swaritam.(third

letters in a pattern)

8 Krama Paatam

2. The previous letter is UdAttam (medium note)

3. Letter prior to it marked in yellow shall be generally acquire
anudAttam (lower note)

This is only one of the major rules. Readers should not construed that it is
universally applicable everywhere. The swaram shifts to a previous or next
letter if an intented letter, cannot acquire swaram. Similarly, if two successive
letters acquire swaritam, one will be dropped, subject to some rules.

A Discussion note on Swaram acquisition principles have been provided after

initial study, in our Article on Pada Paatam in February 2019.

9 Krama Paatam

2 GaNanaamthvaa Example
Let us see the explanation of Krama Paata with well known mantra “GaNanAm

thavA Ganapathim”

Samhita/Vakyam:

॥ ॥ ॥ 1 1
(ओं) । गणानां त्वा गणपति, हवामहे कविं कवीना-मुपमश्र -वस्तमं |
ന്‌ ॥ चि ॥ चि ॥ चि ` ॥
ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणस्पत ரோ: सीद सादनं ॥

This is actually broken up into words as follows in terms of constituent words and
a serial number to initially understand the flow of Krama paatam:

The following spilt of words is not exactly Pada paatam.
Example with Sayanacharyaa’s Pada Paatam is given later in this article.

I | | | |
(ओं) गणानां त्वा गणपतिं हवामहे कविं कवीनां उपमश्रवस्तमं |

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
| | ॥ |
ज्येष्ठराजं ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणः पत आ नः ஏரண ऊतिभिः सीद सादनं ॥
1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9 10

Il |
(ஓம்‌) | க)ணானாம்‌ த்வா கணபதிம்‌ ஹவாமஹே கவிம்‌
1 2 3 4 5

| ॥ |
கவீனாம்‌ உபமஸஹ்ர-வஸ்தமம்‌ |
6 ன 7

10 Krama Paatam

ஜ்யேஷ்ட ,ராஜம்‌ ப்‌,ரஹ்மணாம்‌ ப்‌, ரஹ்மண: பத ஆ ந:

1 2

ம்‌்ருண்வன்‌

7 6 9

.

3 4 5 6

॥ ॥
oat 8104: எத, ஸாதனம்‌

10

ഓം | ८6290099 MII ഗണപതിം ഹവാമഹേ കവിം

1 2 3 4 5
॥ 9) ॥ ॥
കവീനാം- ഉപമശ്രവസ്തമം |
6 7
॥ ॥
९४4०४ 00880 (6100600 ബ്രഹ്മണഃ പത ആ ന:
1 சை இ: 3 4 5 6
॥ ॥
८2670107 ഈതിഭിഃ സീദ സാദനം ॥
ന हि 8 9 ` 10

11

Explanation of the flow of this Kramam:

Krama Paata

Notes and Explanations

(ओं) गणानां त्वा
(ஓம்‌) க,ணானாந்‌ த்வா

[॥
(ഓം) ഗണാനാംത്വാ

OM added as a start (Optional).
Words 1,2

1.
गणपतिं

॥
கணபதிம்‌

I
ഗണപതിം

Words 2,3

Normally words or Padam without any
swaram in the Vakyam gets lower
swaram (anudAttam) in Pada Padam

ഹവാമഹേ

Words 3/4

‘M’ becomes Y due to following word

with ‘ha’

गणपतिमिति गण - पतिं >
_ - 2
கணபதிமிதி கண - பதிம்‌ >

I I
ഗണപതിരിതി ഗണ- പതിം >

Word 3 is going to be dropped. But it
has two padams Gana + pathim ; so
we are reminded that the word is 3 iti
3A - 3B. Now wherever the padam is
split indicated by --- a pause needs to
be given for recital. Since the last part
patim ends with a Anuswaram anda
lower note, the ‘m’ is extended during
recital

12 Krama Paatam

Now we continue with 4/5

Note ‘havAmahE’ gets anudAtta

கவிம்‌ swaram since it is unmarked (no
swaram) in vaakyam.

Then 5/6

The ‘Ka’ in kavinam acquires swaritam
since the ka of kavim has designated
anudAttam

Then 6/7

ന of kavinaam with following “ப்‌
becomes ध्रा is anudAttam to so
பமஸற்ரவஸ்தமம்‌ upcoming ‘Sra’ is Swaritam after
udAttam ‘ma’

उपमश्र I Now the Ruk has ended.
उपमश्र / श्रवः - So we say 7 iti 7.

Seven has two padams which is split

at > and recited
Srva: visargam is followed by letter ‘ta’

॥ ॥ ்‌ ்‌ ண்‌
the visargam is replaced with ‘s’
ഉ 11000] வஸ்தமமித்யுபம ரவ: (55
(1000 — 1040 it? followed by ‘u’ becomes ‘tyu’ as per
- 510 > Vowel Sandhi rule.

सिषं [ tamam’ extended with lower note for
ഉപമ്ശവസ്ത്മ മിത്യുപമ്രശവഃ- anuswaram ‘mam’
o>

r. Now start with the new Ruk.
ब्रह्मणा Words 1,2

; - [ ணெ in raajam acquires anudAttam to
ஜ்யே ஷ்ட,ராஜம்‌ ப்‌, ரஹ்மணாம்‌ | support the following ‘fia’ in

~ | brahmanaam which is a designated
6251 ०१4 008० ര്രഹ്മണാം swaritam.

13

|
ज्येष्ठराजमिति ज्येष्ठ - रजं >
ஜ்யேஷ்ட,ராஜமிதி ஜ்யேஷ்ட, -

ராஜம்‌ >

|
6224 09400830}(ठो1 ஜே -
¬> പ ०

न >

Word 1 Jyeshtarajam consists of two
padam jeshta and raajam..
Rajam has anuswaram with Swaritam

and extended to Dheerga Swaritam.

ब्रह्मणां ब्रह्मणः
ப்‌,ரஹ்மணாம்‌ ப்‌, ரஹ்மண:

(யமிள௦௦ (பிள

Continue with 2/3

rarer >

ப்‌, ரஹ்மணஸ்பதே >

(61006) സ്പൂ >

Words 3/4

This is BrahmaNa + pate.. The
visargam becomes ‘s’ as a rule .

‘te’ with lower swaram extended since it
is dheeram.

Words 4/5

The ध converted to pata since the
sound ‘ae’ is followed by Vowel ‘aa’. It
becomes ‘a’ of ta sound as per Vowel
Sandhi rule.

Words 5/6
‘A’ is udAttam so next letter naH gets
Swaritam

14 Krama Paatam

\

Words6/7
‘sh’ comes for visargam

|
ஸ்‌ குண்வன்னூதிபி 4:

|
ശൃണ ராடி ഭിഃ

Words 7/8
‘n’ and ‘U’ combines to give ‘NU’

Words 8/9
‘s’ comes due to visargam

Split as per padam Uti+bhi:
UtibhiH iti UtibhiH
In the first part the visargam of bhi
becomes ‘r’ to make it bhir as per
Visarga Sandhi. Then combining with
sound of ;iti’ becomes
follows ‘ti’ and त्‌ as per

vowel sandhi.

I
सीद सादनं
ബ്ളൂ ஸ 16 9னம்‌

I
സീദ സാദനം

Words 9/10

15

7 ஸாதனம்‌

“| Mo

End of Ruk. 10 iti 10

‘SAdanam is a single word with no
padam split so it is rendered without
any pause. No separator will be
indicated like --.

081 get anudAttam to support ¶ which
has acquired anudAttam to support

in sAdanam

16 Krama Paatam

3 Rudra Kramam example

3.1 Example from Pada Paatam
The Pada Paatam as represented in earlier days as follows:
Weare providing the first mantra from Anuvaham 1 of Rudram. This is taken

from the book containing the work of Shri Sayanachaaryaa.

नमः ते । रुद्र । मन्यवे । उतो इति । ते । इषवे । नमः ।

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
| |

नमः । ते । अस्तु । धन्वने । बाहु भ्यामिति बाहु - भ्याम्‌ ।
1 2 3 ` 4 ` 5 ~~ ~~
ண எ नमः॥

6 7 8 1॥ |
நம: | தே | (537 | மன்யவே | உதோ இதி | தே |

1 2 3 4 5 6

| |

இஷவே | நம: |

a 5 I
நம: | தே | அஸ்து | தூன்வனே

1 2 3 4
பா,)ஹுப்‌,யாமிதி பா,)ஹு - ப்‌,யாம்‌ | உத | தே | நம:

5 6 7 8

॥ ॥ ॥
നമഃ । തേ 1 ©] (3 । 0004601 । ഉതോ ഇതി തേ।
1 2 3 4 5 6

17

ഇഷവേ | നമഃ |

നമഃ | EM । അസ്തു | ധന്വനേ | ബാഹുഭ്യാമിതി ബാഹു - 8430 |

7 8
I I
1 2 3 4
I
ഉത । 6M । (0008 ॥
` 6 7 8

5

Now the Pada Padam gives all the padams only. While reciting we need to take

care of all Recital rules, Word formation, grammar etc. Let us see how this

converts into Kramam. We have indicated the dheerga swaritam in Padam

(words). In classical books, it will be indicated as swaritam and during rendering

the specific rules are applied and rendered as Dheerga Swaritam.

Explanation of the flow:

Notes and Explanations with

Krama Paata Vaakyam

Padam
| |
Padam 1,2 + ते | (ओं) റി
|
Padam 1,2 நம: | தே (ஓம) நமஸ்தே

டொ 1,2 (208 | CM

namaha+te becomes namaste;

॥
(ഓം) Mac

Visargam becomes ‘s’ before ‘ta’

Padam 2/3, ते | 5௨
Padam 2/3 தே | (54)

Padam 2/3 തേ | 01 |

d oe
தே ருத்ர

CO 6)

18

‘te’ and ‘rudra’ do not have any swaram
in vaakyam and acquires

anudAttam(lower swaram).

Padam 3/4; && | मन्यवे

Padam 3/4 (837 | மன்யவே
[॥

Padam 3/4 016 | മന്യവേ |

in ManyavE , VE is a dheerga letter
with swaram at the end, the acquired
Swaritam becomes Dheerga Swaritam

Oy मन्य >
(537 ~

OLB മന്യ

>

>

Padams 4/5.

Padams 4/5 மன்ய
| _

म

மன்ய உதே £

இதி മന്യ തോ
। ൨
Padams 4/5 മന്യവേ । ௨௦௦ ഇതി
111.
following Vowel U as per vowel
sandhi.
Padam iti is not considered as itis an
indicator in Pada Paatam to mean that
‘utO’ is a Pragruhya. Pragruhyas are
Padams which are not subject to
Sandhi.
I
Padam 5/6. उतो इवि । ते । उतो
_ । -
Padam 5/6 உதோ இதி | தே உதோ
ள்‌ ॥
Padam 5/6 ഉതോ ഇതി | EM DEMO >
ié acquires dheerga swaritam due to 7
being a dheerga letter at the end.

19

Padam 5 उतो

5௨௦௭ 5உதோ இ தோ

Padam 5 ഉതോ ഇ തോ

is dropped so utO iti utO is taken; ‘e’ in
iti + ५ in utO combine to give [8൮
When 8 padam is indicated with iti, the
padam is a pragruhya (pragraha); the
last part of such Padams as not subject
to Vowel Sandhi and the first part may
be be subject to Sandhi. These
Padams normally represent dual noun
or verb form ending in ‘ee’, ‘uu’ ‘O’.

उतो इत्युत
2 का இ
DEMO ஐ

தோ

തോ

Padam 6,7 |
|
Padam 6,7 | இஷவே
I
Padam 6,7 @ | விரவு |

‘ta’ is actually ‘te’ that has taken वि
sound due to following vowel ‘e’

Padam 7/8 | नमः
| |
Padam 7/8 இஷ | நம:
॥ ॥
Padam 7/8 ഇഷ | നമഃ |

‰& in Ishave acquires anudAttam to
support the swaritam ரசி in namaha

நம:
॥
ഇഷവേ നമഃ

20

|
Padams “= ll

1

Padam 8 நம: ॥
|

Padam8 നമഃ ॥

End of Ruk in Samhita.

So Padam 8 iti 8.

First शी | loses visargam before
‘e’ vowel. acquires anudAttam to
support intended svaritam of ‘ti’, but ti
itself acquires anudAttam to support

‘ia’ in second nafifiaha.

ia
நம்‌ இதி ந

നമ ഇതി ന

8 ॥

Start of second ruk.
|

Padam 1,2 | ते
| _

Padam 1,2 நம: | தே
॥

Padam 1,2 Mas | തേ

4
நமஸ்தே
mae

Padam 2/3 ते | अस्तु
Padam 2/3 தே | அஸ்து

Padam 2/3 തേ | (ठा? 0१
ത്ത

Both ‘te’ and ‘astu’ do not have swaram
in Vaakyam. They are rendered with
anudAttam fully as marked in Padam.
Please note that ‘a’ of astu does not
elide (become avagraha) in Rudram as
per a generic rule provided in
prAtiSakyam.

ते अस्तु

தே அஸ்து

തേ BONY}
_ — തം

21

|
Padam 3/4- अस्तु | धन्वने

॥
Padam 3/4 - அஸ்து | தன்வனே
~ ~ |

Padam 3/4 - (ठा? 0१ | (00160)

|
अस्तु धन्वने

॥
அஸ்து தூன்வனே

86001 (0001600

Padam 4/5 धन्वने | என

Padam 4/5 தன்வனே |
॥
LIM 67 LI, WIMTLD
| I

Padam 4/5 ധന്വനേ । ബാഹുഭ്യാം

Pada Paatam is given as

ണ്ട ae - भ्याम्‌
Here the ‘it’ has been added to split the
Padam. iti has svaritam on fi by Pada
Paata rules.
In Pada paata style, the bAhubhyAm

]

with iti becomes bAhubhyamiti , the

split is given as bAhu — bhyAm.

1) ்‌ acquires anudAttam to support
in ‘it’ if you combine second part

bAhu+bhyAM, bA has anudAttam

hu is udAttam so, when bhyAm is
combined
becomes a since it is
dheerga letter.(refer to Swaram
acquisition rules given above)

धन्वने बाहुभ्यां >

தூன்வனே பா,;ஹுப்‌,யாம்‌ >

ധന്വനേ ബാഹുഭ്യാം >

22

Padam 5/6 बाहू ९ | |

Padam 5/6 பா;ஹுப்‌, ம்‌ (உத |

Padam 5/6 ബാഹു | ഉത |

Note : bahubhayAm when ends
separately as a Padam will have
dheerga swaritam, but with combining
of ‘m’ and വ്‌ of uta, it has shifted to the
middle of the statement; appears
before 8 and it is no longer 8 stand-
alone long anuswaram. So it becomes
a normal

हम

பா. ஹு ` 4

ബാഹു

ॐ

ത

Padam 5 is dropped.
பி
Padam 5105 बाहुभ्या

॥
Padam 5 iti 5 LIT 3671141 1710

Padam 5145 ബാഹുഭ്യാം

|
बाहूभ्यामिति ae _ भ्यां >
பா,ஹுப்‌,யாமிதி பா;ஹு -
1

५५॥10 >

|
ബാഹുഭ്യാമിതി ബാഹു -

(812௦ >
ന [|
Padam 6,7 उत | ते उत ते >
~~ ~~ ~~ ॥
Padam 6,7 ൭൫ | தே உத தே >
നി നി |
Padam 6,7 © ठ) | &(ठ) ஒடு 6O) >
7 ति 7 |
Padam 7/8 ते | नमः ते नयः
शि ॥ I
Padam 7/8 தே | நம: | தே நம:
നി ॥ നി ॥
Padam 7/8 G@) | നമഃ തേ MAS

23

Ruk ends. नमः
I
Ruk ends நம: |
॥
Ruk ends നമഃ |

So Padam 8 iti Padam 8

नम इति எற:
நம்‌ இதி ந

നമ ഇതിന

Readers can understand the flow with our Compilation on TS 4.5 Pada Paatam

with Vaakyam which has full Rudra Namakam with Padam and Vaakyam.

Kindly provide your comments, suggestions, feedbacks and report

errors/corrections to our e-mail id- ‘vedavms@gmail.com’

and Vedic Recital-07

Ghana Paatam

Contents
1 Veda Basics — Ghana 033൭൩..............................................-.-::-::ം 4
1.2 Ghana basics: --------- க அ அ அ அ அ அ அ கை 5
2 GaNanaamthvaa ഇത്വ്വാല............................................................... 7
3 Other Examples .................................................-:::ം 14
3.1 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1)..............................-.:::ം 14
3.2 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1 & 37.1) .......--.----------------------------- 14
3.3 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1) ....--.-------------------------------------- 15
3.4 SarvebhyO vai kamebhyaH (Ref 37.8) .................................... 16
3.5 Ta EvAsmin Ayur (Ref 37.12) ....-...------------------------------------------ 17
3.6 No double usage of ഗഠഡല്‍.................................................:::.::: 18

3 Ghana Paatam

1. The references to Swara changes have been additionally added.
Some drafting errors have been corrected to improve language.
Some swaram errors have been corrected.

Additional marking is given for swara rules in colour.

Title of 3.4 was incorrect and has been corrected in Version 0.1

2. Tamil examples have been changed to Latha (Google’s Tamil Font) in

Version 0.2

4 Ghana Paatam

1 Veda Basics — Ghana Paatam

. Samhita Paatam - learning Vedas as they are recited
. Pada Paatam - learning Vedas with the Padam of each and every word
. Krama Paatam — a method to learn Veda in a specific order

. Jata Paatam - a different method of ordering words back and forth

൭ 2. OD ~

Ghana Paatam - a different method of ordering words and reciting.

1.Maala Paataa

2. Shika Paata

3. Dhanta Paata

4. Dwaja Paata

5 Ghana Paatam

5. Ratha Paata

6. Rekha Paata

A discussion note/article on Basics of Krama Paatam has been uploaded. In this

discussion note/article we have taken explaining the basics of Ghana Paatam

1.2 Ghana basics:

The rules or principles of Ghana Paata recital are as follows:
1. Assume there are seven words/Padams in a mantra as a Ruk.
2. First take up Words 1,2,3. The recital shall be as follows:
12,21,123,321,123. In the second set, drop 1, take 234
Recite 23,32,234,432,234. This continues till the ruk ends.
3. If the statement 4 is a word with two padams 4a and 4b, before taking up

5,6; it is chanted as 4 iti 4a pause 4b. The student now grasps the details

of the Padams that make this word 4. This is similar to Krama Paatam.

6 Ghana Paatam

. When the two words 6,7 are taken up; the chanting rule (as explained
above with three letter combination) cannot be followed; so it is recited as
67, 76,67. The flow of the mantra and its word are repeated to memorise
the words/padams.

. To indicate that the Ruk has ended a final recital of 7 iti 7 like in Krama

Paatam.

. Then the next Ruk is taken up as in Step 2.

. All rules relating to normal Veda recital, Swaram rules, Vowel Sandhi

Rules, Visarga Sandhi Rules,Consonant Sandhi Rules and

other grammar rules are applied

. The Swaram markings and acquisition follow the normal Veda recital rules

. Elongation of rendering is made for the statements where padam is split

like in Krama Paatam.

7 Ghana Paatam

Let us see the explanation of Ghana Paata in this chapter with well known

mantra “GaNanAm thavA Ganapathim’. Let us take the first Ruk only

॥ 1 ॥ 1 1

a serial number to initially understand the flow of Ghana paatam:

I | | | |
4 2 ദു 4 5 6 7

iT] |
ஓம்‌) | கணானாம்‌ த்வா கணபதிம்‌ ஹவாமஹே கவிம்‌
1 2 3 4 5

I ॥ I
கவீனாம்‌ உபமஸ்ர-வஸ்தமம்‌ |

6 7
॥ I
B00 | ഗണാനാം AMID ഗണപതിം ഹവാമഹേ കുവിം
4 2 3 4 5

॥ ॥ ॥
കവീനാം- ഉപമശ്രവസ്ത്മം |

6 7

Explanation of the flow of this Ghanam:

Ghana Paata Notes and
Explanations
॥ ॥ ॥ Words 123
गणानां त्वा , त्वा गणानां, गणानां त्वा गणपतिं Flow12,21,123,321,123

ll ll
गणपतिं त्वा गणानां, गणानांत्वा गणपतिं |

॥ ॥
ॐऽ6्णान्ना।0 தவா தவா ॐ ऽ6्ग्णान्ना।0

॥
9ணானாம்‌ த்வா கணபதிம்‌ கணபதிம்‌

ய்‌ Il
துவா கணானாம கணானமை துவா

|
கணபதிம்‌ |
I I
८919009० M1 , MIO ഗണാനാം,

॥
MEMIMIADIO ഗണപതിം

ഗണപതിം MIO ഗണാനാം

॥
८0602900 0019 ഗണപതിം |

No Swaram
rules/Sandhi rules affect
the flow of Padams

|| | |
ன गणपतिं, गणपतिं त्वा,
_ ணி ‘=
त्वा गणपति हवामहे
हवामहे गणपतिं त्वा , त्वा गणपति हवामहे

॥ I
த்வா கணபதிம்‌ கணபதிம்‌ த்வா த்வா
கணபதி ஹவாமஹே ஹவாமஹே
I I
கணபதிம்‌ த்வா த்வா र्ण SIS
ஹவாமஹே |
மை ഗണപതിം, ഗണപതിം ത്വാ

ത്വാ ഗണപതിഴ്ച ഹവാമഹേ

ഹവാമഹേ ഗണപതിം ത്വാ

ത്വാ ഗണപതിഴ്‌ ഹവാമഹേ |

Words 234

Flow
23,32,234,432,234
‘M’ becomes before
‘ha’.

There is no change in
Swarams.

tvA’ has no swaram in
Vaakyam. It is rendered
in full anudAttam at
start.

गणपति हवामहे, हवामहे गणपतिं

गणपति wae कविं कविषु हवामहे गणपतिं

गणपति हवामहे कविं ,
सण 9६ ஹவாமஹே ஹவாமஹே

I I
கணபதிம்‌ கணபதி ஹவாமஹே கவிம்‌

Words 345

Flow
34,43,345,543,345
‘ha’.

Swaram as all words
follow from vakyam.

10

| I |
க்வி ஹவாமஹே கணபதிம்‌ கணபதி
ஹவாமஹே கவிம்‌ |
॥
ഗണതിഴ്ച ഹവാമഹേ,

I
ഹവാമഹേ ഗണപതിം

9

॥
11 ഹവാമഹേ © 01168.

॥
onily ഹവാമഹേ ഗണപതിം ,

I
ഗണഡതിഴ്ച ഹവാമഹേ കുവിം।

1
गणपतिमिङ्न गण --- पतिं >I
க,ணபதிமிதி கண -- பதிம்‌ > |

I
ഗണപതി ഗണ --- പതിം > ।

‘iti’ which is joined to explain Padam into Parts has ‘ti’
as Swaritam as a rule. So the ‘ti’ of gaNapathi acquires
anudAttam to support 8

Word 3 Ganapathim is
going to be dropped.
So at last the padam is
rendered as Word iti
padam1 - padam2.

3 iti 3a-3b

Same as in Krama
paatam. Anuswaram of
patim has lower
swaram, therefore ‘m’
will be extended.

11 Ghana Paatam

| कवि Words 456
ன Fe =
=| af वना 45,54,456,654,456
हवामहे कवि களிர்‌
| _ ‘M’ becomes ५८ before
कवीनां कवि५ ഞണ്ട്‌ कवि Beira இங்கு

, Havamahe has no
கவிம்‌ கவி வாமஹே swaram but when it

starts as the first word

ஹவாமஹே கவிம்‌ தீவினாம்‌ தீவினாம்‌ acquires full lower

swaram like in Krama

(௫ 1 patam for the first
தவி ஹவாமஹே ஹவாமஹே தவிம்‌

combination. Then
தீவினாம்‌ |

rendered normally.
Since ka in Kavim(gm)
ഹവാമഹേ കവിം, anny பண்டம்‌ starts with anudAtta, ha
-- ‘ as the third letter

2 ரி 706 acquires a swaritam.
ഹവാമഹേ കൂവം இய । 02703, Similar rule இர

| kavinaam after kavim
കവീനാങ്‌ ०१९ ஸிகா,

ഹവാമഹേ niles @ 10०० |

12

| कवी, कवीनां कवि, कवि ദീന
- वस्तम,मुपमश्र- वस्तमं कवीनां कविं
ന്ന
விம்‌ கவீனாம்‌ கீவினாம்‌ கவிம்‌ छन
का 1110001] 62160510.
முபமற்ரவஸ்தமம்‌ கவீனாம்‌ கவிம்‌ கவிம்‌

I
வீனா முபமஸ்ரவஸ்தமம்‌ |
വിങ്‌
വിം

മുപമശ്ര-വസ്തമങ്‌ കവ 10000 കവിങ്‌,

_ - _
വിങ്‌ നാജൂപമശ്ര-വസ്മമം |

നാങ്‌ കവീനാം Aes

௫௦-ஜிவம((0 பர, -

Words 567

Flow
56,65,567,765,567
‘Kai in kavinaam get
svaritam, since the third
letter before it is
anudAttam in ‘ka’ and vi
marked in yellow.

ति marked in green
similarly gets swaritam
based on preceding vi of
kavinaam

13

|| |
-मुपमश्र-वस्तम,

| |
मुपमश्र-वस्तमं कवीनां, कवीना-मुपमश्रवस्तमं |

I
கவீனா 0111001] 6100510

I
(0111007 65051010 கவீனாம்‌

I I
கவீனா

(0111000 60951010 |

പമര്ര-വസ്തരമ,.-

മുപമശ്ര-വസ്മുമം കവീനാങ്‌,

I
കവീനാ-മ

ൂപമശ്രവസ്ദമം |
ച ©)

We have only 67 left.
So the words are 67

Flow is 67,76,67

ദൂ 200 Vi acquire lower

swaram in first
combination as per
swarm acquisition rule.
Swaram acquisition of
‘mu’ and ‘ka’ as per the
previous rendering of
567

| ॥ |
उपमश्रवस्तम,मित्यु/पमश्रवः --- तमं >I

॥ ॥ |
உபமஹ்ரவஸ்தம மித்யுபமண்ரவ: - தமம்‌ >
|

॥ ॥
ഉപമശ്രവസ്ത്മമിത 41 ^10(८2-01 --- തമം >I

The Ruk ends.

The last word 7 iti 7 is
highlighted in yellow.
Same rule as in Krama
Paatam.’m’ requires
elongated rendering.

Important Notes:

1. The Words are split as per the rule explained for convenience of the reader

to understand the concept.

2. Words shall be taken together to make the rendering smooth e.g.

kavInaang-kavinaam as in 5" row in the table.

3. Please note rules of Visarga Sandhi, Vowel Sandhi, joining words and
related grammar rules are all applied while rendering.

14 Ghana Paatam

3 Other Examples
In this Section we are highlighting the changes that occur during recital taking
samples from the Ghanam Chapter of Shanti Japam book. Students must note
that these are only samples and not exhaustive. This is to familiarise them with

some important grammar/veda recital rules.

3.1 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1)

॥ जीवातु जीवत
1. मे जीवातु, तु ர்‌ मे எிளரது
1.. மே தீவாதுர்‌, ஜீவாதுர்‌ மே, மே ५०५

| | |
1. மே = = மே, மே விவ (வு

Notes: Words used are mE, JIvAthu: , ca
a) jlvAthu: becomes jlvAthir when followed by jl and mE as per visarga
sandhi rule for sound ‘U’
b) jlvAthu: + ca becomes jlvAtuS@alime (Visarga Sandhi for hard consonant

ca)

3.2 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1 & 37.1)

sat tao ரகர என
I
3.6 Cl, Cl 5, ऽ மே தீர்காடயுத்வம்‌, தீடர்காடயுத்வம்‌ மே

15 Ghana Paatam

ചട, வய, வ ee ००८ ௯

स्चमे,मेच,च द्ग

28. = Gi, GLO ச, ச மே

28.௨ GA, GM al, ച മേ

Notes:

a) The first dheergayutvam as a rule starts in lower swarm till ‘yu’ the next
888 as a third letter gets swaritam but becomes dheerga swaritam due to
following joint letter rgha This is also due to all previous padams ca and
me being in anudAttam. It continues like pracAya rule.

b) Ca, mE has lower notes always in Pada Paatam. When rendering
ca,me,me,ca,ca,me in 37.3 it is rendered normally. It comes at the end in
37.28 and the last ‘me’ (marked in green) needs to be extended as in

Krama paatam.

3.3 JeevaathuScha Me (Ref 37.1)
मनमि | எள்‌ I नपिन्नं |
8. + Safa, मनमि मे,मे नमिन च, चा नमित्रं मे,
8. மே.ஆமித்ர, மீநமித்ரம்‌ மே, மே மித்ரஞ்ச்‌, சா நமித்ரம்‌ மே,

॥ ॥ ॥
8. മേ-ടനമിത്ര, മനമിത്രം മേ,മേ ടന്മിത്രം ച, ௨௦ നമിത്രം മേ,

16 Ghana Paatam

Notes:

a) ‘a’ in anamitram becomes avagraha when preceded by ‘mE’ (ae sound)
(marked in blue.)

b) Anamitram+anamitram becomes manamitram (marked in yellow). Simple
sandhi of m+a.

௦) Ca + anamitram becomes chA namitram (Vowel sandhi of ata=’aa’ sound)
marked in green

3.4 SarvebhyO vai kamebhyaH (Ref 37.8)
यजमाना, |
ன்‌ ரு यजमाना स्तत्‌
I |
7. தத்‌, யஜமானா, யஜமானா ஸ்தத்‌,
I I
1 off ००, ०६०० இதி

Note:

a) The words are tat, yajamAnA:

b) Tat becomes tad due to Consonant Sandhi Rule
(Discussed in a separate article)

c) The Visagaram after first yajamAnA: gets dropped followed by soft
consonant as per Visarga Sandhi rule since the vowel sound is ‘aa’.

d) The ‘tat’ becomes ഭട as the ‘ta’ follows the visargam of second
yajamAnA:

17 Ghana Paatam

3.5 Ta EvAsmin Ayur (Ref 37.12)

Let us take the first three words of this Ghanam

त एवास्मिन्‌ (तति) एक॒ अस्मिन्‌)

த ஏவாஸமின்‌ (த ஏவ அஸ்மின்‌)

ത ഏവാസ്ടിത്‌ ன்‌, ) ഏവ അസ്മിത്‌

Rendered as

एवासि
भ वते Sh ne
வ ஏவாஸ்மி त ந்‌
al ത ഏവാസ്പിഅ-സ്മിന്നേ

Notes:

1. Itis 18.(1) जनी प्वढ2(2),16 (1)te,(1) aeva(2) asmin.(3)..(3)

2. We start with ‘ta’ instead of ‘te’ because the following word is a vowel ‘ae’
as per Vowel Sandhi.

3. ‘vai’ in green is derived by adding the (கி and Be vowel sandhi sound ‘a’
combines with ‘ae’ to give fail

4. The ‘va’ that is left after ae in aeva is recited as it is;

5. First டு recited as it is and the next one becomes ‘ta’ due to following
vowel

6. In Eva tasmin, ata generates ‘aa’ as per vowel sandhi.

7. In Asmif#asmin, n+a produces ‘nna’ becomes वक्व. . ന doubles
when followed by vowel — Consonant Sandhi Rule

18 Ghana Paatam

3.6 No double usage of Vowel ‘A’

This is from the second Ruk of GANAnAm സ്ഥ mantra.

Let us take the rendering with word combination - pata, A, na:

॥
(पते | आ । नः), (பதே | ஆ | :), (வனை | ரூ | 00:)

பய | |
पत आ ae பய आन आपते Ud आ नः |
I I I
பத ஆ ஆ பதே பது ஆ நோன ஆபதே பத ஆன: |
வறு ആ ആ ९०७ ववृ ആപതേ പത ആ ന: |

Notes:

a) Two Vowels donot combine. The second ‘aa’ is actually dropped during
recital. Shown as double strike in red.

b) ‘pate’. the ‘ae’ sound becomes ‘a’- pata before vowel ‘aa’ but retained as
pate before next ‘pata’.. which has ‘aa’ following it. Marked in blue

c) na: followed by na: becomes nona. Visarga sandhi rule for a: becomes ‘O’
(marked in Green).

d) The second na: has visargam dropped since it is followed by a Vowel ‘A’.

Marked in yellow.

Ancient Indian Culture Series

CHANDAS AS VEDANGA

Dr. Madhavi R. Narsalay

Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams, Tirupati.
2019

T.T.D. Religious Publications Series No. 1373
© All Rights Reserved

First Edition : 2019

Copies: 1000

Published by

Sri Anil Kumar Singhal, 1.^.5.,
Executive Officer,

Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams,
Tirupati.

D.TP:
Publications Division,
T.T.D, Tirupati.

Printed at :
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Press
Tirupati

Foreword

It is very well noted that Vedas are the first
literature produced in India. The Rig, Yajuh, sama and
Atharva Vedas are written for the human race to follow
it and lead a great life. The Vedas hold the guist, the
secret of a successful life. It was a lump at the
beginning but later was divided into four parts by
Bhagavan Vedavyasa. The division of Vedas and it's
usage in daily life was felt very essential for many
purposes, and hence was necessary to simplify it.
Many-a-people learnt Vedas to use them in their daily
life. In order to make them more simpler, the Vedas
were divided into Sumhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas
and Upanishads. There should be a proper method to
learn any subject. The six supporting fields like
Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and
Jyotish are called the limbs of the Vedas. As per
Paniniya Shiksha, the science of poetry is like feet or
foundation of the entire Vedic literature, and hence it
is very essential to study metres or chandas to learn
Vedas. For an indepth study of Vedas, a disciple should
know about three factors - The Rishi (who has seen
(seer) the divine mantra), the devata (the deity to whom
the mantra is submitted), the metre (in which the
mantra is presented).

A Chandas is a physical form in which the syllables
are counted. Pingala in his Chandahsastra says:
Chandas stands for speech determined by the number
of syllables uttered. Each and every metre has its own

iv

spiritual significance according to different Vedic
sacrifices.

The book ‘Chandas as Vedanga’ written by
Dr. Madhavi R. Narsalay explains all the basic
principles of Vedic prosody which is necessary to gain
knowledge about metres before learning Veda. The
effort put by the author is priceless. Hope that this
treatise will enhance the desirers to learn more about
Vedas and Vedangas.

In the Service of Lord Venkateswara

AL

Tirupati.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
छन्दः पादौ तु वेदस्य

This saying underlines the significance of
Chandahsastra as that Vedanga on which the
foundation of Veda dwells. Mantra, the divine word
is an indispensable part of worship and is fixed in a
Chandas. Vedic tradition firmly believes that chanting
the mantra in the specifically prescribed chandas gives
completeness, power and sanctity to worship, after
which the worshipper is bestowed with the desired
fruit. Corpus of literature is developed around
Chandas. The present work is an attempt to introduce
to the readers the nature of Chandas, its religious
significance and types of Chandas with appropriate
examples.

I thank the authorities of Tirumala Tirupati
Devasthanams for considering me worthy for this
work. I consider this work as a blessing from Lord
Venkateswara. I thank Prof. Ravva Sri Hari for giving
me time to work on this subject.

I am hopeful that the work will generate interest
in the readers in delving deeper into the subject.

- Dr. Madhavi R. Narsalay

Chapter
No.

Il

111

IV

INDEX

Title Pages
Introduction 1
Classification of Chandas 13
Primary metres 29
Other metres 64
Conclusion 75
Bibliography 76
Reference to Nagari Words 79

Chapter 7
Introduction

Vedic literature, which comprises of Samhitas
(संहिता), Brahmanas, (ste) Aranyakas (आरण्यक) and
Upanisads, (उपनिषद्‌) has six auxiliary disciplines
known as angas (अंग) i.e., limbs attached to them which
are known ഒട Vedangas (99൬). They are (i) Siksas
(शिक्षा), which are texts dealing with phonetics and
morphology, (ii) Kalpas (कल्प) are texts focusing on
ritual, behavioural pattern and code of conduct, (iii)
Vyakarana (व्याकरण) 1.൦. science of grammar, (iv)
Nirukta (निरुक्त) which is a text on etymology, (v)
Chandas (ജു) i.e., science of metres, prosody or
versification and (vi) (ज्योतिष) ൧൦൧൦ which is the
science of astronomy. A quotation from Paniniya Siksa
(पाणिनीय शिक्षा) mentions ‘chandah padau tu vedasya’
(छंदः पादौतु वेदस्य) i.e., the science of prosody is the feet
of the Veda-s. It is the foundation on which the entire
Vedic literature relies upon. This branch of learning
has been extensively dealt with in works on Vedic
literature as well as classical Sanskrit literature.

Speech has thousand-fold progeny and metres are
some of them, for Satapatha Brahmana (शतपथ ब्राह्मण)
says vacah prajatani chandamsi (प्रजतनि छंदांसि)
(11.9.2.17). Study of Veda-s is incomplete if study of
metres is not undertaken. They are one of the three
factors, which are essential for the study of the Veda
viz; Rsi (ऋषि) (the seer, who has ‘seen’ the divine

2 Chandas as Vedanga

mantra-s), devata (दवता) (the deity, whom the mantra
is attributed to) and chandas (छदस्‌) (the metre, in which
a particular mantra occurs). As mantras give full form
(rupasamrddha) (रुपसमृद्धा) to the sacrifice and as they
are composed in metres, they occupy an indispensable
position in the sacrifice.

Meaning of the word ‘chandas’: The science that
deals with versification is known as Prosody or Metrics
which is understood in Sanskrit as Chandahsastra
(छंदःशास््र). There are references in the Rigveda (X.90.9),
which states that (chandamsi jajnire tasmat) (छंदांसि जज्ञिरे
तस्मात्‌) metres were created from the gigantic Purusah.
The conventional meaning of the word chandas is
metre. Apart from this meaning, the word chandas
stands synonymous for Veda-s. As the Veda-s were
composed in Gayatri and other metres, Veda-s are also
known by this name. Panini in his Astadhyayi
(अष्टाध्यायी) refers to Vedas as Chandas. ‘Bahulam
chandasi’ (वहुलम्‌ छंदसि) (71.4.39) is a very famous example
from the Astadhyayi (अष्टाध्यायी).

In Vedic literature, the word ‘chandas’ is used in
different sense too. They are metaphorically
understood as cattle (1൭51-35), directions (disha-
दिशा), soma juice (rasa-ta) etc. Kausitaki Brahmana
(कौशिटकी ब्राह्मण) refers to chandas as pranah 1.6., life
(chandamsi vai pranah) (छंदांसि वै प्राणः) and the Taittiriya
Brahmana (तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण) mentions that chandas
(chandamsi vai vrajo gosthanah) (छदांसि वै व्रजो गोस्थनः)
represent the region of the Sun. There is some reason

Chandas as Vedanga 3

due to which the chandas are associated with different
objects, both animate and inanimate.

Chandas are given great importance in Vedic
rituals. A Vedic chant recited in a particular chandas
for a specific ritual would accrue the desired result.
That is why the specific chandas are associated with
specific fruit, abstract or concrete e.x., gayatrau
svistakrtah samyajye kurvita  tejahkamo
brahmavarcasa kamah/ tejo vai brahmavarcasam
gayatri// गाय (Aitareya Brahmana 1.5) ഞ്ജ ब्राह्मण).
The svistakrta (स्विष्टकृत) offerings are to be given with
mantras in the Gayatri metre for achieving lustre of
Brahman. Thus mantras chanted in the Gayatri metre
are of immense importance in the ritual of svistakrta
(स्विष्टकृत) offering. Without the Gayatri metre, the
sacrificer would not achieve the lustre of Brahman.
Here Gayatri is equated with the lustre of Brahman.
According to R. Sadashivmurthy, chandas as metres
is the conventional meaning of this word. Whereas
chandas as Veda-s is the attributive meaning and
chandas as cattle etc., are the figurative meanings of
this word. Moreover, in classical literature and
vernaculars, chandas stands for desire as well as
uncontrolled behaviour.

Definition of chandas: Many ancient texts have
attempted to define ‘chandas’. The Rksarvanukramani
(ऋक्सर्वानुक्रमणी) of Katyayana says: yadaksaraparimanam
tacchandah (11.6). This means that which is measured

4 Chandas as Vedanga

by syllables is chandas. The Brhatsarvanukramani of
the Atharvaveda says: chando’ksarasamkhyavaccheka
mucyate. This means that the distinctive characteristic
of chandas is the number of syllables counted. The
Chandahsastra of Pingala says: matraksarasankhya
niyatavak chandah. Chandas stands for speech
determined by the number of syllabic instants.

These definitions indicate that the number of
syllables is the defining factor of chandas.

Etymology of Chandas: Ancient texts have given
the etymology of the term chandas. According to the
Daivata Brahmana of the Samaveda: chandamsi
chandayatiti va (1.3). This means that term chandas is
derived from the root Vehand: samvarane ahladane
1.6., to cover or to please.

The Taittiriya Samhita (V.6.6.1) says:

te chandobhiratmanam chadayitvopayansta
cchandasam chandatvam/

Satapatha Brahmana quotes:
yadasma acchadayanstasmacchandamsi/
Nirukta (൩.12): chandamsi chadanat/

Unadi sutras derive the word chandas from \cand
- to please. Har.a.a, the commentator on Jayadeva’s
Chandahsutra supports this derivation.

Thus the word chandas is derived from the
following roots:

Chandas as Vedanga 5

a) Vcand: ahladane, diptau ca: to please and to shine
b) Vchad: acchadane: to cover
c) Vchad: avarane: to envelope

त) Vchand: ahladane, samvarane ca: (to please
and to cover totally)

This functional derivation stresses that the term
chandas as it has a phonetic quality stands for the
measured sound which is pleasing to hear. Sound
envelopes space therefore chandas stands for a
covering the space of sound.

Significance of chandas:

According to S. S. Dange, chandas had an
immense importance in the sacrifice. Pratar-anuvaka
(morning chant) is to be recited by the hotr priest in
the latter half of the night, even before the sound of
birds is heard. During this time, there is no other sound
heard except that of the recitation of mantras that is
arranged in the seven metres viz; Gayatri, Usnih,
Anustubh, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. The
gods that are invoked are Agni, Usas and Asvins and
there has to be at least one sukta in each of the seven
metres addressing the deities. The Satapatha
Brahmana says that the gods which are arriving early
are the metres (III.9.3.8).

Metres had a spiritual significance in Vedic
sacrifice. The sacrificial ukha (the fire pan) was to be
fumigated by the metres. It is baked by the means of
metres for they are the strength. They are the divine

6 Chandas as Vedanga

purifiers and by means of the metres, many sacrificial
implements would be purified.

Individual metres are said to be the various limbs
of sacrifice. At times they are imagined to be man or
identified with Prajapati. Thus Gayatri is said to be
the mouth of the sacrifice according to the Maitrayani
Samhita of the Krsna Yajurveda (111.1.1) and also the
breath of Prajapati. The metre Usnih is the eye;
Anustubh is the voice, Brhati is the mind; Pankti is
the ear; Tristubh is the generative breath and Jagati is
the downward breathing. These are the seven metres
which go increasing by four syllables each, which are
produced in Agni says the Satapatha Brahmana
(X.3.1.1).

Metres are regarded as the cattle of the gods. Just
as, harnessed cattle carry men from one place to
another; harnessed metres draw the sacrifice for the
gods mentions the Satapatha Brahmana (1V.4.3.1). The
Jaiminiya Brahmana (111. 313, 314) equates metres with
horses of gods. The gods having yoked these horses
to these chariots went to the heaven. They yoked the
Gayatri as the horse at the right side, the Tristubh as
that of the left side and the Jagati as the supporting
horse. The 7aittiriya Samhita (1.5.12.5) has a beautiful
imagery of the chariot of metres for Prajapati. Gayatri
and Jagati became the wheels; Usnih and Tristubh as
the side poles; Anustubh and Pankti the horses and
Brhati the seat. Prajapati went riding this chariot.
S.S.Dange comments that the whole idea is of speedily

Chandas as Vedanga 7

searching the heaven on part of the sacrifice. Hence,
at times, metres are identified with birds, as they are
speedier than horses.

Metres play a significant role in the sacrifice and
are therefore related with Agni. The Kathaka Samhita
of the Krsna Yajurveda regards them to be the beloved
form of Agni. The Maitrayani Samhita of the Krsna
Yajurveda identifies metres with Prajapati (IV.5.3).

The Vedic texts say that even for defeating the
asuras, at times devas took the help of metres.
According to the Tandya Mahabrahmana (%11.13.27)
devas and asuras were in possession of metres. The
monosyllabic metre was the lowest one in possession
of the devas, the heptasyllabic metre was their highest
possession. The ennead (nine) syllabic one was the
lowest of the asuras and the fifteen syllables was the
highest. They entreated Prajapati who had assumed
the form of Anustubh metre to join them. He joined
the devas and they flourished and the asuras perished.

Thus, metres are the form of controlled and
structured divine sound. Having possession of this
divine sound which is all encompassing the gods
prospered. The yajamana performing the yajna using
the chandas will also flourish on the lines of gods is
the message which these myths want to convey.

Myths regarding the origin of chandas:

Akin to the etymology regarding the origin of the
chandas, Vedic literature abounds in myths about the

8 Chandas as Vedanga

origin of the chandas. In the Taittiriya Samhita, the
Prajapati built the fire-altar. Devas got frightened and
did not approach it. So, they covered themselves with
metres (chandobhiratmanam chadayitva) (छंदोभिरात्मानम्‌
छादयित्वा) and approached it. The Jaiminiya Brahmana
also derives the word chandas from the root chad to
cover. The account therein is as follows. Prajapati
created devas and thereafter also Death, by means of
bringing together metres and entering them. The Vasu-s,
Rudra-s, Aditya-s, Visvedeva-s and Marut-s brought
together the metres Gayatri , Tristubh, Jagati,
Anustubh and Pankti.

The Maitrayani Samhita derives the word chandas
from the root chad ‘to please’. It says that devas were
afraid of Death. Having seen the metres, they entered
them. Whatever thing pleases them, with that they
covered themselves. Here, both the meanings of the
root chad are taken into account. The Satapatha
Brahmana also follows the same lines. It says that
Prajapati freed himself from Death and asked for food.
The gods gave him food in the form of the bricks
(arranged in the Fire-altar) relating to metres; for
metres are cattle and cattle are food. The metres
pleased him and hence are they called chadamsi.

Number of metres:

According to R. Sadasivamurthy, the number of
metres varies in various texts. Some works accept that
metres are eight in number; others consider them to
be seven or four. In Vedic prosody, metres are classified

Chandas as Vedanga 9

as Daivi, Asuri, Prajapatya, Yajusi, Samni, Arci,
Brahmi and Arsi. This classification underlines the
number of metres to be eight. But references like
catuspadaksarena mimite saptavanih (चतुष्पादक्षरेण मीमिते
सप्रवाणीः) (Reveda 1.164.24.) are of the view that the
number of the metres is seven. This comprises of
Gayatri, Usnih, Anustubh, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and
Jagati. Accepting the prominence of Gayatri, Tristubh
and Jagati in the Vedic sacrifices, some texts accept
these three metres.

Another reference in the Rgveda accepts that
metres are fourteen in number (X.114.7). The Yajurveda
and Atharvaveda traditions accept that the number of
metres is twenty one. The Jaittiriya Samhita refers to
some names of metres which are explained by
Sayanacarya as heavenly metres.

Primary sources of Chandahsastra:

The origin and development of Chandasastra is
seen in Vedic literature. The Rgveda is a metrical
composition. Fourteen metres have been employed in
this monumental work. The rc-s abound in Gayatri,
Tristubh and Jagati metres. It has a discussion about
metres. The sukta X.130.3 asks a question as to
‘chandah kimasit? The Purusasukta (X.90.9) mentions
‘chandamsi jajnire tasmat’ छंदांसि जज्ञिरे तस्मात्‌). The sukta
(1.164.24) notes gayatrena mimite saptavanih (गायत्रेण
मिमीते सप्तवाणीः) wherein speech and prosody are
regarded as equivalent.

10 Chandas as Vedanga

The Taittiriva Samhita of the Krsna Yajurveda
stresses on the importance of chandas in the Vedic
sacrifice. It says that devas ascended heaven due to
the metre (chandobhih devah suvargam lokamayan
V.2.3.9) (छंदोभिः देवाः सुवर्गम्‌ लोकमायन्‌). There are references
to 24 metres, which have important place in Vedic and
Classical Sanskrit literature (IV.3.7).

The Aitareya Brahmana reiterates the importance
of metres in the Vedic sacrificial ritual. At one place it
is mentioned that one who desires to achieve
Brahmanic lustre should perform sacrifice unto Agni
with the help of the Gayatri chandas (1.5). Gayatri,
Tristubh, Jagati and Viraj are mentioned quite often
in this text.

The Satapatha Brahmana narrates myths
associated with metres. In an effort to eulogise
chandas, it says that metres are the quarter (directions).
Gayatri is the east, Tristubh is the south, Jagati is the
west, Anustubh is the north, Pankti is the upward
direction (VIII. 3.1.12).

The second and the fourth sections of the Daivata
Brahmana of the Samaveda refer to the colours and
deities associated with the metres and also deal with
their etymologies.

The Rkpratisakhya discusses phonetics, grammar
and prosody of the Rgveda. Patala-s 16 to 18 are
dedicated to Vedic prosody. It discusses the eightfold

Chandas as Vedanga 11

classification of the Vedic metre, nicrt and bhurik
varieties, the deities and colours of the metres, pre
Gayatri metres and their varieties, strophic metres,
division of syllables as light and heavy, pause and
recitation of different kinds of mantras. The
Revedachandonukramani (ऋष्वेदष्ठंदोनुक्रमणी) by Saunaka
is the index of different metres found in the Rgveda.

The Rgveda Sarvanukramani of Katyayana is the
index of Rgvedic rsi-s, metres, deities, anuvaka-s and
sukta-s. A major portion of this text is dedicated to
Vedic prosody. The first portion discusses the varieties
of feet and vrtti. The second, third and fourth and fifth
portions take note of the nature and varieties of prime
metres, long metres and pre-Gayatri metres. The nicrt
and bhurik varieties are also noted.

The Nidana Sutra by Patanjali belonging to the
Samaveda has as its first chapter ‘Chandoviciti’. The
sixth Ahanda mentions about the Daivi, Asuri and other
varieties of the chandas. The Upanidanasutras of
which Gargya is the probable author are fully
dedicated to chandas.

The Chandahsastra of Pingala or Pingalanaga is
the earliest work fully dedicated to the study of Vedic
prosody. It enjoyed the position as one among the
Vedanga-s. It deals with Vedic and Classical metres.
It mainly deals with the Rgvedic metres. The second
chapter deals with the eight metrical classes. The third
chapter takes note of the nature and varieties of the

12 Chandas as Vedanga

seven prime metres and a brief account of the colours,
races and sages of these metres.

The Jayadeva Chandas is a work on Vedic and
Classical prosody. It comprises of eight chapters out
of which the second and third chapters discuss about
Vedic prosody.

The Vrtta Muktavali authored by Srikrsna Bhatta
is divided into three gumpha-s. It has illustrated all
the varieties of Vedic metres.

मू ke ഴു;

Chapter 2
Classification of Chandas

Works on Chandahsastra have classified chandas
into different categories. Broadly chandas have been
classified as vaidika and laukika. The commentator
Halayudha on Chandahsutra of Pingala has classified
chandas as a) laukika b) vaidika and c) laukika-
vaidika. Bharatamuni has divided metres into three
categories viz; a) divya 0) divyetara and c) divyamanusa.

Apart from the above mentioned classification,
Yudhisthir Mimamsak classifies chandas a) those
which are based on the number of matras or more
known as matra-chandas b) those which are based on
the number of syllables as aksara chandas.

The chandas in the Veda-s are based on the number
of aksaras i.e. syllables. Some scholars regard varna
and aksara as synonymous. Aksaras or varnas are
classified into svaras (vowels) and vyanjanas
(consonants). Svaras which are hrsva, dirgha and pluta
give rise to one matra, two matras and three matras
respectively. Vvanjanas are measured as those having
half 8 matra. One matra is that time which is required
to blink an eyelid. Vedic chandas are further classified
as those following the specific number of syllables
wherein the number of feet or padas in the metres is
also significant. It is been observed that such mantras
frequently occur in the Yajurveda. There are chandas
which are based on the specific number of syllables

14 Chandas as Vedanga

as well as specific number of feet or padas. Rgveda is
replete with such chandas.

As per Vedic chandas, the number of aksaras is
measured by the svaras in a word and not by the
number of vyanjanas. Although a word may have
conjunct vyanjanas, its value depends on the svaras
present in it. The matric division of the svaras is further
developed into laghu (light) and (guru) heavy. The
tules clarifying /aghu and guru syllables are mentioned
in the Pratisaakhyas. A syllable is laghu only if the
vowel is hrasva and followed by one consonant before
another vowel is encountered.

1. Asyllable with an anusvara (‘m’) or a visarga (‘h’)
is always guru.

2. All other syllables are guru, either because the
vowel is dirgha (long), or because the hrasva vowel
is followed by a consonant cluster.

3. The hrasva vowels are the short monophthongs:
‘a’, വ, Su’, ‘7’ and ‘7

4. All other vowels are dirgha: ‘aa’, ‘ii’, ‘uu’, ‘rr’,
‘ee’, ‘al’, ‘o’ and ‘au’. (Note that, morphologically,
the last four vowels are actually the diphthongs ‘ai’,
‘aai’, ‘au’ and ‘aau’, as the rules of sandhi in
Sanskrit make clear. So, while an original ‘ai’, for
example, had been shortened to an ‘e’ sound in

practice, it was still to be treated as long metrically.

Chandas as Vedanga 15

5. According to some scholars, the last syllable in each
foot may be considered guru:

सानुस्वारश्च dda विसर्गी च गुरुभवेत्‌। वर्णः संयोगपूर्वश्च
तथा पादान्तगोऽपि ണ്ണി

But a guru at the end of a foot is never counted as
laghu.

For measurement by matra (morae), laghu
syllables count as one unit, and guru syllables as two
units.

It should be understood that while undertaking a
syllable count in Vedic mantras or sukta s, it is not
essential to separate the svara from vyanjana. e.g.

ars पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवमृत्विजम्‌ | होतारं रत्नधातमम्‌ I
अ,ग्नि,मी,ठे, पु, रो, हि, तम्‌ (1-8)
य, ज्ञ, स्य, दे, व, ஏ, ति, जम्‌ (1-96)
हो, ता, रं, % त्न, धा, त, मम्‌ (90-24)

There are three important constituents of a metre
viz; its syllabic strength, length and number of its feet
and its vrtti or rhythm. R. Sadashivmurthy while
referring to Rkpratisakhya (XVII. 21.) is of the opinion
that the syllabic strength is most important. Vedic
prosody lays down rules regarding the syllabic strength
of its metres. The syllabic strength of the metres is
discussed in this chapter. Foot or pada is another
important constituent of a metre. There are four
varieties of metrical feet viz; those having eight

16 Chandas as Vedanga

syllables, ten syllables, eleven syllables and twelve
syllables. The end of a rc is based on their meaning.
When the sense is completed the foot ends. Therefore
artha is a determining factor for the length of a foot.
Vrtti or rhythm is another important constituent. In
the Natyasastra, it is mentioned that vrtti is based on
the length of the penultimate syllable of the end of
foot. Out of the four varieties of feet, those having
eight and twelve syllabic feet consist of Jaghu syllable
in their penultimate. Those having ten and eleven
syllables in their feet have a guru syllable as their
penultimate.

Pause or avasana is another significant concept
while understanding the metres. A temporary stop or
rhythmic break is called avasana. It occurs after the
end of the sukta and also at the end of a mantra.
Meaning is a determining factor of a pause as also the
number of feet of a mantra. Mantras with one or two
feet pause on their completion. Those, which have
three feet, the first pause if after two feet and the second
pause is after the third foot. Mantras with four feet
have their first pause after two feet and the second
after the fourth.

In Vedic prosody, metres are classified as Daivi,
Asuri, Prajapatya, Yajusi, Samni, Arci, Brahmi and
Arsi. In each of these eight classes the seven prime
metres occur starting with Gayatri. Arsi metre has been
frequently used in Vedic literature. In this class a sukta
or a mantra consists of four feet 1.e. pada. But in the

Chandas as Vedanga 17

rest of the classes all the compositions are limited to
single pada. The seven types of chandas occur in each
of these classes. The seven metres are Gayatri, Usnih,
Anustubh, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh and Jagati. But, in
Ari class, fourteen more metres are incorporated. The
Rk pratisakhya gives a detailed enumeration of these
classes. The Natyasastra of Bharatamuni also
discusses these classes with variations in it. R. Sadasiva-
murthy has explained the classification of the classes
and has cited examples of the same.

1) Daivi:

Metres of this class start with single syllable and
end with seven syllables. All seven metres are included
in this class. Gayatri is monosyllabic. Each succeeding
metre after Gayatri is increased by one syllable e.g.
Usnih of this class is di-syllabic. Anustubh is tri-
syllabic and Jagati is hecta-syllabic. The word ‘Daivi’
is prefixed to each of these seven metres.

൫. Name ofthe Nameof No.of Examples
No. — chandas- the chandas syllables

class
1 Daivi Gayatri 1 ॐ
2 == Usnih 2 भुवः
3 =/= Anustubh 3 हृदयम्‌
4 == Brhati 4 भूर्भुवः al
5 =/= Pankti 5 तस्य எனன

(अथर्ववेद) 15/15/1

18 Chandas as Vedanga

6 =/= Tristbh 6 अथो அண்‌
(अथर्ववेद)
20/130/18
7 =/= Jagati 7 तस्मै ध्रुवाया दिशः
2) Asuri:

In this class too the seven metres, Gayatri and oth-
ers exist. Here the number of syllables begins with
fifteen and then falls successively by one syllable in
each succeeding metre. As the number of the metre
increases the number of syllables reduces. The term
Asuri is prefixed to the names of the seven metres.

$. Nameofthe Nameof No. of Examples
No. chandas- the chandas syllables
class
1 Asuri Gayatri 15 भगो न चित्रो अग्निर्महोनां
दधाति TTL
2 == Usnih 14 दूरे चत्ताय छन्तसद्‌ गहनं
यदि नक्षत्‌ (यजुर्वेद 8/53)
(दयानंद भाष्य)
3 == ഷഡി 13 प्राणाय मे वर्चोदा वर्चसे
पवस्व (शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 9/1)
4 =/= Brhati 12 नमो वःपितरः स्वधा वः
पितरः (अथर्ववेद 18/4/85)
5 =/= Pankti 11 सोमाय पितृमते स्वधा नमः

(अथर्ववेद 18/4/72)

Chandas as Vedanga 19

6 ==  Tristubh 10 agit त्वा पत्मन्नाधूनोमि
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 8/29)
7 == Jagati 9 तामासन्दीं व्रात्य आरोहत्‌

(अथर्ववेद 15/3/9)
3) Prajapatya
This class incorporates seven metres. Gayatri has
eight syllables in it. The number increases by four
syllables. Therefore, the last metre i.e., Jagati has 32

syllables in it. The term ‘Prajapatya’ is prefixed to
each of the seven metres.

S. Name of the Name of No. of Examples
class

1 Prajapatya Gayatri 8 कव्यवाहनाय स्वाहा

2 =/= Usnih 12 एनसएनसो ऽवयजनमसि
(दयानंद भाष्य यजुर्वेद 8/13)

3 =/= भपशप्रता 16 विवस्वच्रादित्यैष ते
सोमपीथस्तस्मिन्‌ मत्स्व
यजुर्वेद 8/5
दयानंद भाष्य)

4 =/= Brhati =. 20s TH शत्रून्‌ परि शूर
विश्चतो दर्भा दर्षीष्ट विश्वतः
(दयानंद 8/53)

5 == Pankti 24 எதோ सा देवानागच्छत्‌
तां देवा अघ्नत सार्धमासे
समभवत्‌ (अथर्ववेद
8/10 (3) 5)

20 Chandas as Vedanga

6 ==  Tristubh 28 ARTA आयतनं
शिष्यते य एवं विदुषा
व्रात्येनानतिसृष्टो जुहोति
(अथर्ववेद 15/12/11)

7 =/= கதம்‌. 32 Whaat: WIT
अरातयो facet रक्षो
निष्टप्ता अरातयः।
उर्वन्तरिक्षमन्वेमि (तैत्तिरीय
संहिता यजुर्वेद 1/2/2)

4) Yajusi:

This class begins with the metre Gayatri, which
is of six syllables. The number of syllables in each
metre increases by one. Yajusi Anustubh has eight
syllables, Brhati has nine, Yajusi Jagati has twelve
syllables.

class

1 Yajusi (षणा 6 अक्षिति भूयसीम्‌।
(अथर्ववेद 18/4/27)

2 =/= Usnih 7 அம்ர்‌ पृदाकुः (ade
8/23 दयानंद भाष्य)

3 ==  Amstubh 8 उपयामगृहीतोऽसि (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 7/25)

4 =/= Brhati 9 रक्षोहणं बलगहनम्‌ (शुक्ल

यजुर्वेद 5/28)

Chandas as Vedanga 21

5 =/= Pankti 10 मन्युरसि मन्युं मयि धेहि

6 == ऽए 11 भन्दनानां त्वा पत्मन्नाधूनोमि
यजुर्वेद 8/30)

7 =/= Jagati 12 कुकूननानां त्वा
पत्मन्नाधूनोमि (शुक्ल

5) Samni:

All seven metres are included in this class. The
number of syllables in the Samni class of metres is
increased by two. The Syllabic strength of Gayatri is
twelve, Usnih is fourteen Anustubh is sixteen. The
metres are called Samni Gayatri, Samni Tristubh etc.

൭. Name ofthe Nameof No. of Examples
class

1 Samni Gayatri 12 उपयामगृहीतोऽसि मर्काय
त्वा। (शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 7/16)

2 =/= Usnih 14
मनुष्यकृतस्यैनसो ऽवयजनमसि
| यजुर्वेद 8/13दयानंद भाष्य)
3 == भाण्डा 16 भूतं च भविष्यच्च परिष्कन्दौ
मनो विपथम्‌। (अथर्ववेद
15/2/6)
4 =/= Brhati 18 शुक्र त्वा SAT

रूपे सूर्यस्य MAGI
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 8/30)

22 Chandas as Vedanga

5 =/= Pankti 20 देवस्य त्वा सवितुः
प्रसवेऽश्चिनोर्बाहुभ्यां पूष्णो
हस्ताभ्याम्‌।। (शुक्ल यजुर्वेद
5/22)

6 == Tristubh 22 SSRI सम्राड्‌ वरुणश्च राजा

तौ ते भक्षं चक्रतुरग्र एतम्‌॥।
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 8/8)

7 =/= Jagati 24 अनु त्वा माता मन्यतामनु
पितानु भ्राता सगर्भ्योऽनु
सखा सयूथ्यः। (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 4/26)

6) Arci:

The number of syllables in the Gayatri metre be-
longing to the Arci class increases three times in com-
parison with that of the Yajusi metre. The first metre
i.e., Gayatri consists of eighteen syllables. The syl-
labic strength of each of the remaining six metres in-
creases by three. Arci Usnih is twenty one, Arci
Anustubh is twenty four etc.

class

1 Arci = Gayatri 18 देव सवितरेष ते सोमस्तं
रक्षस्व मा त्वा दभन्‌। (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 5/48)

Chandas as Vedanga

2 =/= Usnih
3 ==  Anustubh
4 =/= Brhati
5 =/= Pankti
6 =/= Tristubh
7 =/= Jagati

21

24

27

30

33

36

23

उपयामगृहीतोऽ सीन्द्राग्निभ्यां
त्यैष ते योनिरग्नीन्द्राभ्यां னா
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 7/32)

ஏன लोकाः पितृषदनाः
पितृषदने त्वा लोक आ
सादयामि।। (अथर्ववेद
18/8/67)

कुक्कुटोऽसि मधु fre इष
मूर्जमावद त्वया वयँ संघात
संघातं जेष्म।। (1/16 शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद)

यामगृहीतोऽस्यादिव्येभ्यस्त्वा।
विष्ण उरुगायैष ते सोमस्तं
रक्षस्व मा त्वा दभन्‌
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 5/22)

उपयामगृहीतो ऽसीन्द्राय त्वा
मरुत्वत एष ते योनिरिन्द्राय
त्वा मरुत्वते।। (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 7/38)

അജ मासौ दक्षिणाया
दिशो गोपायतो यज्ञा यज्ञियं
च वामदेव्यं चानु तिष्टतौ य
एवं all (अथर्ववेद 15/4/6)

24 Chandas as Vedanga
7) Arsi:

Daivi, Asuri and Prajapatya metre together
constitute an Arsi metre. The division is based on pada
1.6. feet. The first metre of this class consists of twenty
four syllables and the last metre consists of 48
syllables. The syllabic strength of each metre is
increased by four. The metres of this class are called
Arsi Gayatri, Arsi Usnih etc. Apart from the seven
metres, this class of metres includes many more metres
in it. As mentioned in the Rkpratisakhya, a mantra is
usually composed in Arsi metre (Taih prayo mantrah
slokasca vartate XVI. 9) (तैः प्रायो मंत्रःश्लो कश्च add).
According to R. Sadashivmurthy, the domain of this
metrical class is extended to both Vedic and classical
sections of Sanskrit Literature. In addition to these
seven, in the Arsi class there are fourteen varieties of
metres. Thus Arsi class includes twenty one metres.
The first seven categories are known as ‘great metres’
(brhat chandas), the second category of seven metres
is known as ‘long metres’ (Atichandas) which are
Atijagati, Sakvari, Atisakvari, Asti, Atyasti, Dhrti and
Atidhrti. The third category of seven metres is known
as Krti chandas which begin with Krti metre. They
are Krti, Prakrti, Akrti, Vikrti, Samkrti, Abhikrti and
Utkrti. Apart from these there is another group of
metres consisting of five metres preceding Gayatri.
They are known as ‘pre-Gayatri’ metres known as Ma,
Prama, Pratima, Upama and Samma.

Chandas as Vedanga 25

class

1 Arsi Gayatri 24 अग्निमीठे पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य
देवमृत्विजम्‌। होतारं
THAT (ऋग्वेद 1/1/
1)

2 =/= Usnih 28 बृहस्पतिसुतस्य देव सोम त
इन्दोरिन्ियावतः पलीवतो
ஏன்‌ ऋध्यासम्‌।। (तैत्तिरीय
संहिता 1/4/27)

3 == மமம்‌ 32 आतिष्ठ वृत्रहन्‌ रथं युक्ता
ते ब्रह्मणा हरी।
अवर्चिीरनसु ते मनो ग्रावा
कृणोतु TAT (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 8/15)

4 =/= Brhati 36 आपो देवीर्ृहतीर्विश्चशंभुवो
द्यावापृथिवी उरो अन्तरिक्ष
बृहस्पतये हविषा विधेम
स्वाहा।। (तैत्तिरीय संहिता
1.2.2.5.)

5 =/= Pankti 40 यस्ते अश्चसनिर्भक्षो यो
गोसनिस्तस्य त इष्टयजुषः
स्तुतस्तोमस्य
शस्तोक्थस्योपहूतस्योपहूतो
भक्षयामि।। (दयानंद भाष्य

यजुर्वेद 8/12)

26 Chandas as Vedanga

6 == ऽपी 44 सुगा वो देवा सदना अकर्म
ஏ are सवनं जुषाणाः
भरमाणा वहमाना हवीष्यस्मे
धत्त वसवो वसूनि களப
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 8/18)

7 =/= Jagati 48 पुरदस्मो विषुरूप
इन्दुरन्तर्महिमानमानञ्ज
धीरः। एकपदीं द्विपदीं
त्रिपदीं चतुष्पदीमष्टापदीं
भुवनानु प्रयन्ता स्वाहा

8) Brahmi :

The class of metres is a combination of Yajusi,
Samni and Arci. It is formed of single foot (pada)
mantras only. It involves the seven primary metres.
The term Brahmi is prefixed to each metre. The syllabic
strength of each metre consecutively increases by six

class

1 Brahmi Gayatri 36 वहतश्च वै स रथन्तरस्य
चादित्यानां च fast च
देवानां प्रियं धाम भवति
तस्य प्राच्यां दिशि।
(अथर्ववेद 15/2//4)

2

=/=

=/=

=/=

=/=

Usnih

Anustubh

Brhati

Pankti

42

48

54

60

27

या वां कशा मधुमत्यश्चिना
सूनृतावती। तया यज्ञं
मिमिक्षतम्‌।

उपयामगृहीतो ऽस्यञ्चिभ्यां
त्वा॥ (शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 7/
10)

अवभृथ निचुम्पुण

निचेरुरसि निचुम्पुणः। अव
देवैर्दवकृतमेनोऽयासिषमवमर्त्यै
्मत्यकृतं पुरुराव्णो
देवरिषस्पाहि।। (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 3/56)

एया व्यँ ससवांसो मदेम
हव्येन देवा यवसेन गावः।
तां धेनुं मित्रावरुणा युवं नो
विश्चाहा धत्तमनपस्फुरन्तीमेष
ते योन तायुभ्यां ATI
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 7/9)

अदित्यास्त्वा मूर्धन्नाजिघर्मिं
देवयजनं पृथिव्या
इडायास्पदमसि घृतवत्‌ स्वाहा।
अस्मे रमस्वास्मे ते எனி
रायो अस्मे रायो मा वयँ
रायस्पोषेण वियौ ष्म तोतो
Wall (शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 4/29)

== Tristubh 66 द्यां मा लेखीरन्तरिक्षं मा हिसीः
पृथिव्या सम्भव। अर्यँहि त्वा
स्वधितिस्तेतिजानः प्रणिनाय
महते सौभगाय। अतस्त्वं देव
वनस्पते शतवल्शो विरीह
सहस्रवल्श वि वयु रुहेम
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 5/54)

=/= Jagati ന उदिवस्तभान्तरिक्षं पृण दँ हस्व
पृथिव्यां द्युतानस्त्वा मारुतो
मिनोतु मित्रावरुणौ ध्रुवेण
धर्मणा।
ब्रह्मवनि ता क्षत्रवनि रायस्पोषवनिं
पयूहामि। ब्रह्म दृह क्षत्र
SBS ह प्रजां दँ ह। (शुक्ल
यजुर्वेद 5/34 - 35)

मू भ ഴു;

Chapter IIT
Primary metres

Gayatri, Usnih, Anustubh, Brhati, Pankti, Tristubh
and Jagati are the primary metres. These metres are
further divided and sub-divided into various metres
and are also employed in Sanskrit Prosody. It is to be
noted that some scholars consider other metres as those
belonging to the category of these metres. This means
that each of these metres later on became an
independent category itself.

The seven metres play a very significant role in
the myths of bringing Soma to the earth. This myth
occurs in the Aitareya Brahmana (111.25-28), Tandya
Mahabrahmana (17111.4.1) and the Satapatha Brahmana
(IV.3.2.7-9).

Gods and seers aspired for getting Soma. They
assigned to the metres the sacred task of fetching
Soma. The metres flew up in the form of birds. They
had four syllables each. The Jagati being of four
syllables, first flew up, having gone half of the way,
she felt tired. She laid aside three syllables and being
one-syllabic she returned and got along with her diksa
and virya. Then Tristubh flew, who returmed with three
syllables and daksina. When Gayatri flew she terrified
the guardians of Soma. She grasped Soma by her
mouth and got back the syllables dropped by other
metres. She became octo-syllabic. She got the pratah
savana (प्रातः सवन) (morning pressing of Soma)

30 Chandas as Vedanga

madhyandina savana (माध्यंदिन सवन) (mid-day pressing
of Soma) and sayam savana (सायं सवन) (evening
pressing of Soma) with her. She supported the morning
pressing with her eight syllables. But Tristubh could
not support with the mid-day pressing with only three
syllables. So, Gayatri united with Tristubh, which had
eleven syllables. Jagati could not support the evening
pressing with one syllable. Therefore, Gayatri along
with Tristubh united with her and became twelve-
syllabic.

This indicates that the concept of metre was of
uniform syllables of a small measurement. Later on
they grew and there were variations in the number of
syllables. It clearly brings out the significance of
Gayatri chandas for bringing Soma on to the earth.

The Jaiminiya Brahmana (1.141) says that Gayatri
is eight-syllabled (in each foot); the Vasus are eight in
number. Jristubh has eleven syllables; the Rudras are
eleven in number. Jagati has twelve syllables, the
Adityas are twelve in number. Here the very idea that
a particular deity is associated with each syllable of a
particular metre shows how the metres are given the
divine status.

Gayatri :

This metre is revered and worshipped from times
yonder till present. It has great deal of sanctity during
thread ceremony and also during the performance of
Sandhya. Mantra-s for worshipping many gods are in
this metre. Gayatri is worshipped as a goddess too.

Chandas as Vedanga 31

Its significance has been lauded in the Bhagavadgita
by Lord Krsna as (Gayatri chandasamaham X. 35).

Etymology of the word Gayatri :

R. Sadashivmurthy has discussed the etymology
of Gayatri in detail. ‘Gayatri gayateh stutikarmanah’
(गायत्री गायतेः स्तुतिकर्मणः) and ‘gayato mukhadudapataditi
ha Brahmanam’ (गायतो मुखादु दपटदिति ब्राह्मणम्‌) are the two
derivations given in the Daivata Brahmana. According
to Sayanacarya, in the first derivation ‘gayati’ means
praising and through praising, this metre brings to light
the deities. The second derivation is based on
mythology. It is said that from the face of Prajapati,
while he was reciting the Vedas, the essence of the
Veda-s sprung. That essence itself is Gayatri. The
metre Gayatri advises men not to waste the time in
this futile world. She protects the one who praises her
through singing. Hence she is called Gayatri (gataram
trayate yasmat, Gayatri tena sa smrteti) (गातारं त्रायते
यस्मात्‌ गायत्री तेन सा स्मृतेति).

According to the Nirukta of Yaska, the word
Gayatri is derived from the verb ‘gayati’. This word
is also formed from the ‘metathesis’ of the word
‘trigamana’. He says, ‘this metre often moves among
the three Veda-s: Rgveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda
and so this is primarily called ‘trigayat’ and due to the
transposition of the letter, it has been changed as
gayatttri.’ In the Purana-s, Gayatri is praised as the

32 Chandas as Vedanga

very manifestation of trinity and as the mother of the
Veda-s.

This chandas has mainly three padas i.e. feet. In
some places, it is mentioned that Gayatri has one, two,
four and five feet. Therefore it is divided as Ekapada,
Dvipada, Tripada, Catuspada and Pancapada. The
Tripada Gayatri has eight syllables in each pada. The
Chandahsutra of Pingala mentions about these
variations of Gayatri.

Gayatri chandas: When 8+8+8=24 syllables occur
in a mantra, that is known as Gayatri chandas.

e.g. aia पुरोहितं यज्ञस्य देवमृत्विजम्‌। होतारं रलधातमम्‌।।
(ऋग्वेद 1.1.1.)

1) Padanicrt Gayatri : When 7171721 syllables occur
in three feet, then that is known as Padanicrt
Gayatri. Wherever there is one syllable less in the
feet, the chandas is known as Nicrt and wherever
there is one syllable more in the feet, the chandas
is known as Bhurik, as per the Chandahsutra of
Pingala. (उनाधिकेनैकेन निचृद्धुरिजौ। 3.59)

e.g., युवाकु हि शचीनां युवाकु सुमतीनाम्‌। भूयाम वाजदालनाम्‌।।

(ऋग्वेद 1. 17. 4.)

2) Atipadanicrt Gayatri : When the first foot has 6,

second 8 and third seven (6+8+7) then the mantra
belongs to the Atipadanicrt Gayatri chandas as in

प्रष्टं वो अतिथिं स्तुषे मित्रमिव प्रियम्‌। अग्निं रथं न ப
ആഞ്ഞ. 84. 1.)

Chandas as Vedanga 33

3) Atinicrt Gayatri : When the three padas have
7+6+7=20 syllables, it is known as Afinicrt Gayatri
chandas.

पुरुतमं पुरूणां स्तोतृणां विवाचि। वाजेभिर्वाजयताम्‌।।
(ऋग्वेद 6. 45. 29)

4) Hrasiyasi (Atinicrt Gayatri) : When the first
and the second feet have 6 syllables each and the third
foot has seven (6+6+7=19), then the Rksarvanukramani calls
it Hrasiyasi Gayatri.

्रष्टमुप्रियाणां स्तुद्यासावातिथिम्‌।
अग्निं रथानां यमम्‌॥ (௬9 8. 103.10)

5) Vardhamana (a) : When the three feet have
6+7+8= 21 syllables respectively, then it is known as
one type of Vardhamana Gayatri.

त्वमग्ने यज्ञानां होता विश्रेषां हितः।
देवेभिमनुषे जने॥ (ऋग्वेद 6. 16. 1)

6) Vardhamana (0) : According to Rkpratisakhya
when the first foot has 8, second has 6 and the third
has 8 (8+6+8= 22) then it is second type of Vardhamana
Gayatri. According to Yudhisthir Mimamsak, the
example of this type is yet to be known.

7) Vardhamana (c) also known as Pratistha
Gayatri : This is exactly the reverse of Vardhamana
(a) type. The three feet have 8+7+6=21 syllables in it.

आपः पृणीत भेषजं वरूथं तन्वे ३मम।
जयोक्‌ च सूर्य दृशे॥ (ऋवेद) 1. 23. 21.

34 Chandas as Vedanga

8) Varahi : The first foot has 6, the second and the
third feet have 9 syllables each. We are stating the
example. But according to Yudhisthir Mimamsak, the
example of the Varahi Gayatri is yet to be found.

अग्ने मृठ என்‌ असि यऽईमा cag जनम्‌।
इयेथ बर्हिरासदम्‌ (ऋग्वेद 4. 9. 1.)

9) Nagi : This is opposite of Varahi. The first and
the second feet have 9 syllables each and the third foot
has 6 syllables in it.

अग्ने तमद्याश्चं न स्तोमैः न ஐம்‌ भद्रं न हृदिस्पृशम्‌।
ஊனா त ओहैः (௭௬ 4. 10. 1.)
10) Yavamadhya : Just as the two ends of yava
grain are minute and the mid portion is broad, this
metre has 7 syllables in first and third feet and 10
syllables in the second foot. According to Pingalacarya,
this attribute is suitable for all the metres which have
more number of syllables in the mid-foot and less in
beginning and end.

स सुन्वे यो वसूनां यो रामामानेता य ஊரு
सोमो यः सुक्षितीनाम्‌ (௭9 9. 108. 13.)
11) Pipilikamadhya: This is opposite of
Yavamadhya. The first and the third feet have
9 syllables each and the second foot has 6 syllables.
This attribute befits all the metres which more number
of syllables in the beginning and ending and less in
the mid portion.

Chandas as Vedanga 35

12) Usniggarbha: This chandas has 6+7+11=24
syllables in the first, second and third feet respectively.
The example of this metre is cited in the Rkpratisakhya.

तामे எண்‌ हरीणां नितोशना।
ठतो नु HAM ஏஏ (ऋग्वेद 8.25.23.)

13) Bhuriggayatri : This chandas has 8 syllables
in the first foot, 10 in the second and 7 in the third
foot. According to Rksarvanukramani, the example
cited below occurs in the Kakubhusnik chandas.
Sadgurusisya, the commentator on this text says that
this is the example which occurs in the Brahmana-s
for Bhuriggayatri and Kakubhusnik chandas.

विदांसाविहुरः पृच्छेद्‌ अविद्वानित्यापरो अचेताः।
नू fag मर्ते எனி (ऋग्वेद 1.120. 2.)

14) Tripad Virat : The padas of the chandas have
11+11+11=33 syllables. But according to Rkpratisakhya,
Rksarvanukramani and Venkata this is a type of
Anustubh.

दुहीयानित्रधितये युवाकु राये चं नो मिमीतं वाजवत्यै।
इषे च नो मिमीतं धेनुमल्यै॥ (ऋग्वेद 1.120. 9.)

15) Catuspada : This type of Gayatri chandas has

got six syllables and four feet.

इन्द्रः शचिपतिर्‌ वलेन वीकितः।
दुश्चयवनो वृषा समत्सु सासहि।। (ऋ्वेदप्रातिशाख्य 16. 17)

16) Padapankti : This Gayatri is explained in
various ways. It has five feet. The Rksarvanukramani

36 Chandas as Vedanga

considers Padapankti to have 5+5+5+5+6 or 5+5+5+ 416
syllables. The mantra which has 5+5+5+5+6 syllables
is called Bhurikpadapankti according to the
Rkpratisakhya.
अधा ह्यग्ने क्र तौर्भद्रस्य दक्षस्य साधोः।
THETA बृहतो वभूथ।। (ऋवेद 4. 10.2.)
The mantra which has 5+5+5+5+6 syllables is called
Bhurikpadapankti according to the Rkpratisakhya.
घृतं न पूतं तनूररेपाः शुचि हिरण्यम्‌।
तत्ते रुक्मो न रोचत स्वधावः॥ (ऋग्वेद 4. 10. 6.)
17) Dvipada (a) : This type of Gayatri has 12+12=24
syllables and two feet.
सनो वाजेष्वविता पुरुवसुः पुरस्थाता मघवा वृत्रहा भुवत्‌॥।
(ऋग्वेद 8. 46. 13)
18) Dvipada (0) : Another type of Dvipada Gayatri
has 8+8=16 syllables.
एष ब्रह्मा य ऋत्विय इन्द्रो नाम श्रुतो ஏரி]
(सामवेद पूर्वार्चिका 5.6.24)
19) Dvipad Virat (a) : This metre has 12+8=20
नृभिर्येमानो हर्यतो विचक्षणो।
राजा देवः समुद्रियः॥ (ऋग्वेद 9. 107. 16.)
20) Dvipad Virat (0) : This metre has 1011020

दाधार क्षेममोको न रण्वो यवो न पक्वो जेता जनानाम्‌॥।
(ऋग्वेद 1. 66. 3.)

Chandas as Vedanga 37

21) Dvipad Svarat : This type of Gayatri has 9+9=18

अग्ने எள்‌ अन्तम उत त्राता शिवा भुवि वरुथ्यः।
(सामवेद पूर्वार्चिका 5.7. 2.);

22) Ekapada : This Gayatri has one foot and eight

भद्रं नो अपिः वातय aa (ऋग्वेद 10. 20.1)

23) Jambuka Gayatri : This metre is mentioned in
Katyayana Parisista.

शादं दद्धिः ....-यजूषि जम्बूका द्विपदा।
Usnih :

This metre has got three feet and they have
8+8+12=28 syllables in the each foot respectively. The
word Usnih is used only once in the Rgveda (X.130.4).
As Gayatri is associated with Agni, this metre is related
with Savitr.

In the Soma sacrifice, while laying down the order
of the Gavamayana, it is said that there are two months
of twenty eight days on both the sides of the Visuvanta
(solstice) days. Usnih has twenty eight syllables; the
neck is connected with the Usnih (Kausitaki Brahmana
XXXVI.1.) as in common language it is considered to
be a head dress or a turban. In the diksa, it is said that
he who desires long life, should use verses in the Usnih
metre. The Usnih is long life. One who knows the

38 Chandas as Vedanga

mantra-s in the Usnih metre has a long life as per the
Aitareya Brahmana (1.5).

At times there are myths which deal with Usnih
and Kakubh metres. Kakubh has 8+12+8=28 syllables
in its three feet respectively. The Zandya Mahabrahmana
(VIIL5.2.) says that Indra hurled his thunderbolt at Vtra.
At the Kakubh chandas he made at stride onwards
and at Usnih he hurled the weapon. Therefore, the
middle portion of a verse of Kakubh has the highest
number of syllables, for it is a striding on. Thereupon,
he drew together. Therefore, the last mantra quarter
of the Usnih has the highest number of syllables, which
indicates the force of attack.

A variant of the Indra-Vrtra myth in connection
with the two metres also occurs in the Jaiminiya
Brahmana (1.158). This text says that as Indra could
not be supported by two Gayatris, in his onslaught on
Vrtra, he added to them the four-footed animals viz;
cow, horse, goat and sheep. The metres Kakubh and
Usnih which arose out of them supported Indra.
Standing on them Indra slew Vrtra. Dange notes that
the basis of the metres Kakubh and Usnih is Gayatri
which is of 24 syllables. Adding four-footed animals
took the number to 28 which is corresponds to the
number of syllables in Usnih and Kakubh metres.

Etymology of Usnih :

The derivation of the words Usnih according to
Bhakta Bhaskara’s commentary on the Aitareya

Chandas as Vedanga 39

Brahmana is from the verbal root snih to which ‘ut’ is
prefixed. He says : ஊன்‌ ऊर्ध्वजीविनौ எனன इति
व्युत्पत्या आयुरवृद्धिहेतुत्वमुष्णिहः।

According to Nirukta, as it is richer by four
syllables than Gayatri, it is called Usnih. Here the
derivation is from the root ‘sna’. Secondly, as it is the
most dearest of gods, it is called Usnih, which the root
‘snih’. Thirdly, it is compared with a diadem. In the
Daivata Brahmana, a similar derivation is found.

In the case of prime metres, the syllabic increase
from Gayatri begins with Usnih. Hence, there is a lot
of discussion in the Vedic texts regarding syllables
more than Gayatri.

Varieties of Usnih :

1) Kakubh : The first and third padas have 8 and
the second pada has 12 syllables. This is like a hump.
Therefore the mid-portion is larger than the first and
the last.

युष्माकं स्मा at अनु 98 दधे मरुतो जीरदानवः।
वृष्टी द्यावो எனி (ऋग्वेद 5. 53. 5.)

2) Pura Usnih : The first pada has 12, the second

and the third pada have eight syllables each.
तच्चक्षर्देवहितं शुक्रमुच्चरत्‌।
पश्येम शरदः शतं जीवेम शरदःशतम्‌।। (ऋग्वेद 7. 66. 16.)

3) Parosnih or Usnih : The first two padas have

8 syllables each and the last pada has 12 syllables.

40 Chandas as Vedanga

Pingala has given this as a separate variety. Otherwise,
this is the usual Usnih chandas.

अग्ने वाजस्य गोमत ईशानः सहसो यहो।
अस्मे धेहि जातवेदो महि श्रवः॥ (ऋग्वेद 1. 79. 4.)
4) Kakumnyankusira : The three feet have 11+12+4

syllables respectively. This chandas has 27 letters
therefore, the Rkpratisakhya calls it ‘Nicrt’.

ददी ഞ്ഞ്‌ ददिर्वसु ददिवजिषु पुरुहूत वाजिनम्‌।
नूनमथ॥। (ऋग्वेद 8.
46. 15.)

5) Tanusira : This chandas has 1141116 syllables
in its three feet.

प्रयाघोपे भृगवाणे न शोभे यया वाचा यजति पज्रियो वाम्‌।
परषयुर्न विदान्‌॥। (ऋग्वेद 1. 120. 5.)

6) Pipilikamadhya : This chandas has 1116411
syllables in it

हरी यस्य सुयुजा विव्रता वेर्‌ अर्वन्तानु शेपा।
उभा रजो न केशिना पतिर्दन्‌॥। (ऋग्वेद 10. 105. 2.)

7) Catuspad : This chandas has four feet and each
foot has seven syllables. This division, based on padas
appears to be Anustubh. But based on the number of
syllables is Usnih. This indicates that the number of
syllables was the primary criteria of determining the
metre of a mantra.

नदं व ओदतीनां नदं ആണിന്നു
पतिं वो अघ्यानां धेनूनामिषुध्यसि।। ആഞ്ഞ. 69. 2.)

Chandas as Vedanga 41

8) Anustubh-garbha : This chandas has four feet
and division is 5+8+8+8 =29. Pingala and Gargya have
called this as Sankumati-Usnih.

पितुं नु स्तोषं என்‌ धर्माणं तविषीम्‌।
यस्य त्रितो व्योजसा gat विपर्वमर्दयत्‌।। (ऋग्वेद 1.187.1.)

Anustubh metre :

This metre has 32 syllables and is equally
divided in 4 padas. It has a significant position in the
Vedic sacrificial tradition. The Maitrayani Samhita
equates Anustubh with speech (IV.3.10). Kausitaki
Brahmana (XXVI.1) says in the context of
Gavamayana that the first month has thirty two days
and the last month has thirty two days, just as Anustubh
has thirty two syllables. So, the sacrifice begins and
concludes with mantras in the Anustubh chandas. The
Tandya Mahabrahmana (XXIII. 28ff) says that as cattle
are four footed so is Anustubh. Those desirous of
obtaining cattle should undertake the thirty two day
ritual and thereby worship speech and Anustubh.

The metre Anustubh is invariably identified with
Speech. There is an interesting detail in this
connection. While performing the initiation of a
student, it is said that the preceptor should teach him
the Savitri mantra in the Gayatri metre and not that
one in the Anustubh metre. The Satapatha Brahmana
says that some teach an Anustubh Savitri saying,
“Anustubh is Speech; we thus lay Speech unto him

42 Chandas as Vedanga

But the Satapatha Brahmana opines that he should
not do so. In that case one would say that ‘surely this
(student) has taken away the teacher’s Speech; he will
become dumb,’ then that might even come true and
the teacher will become dumb. In this, the ritual belief
that the Anustubh metre stands for Speech, is clearly
reflected. However, the Satapatha Brahmana does not
give any details regarding the Anustubh Savitri in this
context.

The greatness of Anustubh is such that Prajapati
himself is its deity. Indra is also associated with this
metre. It is also associated with the earth in the Tandya
Mahabrahmana (111.7.2.3). The sacrifice is present on
the earth and thereby gains firm support. Moreover,
as Anustubh is Speech, he is firmly established in
Speech too, without which the sacrifice would be
incomplete. According to the Satapatha Brahmana,
Anustubh is associated with the North direction
(VIIL3.1.12).

Derivation of Anustubh :

According to the Nirukta, Anustubh came into
existence on account of changing the three octo
syllabic feet of Gayatri to four octo-syllabic feet.
Hence, this is called Anustubh (अनुष्ट्भनुष्टोभनात्‌। गायत्रीमेव
त्रिपदां सतीं चतुर्थन पादेनानुष्टोभतीति च ब्राह्मणम्‌।)

Varieties of Anustubh :

Based on the number of feet and number of
syllables, the types of Anustubh chandas are as
follows:

Chandas as Vedanga 43

1) Purastajjyoti (Tripad 1): That Anustubh which
has three feet having 8+12+12= 32 syllables is known
as Purastajjvoti. According 1௦ Yudhisthir Mimamsak,
an example of this chandas is not cited anywhere.

2) Madhyejyoti (Pipilikamadhya Tripad ii): This
type of Anustubh has 12+8+12=32 syllables in it.

पर्यूषु प्रधन्व वाजसातये परिवृत्राणि सक्षणिः।

द्विषस्तरध्या ऋणया न ईयसे॥ (Haz 9. 110. 1.)

3) Uparistajjyoti (Krti Tripad iii): This metre has
12+12+8=32 syllables.

मा कस्मै धातमभ्यमित्रिणे नो माकुत्रा नो गृहेभ्यो धेनवो गु।

स्तनभुजो STAT: | (ऋग्वेद 1. 120. 8.)

4) Kaviraj : This type consists of twelve syllabic
feet in between two nine feet syllabic feet. This is
formed of thirty syllables only. Two syllables are less
than the required number.

ளக हवामहे वां ता नो विद्वांसा मन्म वोचेतमद्य

ரா दयमानो युवा कुः॥ (ऋग्वेद 1. 120.3.)

5) Nastarupa : This chandas has 9+10+13= 32

वि पृच्छामि पाक्या ३ न देवान्‌ Tepes ജി

पातं च Waal युवं च रभ्यसो AT (ऋग्वेद 1. 120.4.)

6) Viraj (a): The chandas has 11+11+11=33 syllables
in it is known as Viradanustubh.

44 Chandas as Vedanga

शरुधी हवं विपिपानस्याद्रेर्‌ वोधा विप्रस्यार्चतो मनीषाम्‌।
कृष्वा STITT सचेमा॥ (ऋग्वेद 7. 22. 4.)

7) Viraj (0) : That chandas which has 10+10+10=30
is called Viraj.

The word Virat has two meanings expressed in it
viz; a) which has 10 syllables in three feet. b) Which
has 11 syllables in it. Another meaning of Virat is that
it has two syllables less. Then it is called Viratgayatri
which has 22 syllables and Viradusnih which has 26

अग्न इन्द्रस्य दाशुषो दुरोणे सुतावतो यज्नमिहोप यातम्‌।
अमर्धन्ता सोमपेयाय ளே (ऋग्वेद 3. 25. 4.)

8) Catuspada : It has four feet and each has eight
syllables in it (8+8+8+8=32).

सुविवृतं सुनिरजम्‌ इन्द्र त्वादातमिद्यशः।

गवामप व्रजं वृधि कृणुष्व राधो अद्रिवः।। (ऋग्वेद 1. 10. 7.)

9) Padairanustubh : That chandas which has
7+7+7+7=28 syllables is called Padairanustubh. This
is mentioned in the Rkpratisakhya only.

10) Mahapadapankti : This chandas has 5+5+5+
5+5+6=31 syllables and 6 feet is called Mahapadapankti
Anustubh. The example has been cited in the
Rkpratisakhya only.

तव स्वादिष्टाऽग्ने संदृष्टिर्‌ इदा face इदा चिदक्तोः।
श्रिये रुक्मो न रोचत ரோக! (ऋग्वेद 4. 10. 5.)

Chandas as Vedanga 45

Brhati:

This chandas has four feet and the number of
syllables arranged in the feet 8+8+8+12=36. Brhati is
also associated with many concepts, like other metres.
In the Rgveda, it is said to be the speech of Brhaspati
(brhaspaterbrhati vacamavadat X.130.4) (वृहस्पतेरवृहती
वाचमवदत्‌) According to the Satapatha Brahmana
(XIV.4.1.21), the word Brhaspati has been derived from
Brhati. It is also mentioned that Brhati itself is speech.
Brhaspati is the Lord of Speech (vagvai brhati. Tasya
esa patih, tasmat brhaspatih). (ara बृहती तस्य एष पतिः,
तस्मात्‌ बृहस्पतिः)

In the Asvamedha, the consecrated horse is set free
to roam for one full year. Meanwhile, at the place
where the sacrifice is to be performed after one year,
the priest narrates revolving legend period for each
ten days’ 1.e., Pariplava-akhyana. This very same
legend revolves again and again for one year, uor a
thirty-six x ten-days’ period (=360 days). He renarrates
it, because, the Brhati metre consists of thirty-six
syllables, and cattle are related to the Brhati metre; by
means of the Brhati he thus secures cattle for him.

The Taittiriya Brahmana (1.5.12.2.) speaks of the
Devaksara Brhati which symbolizes twelve full moon
days, twelve Astaka-s (eighth days after the full-moon
days, in twelve months) and twelve New moon days
(all amounting to thirty six in number). ‘Sayanacarya’
says that there are two types of Brhati - Sabdatmika

46 Chandas as Vedanga

and ‘Devatatmika’, both formed by the aksara-s that
are ‘sabdatmaka’ (concerning the word) and
‘devatatmaka’ (concerning the deity) respectively. The
aksara here signifies a part (avayava) which does not
fall down or does not decay (a-ksara). Thus it can be
a syllable or any sacrificial unit. The Sabdatmika
Brhati (i.e., a verse in the Brhati metre, having thirty-
six syllables, arranged in four feet as 8+8+8+12=36 is
to be seen in the mantra such as punanah soma etc.,
(IX. 107.6). The Devatatmika Brhati is the one
consisting of the undecaying (aksara) parts (avayava),
which form a deity i.e., the Brhati, which is
conceptually formed. In this Brhati is believed to have
established the orb of the Sun. This concept could be
taken to apply to all cases where, on the basis of
syllables, items are given the names of metres, or items
are grouped likewise.

Brhati is connected with cattle. The Maitrayani
Samhita (1V.6.9.) while laying down the three sacrifices,
says that the two Brhati verses take hold of the Sun.
The Brhati are cattle. The Taittiriva Samhita (V.3.2.4.)
says that once the metres ran a race for the cattle. The
Brhati won them.

Brhati is also associated with the Sun. The
Satapatha Brahmana (611. 8. 3. 24.) says anything
established in Brhati is glory and this makes the Sun
shine. According to the Zandya Mahabrahmana gives
a mythical account in the context of the first sacrificial
session on the river Sarasvati. It is said that by means

Chandas as Vedanga 47

of the Sarasvati, the gods propped the Sun but he could
not sustain, it collapsed. Hence Sarasvati is full of
bendings as it were. Then they propped the Sun by
means of Brhati and thereupon the Sarasvati sustained
it. Hence, Brhati is the strongest of the metres, for
they had propped the Sun with it (XXV.10.11).

Etymology of Brhati :

According to R.Sadashivmurthy, this is an
enriched form of Anustubh. The word Brhati is derived
from the root ‘brh’ which means ‘to grow up’ (brhati
pari barhanat) (बृहती परि ന്നു). The Daivata
Brahmana also has similar etymology. This chandas
grows by one syllable in each feet of the four footed
Anustubh. Thus four syllables are added to Brhati than
Anustubh.

Varieties of Brhati :

1) Brhati (a): This metre has nine syllables in each
pada. Yudhisthir Mimamsak comments on the example
that it carries 10 syllables in the first foot, so it is to be
regarded as Bhurik-Brhati.

चक्षुषो हेते मनसो हेते वाचो हेते ब्रह्मणो റി
यो माघायुरभिदासति तमग्ने मेन्या मेनि कृष्णु॥
(तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण 2. 4. 2. 1.)

2) Brhati (0): This chandas has 10+10+8+8= 36
syllables. Mimamsak notes that the second foot of this
example has 11 syllables, so it is known as Bhurik-
Brhati

48 Chandas as Vedanga

कां सोस्मितां हिरण्यप्राकाराम्‌ ഞി ज्वलन्तीं तृप्तां तर्पयन्तीम्‌।
पद्येस्थितां पद्मवर्णा तामिहोपह्यये TAI
(श्रीसूक्तम्‌)
3) Purastadbrhati : This chandas has 12+8+8+8=
36 syllables.

महौ यस्पतिः शवसो असाम्या महो नृम्णस्य तूतुजिः।
भर्ता ஏளன धृष्णोः पिता पुत्रमिव प्रियम्‌
(ऋग्वेद 10. 22. 3.)

4) Nyankusarini : If the second foot has twelve
syllables and the remaining have only eight syllables
in each, it is called Nyankusarini Brhati. It is also
known as Skandhogrivi Brhati by Krostuki and
Urobrhati by Yaska.

मत्स्यपायि ते महः पात्रस्येव हरियो मत्सरो मदः।

वृषा ते वृष्ण इन्दुर्‌ वाजी सहस्रसातमः॥

(ऋग्वेद 1. 175. 1.)

5) Pathya : This chandas has 8+8+12+8= 36
syllables. Upanidana Sutra calls it ‘Siddha’.

मा चिदन्यद्‌ वि शंसत सखायो मा रिषण्यत्‌।

Sod स्तोता वृषणं सचा सुते मुहुरुक्था च शंसत॥

(HS 8.1.1.)

6) Uparistat Brhati : This chandas has 8+8+8+ 12=36
syllables. Many treatises on prosody mention about this
chandas.

शुनमस्मभ्यमूतये वरुणो मित्रो अर्यमा।

शर्म यच्छन्तु सप्रथ आदित्यासो यदीमहे अति கு:

(ऋग्वेद 10.126. 7)

Chandas as Vedanga 49

7) Vistara Brhati : This chandas has 8+10+10+ 8=36
syllables in it.
युवं ह्यास्तं महो रन्‌ युवं वा यत्निरततंसतम्‌।
तानो वसु सुगोपा स्यातं पातं नो वृकादघायोः॥
(ऋग्वेद 1. 120.7.)

8) Visamapada Brhati : This metre has 9+8+11+
8=36 syllables in its four feet.

सनितः सुसनितसग्र चित्र चेतिष्ठ सूनृत।
प्रासहा सम्राट सहुरिं അവ്‌ भुज्युं वाजेषु पूर्व्यम्‌॥।
(ऋग्वेद 8. 46. 20.)
9) Mahabrhati : This chandas has 12+12+12=36
syllables in its three feet.

अध यदिमे पवमान रोदसी इमा च विश्चा भुवनाभि मज्मना।
यूथे न निष्ठा वृषभो वि faa
(ऋग्वेद 9. 110.9.)

10) Satobrhati : This variety occurs in the
Chandahsutra-s of Jayadeva. It has two successive 8-
syllablic feet followed by two feet which have 10
syllables each.

11) Pipilikamadhya : This Brhati has got three feet
and 13+8+13=34 syllables in it. As mentioned by
R.Sadashivmurthy, this variety occurs in some texts
like the Rkpratisakhya.

अभि वो वीरमन्धसो मदेषु गाय गिरा महाविचेतसम्‌।
इन्द्रं नाम श्रुत्यं शाकिनं वचो Gal
(ऋग्वेद 8. 46. 14.)

50 Chandas as Vedanga
Pankti :

It has four feet and ten syllables. At times, it is
observed that it has five feet for it is said pancapada
pankti. (Aitareya Brahmana V1.20). The Taittiriya
Samhita (V1.2.2.2) associates the fivefold metre with
the Tanunapat Agni. The Maitrayani Samhita (1.11.10)
refers to a myth associated with a variant of Pa.kti
known as Aksarapankti. It is said that this metre is
conquered by Savit.. The Kausitaki Brahmana (1.3)
comments on the five footed nature of Pankti metre.
It is said that in the re-establishments of the sacred
Agni a purodasa of five potsherds (kapala) is offered.
This corresponds with the five footed Pankti metre
and the sacrifice is five-fold. The Taittiriya Brahmana
(11.7.10.2) relates the five-footed Pankti with the five
seasons. Yudhisthir Mimamsak observes that
pancapada Pankti is rarely found in the Vedas. Dange
says that as the sacrifice is often said to be five-fold
(pankta), the Pankti verses are enjoined in its
performance and thus the latter are said to give support
to the former. This stresses the concept of
rupasamrddha of the sacrifice.

Derivation of Pankti :

The Nirukta and the Daivata Brahmana both
associate this metre with five feet. It is said in the
Nirukta that Pankti is so called because it is related to

five padas (pancabhih padaih panktirityucyate).
(पञ्चाभिः पादैः पंक्तीरित्युच्यते)।

Chandas as Vedanga 51

Varieties of Pankti :

1) Satah Pankti (a): It is also known as Satobrhati,
Siddha, Vistara and also Siddhavistara. This metre has
12+8+12+8=40 syllables and four feet.

अग्निना तुर्वशं यदु परावतः Sues हवामहे।
अग्निर्नयन्नववास्त्वं बृहद्रथं तुर्वीतिं दस्यवे सहः॥
(ऋग्वेद 1.36. 18)
2) Satah Pankti ൪): It is also known as Viparita,
Siddha and at places Vistara. This metre has
8+12+8+12=40 syllables.

य ऋष्वः श्रावयत्सखा विश्चेत्‌ स वेद जनिमा Yared: |
तं विश्च मानुषा മു हवन्ते तविषं यतस्रुचः।।
(ऋग्वेद 8. 46. 12)
3) Astarapankti : This metre has 8+8+12+12=40
syllables

भद्रं नो अपि वातय मनो दक्षमुत क्रतुम्‌।
अधा ते सख्ये अन्धसो वि वो मदे रणन्‌ गावो न यवसे विवक्षसे॥
(ऋग्वेद 10. 25. 1)

4) Prastarapankti : It is reverse of Astarapankti.
It has 8+8+12+12= 40 syllables.

भद्रमिद्‌ भद्रा कृणवत्‌ सरस्व त्यकवारी चेतति वाजिनीवती।
गृणाना जमदग्निवत्‌ स्तुवाना च वसिष्ठवत्‌॥।
(ऋग्वेद 7. 96. 3.)

5) Sanstarapankti : This has chronologically 12+8+
12+8=40 syllables.

52 Chandas as Vedanga

पितुभृतो न तन्तुमित्‌ सुदानवः प्रति दध्मो यजामसि।
उषा अप स्वसुस्तमः संवर्तयति वर्तनिं सुजातता
(ऋग्वेद 10. 172. 2.)

6) Vistarapankti : This chandas has 8+12+12+8=40

अग्ने तव श्रवो वयो महि भ्राजन्ते अर्चयो विभावसो

ஏகன்‌ शवसा वाजमुक्थं 1 दधासि दाशुषे कवे॥

(ऋग्वेद 10. 140. 1.)

7) Arsipankti : This variety has 12+12+10+10
syllables. Unfortunately, no example is cited.

8) Viratpankti (a) : This chandas has 10+10+10+
10=40 syllables.

मन्ये त्वा ated यज्ञियानां मन्ये त्वा च्यवनमच्युतानाम्‌।
मन्ये त्वा सत्वनामिन्द्र केतुं मन्ये त्वा वृषभं चर्षणीनाम्‌।।
(ऋग्वेद 8. 96. 4)

9) Viratpankti (0) : This chandas has three feet
and ten syllables in each foot. No example is seen.

10) Pathyapankti : This metre has eight syllables
and five feet.
क्रत्वा महँ अनुष्वधं भीम आ वावृधे शवः।
श्रिय ऋष्व उपाकयोर्‌ निशिप्री हरिवान्‌ दधे हस्तयोर्वज्रमायसम्‌॥
(ऋग्वेद 1.81. 4.)
11) Padapankti (a) : This chandas has five syllables

Chandas as Vedanga 53

12) Padapankti (b) : In this chandas one foot has
four syllables, one has six and three feet have five
syllables each. This metre has a total number of 25

13) Aksarapankti (a) : This chandas has four feet
with five letters each (4X5=20).

पश्चा न तायुं गुहा चतन्तम्‌।
नमो युजानं नमो वहन्तम्‌॥। (ऋग्वेद 1. 65. 1.)

14) Aksarapankti (0) : This chandas has 5 syllables
and two feet.
सदो विश्चायु शर्म सप्रथा। तैत्तिरीय आरण्यक

15) Dvipadapankti : This is also known as Virat
Pankti and Dvipada-vistarapankti. It has 12 syllables
+8 syllables =20 in two feet respectively.

16) Jagatipankti i.e., Vistarapankti : This has eight
syllables in six feet 1.6. a total of 48 syllables.

महि वो महताभवो वरुण मित्र दाशुषै।

यमादित्या अभि Set रक्षथा नेमधं नशद्‌

अनेहसो व ऊतयः सुऊतयो व ऊतयः।। (ऋग्वेद 8. 47. 1.)
Tristubh :

Tristubh consists of eleven syllables and four feet
which equals to forty-four syllables. The metre is
understood to correspond with the eleven steps taken
by taken by Adhvaryu from the Garhapatya fire to

54 Chandas as Vedanga

the Ahavaniya fire during the Darsapurnamasa
sacrifice. The Rgveda associates Tristubh metre with
Indra (V.29.6.X.30). This association is to the extent that,
if a mantra in employed in another chandas, it is still
to be understood as Tristubh says Jaiminiya Brahmana
(111. 206). This chandas is regarded to be the symbol of
might and vigour. At the diksa of Soma sacrifice, the
yajya-s and anuvakya-s are in the Tristubh metre. This
metre is a thunderbolt, by this thunderbolt the devas
pushed away the asuras according to Kausitaki
Brahmana (VII. 2).

As the Tristubh is associated with lordly power,
strength and vigour, there is a possibility that it can be
associated with the Kshatriya varna (Maitrayani
Samhita 1V.4.5). According to Satapatha Brahmana
(VIIL.1.1.8) it is created from summer season and it
represents south direction (VII.3.1.12). R.Sadashiv-
murthy mentions that in the Aitareya Brahmana, those
who wish to become powerful are advised to perform
sacrifice with Tristubh.

Derivation of Tristubh: The Nirukta and Daivata
Brahmana display identical etymologies. It is
‘stobhati’ which is preceded by ‘tri’. Tri means ‘well
spread’. It is employed in the act of praising (stobhati).
Hence this is also treated as something praiseworthy.

Tristubh praises the three points of Indra’s weapon
1.6. vajra. Hence it is called Tristubh.

Chandas as Vedanga 55

Varieties of Tristubh:

1) Tristubh : This chandas has eleven syllables
and four feet.

पिवा सोममभि यमुग्र तर्द ऊर्वं गव्यं महि गृणान Fal
वि यो धृष्णो वधिषो ஏரண विश्चा वृत्रममित्रिया शवोभिः।
(ऋग्वेद 6. 17. 1.)

2) Jagati Tristubh : The first two padas of this
chandas have 12 syllables each and the third and the
fourth padas have 11 syllables.

ये वाजिनं परिपश्यन्ति पक्वं य ईमाहुः सुरभिर्निर्हतिरे।
ये चार्वतो मांसभिक्षामुपासते ठतो तेषामभिगृर्तिर्न इन्वतु॥
(ऋण्वेद 1. 162. 12)
3) Abhisarini : This chandas has 10+10+12+12=44
यो वाचा विवाचो मृध्रवाचः पुरु सहस्राशिवा जघान।
तत्तदिदस्य மின गृणीमसि पितेव यस्तविषीं वावृध शवः॥
(ऋग्वेद 10. 23.5.)

4) Virat sthana (a) : This metre has 9+9+10+11+ 39
स्वस्ति न इन्द्र वृद्धश्रवाः स्वस्ति नः पूषा विश्चवेदाः।
स्वस्ति नस्तार्ध्यो अरिष्टनेमिः स्वस्ति नो बृहस्पतिर्दधातु
(ऋग्वेद 1.89. 6.)
5) Virat sthana (0) : This metre has 10+10+9+11=40

56 Chandas as Vedanga

शरुधी हवमिन्द्र मा रिषण्यः स्याम ते दावने वसूनाम्‌।
इमा हि வாளி वर्धयन्ति वसूयवः सिन्धवो न ഞി!
(ऋग्वेद 2. 11. 1.)
6) Virat sthana (0) : The first foot has 9 syllables,
second foot has 10 syllables, third and fourth padas
have 11 syllables.

7) Virat rupa : The three padas have 11 syllables
each and the fourth pada has 8 syllables. Saunaka and
Venkakamadhava are of the opinion that the fourth
pada should have eight syllables in it. Thus the metre
is of 41 syllables. Thus Virat sthana and Virat rupa
Tristubh do not fulfil the number of syllables of this
metre. But, according to Uvata, the commentator of
Rkpratisakhya, this metre is still to be called a variant
of Tristubh because there is a reference from the
Brahmana to this effect.

ജയി या विराट्स्थाना विराद्पास्तथापराः।
बहूना अपि ता ഞഞ്ഞ്ജി ब्राह्मणं यथा।॥
९.९ . तुभ्यं श्चोतन्त्यध्रिगो शचीवः स्तोकासो अग्ने मेदसो घृतस्य।
कविशस्तो बृहता भानुनागा हव्या जुषस्व मेधिर।॥
(ऋग्वेद 3. 21. 4.)

8) Purastajjyoti (a): This chandas has 8+12+12+
12=44 syllables. There is some controversy in this.

9) Purastajjvoti (b): This chandas has 8+11+11+
11=41 syllables. A suitable example is yet to be found.

Chandas as Vedanga 57

10) Purastajjyoti (c): This chandas has 11+8+8+
8+8=43 syllables. According to Pingala, Rgveda
(I. 173.5.) is an example of this metre.

11) Madhyejyoti (a): This metre has 12+8+12+12=44 or
12+12+8+12=44.

यदा यज्ञं मनवे संमिमिक्षथुर्‌ एवेत्‌ काण्वस्य बोधतम्‌।
बृहस्पतिं विश्वान्‌ देवाँ अहं हुव ஊன अश्चिनावाशुहेषसा॥
(ऋग्वेद 8. 10. 2.)
12) Madhyejyoti (0) : This chandas has 11184114
11-41 or 11+11+8+11=41 syllables. No example is cited
to this effect.

Madhyejyoti (൦) : This is a five-footed chandas
which has 8+8+11+8+8=43 syllables. According to some
scholars like Katyayana this is an example of
Yavamadhya Tristubh .

Tees अर्चिभिः शुक्रेण देव शोचिषा।

भरद्वाजे समिधानो यविष्ठ्य रेवन शुक्र दीदिहि

द्युमत्‌ पावक दीदिहि (ऋग्वेद 6. 48. 7.)

13) Uparisthajjyoti (a) : This chandas has
12+12+12+8+44

अग्निनेन्रेण ഞ്ഞു கவ்வு: सचाभुवा
सजोषसा उषसा सूर्येण च सोमं पिवतमश्चिना।।
(ऋग्वेद 8.35. 1.)
14) Uparisthajjyoti (0) : This syllabic division of
this metre is 11+11+11+8=41. No example is cited of
this variety.

58 Chandas as Vedanga

15) Uparisthajjvoti (௦) : This variety has five feet,
the division of which is 8+8+8+8+11=43.

संवेशिनी संयमिनीं ग्रहनक्षत्रमालिनीम्‌।

प्रपन्नो ऽहं शिवां रात्रीं भद्रे पारमशीमहि।

भद्रे पारमशीमह्यो AA: I ട്ട; खिल सूक्त (after)
(ऋग्वेद 10. 127. 11.)

16) Mahabrhati or Pancapada Tristubh : This
metre has five feet and they are divided as 12+8+8+
8+8=44.

नमो वाके प्रस्थिते अध्वरे नरा विवक्षणस्य पीतये।
आ यामनशधिनागतम्‌ अवस्युर्वामहं St धत्तं रलानि दाशुषे॥
(ऋग्वेद 8. 35. 23.)

17) Yavamadhya : The syllabic division of this
chandas is 8+8+12+8+8=44. Pingala calls this chandas
as Madhye-jyotir-jagati.

ஏகினார்‌ अर्चिभिः शुक्रंण देव शोचिषा।

द्युमत्‌ पावक दीदिहि। (ऋग्वेद 6. 48. 7.)

18) Panktyuttara or Viratpurva : This metre has
10+10+8+8+8=44 syllables. It is also called Viratpurva
Tristubh,

एवेनद्राग्निभ्यामहावि हव्यं शूष्यं घृतं न पूतमद्विभिः।
ता सूरिषु श्रवो वृहद्‌ रयिं गृणत्सु दिधृतम्‌ इषं गृणत्सु दिधृतम्‌॥
(ऋग्वेद 5. 86. 6.)

19) Dvipada : This metre has two feet with eleven

Chandas as Vedanga 59

20) Ekapada : This chandas has one foot with
eleven syllables. The examples of both these metres
are not cited.

Jagati :

This metre has twelve syllables and four feet which
is a total of 48 syllables. It figures in the account of
bringing Soma. Jagati was not successful in bringing
Soma, but it succeeded in bringing diksa and tapas.
The Satapatha Brahmana (V1.2.1.30) applauds Jagati
as an all-encompassing metre. It is a fully nourished
metre according to the Tatvya Mahabrahmana
(XX1.10.9). Jagati is allotted to Adityas and Visvedeva-s
during the third pressing of Soma says Aitareya
Brahmana (1.13). This metre is believed to be
connected with the cattle. According to the Taittiriya
Brahmana (111.8.8.4), in the context of the Asvamedha,
there are oblations to forty-eight forms of the horse.
The forty-eight forms are equated with the forty-eight
syllables of Jagati. The horse is jagata 1.6. moving in
nature. It belongs to Prajapati. Thus by means of the
Jagati he secures cattle according to Satapatha
Brahmana (XIL8.3.13). Aitareya Brahmana (1.5) says
one who is desirous of cattle is advised to us Jagati
verses at sacrificial consecration as cattle are
associated with Jagati.

Jagati is connected with the concept of worlds.
Thus in the context of the Pravargya rite in the Soma
sacrifice, it is said that in the third pressing, there

60 Chandas as Vedanga

should be a Jagati in the verses, for as it goes to rest,
all the world (Jagat) goes to rest with it (Kausitaki
Brahmana 711.7). In the same context while dealing
with the Upasads, it is said that for Visnu there are
Jagati verses because, the other world is connected
with Jagati. The sacrificer obtains supremacy over the
higher world. In the Sautramani sacrifice, Jagati is
regarded as the earth and by means of this metre, Soma
is pressed.

Out of the three classes or varnas, the Vaisya class
which is associated with the Jagati, as cattle are

Derivation of Jagati :

The etymology of Jagati is the same in Nirukta
and Daivata Brahmana. Jagati has speed and motion
Le. जगती गततमम्‌ छन्दः, अन्त्यम्‌ इत्यर्थः says Nirukta.
Varieties of Jagati :

1. Jagati : This chandas has twelve syllables and
four padas in it.

जनस्य गोपा अजनिष्ट जागृवि अग्निः सुदक्षः सुविताय नव्यसे।

घृतप्रतीको बृहता दिविस्पृशा द्युमद्‌ विभाति भरतेभ्यः शुचिः |

(ऋग्वेद 5. 11. 1.)

2. Upajagati : This chandas has 46 letters divided
as 12+12+11+11.

यस्मै त्वमायजसे स ர எளி क्षेति दधते सुवीर्यम्‌
स तूताव नैनमश्नोत्यंहति अग्ने सख्ये मा रिषामा वयं Tal!
(ऋग्वेद 1. 94. 2.)

Chandas as Vedanga 61

3. Purastajjyoti (a) : The four padas of this
chandas are divided as 8+12+12+12=44. An example of
this metre is yet to be cited.

4. Purastajjyoti (0) : This metre has five feet, the
syllabic division is as follows: 12+8+8+8+8=44.

5. Madhyejyoti (a) : The feet division of this
chandas is 12+8+12+12=44 or12+12+8+12=44. No
example is cited of this variety.

6. Madhyejyoti (b) : This chandas is divided into
five feet and their syllabic division 8+8+12+8+8=44.

यमे नोक्तं तद्‌ रमतां शकेयं यदनु Fall
निशामतं नि അ मयि ad सह व्रतेषु भूयासं
ब्रह्मणा सं गमेमहि॥ (ऋग्वेद परिशिष्ट मन्त्र)

7. Uparistajjyoti (a) : This metre has 12+12+12+8=44.
8. Uparistajjyoti (b): This chandas has five feet
with the division as 8+8+8+8+12=44.

9. Mahasatobrhati alias Pancapadajagati : The
first three feet of this chandas have 8 syllables each
and remaining two have 12 syllables in it.

आयः पप्रौ भानुना रोदसी उभे धूमेन धावते दिवि।
तिरस्तमो ददृश SIA श्यावास्वरुषो वृषा श्यावा अरुषो ഞി
(ऋग्वेद 6. 48. 6)

10. Satpada alias Mahapankti (a) : This chandas
has six feet with eight syllables each.

62 Chandas as Vedanga

महि वो महतामवो वरुण मित्र दाशुषे।
यमादित्या अभि दहो रक्षथा नेमघं नशद्‌
अनेहसो व ऊतयः सुऊतयो व ऊतयः॥
(ऋग्वेद 8. 47. 1.)
11. Mahapankti ൯): This chandas has 81817164
10+9=48

सूर्य विषमा सजाभि दृतिं सुरावतो गृहे।
सो fag न मराति नो वयं मरामाऽरे अस्य योजनं हरिष्ठा
मधुत्वा मधुला चकार॥

(ऋण्वेद 1. 191. 10)

12. Vistarapankti alias Pravaddhapada : This type
is seen in Nidanasutra with six syllables and eight
padas 6X8=48. But no example is cited in this text.

13. Dvipada: This chandas has twelve syllables

14. Ekapada: This chandas has one foot and twelve

15. Jyotirmati: The Nidanasutra has this variety,
but no description is given regarding this variety
except that it has 40 syllables and the last foot has
eight syllables.

16. These seven chandas are known as the first
heptad or saptaka of chandas. The Jaiminiya
Brahmana (111. 315) has given different names to the
metres based on the number of feet and syllables.
Gayatri is said to be sapada i.e., having three feet,

Chandas as Vedanga 63

each containing even number of syllables. The Tristubh
is called vipada 1.6., having eleven 1.e., odd number
of syllables in each foot. Jagati is called nanapada
which means having many syllables in its feet. The
Anustubh is anupada as it follows the pattern of
Gayatri. Pankti is atipada because it has five feet.
There are two more heptads of chandas in the Arsi
category.

Chapter IV
Other metres

Another group of seven metres is also mentioned
in the texts on Chandahsastra. They are known as
Aticchandamsi. They are Atijagati, Sakvari, Atisakvari,
Asti, Atyasti, Dhrti and Atidhrti. R. Sadashivmurthy
observes that these metres have no sub-varieties. The
term Aticchandas is the generic name for the metres
which have more than 48 syllables in them. Atichandas
is eulogised as have encompassed all metres (sarvani
vai chandamsi aticchandah). (सर्वाणि वै छंदांसि अतिच्छंदः)।

1. Atijagati : This chandas has five feet which have
12+12+12+8+8=52 syllables according 1௦
Venkatamadhava. If the example given by Uvata is
followed, it goes to 13+13+10+8+8=52 syllables.

प्र वो महे मतयो यन्तु विष्णवे

मरुत्वते गिरिजा एवयामरुत्‌

प्र शर्धाय प्रयज्यवे सुखादये

तवसे भन्ददिष्टये धुनिव्रताय என்ப (ऋग्वेद 5.87. 1.)

2. Sakvari : It has 7 feet and 8 syllables. The
Taittiriya Samhita regards Sakvari to be of seven
syllables. During the Soma sacrifice, Vasativari waters
are accumulated. They are collected on the previous
day and are used the next day for placing the shoots
of Soma. The Adhvaryu takes them from the river or
reservoir by reciting four verses and places them with
three ones. They make seven and the metre Sakvari

Chandas as Vedanga 65

has seven feet. The Taittiriva Samhita mentions that
one overcomes the enemies with the help of Sakvari
chandas (11. 6. 2. 3.).

प्रो ष्वस्मै पुरोरथं इन्द्राय शृषमर्चत।

अभीके चिदुलोककृत्‌ सङ्गे समत्सु वृत्रहा

स्माकं वोधि चोदिता नभन्तामन्यकेषां

ज्याका अधि எனப (ऋण्वेद 10. 133. 1.)

3. Atisakvari : This chandas has five feet with
16+16+12+8+8=60 syllables.
साकं जातः क्रतुना साकमोजसा ववक्षिथ
साकं वृद्धो वीर्यैः सासहिर्मृधो विचर्षणिः।
दाता राधः स्तुवते काम्यं वसु
सैनं awed देवं सत्यमिन्द्रं सत्य इन्दुः।| (ऋग्वेद 2. 22. 3.)

4. Asti : The division of this chandas is 16+16+16+
8+8=64.

त्रिकद्रुकेषु महिषो यवाशिरं तुविशुष्म

स्तृपत्‌ सोममपिवद्‌ विष्णुना सुतं यथावशत्‌

स ईम्‌ ममाद महि कर्म कर्तवि महामुरुं

सैनं aged देवं सत्यमिन्द्रं सत्य इन्दुः।| (ऋग्वेद 2.22. 1.)

5. Atyasti : This chandas has seven feet and
12+12+8+8+8+12+8=68 syllables in it.
अग्निं होतारं मन्ये दास्वन्तं
वसुं सूनुं सहसो जातवेदसं विप्रं न जातवेदसम्‌।
य ऊर्ध्वया स्वध्वरो देवो देवाच्या कृपा

66 Chandas as Vedanga

घृतस्य विभ्राष्टिमनु afte शोचिषाऽ ऽजुह्ानस्य सर्पिषः॥
(ऋग्वेद 1. 127. 1.)

6. Dhrti : There are seven feet in this chandas with
12+12+8+8+8+16+8=72 syllables.

अर्वमह FH दादृहि श्रुधी नः

शुशोच हि द्यौ क्षान भीषाँ अद्रिवो घृणान्न भीषाँ अद्रिवः।

शुष्मिन्तमो हि शप्मिभिर्‌ वधैसग्रेभिरीयसे।

अपूरुषघ्नो अप्रतीत शूर सत्वभिस्‌ இனன்‌: शूर सत्वभिः॥
(ऋग्वेद 1. 133. 6.)

7. Atidhrti : There are eight padas with 12112184
8+8+12+8+8=76 syllables.

सहि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिर्‌

अप्रस्वतीषूर्वरासिविष्ट निरार्तनास्विष्टनिः।

आदद्धव्यान्याददिर्‌ यज्ञस्य केतुरर्हणा।

अध स्मास्य हर्षतो हृषीवतो 82 जुषन्त पन्थां

नरः शुभे न पन्थाम्‌॥ (ऋग्वेद 1. 127. 6.)

Another group of seven metres is known as
Krtichandamsi. As mentioned by Saunaka, these do
not occur in the Sakala text of the Rgveda. According
to R. Sadashivmurthy, these formulate the third group
of the Arsi metres. The syllabic strength of these metres
regularly rises up by four syllables in each metre. Krti
is to be regarded as the next metre to Atidhrti which
has eighty syllables. According to Yudhisthir
Mimamsak, Krtichandamsi are named differently in
the Patanjala Nidana Sutra. The syllabic strength and

Chandas as Vedanga 67

the foot-arrangement of these metres occur in the prose
mantras of the Yajurveda. The examples of these
mantras are given by Pandit Kedarnath in his edition
of the Pingala sutra-s published by Nirnaya Sagar in
1957. R. Sadashivmurthy mentions that the examples
of these metres occur in the hymns composed by seer
Subhesaja in the Rgveda.

1) Krtichandamsi (Sindhu): This metre has 80

आपये स्वाहा स्वापये स्वाहापिजाय स्वाहा क्रतवे स्वाहा वसवे
स्वाहाहर्पतये स्वाहा मुग्धाय स्वाहा PATA स्वाहा எரி आन्त्यायनाय

स्वाहान्त्याय भौवनाय स्वाहा भुवनस्य पतये स्वाहाधिपतये स्वाहा।
(शुक्ल यजुर्वेद 9. 20.)

2) Prakrti chandas (Salila): It has 84 syllables

नमः पर्णाय पर्णशदाय च नम उद्ुरमाणाय चाभिघ्नते च नम आखिदते
च प्रखिदते च नम इषुवृद्धयो धनुष्कृद्धयश्च वो नमो नमो वः किरिकेभ्यो
ஊரின்‌ नमो विचिन्वत्केभ्यो नमौ विक्षिणक्केभ्यो नम आनिर्हतेभ्यः॥

(ऋग्वेद 16. 46.)

3) Akrti chandas (Ambhas): This metre has 88

4) Vikrti chandas (Gagana): It has 92 syllables
in it.

ये देवा अग्निनेत्राः Ht: எண்ன: स्वाहा ये देवा எள
दक्षिणासदस्तेभ्यः स्वाहा ये देवा അണ്ണ पश्ात्सदस्तेभ्यः स्वाहा ये

68 Chandas as Vedanga

देवा मित्रावसुणनेत्रा അ वोत्तरासदस्तेभ्यः स्वाहा ये देवाः सोमनेत्रा
उपरिसदो दुवस्वन्त स्तेभ्यः ഞ്ഞി (यजुर्वेद 9. 36.)

5) Sankrti chandas (Arnava) : This metre has 96

देवो अग्निः स्विष्टकृत्‌ (9) सुद्रविणा मन्द्रः कविः (2)

सत्यमन्माऽऽयजी होता (३) होतुर्होतुरायजी या (४)

नग्ने यान्‌ देवानयाड्यां (५) अपि प्ररे ते होत्रे अमत्सत (६)

Aaa देवंगमां (७) दिवि देवेषु यज्ञमरेयेमं (८)

स्विष्टकृच्चाग्ने होताभू (९) वसुवने वसुधेयस्य नमो वाके वीहि यज
तैत्तिरीय ब्राह्मण 3. 6. 13. (9௦)

6) Abhikrti chandas (Apas) : This metre has 100

देवौ अग्निः स्विष्टकृत्‌ (१) देवान्‌ यक्षद्‌ यथायथं (२)
होताराविन्द्रमश्चिना (३) वाचा वाचं सरस्वतीम्‌ (४) अग्निंसोरमेँस्विष्टकृत्‌
(५) स्विष्ट इन्दर सुत्रामा (६) सविता वरुणो भिषग्‌ (७) इष्टो देवो
वनस्पति) (८) स्विष्टा देवा आन्यपाः स्विष्टो (९) अग्निरग्निना होता
होत्रे स्विष्टकृद्‌ (१०) यशो न दधदिन्ियम्‌ (११) ऊर्जमपचििंस्वधा
वसुवने वसुधेयस्य व्यन्तु यज (१२)॥ (ऋग्वेद 21. 58)

7) Utkrti (Samudra) : It has 104 syllables.

देवस्याहं सवितुः सवे सत्यसवसो वृहस्पतेरुत्तमं नाक सुहेम।
देवस्याहं सवितुः सवे सत्यसवस SHAT नाकं सुहेम।
देवस्याहं सवितुः सवे सत्यसवसो बृहस्पतेरु्तमं नाकमरुहेम।
देवस्या सवितुः सवे सत्यसवस SHAT नाकमरुहम्‌।।
यजुर्वेद 9. 10.)

Chandas as Vedanga 69

Apart from these metres, there are five more metres
preceding Gayatri. The Rkpratisakhya has given
names of these metres. They are Ma with 4 syllables,
Prama with 8, Pratima with 12 syllables, Upama with
16 and Samma with 20 syllables. In treatises on classical
Sanskrit Literature, they are known as Ukta, Atyukta,
Madhya, Pratistha and Supratistha.

The regular metres discussed in the chapters earlier
have some variants regarding excess or deficiency in
the number of syllables. The Brahmana texts are of
the opinion that such excess or deficiency does not
matter. The Aitareya Brahmana mentions that na va
ekaksarena chandamsi viyanti na dvabhyam (11.37) (4
वा एकाक्षरेण छंदांसि वियंति न கானா. Kausitaki Brahmana
also reiterates the same thought. Excess or deficiency
of one or two letters does not lead to change in the
chandas, but it leads to a variation in it. This has been
addressed in works on chandas. Following are the
variation caused due to excess or deficiency in
syllables:

1) Nicrt : The variation is caused because of
deficiency of one syllable. The example of this
variation is the famous Savitri Gayatri (Rgveda
11.62.10). The first pada has seven letters. Another
example is that of Anustubh (Rgveda 1.10.6). The
second pada has 7 syllables.

2) Virat : When two syllables are less than the
prescribed number of syllables, the chandas is of Virat

70 Chandas as Vedanga

variety. The example is that of Gayatri (Rgveda 1.1.8).
The first and the third padas have one syllable less.
Another example is that of Anustubh (Rgveda 1.10.5.).

3) Bhurik : When one syllable 15 more than the
prescribed number of syllables, it is regarded as Bhurik.
The example of Gayatri Bhurik is Rgveda (1.15.2).

4) Svarat : When there are two syllables more than
the prescribed number the variant a particular metre
is called Svarat. We have examples of Svarat Anustubh
(Reveda V.52. 94.) and Svarat Brhati (Rgveda 37111.1.4).

5) Sankumati : This variant is found in the seven
prime metres. A five syllabic foot and other three feet
representing the number of syllables of their respective
class form a Sankumati. The five syllabic feet may lie
at any place among the four feet. A Sankumati Gayatri
has three six-syllable feet and one five syllabled foot
(Rgveda V1.16.1.). Sankumati Usnih has 7+7+7+5
syllables (This example is given by Bhavadeva, a
commentator of the Chandahsutra-s). Anustubh has
8+8+8+5 syllables. The example is from Rgveda
1.187.1.). Sankumati Brhati has 9+5+9+9 syllables.
Sankumati Panktih : 10+10+5+10 syllables. Sankumati
Tristubh has 5+11+11+11 and Sankumati Jagati has
5+12+12+12 syllables.

6) Kakudmati/Kakummati: In this type, one foot
is of six syllables and other feet have same number of

Chandas as Vedanga 71

syllables as prescribed for regular metres. A Kakudmati
Gayatri is formed of 6+8+8 syllables in three feet.
Kakudmati Anustubh has 6+8+8+8 syllablic and foot
arrangement e.g. Rgveda जा. 63. 1. Kakudmati Usnih
has 6+7+7+7 syllables. Kakudmati Brhati has 6+9+9+9
syllables. Kakudmati Pankti has 6+5+5+5 syllables.
Kakudmati Tristubh has 6+11+11+11 syllables.
Kakudmati Jagati has 6+12+12+12 syllables.

7) Pipilikamadhya : For this variety, the metre
needs to be of three feet. Out of the three, the middle
foot is expected to have less syllables, thereby it is
narrower than the other two feet. The metre appears
to be of the form of a middle part of an ant which is
narrow in shape.

8) Yavamadhya : This also forms only by three
feet. This is opposite to the nature of Pipilikamadhya.
The middle foot is broader than the two feet.

In Vedic literature, there are references to a term
named ‘Pragatha’ pertaining to metres. This term is
mentioned in Rkpratisakhya, Rksarvanukramani,
Nidanasutra as well as Venkatamadhaviya
Chando’nukramani. Pragatha is a special type of
process in which two re-s get converted into three or
are sung in a specific manner. This definition has been
given by Jayaditya in his Kasika (४.2.55).

The Rkpratisakhya (Patala 18) mentions names
and combinations of some Pragathas as follows:

72 Chandas as Vedanga

a) Barhata Pragatha
1) Brhati+Satobrhati = Barhata
त्वमङ्ग प्र शंसिषो देवः शविष्ट எண்று
न त्वदन्यो मघवन्नस्ति ടന്ന ववीमि ते ജാ
माते राधांसि मा त ऊतयो वसोऽस्मान्‌ कदा चना दभन्‌।

विश्चा च न उपमिमीहि मानुष वसूनि चर्षणिभ्य சாப
(ऋग्वेद 1. 84. 19, 20)

2) Brhati +Jagati= Barhata
3) Brhati + Atijagati= Barhata
4) Brhatit+ Yavamadhya (Tristubh)= Barhata
b) Kakubha Pragatha
1) Kakubh+ Satobrhati
2) Kakubh+Siddhavistarapankti
c) Anustubha Pragatha = Anustubh +Gayatri+ Gayatri
൧ Viparitanta= Brhati+Viparita (Pankti)
e) Ausniha= Usnih+Satobrhati
0 Gayatra Barhata= Gayatri+Brhati
g) Gayatrakakubha=Gayatri +Kakubh
h) Pankta Kakubha=Pankti +Kakubh

Gotras, devatas, etc., related to Chandas

There are devatas, gotras, svara and varna
pertaining to different metres. The Chandah-sutras of
Pingala mention the gotras of the primary
chandas (3. 66).

S.No. Metre
1. Gayatri
2. Usnih
3. Anustubh
4. Brhati
5. Pankti
6. Tristubh
7.  Jagati

73

Gotra
Agnivesya
Kasyapa
Gautama
Angiras
Bhargava
Kausika
Vasistha

Devata : Rgveda, Rkpratisakhya, Chandahsutras,
etc., make a mention of devatas related with chandas.
The names of gods vary from text to text. The Rgveda
X. 130 gives the following list of gods.

1. Gayatri
2. Usnih
4. Brhati
5. Virat
7.  Jagati

Gotra

Agni

Savitr

Soma
Brhaspati
Mitravaruna
Indra
Visvedevas

The Chandahsutras follow the same order, replac-
ing Virat by Pankti (3.66).

Svaras: The Chandahsutras of Pingala state the
svaras associated with chandas. Yudhisthir Mimamsak
states the possibility of opening up the chanting of

74 Chandas as Vedanga

metres with the respective svara-s e.g. Gayatri would
open up with Sadja-svara.
S.No. Metre Gotra

1. Gayatri Sadja

2 Usnih Rsabha

3. Anustubh Gandhara

4. Brhati Madhyana

5 Virat Pancama

6 Tristubh — Dhaivata

7 Jagati Nisada

Colour : The metres are associated with various

colours. There is a slight difference of opinion
between the Chandahsutras and Rkpratisakhya.

S.No. Metre Chandahsutras Rkpratisakhya
1. Gayatri Sita Sveta
2. शा Saranga Saranga
3. Anustubh Pisinga Pisinga
4. Brhati Krsna Krsna
5. Virat Nila Nila
6. Tristubh — Lohita Lohita
7. Jagati Gaura Suvarna

मू ke ഴു;

Chapter V
Conclusion

In Vedic sacrificial ritual a mantra embodied in
any chandas plays as an important part. They represent
the desire of the human being to connect the divine
with the mortal existence. Chanting a mantra in a
specific chandas is the articulation of the highest form
of Speech. This specification has got lot of importance
and is associated with various fruits. This specification
is culminated into a specific discipline called the
‘Chandahsastra’.

Chandahsastra gave rise to a variety of vritas,
which is a hallmark of Sanskrit prosody employed in
Classical Sanskrit literature. The twenty six metres of
Vedic prosody have become twenty six metrical classes
in the classical prosody. They are divided into two
classes viz; gana vrttas and matra vrttas. These have
been influenced by foot division from the Vedic
Chandahsastra. The avasana or pause in Vedic metre
has evolved into yati in the gana vrttas. However,
measuring the length of the syllable appears to be
unimportant in Vedic literature, but is significantly
important in Classical Sanskrit literature.

The above discussion indicates that Classical
Sanskrit prosody evolved from Vedic prosody.
Classical Sanskrit prosody got poetry from the divine
realms of sacrifice to the mundane human world of
literary beauty. This is how the divine speech became
accessible in the world of human beings.

मू ke ഴു;

Bibliography

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V. Samvat 1995

2. Atharvavediya Brhat Sarvanukramani, ed. by
Vishva Bandhu, Vishveshvaranand Indological
Institute, Hoshiarpur, 1966

3. Chandahsastra by Pingalanaga, Nirnaya Sagar
Press, Mumbai, 3rd Edition, 1938

4. Chando’nukramani by Saunaka, ed. by Umesh
Chandra Sharma, Vivek Publications, Aligarh,
1981

5. Chandomanjari ed. by Anantaramasastri Vetala,
Chowkhamba Vidya Bhavan, Kashi, 1940

6. Devatadhyaya Brahmana with the commentary of
Sayana, ed. by B. Ramachandra Sharma, Kendriya
Sanskrit Vidyapith, 2nd Edition, 1983

7. Natyasastra by Bharata, ed by Pts Batukanatha
Sharma and Baladev Upadhyaya, Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Sansthan, Varanasi, 1929

8. Nidanasutra by Patanjali, ed. by K. N. Bhatnagar,
Meherchand Lachmandas, 1971

9. Nirukta of Yaska, Nirnayasagar Press, Mumbai,
1930

10. Rgvedanukramami by Venkata Madhava, Ramalal
Kapur Trust, 1976

Chandas as Vedanga 77

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

Rgveda Pratisakhya with the commentary of
Uvata ed. by Virendra Kumar Varma, BHU, 1970

Regveda Samhita ed. by S.D.Satavalekar, Svadhyaya
Mandal, Pardi

Rgveda Sarvanukramani by Katyayana ed. by
Umeshchandra Sharma, Vivek Publications,
Aligarh, 1977

Sahityadarpana by Visvanatha, Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series, Varanasi, 1967

Samaveda Samhita, ed. by S. D. Satavalekar,
Svadhyaya Mandal, Pardi, 1956
Sarthapingalachandahsutra ed, comm., and pub

by Pt. Sivaramasastri Sintre, 1935

Suklayajuh Pratisakhya by Katyayana, ed. by Indu
Rastogi, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Sansthan,
Varanasi, 1967

Suvrttatilakam by Ksemendra, Chowkhamba
Sanskrit Series Office, Varanasi, 1968

Satapatha Brahmana ed. by A. Chinna Swami
Sastri, Chowkhamba Sanskrit Sansthan, 1984

Tandya Mahabrahmana, Kashi Sanskrit Series,
Chowkhamba, Varanasi, 1936

Taittiriya Samhita, Anandashram, Pune, 1948

78 Chandas as Vedanga

Secondary Sources
1. Dange, 9. 9., Aspects of Speech in Vedic Ritual,
Aryan Books International, New Delhi, 1996

2. Mimamsak, Y., Vaidika Chandomimamsa, Shri
Ramlal Kapur Trust, 2nd Edition, 1979

3. Sadasiva Murty, R., Vedic Prosody (Its Nature,
Origin and Development), Vohra Publishers &
Distributors, Allahabad, 1988

4. Vernon A., Vedic Metre, Motilal Banarasidass,
Delhi, 1967

Reference of Nagari Words

Abhikrti
Abhisarini
Aditya
Ahavaniya
Aitareya
Akhyana
Akrti
Aksara
Anustubh
Anuvaka
Aranyaka
Arci

Arsi
Astadhyayi
Astarapankti
Asti
Asuras
Asuri
Asvin
Atidhrti
Atisakvari
Atyasti
Avasana

A

- अभिकृति

- अभिसारिणी
- आदित्य

- आहवनीय
~ एेत्तरेय

- आख्यान

- अकृति

- अक्षर

- अनुष्टुभ

- अनुवाक

- आरण्यक

- आर्ची

- आर्षी

- अष्टाध्यायी
- आस्तारपंक्ति
- சவ்‌

- FET:

- आसुरी

- अखिन

- अतिधृती

- अतिशक्वरी
- अल्यष्टी

- अवसान

80

Bhurik
Bhuri
Brahmana
Brahmi
Brhati

Cand
Chad
Chadamsi
Chand
Chandas

Daksina
Darsapurnamasa
Devas
Devatatmaka
Dhrti

Diksa

Dis

Gana
Gayati
Gayatri
Gosthanah

TRH [AS
भूरि

ब्राह्मण

எனி

वृहती

चद
छद
छंदांसि
छद
दस्‌

दक्षिणा
दर्शपूर्णमास
देवाश
देवतात्मका
धृती

दीक्षा

दिशा

गण
गायति
गायत्री
गोस्थानः

H
Harsata - eat
Hotr - ay
Hrasiyasi - हषीयसी
Hrsva - हस्व

J

Jagata - जागत
Jagati - जगती
Jaiminiya - जौमिनीय
Jajnire - जज्ञिरे
Jyotis - ज्योतिष

K
Kakumnyankusira_—- ककुम्न्यन्कुशिर
Kalpa - कल्प
Kapala - कपाल
Kathaka - काटक
Katyayana - कात्यायन
Kausitaki - कौशीटकि
Krostuki - क्रोष्ट्की
Krsna - कुष्ण
Krti - कृति

M
Ma - मा

Madhyandina - माध्यंदिन

82

Mahabrhati
Maitrayani
Manusa
Matra

Nagi
Nanapada
Nastarupa
Natyasastra
Nicrt

Nirukta
Nidanasukta
Nisada
Nyankusarini

Pada
Padanicrt
Padapankti
Panini
Pankti
Panktyuttara
Parisista
Pariplava
Parosnih

महावृहती
मैत्रायणी
मानुष
मात्रा

नागी
नानापदा
नष्टरूपा
नाट्यशास्त्र
निकृत
निरुक्त
निदानसूक्त
निषाद
न्यन्कुसारिणी

पाद
पादनिचृत/पादनिकृत
पादपंक्ती

पाणिनि

पक्ती

पंक्युत्तरा

परिशिष्ट

पारिप्लव

wife:

Pasu

Patala

Pathya
Pathyapankti
Pipilikamadhya
Pisinga
Prajapatya
Prakrti

Prama

Pranah
Prapatha
Prastarapankti
Pratima
Pratisakhya
Pratah
Purastadbrhati
Purastajjyoti
Purodasa
Purusasukta

Re

RgVeda
Rkpratisakhya
Rsi
Rupasamrddha

83

पशु
पठल।पटल
पट्या
पाट्यापंक्ति
पिपीनिकामध्या
पिशिंग
प्राजापत्य
प्रकृति
प्रमा
प्राणः
प्रगाथा
प्रस्तारपंक्ति
प्रतिमा
प्रतिशाख्य
प्रातः
पुरस्तादवृहती
पुरस्ताज्जयोति
पुरोधाश
पुरुषसूक्त

ऋग्वेद

FEAT ATT
ऋषि
रूपसमृद्धा

84

Sabdatmaka
Sadja
Sakala
Sakvari
Samaveda
Samhita
Samkrti
Samma
Samni
Sankumati
Sanstarapankti
Sapada
Sastra
Satapatha
Satobrhati
Satpada
Sautramani
Savitr
Savitri
Sayam
Sayanacarya
Siddha
Siksa

Sukta

Sutra

எனன
என
शाकल
शक्वरी
सामवेद
संहिता
संकृति।सम्कृति
सम्मा
साम्नी
शंकुमती
संस्तारपंक्ति
सपदा
शास्त्र
शतपथ
सतोबृहती
सत्पाद
सौत्रामणी
सवित्र
सावित्री
सायं
सायणाचार्य
सिद्धा
शिक्षा

सूक्त

सूत्र

Svarat
Svistakrtah

Taittiriya
Tandya
Tanunapat
Trigayat

kha

nadi

pama
panidana
panisad
paristajjyoti
paristat
robrhati
sniggarbha
snih

t
terti

~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~

vata

Varahi
Vardhamana

85

स्वरात
स्विष्टकृतः

तैत्तिरीय
ताण्ड्य

तनूनपात
त्रिगायत्‌

weal
ணாக

ठपमा
उपनिदान
उपनिषद्‌
उपरिष्टाज्ज्योति
उपरिष्थात
उरोबृहती
एष्णिग्गर्भा
afer:

उत्‌

எ

उवट

वाराही
वर्धमाना

86

Vasativari
Vasistha
Vedanga
Vikrti
Vipada
Virad
Viratpurva
Virya
Visamapada
Visnu
Vistara
Visve
Vrtti
Vyakarana
Vyanjana

Yajamana
Yajna
Yajusi
Yaska

वसतीवारी
वशिष्ट
वेदांग
विकृति
विपदा
विराद
विराटपूर्वा
वीर्य
विशामपादा
विष्णु
विस्तार
विश्वे
वृत्ति
व्याकरण
व्यंजन

यजमान
यज्ञ
यजुषी
यास्क

:
VEDIC VALUES

Dr. Hema K. Kshirsagar

2018

:

T.T.D. Religious Publications Series No. 1288

©All Rights Reserved

First Edition - 2018

Copies : 4000

Sri Anil Kumar Singhal, .A.S.,

Tirupati.

D.TP:
Publications Division

Tirupati

FOREWORD

Indian culture is one of the richest and most diverse of
its kind in the world as it has stimulated the growth and
development of several philosophical systems and religious
thoughts. This culture has exercised considerable influence
over the spiritual life of the people all over the world.

The oldest literature available with us are the Vedas. It
was in the form of a lump before it's division. Bhagavan
Vedavyasa has divided the lump of knowledge into four parts,
i.e., Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Vedas. The division was
made with an intention as to make the Vedas to be understood
by the readers and be followed by the readers and common
public to make their lives a fruitful one by following the
path of Dharma.

Vedic values written by Dr. Hema. K. Kshirsagar, is a
wonderer treatise which carries good information about the
values that are found in Vedas. The author has exemplified
many values in brief but they are really good to be read by
both elderly and children too.

Hope this book will reach the coffee tables of all the
readers. Let our Ancient Culture reach the new generation,
and make a pathway for their colourful future.

(a
Tirupati.

:
< == 3 > ~ ~ ~ = ~ &

~ "~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ - ப
> ON Dn ~> ~ ¢ च SO

CONTENTS

Title Page No.
Vedic Values 1
Value 6
Brahmanas 10
Correct Pronunciation and Memorisation 12
Truth 14
Guru and Disciple 17
The Death 19
Gurudakshina 23
Sacrifice 26
Dharma 29
Manusmrriti 31
Women Education 33
Compassion towards all beings 36
Shevtaketu 38
Dignity of Labour 40
The Cow 42
Swearing by the Fire 44
Shodashopachara Puja 48

Obedience

49

:
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28

vi

The Three Debts

Vedic sources of various customs
Donation

Sangyana Sukta

Importance of Knowledge

Sham No Varunah

Idol Worship

Reference Books

51
53
63
69
70
72
73
74
75

My Word

The Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam has taken up
publication of books under 'Ancient Indian Culture
Series' for the benefit of the common reader. II feel
proud and happy that the Devasthanam has entrusted
to me the job of writing a book on Vedic Values’.
"Bhagavana Balaji’ being our family deity, I accepted
the invitation whole - heartedly. It is a golden
opportunity for me to offer my 'Seva' in this form. It
is our common experience that all are not aware of the
treasure of our ancient literature like Vedas, Brahmanas,
Aranyakas, Upanishads, Puranas etc. This series is
aimed at acquainting the common readers with the rich
knowledge embeded in this literature. They will
certainly feel proud of our heritage and culture. I hope
this book on Vedic Values' authored by me will satisfy
Devasthanam authorities and enlighten the readers as
well. It will help the readers to understand the basic
concept of Value' as richly illustrated in the ancient
Vedic literature. Many of the Vedic Values have been
accepted presently.

I am thankful to the Tirupati Devasthanam for
assigning this job to me. I am also thankful to Dr. 7. G
Lale, Dr. P. P. Apte, Dr. Bhagyalata Pataskar and Dr.
K. K. Kshirsagar for the help they rendered to me.
Suggestions and criticism are well-come.

:
Vedic Values

Vedas are the most ancient literature in the world.
The word ‘Veda’ comes from the root ‘fag’ which
means to know. Hence vedas are the treasure of
knowledge. Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads together are called ‘Vedas.’ They include
the thoughts like creation and evolution of the world,
various happenings in nature, human nature, physical
and spiritual life of man etc. Vedic literature is the first
jingling of the Veena in the hands of Goddess
Saraswati. It is the foundation of Indian culture. It
reveals the sublime life-style of Vedic rishis (seers).
Their all-inclusive (सर्वसमावेशक) attitude is reflected in
the ஏனோ: അ when they say, “ளோ नो भद्राः ऋतवो यन्तु
fagact:’. It means ‘Let good (auspicious) thoughts come
towards us from all directions’. Their “எக” helps
people to increase their confidence. Their शिवसंकल्पसूक्त'
tells us as to how to make determination for good
tendencies (सद्वृत्त) and good activities (അജയി. The
“௭௭9௬?” discards gambling and establishes the
importance of hard agricultural work (1.6. dignity of
farm labour). Thus this ancient literature guides people
towards happy life. Positive thinking, desire for victory
(विजिगीषा), joyful life - style, existence of God
everywhere, love for nature are some of the
characteristics of those people.

:
2 Vedic Values

In short we can say that vedas are a compendium
of knowledge. They are ancient most literature on this
earth. Nobody knows when, where and how they
originated. They are divine and so they are called
"अपौरुषेय."

These Vedas have put forth (include) certain
guiding principles leading towards happiness and
prosperity. These principles in other words, are some
'do'es and don't's'. Vedas have given wise advice in
the form of these principles. People should follow them
to make their life successful. These principles are called
Values. They were put into practice by the people
during ancient time. Let us know about them in the
following pages.

Arrangement of Vedas

There are four main Vedas. They are Rigveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. Of these four
Vedas, Rigveda is the oldest one, not only ‘oldest’
among the vedas; but it is the oldest of all the available
literature on this earth. It contains a mine of wisdom.

Rigveda

The Rigveda consists of 10 (ten) parts. They are
called mandalas. Each mandala consists of number of
hymns (i.e., അത്‌); and each hymn consists of a group
of verses. These verses are called Riks. A Rik means
a verse which is constructed according to vedic metres.
Different hymns are dedicated to different deities. The

Vedic Values 3

largest number of hymns is dedicated (addressed) to
Agni. Indra, Agni, Marut, Varuna, Ushas, Ashwina etc.
are the vedic deities, and hymns contain praise of
deities. It is believed that originally all the vedas were
one heap of knowledge. Maharshi Vyasa divided it
into four parts called 'Vedas'. Hence he is called
Vedavyasa (वेदान्‌ विव्यास इति वेदव्यासः).

The hymns in the vedas are not constructed by
human beings. They are believed to be 'अपौरुषेय.' They
were revealed to different Rishis, hence those Rishis
were called 'Seers'. The mandalas in the Rigveda are
ascribed to various seers. It means that the hymns in
that mandala were revealed to that particular Rishi. The
mandalas 2 to 8 (Two to eight) are ascribed to
Vishwamitra, Vamadeva, Atri, Bharadwaja, Vasishtha
etc. Hence they are called ‘Gotra - mandalas’ (നഞ്ഞ.
The hymns in the mandalas 2 to 7 (two to seven) are
addressed to different deities. The mandalas 2 to 7 are
the essence of Rigveda. All the hymns in the 9th (ninth)
mandala are addressed to only one deity, i.e. 'Soma’.
The other name of 'Soma' is 'Pavamana', so the
mandala is also called as 'Pavamana Mandala'. The
first and the tenth mandalas were added later on. The
number of hymns in these two mandalas is the same
1.6. 191 (one hundred and ninety one). So these two
are supposed to be later as compared to the mandalas
2 to 7.

यनुर्वेद - This veda is the second among the four vedas.
It is related to the rituals of sacrifice. It contains detailed

:
4 Vedic Values

discussion of sacrifices and their rituals. There are
different kinds of sacrifices, their special mantras,
special rules, special order etc. यजुर्वेद is the collection
of all these mantras, rules etc. There are two branches
of यजुर्वेद 1) शुक्ल यजुर्वेद and 2) कृष्ण यजुर्वेद. Further there
are many branches which are divided into chapters
(अध्याय).

सामवेद - Samaveda is the third veda. Sama means song
or praise. ऋक्‌ and samas are closely related. ऋग्वेद,
यजुर्वेद and सामवेद are directly related to sacrifice.
Sacrifice requires variety of activities. Of them, chanting
of ऋक्‌ऽ is done by the priest belonging to सामवेद.

अथर्ववेद - This is the last among the four vadas. अथर्व is
the seer of this Veda, therefore its name is अथर्ववेद. It is
also called as अथर्ववेद as it contains suggestions for
defeating the enemy. There are nine branches of this
veda.

Mahabharata - Some scholars hold Mahabharata as
the fifth veda.

Ayurveda - Ayurveda is thought to be sub - veda;
other sub-vedas are: Dhanurved, Sthapatya veda and
Gandharva veda.

What is the theme of the Vedas?

The theme of the vedas is to explain to man the
working of the cosmos and how humanity should
shape its life to fit into the divine cosmic order. The

Vedic Values 5

vedas explain the technology of the infinite cosmos;
hence it is a pre-existing part of eternal divinity. So it
is futile to fix the date of the Vedas, like trying to trace
the date of the origin of the solar system.

मू ॐ *

:
Value

The word 'value' is derived from the Greek word
‘valere’ which literary means 'good' and ‘beautiful.’ In
Mahabharata, the word 'dharma' is invariably used in
the sense of ‘value’ or 'group of values' or 'morals.
That which is good and beautiful will be 'true' also.
Thus truth, beauty and good are the three main
components of any value or dharma or sheela. In
philosophic term this trio is mentioned as
Sachhidananda (i.e. sat, chit and ananda) a popular
attribute used for God, Brahman and Atman.

The term value is very difficult to define
satisfactorily. But it can be described in terms of
behaviour and virtues. Hence we can say that ‘values
are those qualities or characteristics which men should
inculcate to make their individual as well as social life
sublime.' These values or qualities are the indicators
of good behaviour. People who follow these, cause to
make the society stable. They help to develop healthy
relations among the human beings so we can say that
values are the virtues and moral principles that guide
and shape human behaviour.

Vedic values are the values that are put forth by
the vedas (i.e. Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and
Upanishads) and were practised during ancient times.
Many of them are practised even today. The four
Purusharthas (पुरुषार्थ) were the highest object of life

Vedic Values 7

and the concept of values was thought of as a means
to achieve the Purusharthas. So moral behaviour was
looked upon as a very important thing. Human efforts
towards perfection was called 'morality'. The values
are contained in the Nigama (veda) and Agama.
According to veda (Nigama), 'salvation' is the ultimate
aim of human life. Education (विद्या) helps to attain
salvation. Hence it was described as “at विद्या या विमुक्तये।'
and विमुक्ति means मोक्ष (salvation). This was the
individual aim, and welfare of people at large (बहु-जन-
हित) was the social aim.

Importance of Education

Importance of education was realised in India from
very early times and utmost emphasis was laid upon
‘acquisition of knowledge’ and it was considered to
be the third eye of man. A man without (spiritual)
knowledge was considered as 'unwise', because
knowledge was believed to be the means to attain
'salvation' which was the ultimate aim of life. It was
believed that “विद्या मोक्षाय कल्पते"0 in other words ‘a
विद्या या विमुक्तये'। It means that ‘only that knowledge is
real knowledge which leads to salvation’. This love of
learning in India had a very early origin and a lasting
and powerful influence.

विद्या अमृतं अश्नुते। (ईश.) ज्ञानं तृतीयं मनुजस्य नेत्रम्‌।
Aim of education

Preparing useful and refined members of the
society, inculcating in them various moral, social,

:
8 Vedic Values

cultural and spiritual values like piety, righteousness,
formation of character, development of personality,
Civic sense, social duties was the aim of Education.
Acquisition and preservation of knowledge and later
on transmission of knowledge was very important.
Character formation was of utmost importance. Simple
living and high thinking was their aim.

Knowledge was considered to be the third eye of
man, because he could learn much more through
knowledge than through his direct experience. In India
love for learning originated too early and it had a lasting
and powerful effect on the people. Hence there is an
uninterrupted flow of teaching and learning.

All-round development of students was the aim
of education and the teacher was held in high esteem
as he was the maker of an ideal social order.

Moral concepts (in the Upanishads)

Knowledge of Brahman, the ultimate principle was
the highest object of human life (1.6. उत्तम पुरुषार्थ). The
concept of values was thought of as a means to achieve
the highest object. So moral behaviour was looked
upon as a very important thing. Human efforts towards
perfection were called morality. All beings in this world
were thought to be on par.

Human mind consists of two types of tendencies-
1) God-like tendencies, and 2) demon-like tendencies.
There is a constant struggle between these two types
of tendencies. Victory over bad (demon-like) tendencies

Vedic Values 9

is essential for happy life. So control over bad
tendencies was a value. Sacrifice, devotion to God,
charity, sweet tongue, non - violence, truth, self-control
are all helpful to good tendencies. All the values help
to build, develop balanced personalities and such
balanced personalities contribute to build a stable
society.

:
Brahmanas

Brahmanas are that portion of the Vedic literature
which states rules for the employment of the hymns at
the various sacrifices, their origin and detailed
explanation with lengthy illustrations in the shape of
legends or stories. Brahmanas are prose in form.
Different activities in performing a sacrifice, along with
the accompanied mantras and steps of worshiping are
explained in Brahmanas. They came into existence after
the samhitas. Different Brahmanas are related to
different vedas e.g. Aitareya Brahman is related to
Rigveda, Shatapatha Brahmana is related to Yajurveda,
Jaiminiya Brahman is related to Samaveda.

Aranyakas

Aranyakas are the last portions attached to
Brahmanas. They contain the basic (fundamental)
principles and their hidden meaning. They also discuss
the concept of spiritual philosophy. The ultimate
principle is found in each and very being.

Upanishads

Upanishads are the philosophic treatises. They
explain the values of fundamental principles of sacrifice
and their hidden meaning. The supreme principle is
found in each living being in the form of a small
portion. The old upanishads explaining the value of
philosophy are called as वेदान्त i.e. the last portion (end
part) of वेद. Like Brahmanas and Aranyakas the
upanishads too are related to paraticular vedas e.g.

Vedic Values 11

- Brihadaranyaka upanishad is related to Yajurveda

- Chandogya upanishad related to Samaveda

- Aitareya upanishad is related to Rigveda

Some upanishads are officially included in

Brahmanas. Some are not directly included but are
related to respective veda as per their composer seer.
Some are in prose form while some are in verse form.
There are total 14 upanishads which are very important.
Out of these 14, ten are labelled as दशोपनिषद्‌ ऽ: They
are the main ancient upanishads. They are-

1) ईश 2) केन 3) HS 4) WA 5) मुंडक ത്തെ 7) तैत्तिरिय
8) 0478 9) Bera and 10) बृहदारण्यक

some of them are translated into German too.
Some discuss active worldly life while some others
advise for turning back upon worldly life. i.e. they advise
renunciation of worldly life.

मू ॐ *

:
Correct Pronunciation and Memorisation

Correct pronunciation

Correct pronunciation and memorisation was of
utmost importance during that period because it was
the only means of teaching and learning. So also
memorisation was the only means of preservation and
transmission of knowledge because art of writing was
not yet known. Education was imparted through oral
tradition. The teacher (Guru or Acharya). taught his
disciples orally and the disciples heard whatever the
teacher taught, repeated the same over and over again
and stored it in their memory. For this purpose they
had developed certain methods (tricks) like repeating
the portion twice, thrice etc. These methods were called
as वर्गपाट, घनपाट, जटापाट. vedas were preserved in this
way, hence they are called shruti (श्रुति).

Memorisation was of two types.
1) Memorisation with understanding

2) Memorisation without understanding i.e.
mechanical memorisation.

Of these two types, the first one that is
memorisation with understanding was considered to
be better, no doubt, but the other type that is mechanical
memorisation also was equally important. Though
without understanding the meaning, they could
reproduce correctly all the words in their proper order
and with correct pronunciation. Then the listener could

Vedic Values 13

understand the meaning and he could interpret the
portion. Thus they had to rely on memory as writing
was not yet invented. Our ancestors have done this
work so sincerely that the vedic literature is preserved
in its original form and is handed over to us without
the loss of a single letter. They thought this work as
their pious duty towards Gods. So it was a very
important value for them.

There is a story regarding the effect of wrong
pronunciation. Indra and Vritra were enemies. Vritra
was a demon. ga’s father (त्वष्टा) once wanted to
perform a sacrifice. For that purpose he kept सोम in
some secret place. When Indra came to know this, he
searched out सोम and drank it. When त्वष्टा came to
know this he was very angry and he threw the remaining
सोम in the fire and said, ‘Let इद्रशत्नु be created out of
this’. His purpose was to say, ‘The destroyer of Indra’.
But because of wrong pronunciation i.e. wrong accent
the meaning of 25314 changed and it meant ‘one whom
Indra will destroy’. gargz emerged from that sacrificial
fire and ultimately Indra killed ga. So he is called as
वृत्रहा (Fa हन्ति इति).

So a slightest mistake in pronunciation could cause
a great calamity. Our forefathers did not commit any
such mistakes and preserved the whole ancient
literature very carefully.

मू ॐ *

:
Truth

Truth is the ultimate principle. That which cannot
be refuted in the past, present or future is called സ്ഥ.
Speaking the truth is a virtue. என்‌ देवाः" means Gods
speak the truth. But on the earth there is a constant
fight between the 'truth' And the 'falsehood.' Ultimately
the truth wins. So 'Truth' is a value.

The story of Satyakama Jabala confirms this. He
was a young boy who wanted to learn. So he
approached a Guru for his learning. Initiation i.e. thread
ceremony (उपनयन) was an essential condition before
starting education in those days. So Guru asked the
boy about his father and his family. Satyakama replied
as was told by his mother. He told that his mother was
a wanton woman (स्वैरिणी) and hence she herself did
not know the name of his father. But as his mother's
name was ‘Jabala’, his name was 'Jabala' (जाबाल). Guru
was convinced about the truthfulness of the boy and
felt that the boy must be brahmin, and accepted him
as his disciple.

It was believed that 'Truth' is the reflection of
Brahma and man gets rid of 'Death' because of "സ്ഥ.
Hence it is said "सत्यमेव यजेत्‌" i.e. Ultimately the 'Truth
wins'. It is our motto even today.

Truth has got its own power. It was at times tested
also. When Rama asked Seeta to prove her purity, she
prayed to the Earth Goddess in the following words,

Vedic Values 15

Tf I have not thought of any other person other
than Rama, O mother Earth, please give me shelter in
your belly'. Her words were true, so the Earth broke
up and Seeta went inside the Earth. This was the power
of truth.

There is another example of Lord Krishna who
used his power of truth and rejuvinated Parikshita. 1.6.
made him alive again.

This Truth was a very important value in the life of
people during vedic period, so we find the expressions
like ‘Aa वद' or “सत्यं Fuld’. This is the eternal advice to
the mankind.

Sarama - Pani Conversation (Rig. 10.108)

This is one of the famous conversation hymns
(संवादसूक्ते) in Rigveda. There is a story in this hymn.

Panis were the enemies of Gods. Gods needed
milk at the time of सोमपान i.e. When they drank Soma.
They had many cows. Once the Panis stole away those
cows and kept them hidden in a fort beyond the river
Rasa. Gods deputed a female dog named Sarama to
trace the cows. Crossing rivers she reached the city
of Panis where she received a warm welcome. She
advised Panis to return the cows. But the Panis didn't
accept it. They tried to offer her bribe. She did not
accept it. So they tried to threaten her but she was not
afraid as she was confident about the strength of Indra.
Sarama was firm. She was true to herself and loyal to
Gods. This was a value. Stealing and bribing were

:
16 Vedic Values

bad qualities. Later on, Gods defeated the Panis and
brought their cows back. Even animals kept their words
and did not fall prey to bribe. It shows how important
were the values in those days!

नानृतवचने दोषः जीवनं चेत्‌ तदधीनम्‌।

This is an exception to the rule सत्यं ब्रूयात्‌ - ‘Speak truth'
The meaning of this exception is as follows.

सत्य means ऋत. असत्य means ௭4௭. न अनृतवचने दोषः
means there is no fault in speaking असत्य if somebody's
life is depending on that. ‘da’ means ‘If’, "जीवनम्‌ '
means ‘Life’ and तद्‌ अधीनम्‌ means "depending on that’.
If it is a question of life or death, then take shelter of
असत्य (lie). you will not be blamed.

Once a hunter was chasing a cow. The cow was
running very fast to save her life. Soon she went out
of sight. The hunter came running and saw a Rishi
sitting under a tree with closed eyes. The hunter asked
the Rishi as to where (in which direction) did the cow
go? Now it was a question of cow’s life. So the Rishi
pointed to the opposite direction, and thus saved the
cow. In spite of the lie he spoke, he was not at fault
according the shastra. This also was a value.

मू 9 म

Guru and Disciple

The disciple continued the tradition of his teacher.
So he was the successor of the teacher. Therefore he
was treated as own son by the teacher. The disciple
also respected his teacher and was obedient. Teacher
was the ideal ofhis disciples, hence he had to be perfect
in his knowledge and teaching. His daily routine and
behaviour also needed to be ideal because his disciples
tried to follow him in every respect. The teacher was
called आचार्य which means ‘The one who is worthy to
be imitated by the disciples.’

Self-restrain, deep knowledge, love for the
disciples, self-study and pure character were the main
qualities of a teacher. He was called Guru as his was a
prestigious and honourable position in the society. So
also he was called उपाध्याय. This word is derived from
the root उप + अधि + इ (२ प) which means ‘learning by
sitting near the teacher. All these names meaning a
teacher throws light on the personality, behaviour, social
position of the teacher and the process of education
too.

The students also needed to have certain qualities.
They had inquisitiveness, faith in teacher, respect of
teacher, perseverance, self-study, co-operation,
politeness, sweet tongue, hard work, obedience etc.
Ekalavya is a dazzling example of ideal disciple. He
was the son of a Kirata King. He had heard of the
fame of Dronacharya and wanted to learn archery from
him. But Dronacharya refused to accept him as his

:
18 Vedic Values

disciple. There is a story as to how Eklavya learnt
archery and became an expert in that field.

Dronacharya was the teacher of Kauravas and
Pandavas who were the princes from a royal family.
Arjuna, one of the Pandavas, was his favorite disciple.
Ekalavya did not belong to a high family so he was
rejected. Being sad, he returned to his place, made a
clay model of Dronacharya, worshipped the clay model
and started learning archery infront of the model. Days
passed by and he became an expert in archery.

One day Guru Dronacharya along with his disciples
came in that forest. They had a dog which walked
ahead of all. The dog saw Ekalavya and started barking
at him. Ekalavya could not concentrate so he turned
to the dog and shot arrows in the open mouth of the
dog till his barking stopped. The dog returned to
Dronacharya with mouthful of arrows and yet there
was not a single drop of blood. Dronacharya was
surprised to see it. When searched they found Ekalavya
practising archery. When enquired he admitted that he
had shot arrows. When asked about his teacher, he
pointed at the clay model of Dronacharya. This skill
and mastery in archery was achieved on the basis of
his devotion to his teacher. So faith in Guru was very
valuable. Faith in preceptor was the first and foremost
condition for obtaining knowledge in general and
spiritual knowledge in particular.

मू ॐ *

The Death

People in ancient times believed that Sun, Moon,
Fire, Wind, Morning are all deities and they are
immortal. Nectar is a drink which makes man immortal,
but it is available in heaven only, so it is easily available
for Gods. Hence Gods are immortal. Men wanted to
become immortal so they wished to get the Nectar.
For that purpose they needed to please Gods. And
people tried to please Gods. And people tried to please
Gods by performing sacrifices and offering Gods
certain things through sacrifice. This was a value.

Death for some sublime purpose was a value. so
those who sacrificed their life for the sake of country
or society were not afraid of death. Philosophically,
human body is meant for fulfilling duties. So
performing duties without fail for the whole of life was
considered to be a kind of value.

Human body is formed by the five great elements
ie. Earth, water, luster, wind and sky (पृथ्वी, आप, तेज,
वायु and आकाश). After death, the respective parts of
the human body merge into the five elements. This
was the belief in those days and it is in present time
too.

Death is also called as महानिद्रा (i .൦. permanent
sleep). or चिरनिद्रा because man never wakes up again.
It is also called as permanent rest (चिरविश्राति). Man faces
innumerable hardships and tensions during his whole
life and gets tired too much. The death gives him rest
permanently.

:
20 Vedic Values

The Death

Separation of body and life is called death. It is an
inevitable stage in the life of each and every living
creature. It is a kind of full-stop to our life. Nobody
can avoid it (जातस्य हि ध्रुवो मृत्युः).

There are two types of death :-

1) अकालमृत्यु (untimely or premature death)
2) குவ (Timely death i.e. death that occurs at proper
time.

Of these two the अकालमृत्यु (i.e. the premature death)
occurs due to disease, accident, poison, war, murder
etc. It can be avoided by medicine, precaution, special
care etc. Even worship of Lord Shiva who is also
called 88 मृत्युंजय can help to avoid death. कालमृल्यु (1.൦.
timely death) is the natural death. It is due to diminishing
power of limbs and life in old age. It is the last stage
of all living beings.

People in ancient times believed that life is natural
and death is unnatural, fearful but wonderful. They
could not imagine as to what happens after death. They
could not think beyond life and the present state. Hence
they were afraid of death. So they hated death and
wished for long life. They saluted Yama, the God of
death and prayed him for immortality. They believed
that he had control over death. Nobody new the secret
of death. Nachiketa a young brahmin lad was curious

Vedic Values 21

about death and he got satisfied his curiosity through
conversation with Yama.

The story of Nachiketa is found in the
Kathopanishad. He was the son of वाजश्रवस, who
performed a sacrifice named "विश्वजित्‌" and donated all
his wealth with a desire to obtain the fruit of sacrifice.
He donated to the priests, the cows that were aged,
unable to yield milk and unable to produce calves.
Thus the cows given as dakshina were useless. So
Nachiketa thought that his father would not get the
proper fruit of the sacrifice. He wanted to do something
for his father. so he asked his father, to whom would
he be given to. Father did not pay attention to his
question. Nachiketa repeated the question thrice. Then
father got angry and said, ‘I am giving you to yama,
the God of death.’ So Nachiketa went to Yama. But
Yama was not there at that time. so he waited there for
three nights without taking any food. Yama granted
him three boons on his return. By the first boon
Nachiketa asked ‘Let my father recognize me when I
return home. By the second boon he asked for the
sacred fire useful to obtain heaven. Yama granted both
the boons.

By the third boon, Nachiketa asked about existence
after death and yama explained to him in detail the
whole philosophy behind it and told that ‘body is
perishable but Atma is non-perishable’. This is a vedic
value. This story is known as “ஏரு ஏனை संवाद”. Yama

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22 Vedic Values

further told that प्रेय and श्रेय are two things before man.
He who selects प्रेय gets entangled in the cycle of birth
and death. He who selects அன understands oneness
of आत्मा and परमात्मा and achieves salvation.

Gurudakshina (गुरुदक्षिणा)

‘Guru’ means a teacher or a spiritual preceptor.
‘Dakshina’ means fees or some offerings given to
Guru. In vedic times there were no schools as we have
today. Students used to go to teacher's ashrama and
live with him as a family member. The relation between
the teacher and the taught was like that of a father and
a son. He used to participate in the daily routine duties
in the ashrama. Father and son relationship between
the teacher and the taught was a value in those days.
The student lived with his teacher for years together
till his learning was complete. At the end before leaving
for home, the student gave something to the teacher
as a token of gratitude according to teacher's wish
and student's capacity. It was called 'Gurudakshina’.
Actually teacher did not expect anything in return of
his teaching. But the student felt that he should give
something to the teacher as a token of his gratitude.

Lord Krishna received education from Sandipani.
As he was a divine figure, he could complete his
education within a short period. After completion of
education, he asked as to what Gurudakshina he should
give. Sandipani told him to bring back his lost son.
The son was kidnapped, at the time of bathing in the
ocean by a demon named shankha. Krishna killed the
demon and returned.the son to the teacher. He was
very happy and showered lots of blessings on Lord
Krishna.

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24 Vedic Values

There is one more story on Gurudakshina. A
student named Kautsa completed his education with
his Guru Varatantu. He asked his teacher
whatGurudakshina should he give. Guru refused to
accept anything as he knew that Kautsa was very poor
and could not afford to give Gurudakshina. But Kautsa
insisted over and over again. So Varatantu got angry
and demanded so many millions of gold coins as many
vidyas he had learnt from Guru. Kautsa had learnt
fourteen vidyas, hence he needed to give fourteen
million gold coins. Where and how could he get this
much amount? In those days great kings used to
support the learned brahmins as they thought it to be
their duty to support education. Kautsa had heard that
king Raghu was well known for his generosity. So he
went to Raghu, where he was well received . But he
was worshipped with earthen utensils, because Raghu
had recently performed a sacrifice named विश्वजित्‌ and
donated all his wealth. Kautsa lost all his hopes. So
when Raghu asked him the purpose of coming, Kautsa
hesitated but when Raghu insisted, he told the purpose.
Not fulfilling the wish of the Atithi was discreditable,
because "अतिथिदेवो" was a value believed by all. Raghu
requested Kautsa to wait for a day and he decided to
attack Kubera the treasurer of Gods to obtain gold
coins for Kautsa. Kubera was afraid and he showered
gold coins in the hermitage of Raghu at night. Next
morning he called Kautsa and said, "Take all this wealth

Vedic Values 25

and offer it to your Guru as his Gurudakshina." "I will
take only 14 millions and not a single coin more", said
Kautsa. None of the two were ready to keep the excess
wealth for themselves. This supports the value of the
olden times.

:
Sacrifice

Performing a sacrifice to please the unseen powers
in nature, was a value of life in Vedic times. 'Sacrifice'
is praised and honoured right from the ancient vedic
literature upto the present Indian literature. So it is
essential to know the concept, the importance and the
history of sacrifice etc.

The word यज्ञ (sacrifice) is derived from the root
यज्‌ which means to worship God, to connect people
together and donate something to the younger
generation. Hence honour, organisation and donation
are the three principles on which the ritual यज्ञ is based.
A sense of social responsibility is the concept
underlying the यज्ञ so it is a very high type of activity.

Ancient Idea of यज्ञ

Human life was dependant on the natural powers.
People believed that there is some super-natural power
in nature which brings about good or bad things into
human life. To please that supernatural power, the
concept of यज्ञ first came into existence. The powers
in nature were their deities and people offered
something to them to please them. This was the origin
of यज्ञ.

Agni was believed to be the mouth of the deities.
Offerings were put into fire and the fire carried them
to the respective deities. So performing sacrifice was
a Value in ancient times.

Vedic Values 27

The Heaven (eat)

People in Vedic times had invented certain
concepts, to make people behave in a good way and
keep them away from bad things. Heaven and Hell
were two such concepts which motivated common
people towards good activities and restrained from
the bad. Heaven was a place full of all comforts and
happiness. Gods live in heaven. They drink nectar so
they are immortal. There is कल्पवृक्ष 1.6. wish-yielding
tree in the heaven. It gives you anything you wish for.
There is a cow called Kamadhenu. She also fulfils all
your desires. There is a very beautiful garden called
“Nandanavana’ in the heaven. The meritorious people
on the earth go to heaven after death, and enjoy life in
the heaven.

On the contrary there is the concept of Hell which
is meant for various punishments for the sinful people
who go there after death. Naturally people are attracted
towards Heaven and so try to collect merit by doing
good things and avoiding bad things.

To obtain heaven there is one more means and
that is sacrifice.

The scripture says, “ज्योतिष्टोमेन स्वर्गकामो यजेत।' It
means that one who is desirous of securing space in
the Heaven should perform the special sacrifice க
by name. So different sacrifices were recommended
for different purposes. This was a value.

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28 Vedic Values

पुत्रकामेष्टी

This is the name of a sacrifice to be performed by
one who is desirous to get own son (Legitimate son).
पुत्र means son, काम means desire and इष्टी means
sacrifice. Thus sacrifice was a means to please Gods
and gain some boon to fulfill one's own desire.

Dasharatha was a famous King in the dynasty of
रघु. He had three queens named कौसल्या, सुमित्रा, and कैकेयी,
but he had no son. He was very anxious to get a son.
So he performed the JaaTafs sacrifice and he got
four sons - श्रीराम, எனற, भरत and അട. Thus fulfilling
desires by means of sacrifice was a value in those
days.

Dharma

"जीवेम शरदः शतम्‌" i.e. we will live (and enjoy life) for
a hundred years was the ambition of people in ancient
times. So they had thought of 8 life span of one hundred
years. These hundred years were divided into four parts
which were called Ashramas :

1) ഞ്ഞി 2) गृहस्थाश्रम 3) वानप्रस्थाश्रम 4) STATS.
Each ashrama had its specific duties. They were called
as कृष्ण. The word “ഞ്‌ was originally related to आश्रमधर्म
which meant the duties of a person according to his
Ashrama or duties accepted by a person himself. The
same meaning is suggested by the words राजधर्म i.e.
duties of King, Ja 1.6. duties of a son etc.

Actually duties and rights are the two sides of
the same coin. Performing duties was a value in olden
times. When duties are best performed, the rights come
to you on their own. At present all are conscious about
rights but not eager to perform duties. The word
Dharma was defined as "धारणात्‌ धर्म इत्याहुः which means
that which preserves (sustains) society is called धर्म. In
other words it is described as “धर्मो धारयते प्रजाः, 1௦.
the Dharma protects the subjects, it supports the
people.

In simple words we can say that it refers to moral
rules, specific duties or accepted duties of a person.

:
30 Vedic Values

When all the people follow these rules the society
becomes stable and people become happy. Behaviour
of good people was the foundation of Dharma.

मू ॐ *

Manusnrriti

Manusmriti is the standard book on code of
conduct next to vedas. It is the main support of
behaviour and daily routine (कृष्ण).

वेदः स्मृतिः सदाचारः स्वस्य च प्रियमात्मनः |

एतच्चतुर्विधं प्राहुः साक्षात्‌ धर्मस्य लक्षणम्‌ ॥
Veda, smriti, own good behaviour and good behaviour
to our near and dear are the four definitions of dharma
which is one of the four main objectives of human life
(i.e. dharma, artha, kama and Moksha). These are
related to the four stages of life (1.6., ब्रह्मचर्य, गृहस्थ, वानप्रस्थ
and सन्यास).

Manu further says that all the people on this earth
should learn their way of good behaviour from those
who are born prior to them 1.6. their forefathers.

According to Manu breaking a promise, not
returning the debt, theft, demanding back the donation
once given, not giving payment for work done, robbery
are all bad things. Those engaged in these things should
be punished. Thus they are values.

वशिष्ठ का धर्मसूत्र

Vasishtha was a Vedic seer who has the VII th
Mandal of Rigveda to his credit. There are 104 suktas
in that mandal.

8199 are the treatises which give standard decision
regarding human behaviour. धर्म 18 good behaviour

:
32 Vedic Values

which is to be inculcated and अधर्म is bad behaviour
which is to be avoided.

These treatises contain the duties and rights of all
the four Ashramas (1.6. ब्रह्मचर्य, गृहस्थ, वानप्रस्थ and संन्यास).
वसिष्ट का धर्मसूत्र contains discussion about hospitability
(अतिथिसत्कारः), defilement caused by birth or death
(अशौच), duties of a student, donation, sacrifice,
learning, pleasing God and avail desired things and
crimes like drinking wine, killing a cow and deviation
from the right path etc. Punishments were prescribed
for the crimes. All these were values.

Women Education

In ancient time, women were allowed to take
education. But there were no separate educational
institutions specially for women. They were educated
at home in the beginning and for higher learning they
approached some well known teacher.

There are references in Vedas which tell us that
women were expert in Medicine, in Ashwavidya etc.
Apala, Ghosha, Vishvavara were the seers of Mantras.
Learned women were of two types:-

1) ब्रह्मवादिनी - These were the women who did not
accept गृहस्थाश्रम. They continued ब्रह्मचर्य and वेदाध्ययन.

2) सद्योदाहा ~ This was the second type of women
who after completing learning accepted married life
and गृहस्थाश्रम.

This is the proof that Women Education was
available in Vedic time. Not only this but men and
women had equal status from social, economical and
religious point of view. मनू also has said ‘yaar दुहिता
समा।* It means that son and daughter are equal.

Education of Women

Man and woman were believed to be indivisible
parts of the cycle of this world and had the position
which the heart has in the human body. If the speed of
the heart-beats Increases or decreases, the body
becomes unstable and uneasy. Similarly anyone of

:
34 Vedic Values

these two (i.e. man and woman) starts कृष्ण galloping
or becomes too slow, the society becomes imbalanced.

गार्मी and मैत्रेयी were ब्रह्मवादिनी ऽ. They could argue
with the sages in the meetings of learned people. The
society gave them due respect. गार्गी was present in the
court of King Janaka at the time ofa sacrifice. A debate
assembly for philosophical discussions was arranged
there. In that assembly गार्गी asked some questions to
the great sage याज्ञवल्क्य. He could not answer her last
question about ब्रह्म the ultimate reality. Thus she was a
scholar.

मैत्रेयी - She also was a scholar. She was the daughter
of King Mitra who was a friend of King Janaka. Famous
scholar गार्गी was her maternal aunt. she loved मैत्रेयी very
much. She brought up मैत्रेयी and educated her. In the
philosophical debate assembly मैत्रेयी saw the sage
याज्ञवल्क्य, who defeated many scholars. मैत्रेयी fell in love
with him and married him. But she was never interested
in worldly enjoyment. She was interested in the
knowledge of 3a. याज्ञवल्क्य explained it to her and she
was satisfied.

Thus women education was a value in those days.
Hence freedom and opportunity for higher learning
was available for women. Besides this, they believed
that deities love to reside in the place where women
are respected. (यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यन्ते, रमन्ते तत्र देवताः।)

Manu says if somebody's teacher passes away
before his learning is complete, the student should

Vedic Values 35

continue his studies with the son of the teacher or the
wife of the teacher.This implies that the wife also was
equally capable of teaching the student. His words are
as follows

आचार्ये तु खलु प्रेते गुरुपुत्रे गुणान्विते।
गुरुदारे सपिण्डे वा गुरुवद्‌ वृत्तिम्‌ ராண! मनु २.२४७
Unless നന്നി was well educated, how could she

teach the students? This shows that women education
was existing during that period.

Arundhati the wife of Vasistha was famous as a
scholarly woman. Manu says that if a woman is not
educated before marriage it was her husband's
responsibility to educate her.

मू 9 म

:
Compassion towards all beings - (भूतदया)

भूतदया means compassion towards all living beings
on the earth. Everybody in this world wishes to get
happiness. But while fulfilling this desire he may cause
distress to others. This he should not do. All should
have good feelings, kind behaviour, sympathy towards
others. Distress can be of two types 1) physical 2)
mental.

Any harm to body is physical distress and any
harm to mind is mental distress. Not giving sorrow to
others, not creating trouble for others is one aspect of
compassion. The other aspect is helping others who
are in distress. This is a value.

Keeping birds or animals in cages is troubling them
Throwing stones to animals is troubling them. We
should not do this. On the contrary if we see some
one in some calamity, we should help them. There is a
story about such an incidence in the veda.

There was a king named Harishchandra. He had
no issue. He longed to have a son. So he prayed to
God Varuna and committed to sacrifice the same child
to Varuna. This shows that the custom of offering a
human being as an oblation to God in the sacrifice
was in practice in those days. Of course it was a very
bad custom. A child was born to the king. After some
days Varuna came to the king and demanded his son.
The father was very sad, and not ready to part with
the son, he postponed sacrificing his son. The child

Vedic Values 37

grew and became a youth. When he came to know
about father's commitment he was not ready to be
sacrificed and so he searched for a youth for his
substitute. Luckily he got one. His name was शुनःशेप
(shunahshepa). When the sage Vishwamitra came to
know of this, he condemned the costom. He felt pity
for शुनःशेप and rescued him. For that purpose he
adopted शुनःशेप as his own son. This was the beginning
of 'adoption.' So pleasing deities by means of sacrifice
was a value in those days. At present it is not accepted.
"ज्योतिष्टोमेन स्वर्गकामो जयेत्‌' is a Vedic advice. According
to Vishvamitra, good behaviour or good activities are
those which are praised by the experts of scripture
(आगम). They are called Uli and bad behaviour or bad
activities are those which are condemned by the experts
of scripture. They are called धर्म. The word धर्म did not
mean religion. So compassion for all beings was and
is a value.

In other words how to behave is धर्म and how not
to behave is अधर्म. Society at large behaved properly
due to fear of punishment by the unknown, unseen
divine power. They also had a belief that man gets
merit by doing good activities and man gets sin by
doing bad activities. Meritorious man goes to heaven
after death where gets lots of comforts and sinful man
goes to hail where he is torchered for sins committed
during life time.

:
Shvetaketu - (श्वेतकेतु)

श्वेतकेतु was an ancient philosopher born in the family
of Aruna and Uddalaka. Hence he was also called as
Aruneya and Ouddalaki. He is respectfully referred to
in Upanishads and Mahabharat many a times. He was
insincere in his childhood, so he started education late
but completed it within 12 years. As a result he became
very proud and insulted his own father. But father
explained to him how he was wrong and then gave
advice about knowledge of self. This advice is famous
by the great preposition (तत्वमसि. Father told him that
we must love knowledge and not wealth. This is a
value, so also to be proud is a bad thing and to insult
elderly persons also is a bad thing. Hence however
learned we are we must be polite and we must respect
elder persons. We must remember विद्या विनयेन शोभते"
1.6. ‘Learning shines by politeness.’

Pravahana Jaivali was the King of Panchala. He
once called a meeting of learned people. Shvetaketu
(श्वेतकेतु) and his father participated in that meeting.
There they could not answer a question of Pravahana.
They accepted their ignorance and became disciples
of Pravahana for further studies. Thus accepting one's
own ignorance and trying to remove it was a value.

Shvetaketu was a great thinker having social
consciousness. He suggested many social reforms.
He stated that Brahmin should not drink wine, and
should avoid contacts with other's wife.

Vedic Values 39

He also stated certain rules for the society.
According to him men and women both should have
the same test regarding character i.e., both should have
spotless character. It was a value.

Husband and wife both must be loyal to each-
other. श्वेतकेतु established the marriage institution in the
society. He was the founder of marriage system.

मू 9 म

:
Dignity of Labour

God helps those who help themselves. This is a
saying in English. It tells us that if people want to
achieve something, to gain something, they themselves
must work hard. If they simply sit in one place and
pray to God, God will not come to do their work. But
if they try hard, God will certainly help, or by suggesting
something which would be helpful for their work. There
is a parallel saying in the Veda. It says, எ ऋते श्रान्तस्य
सख्याय देवाः। Here श्रान्त means tired by hardwork, सख्य
means friendship, ऋते means except. So, the complete
meaning is 'Gods do not make friends with people
except the tired and hardworking 0001൦. It means
that Gods do not help the lazy people. Importance of
hard work, dignity of labour is explained by this saying
so dignity of labour is a value.

“शरीरमाद्यं खलु धर्मसाधनम्‌”

For this hard work we need strength. To gain
strength we need health. To maintain health we need
exercises, which keeps us fit. This is वलोपासना. वल means
strength, power, might or vigour and उपासना means
worship, adoration, respect. So we must worship
strength. If we are वलहीन 1.6., devoid of strength we
will be unable to do work, so we must always
remember that healthy body is a means of fulfilling all
responsibilities.

Vedic Values 41

“अक्षैः मा दीव्यः कृषिं कृषस्व'

अक्ष means 0106. कृष्ण means 'do not' मा दीव्यः means
do not play with dice. कृषि means agriculture. कृषस्व
means plough the earth and do agriculture. Gambling
is a bad habit. It is a vice so do not play with dice.
Instead plough the earth sow the seeds, grow crops
and be an agriculturist.

In Rigveda, there is a hymn named अक्षसूक्त. अक्षक्रीडा
means द्यूतक्रीडा means gambling with dice. This game
was regarded as a bad habit right from the Vedic
period. In महाभारत also पाण्डव were defeated and had to
face a series of calamities and ultimately a war broke
between the पांडव and कौरव which led to complete
destruction.

In the अक्षसूक्त, bad effects of gambling are
described. The seer of this hymn was very intelligent
but unfortunate. Once a man gets caught in the trap of
a vice, it is very difficult to get rid of the same. He has
narrated his bad experiences in this hymn and he is
advising people to be away from gambling. They
should not be attracted towards easy money in
gambling. Instead they should do agriculture and earn
money by hard work. Thus this is a value.

मू 9 म

:
42
The Cow
The cow was called “ജി.” The word अघ्या means

who was not to be killed. So a cow was not to be
killed. This was a common rule. It was a value.

The cow was believed to be a holy animal. The
cow and her milk are included in the religious activity.
Her importance is accepted right from the Vedic times.
She is praised in the Vedas. She is called अप्सरा (i.e.,
nymph in the heaven) in some metaphor. She is
important and essential for a sacrifice as her milk,
curds, butter and ghee are essential for a sacrifice.
The cow was regarded as wealth and he who owned
many cows was a wealthy (rich) person. Cows were
regarded as a medium of exchange instead of coins
(money). Cows were offered to priests as dakshina at
the time ofa sacrifice. Vedic people prayed to deities
saying, May our cow-wealth (गोधन) increase.' Milk of
a cow is a nourisher. Panis (पणी) were expert cow-
kidnappers. So cow-rearing was a difficult job. Aryans
also had found out certain tricks to identify their cows.
Because of their utility, killing them was prohibited and
the cow was called சன. This was a value. In later
days she was given the status of a deity.

वेदोऽखिलो धर्ममूलम्‌

अखिलः वेदः means the whole veda means all the
four Vedas are the origin (source) of human coduct.
Whatever was told in the Vedas were followed by men

Vedic Values 43

as arule. Here धर्म means आचार or duty as in the words
पुत्रधर्म (duty 08 son), राजधर्म (duty of a king) etc. There
is one more quotation expressing the same meaning.
Itis श्रुति-स्मृति-सदाचारः धर्ममूलम्‌ इति श्रुतम्‌। It means that श्रुति
(௭௦08, स्मृति (Law) and सदाचार (good behaviour) are
the base of conduct.

रथ (a chariot)

There are references to chariots in the vedas. A
chariot, its wheels, horses, reins etc., are described in
detail. The spokes were called अराः and the metal ring
around the wheel was called नेमि" (Ref. चक्रनेमिक्रमेण).

This shows that the technology of wheel and vehicle
was known in ancient time. It was a value.

:
Swearing by the Fire

Fire plays a very important role inVedic tradition.
Fire is known as grihapati i.e. the head of the house.

Fire is light and warmth to the household. He
cooks food which provides strength and nourishment
to the members of the family. Thus fire becomes the
nucleus and the source of life and energy to the
household, hence he is called Grihapati.

Fire is the embodiment of the sun on the earth and
supplies the necessary energy to human industry and
vehicles.

The Vedic culture gives prime importance to the
Fire by placing him in the first place in all worships.
(अग्निम्‌ 52 पुरोहितम्‌) Fire is important because it represents
life, warmth and anergy. No life, no movement is
possible without fire. Another function of fire is
purification by burning impurities.

Fire is the embodiment of divine light and energy,
so he is the witness of every important occasion from
birth to death. People take some oath in front of the
fire which is taken as a binding for the whole of life.

Marriage

Vedic marriages took place in front of the sacred
fire. Vedic mantras were recited by the priests at that
time. The couple took certain oaths in front of the fire,
which were to be followed through out their life. They
were faithful to each other, they co-operated with each

Vedic Values 45

other, established home together, brought up children
together and lived happily together. Thus fire had a
very important place (significant place) in the life of
people in Vedic period. So also ` साप्तपदं मैत्रम्‌" was
believed by the people in marriage as well as in daily
life.

Seven steps around sacred fire help to join two
hearts and two bodies. So सप्तपदी" leads to oneness of
husband and wife.

Marriage system

There is one conversation hymn in Rigveda in
which there is a story of 34 and यमी. They were twin
brother and sister. As they grew young, a desire for
marriage developed in the mind of यमी, the sister. So
she talked to her brother यम about it and requested
him to marry her. यम did not like the idea so he did not
accept it. On the contrary he convinced her that
marriages of real brother and sister was not a good
practice and will not be accepted by the society. There
are references in Vedas that marriage system was well
established during Vedic period.

There is a story about how marriage system
originated. It tells us that the sky and the earth were
together in the beginning. Later on they started going
away from each other. They did not like this separation.
So they said to each other, "Let us marry and live
together". This shows that marriage institution had
come into existence at the time of Vedas. There are

:
46 Vedic Values

references of ideal couples Shiva-Parvati, Vishnu-
Laxmi, Vasistha-Arundhati etc. Certain oaths were taken
at the time of marriage in front of Fire, and they were
followed throughout life. There was a ritual called
सप्तपदी 1.6. seven steps.

Husband and wife were to walk together for seven
steps. It was called “साप्तपदं 424’. It means that if you
walk seven steps with anybody you become friends.
Husband and wife used to become friends for the
whole life. Unless and until सप्तपदी is complete, marriage
is not legal.

Pururava and Urvashi

There are certain conversation hymns (1.௦., संवादसूक्ते)
in Rigveda. According to some, these hymns are the
seeds of later poetry and drama. There are in all 20
such hymns. Of them three are more important. They
are as follows -

1) Pururava - urvashi samvada
2) Yama - Yami samvada
3) Sarama - Pani samvada

Pururava - Urvashi samvada - This sukta narrates
the story of king Pururava and Urvashi. He was a human
king and she was a nymph in the heaven. This is the
first love story in the world. Both of them fell in love
with each other. The king wanted to marry Urvashi.
She gave consent on some condition. The king agreed.
Their marriage took place. Later she gave birth to a

Vedic Values 47

son. But when her condition was broken she left the
king and returned to the heaven. Their love was real
love and so they married each other irrespective of
their status (1.௦., human being and divine nymph). She
was true to her words. So to keep one's words, to
stick to one's promise was a value.

मू 9 म

:
Shodashopachara Puja (षोडशोपचार पूजा)

Puja means worship. whenever we worship Lord
Ganesh or Lord Tirupati we offer 16 types of services
to him. So it is called षोडशोपचार पूजा षोडश means sixteen
(16) and upachara means services. We invite God, offer
hima seat, then offer water to wash his feet and hands,
then we offer water for bathing, then offer clothing
etc. This concept of sixteen services has its origin in
the पुरुषसूक्त. It is a famous hymn in the Rigveda. It
contains 16 verses (ऋक्‌). This hymn explains how the
whole universe was created from the limbs of that
Purusha. The षोडशोपचार is the present day relevance of
the hymn in the Veda. This is a value.

मू ॐ *

Obedience

Obedience was a very important value in Vedic
times. Younger generation was to obey whatever was
told by the elderly people. There is a story which
explains this value.

There was a sage. His name was धौम्य (Dhaumya).
He had three disciples. Their names were Aaruni,
Upamanyu and Baida. Dhaumya wanted to test them.
He called Aaruni first and said to him, "O dear! the
bund of the field is broken due to heavy rains. So go
there and do the needful to repair the bund."Aaruni
went to the field and repaired the bund with stones
and clay but it did not sustain. He tried thrice but was
not successful. Ultimately he himself lay as a bund to
obstruct the water. His teacher धौम्य waited for 2-3 days
but Aaruni did not return. Worried as he was, he went
to the field to see what had happened. He called out
loudly and received a weak response, "sir, I am here,
lying as a bund to stop water. Bund construction was
impossible, Sir!" The teacher was pleased with his
obedience and taught him all the knowledge.

Upamanyu was the second disciple whom the
teacher tested. He asked Upamanyu to guard the cows.
After 2-3 days the teacher asked him, "Dear Upamanyu,
how do you feed yourself? you look fat." He answered,
" Sir, I beg alms for that." The teacher said, "You
should not eat alms without giving to me." So he gave
alms to the teacher. The teacher did not give him

:
50 Vedic Values

anything to eat. Still he was fat because he begged
alms second time. The teacher objected. So he used
to drink milk. The teacher objected again. Still he was
fat because he used to drink the foam falling when
calves were drinking milk. The teacher objected that
too. So he could not get anything to eat. So he ate the
leaves of the अर्कं tree. As a result he lost his sight and
while wandering here and there he fell into a well. The
cows returned home in the evening but he did not.
The teacher went in search of him and found him fallen
into the well. The teacher invited अश्चिनी to cure his
eye-sight. They cured his eye sight. The teacher was
pleased with his obedience and faith.

The third disciple also proved his obedience by
pulling his plough as a bull. Thus the teacher was
pleased with all the three disciple for their obedience.
It was a very important value.

मू ॐ *

The concept of debts is called 'ऋणत्रय' in sanskrit.
ऋणत्रय means 'three debts" or 'a group of three debts.'
This is a basic concept in Indian sociology. In ancient
time, it is found in तैत्तिरीय संहिता. It is as follows -

"जायमानो वै नरः त्रिभिः ऋणवान्‌ जायते”, ‘it means a man is
born with three debts.’ These three debts are -

1) ഞ്ഞ 2) आचार्यऋण 3) पितृक्रण

சோணை - God supplies all the means of living. It is his
favour to us. We should be grateful to him for that.
We can express our gratitude by worshiping God, by
performing religious rites like sacrifice etc. So our
forefathers said அண देवेभ्यः।' The debt to God is repaid
by यज्ञ.

आचार्य ऋण - आचार्य means teacher. In olden times the
sages preserved knowledge and arts and transmitted
them from generation to generation. Our culture
developed through the preservation and collection of
all the vedas, arts and knowledge. This is their favour
to the mankind. So we must be grateful to the sages
who are our first teachers (आचार्य). To express our
gratitude we must study hard during ब्रह्मचयश्िम. (ब्रह्मचर्येण
ऋषिभ्यः) आचार्यक्रण can be repaid by अध्ययन and अध्यापन,

ரணை - This is the third ऋण We owe this to our
forefathers who have continued the human race by
giving birth to the next generations. Right from times
unknown our forefathers have protected self and the

:
52 Vedic Values

society by facing calamities. So they are called fr
i.e., forefathers. The term पितु includes father, mother
and all other forefathers. To show our gratitude towards
them all, we should accept गृहस्थाश्रम and should

contribute towards continuation of race by giving birth
to the next generation.

This concept of three debts help to bind together
the previous generations and the new generations. It
binds the society also together. Hence feeling of
gratitude, dutifulness and the concept of three debts
are the Vedic values.

Ramayana is the first great epic in the world. The
sage Valmiki has composed it. There is a story behind
it, how the sage got inspiration. As a daily routine, one
day the sage got up early in the morning and walked to
the river Tamasa (तमसा) for bathing. On his way he
saw a hunter who shot an arrow towards a couple of
birds sitting on a tree, loving each other. One of the
birds was shot down. The sage was pained at heart
and from within him a curse came out in the form of a
verse -

मा निषाद प्रतिष्ठां त्वम्‌ अगमः எனி: समाः ।
यत्‌ क्रोचमिथुनात्‌ एकम्‌ अवधीः काममोहितम्‌ ॥

O hunter! Let you never get any prestige in the
society, as you have killed a क्रौंच bird from amongst
the loving couple. Thus his grief (शोक) birst out in the
form of a verse, and this was the beginning of the
great epic Ramayana.

This incident took place early in the morning when
Valmiki was going to the river Tamasa for bathing. It
was his daily routine. This was the daily routine of all
during Vedic time. What was the detailed routine? why
was it so? what were its advantages? Let us see ahead.

Vedic Routine

They used to get up quite early in the morning at
4.30 a.m. and then went to a river for bathing. If no
river was available then bathing was performed at home

:
54 Vedic Values

with cold water followed by washing the clothes. Then
they practised Suryanamaskara or other exercises for
physical fitness. (i.e., quite early in the morning). After
their ecercise it was time for recitation and swadhyaya.
This kept their knowledge fresh and they could add
new knowledge too. All the focus was on recitation
and memory. After swadhyaya, they took their
breakfast which consisted of fresh cow-milk without
sugar, boiled vegetables and cereals, fruits etc. and
proceeded for daily work, took lunch at mid-day and
supper at 7 to 8 p.m. About 9 or 9.30 was their time of
retiring to bed. There was no bed tea, or bed coffee,
no smoking, no drinking no bad habits. They started
their day with pious prayers and ended their day with
prayers again. This had cumulative psychological effect
and they could go to sleep with calm mind. This routine
kept them fit and alert physically as well as mentally.

Cleanliness

Cleanliness was a very important Value. Home
where the human body lives and body (शरीर) where
the soul (आत्मा) resides should be cleaned and washed
every morning before daybreak. Similarly the courtyard
in front of the house was swept, water was sprinkled
and Rangavali was sketched at the entrance of the
houses. It was a symbol of cleanliness. It was and is
practised as a pious duty. Similarly the house-holder
wore on his forehead a holy dot or sandal paste or
holy ash (भस्म) which indicated his personal cleanliness.
It was the marking of purity and the house along with

Vedic Values 55

the people in it was ready to welcome who so ever
came there.

Aukshana (ഞ്ഞ

It is a special Indian custom practised at the time
of welcoming a beloved person or at the time of biding
farewell to a loving person. While practising this
custom, a silver dish with two holy ghee lamps
(accompanied with blessing) and taken with Kumkuma
and akshata (rice) and waved round the face of the
loved one three times. It is a symbol of warm welcome
as well as warm farewell. This activity has a magic
effect of the loving thoughts of the dear- ones and the
holy lights create a protective and guiding halo around
the person concerned for his or her safety, prosperity
and happiness.

shree (ஸ்‌)

Indians use to write श्री (shree) at the top ofa letter.
This श्री signifies many things. It signifies well-being
and prosperity at the writer's end. It signifies
truthfulness and honesty of the writer. Its absence
suggests something inauspicious incident at the writer's
end.

Touching the feet (पादस्पर्शं)

Touching the feet ofa deity, Guru, parents or elders
by fingertips or placing one's head on the feet was a
symbol of showing respect to the deity or elders. What
is the principle behind this act? It is believed that the

:
56 Vedic Values

head of the Guru is a dynamo or powerhouse of divine
knowledge. Similarly the head of loving, protective
parents and other elders is a similar repository of
benevolent blessings and protective affection. While
hands and feet are like the wires charged with that
energy. This benevolent energy is transmitted through
the touch, and the juniors get charged with the benign
energy emanating from both hands and feet of the elder
or the superior. Whenever juniors touch the feet of
elders, the elders put their hand on the head of the
juniors to give them blessings. Thus through the touch
of feet and hand the good wishes are transferred to
the younger people.

Dust of holy Feet

It is customary among the Indians to say, ‘please
shed the dust of your holy feet in our house.' This is a
modest way of inviting a revered personality. It is a
Vedic phraseology. The scientific principle behind such
an invitation is that when a person visits any house,
some particles of dust carried by his feet are left there.
These particles are charged with holy man's blessings
and divine energy which ward off evil influences.

Preambulation प्रदक्षिणा)

Preambulation means going round a holy object,
person or idol (deity) clockwise. It gives strength,
sanctity, purity and inspiration of the divine object to
the devotee. Even today we follow this custom by
going round the deity whenever we visit a temple.

Vedic Values 57

Suvasini (सुवासिनी)

Suvasini is a Vadic term signifying a happily
married woman, a devoted wife, an affectionate and
cheerful hostess, mother of several well - tended and
bright children. Suvasini is the representative of mother
Goddess शक्ति. Even today the term suvasini is in use
for such a married woman.

Atonement (നഞ്ഞ

'To err is human and to forgive is divine.' This
proverb tells us that human beings are liable to commit
mistakes. "No one is perfect. Now if a man commits
some mistaken or does some thing wrong to others,
he must feel sorry for that. He must beg apology for
the mistake and should not commit it again. Saying
sorry is a kind of atonement. It can also be self
punishment for some mistake. There are different kinds
of punishments प्रायश्चित्त) depending on the graveness
of mistake. These atonements are meant for keeping
man away from mistakes.

The Eastern Orientation (पूर्वाभिमुखता)

पूर्वाभिमुखता means facing the East. Life in Vedic
period began with a prayer to the rising sun and the
sun - rises in the East. So we face the east for praying
the sun. Our physical functions, our working day, our
period of rest (i.e., night) are all dictated by the sun.
so the east has got a special place in our life. The East
and the rising sun are symbols of prosperity. Hence
Eastern orientation has a special value in our culture,,.

:
58 Vedic Values

We try to build our houses facing the East. Whenever
we start any good work or do any good activity we
start it facing the East. We worship God in our house.
That God too is kept facing the East. So Eastern
orientation is a special character of Indian culture.

The symbols used in Vedic culture - The Lotus

Lotus was carved on the walls in ancient times. It
was a pet Vedic symbol which puts forth an ideal of
rising and standing above the mud, and slush of
mundane life, radiating cool, soft fragrance, beauty,
attraction and contentment all around. Consequently a
great persons limbs or limbs of God are invariably
referred to as lotus-face (मुखकमल), lotus-eyes (नयनकमल),
lotus hands (करकमल) and lotus feet (चरणकमल). The
limbs of a small baby are delicate, beautiful, full of
life, soft so they also are called as lotus. There is a
famous verse in this context. It is as follows :

करारविन्देन पदारविन्दं मुखारविन्दे विनिवेशयन्तम्‌ |

எனன पुटे शयानं बालं मुकुन्दं मनसा स्मरामि ॥

This is the description of baby Krishna. It’s
meaning is as follows -

He holds foot-lotus by hand-lotus and puts it in
his mouth-lotus. I remember such Krishna who is lying
on the leaf of the Ashwattha tree.

Idol worship (मूर्तिपूजा)

There was no idol worship during Vedic period.
Those people recognised only good behaviour and

Vedic Values 59

bad behaviour. (1.6. सदाचार and दुराचार). Good behaviour
was praised and bad behaviour was blamed. They
uttered sanskrit prayers, sounded .bells and waved holy
lamps. There is a scientific principle behind all this.
The sound and the light are the two of the great
elements which can cause the greatest and fastest
electromagnetic ripples, thereby reverberating a
distressed soul's anguished cry throughout the cosmos.
The whole divine campus shaken out of its response,
automatically swings into action according to the divine
law enunciated by Lord Krishna.

The clay icons were prepared much later. They
were worshipped and later on immersed in lakes or
rivers. This tradition is found in our Ganesh worship
at present.

Warding off the Evil (दुष्ट संरक्षक को मिटाना)

It is believed among the Hindus that the envious
glance of even an ardent admirer, not to talk of ill-
wishers, is regarded as causing trouble. It is found in
Vedic practices too at times. Therefore it is not
uncommon to see a devilish mark displayed on a newly
constructed building or a worn-out shoe dangling. For
the same reason a tiny black spot (speck) (looking
like a mole) is delicately put on the face of an attractive
child (baby) or a woman to deflect any chance of evil
glance. At times when such precaution was not taken
or despite such precaution the child or woman seemed
ill at ease, the elderly lady of the vedic household used

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60 Vedic Values

mustard and salt remedy. It sounds superstitious but
it works.
Ultimate Values (चिरंतन मूल्य)

There are a number of values which shape human
behaviour, which guide human behaviour, and develop
healthy relationship among human beings and bind the
society together and make it stable. Of these values
some are changeable according to time and place and
generations. But there are certain values which never
change. They are perennial, permanent, constant. They
are called Ultimate values. They are satya, shiva and
sundara (i.e. सत्य, शिव, and सुंदर) (1.൦., Truth, Good and
Beauty)

In other words they are called as moral, social and
aesthetic values. In addition to these philosophers put
forth one more value put farward is the “spiritual value”.

Aesthetic Values (सुन्दरम्‌) - are the values in the realm
of beauty. The values that give us pleasure and
happiness.

Moral values (सव्य) - are the values that help us to
develop our character. They are the virtues which every
individual must try to imbibe. They make man's
personality transparent and attractive.

Social Values (सामाजिक मूल्य) - are the values or
principles of behaviour in the society. Each individual
is amember of the society. As a member he has certain
rights as well as certain responsibilities or duties that

Vedic Values 61

contribute to the good of the society. Shiva means
good. So the principles which cause towards good of
the individuals as well as society are the social values.
Honesty justice, self-control, freedom, helping each
other etc., make men good members of the society.
And such good members are like lubricants which
make the working of the society quite smooth. Hence
such members are essential in each and every society.

Spiritual values (आध्यासिक मूल्य) - These values are
helpful for individual progress, development and
upliftment. Spirit means the ultimate principle of this
world. It is called as ब्रह्म. Knowledge about the supreme
spirit is spiritual knowledge. Trying for this spiritual
knowledge is called the spiritual value. It is also called
as metaphysical knowledge. It is discussed in the
Upanishads. A person interested in this type of
knowledge takes delight incontemplation of the
supreme spirit. This is called spiritual value.

These values are like guiding star. They shape
human behaviour and uplift human personality. So they
have a special place in the life of an individual, society
and nation. They are the foundation of any culture.

These values inculcate basic human qualities,
develop right attitude towards self, society,
environment, country and religion. It also develops
liberal attitude, towards religion, language, caste and
sex, proper use of leisure, increase social efficiency
and adjustment. The product of all these is the ideal
member of the society.

:
62 Vedic Values

Good character (शील, எ)

Good character was a very important value in those
days. character means good behaviour. It consists of
various qualities e.g. holy thoughts, respect for elders,
sympathy, friendship, gratitude, dutifulness, sweet
tongue and moral behaviour, respect for women, loyalty
etc. In later times character is described as “शीलं सर्वत्र 4
धनम्‌", “शीलं सर्वस्य भूषणम्‌", ‘If character is lost everything
is lost.’ A characterless man never had any value in the
society. Nobody gave him any respect. People looked
down upon such a person. Thus character was a very
important value in ancient time.

मू ॐ *

Donation (दान)

There are different kinds of people in the society.
Some are good, some are bad, some are rich, some
are poor, some are healthy, some are suffering from
diseases, some people have capacity to help others
but some are in need of help from others. Some are
‘have's' and some are ‘have-not's. All good things are
not steady. Conditions change. 'Have's can become
‘have-not's and the vice versa too. Everybody should
remember this and offer help for the needy. One way
of offering help is to give donation. Donation can be
of different types, like donation of money, food,
clothes, food grains, physical help, medicine etc. One
can create goodwill through such activities. Good will
binds people together. One good turn deserves another.
Donor's hand is always up. In nature also we find that
the clouds who give water have high position in the
sky and the ocean who stores water is below on the
earth. His position is low. So one must try to give
whatever one can. Giving 1.6., donation is a value. It
brings respect to the donor.

In addition to the concept of three debts, there is
one more debt and it is social debt.

What is meant by ‘a’?

There is a story in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
which gives some moral advice. Gods, Men and Asuras
were the children of the creator. They completed their
learning for 12 years with Prajapati. At the end of
learning period they requested Prajapati for some

:
64 Vedic Values

advice. He gave them the letter, ൭. All of them
interpreted the letter ൪ in their own way.

Gods interpreted ‘2’ as "द' i.e. self control or
control over senses because they had not conquered
their senses.

Men interpreted ‘a’ as ‘a’ 1.൦. donation, because
being greedy they lacked in giving donations.

Asuras were cruel by nature. They did not show
sympathy or kindness to others. So they felt that father
must have advised them for kindness. Hence they
interpreted ‘a’' as ‘2’ 1.e. kindness, compassion.

All the three became aware of their faults and
decided to compensate, remove the faults by self
improvement. Thus self-improvement was a value. It
is striving for perfection.

उषस्‌ (Early morning)

In ancient times people worshipped nature. The
sun, moon, rivers, trees, earth etc. were their deities
because nature supplied everything necessary for their
life. Early morning too was one of their deities. उषस्‌
appears in the East when the day breaks, the sky is
dazzling with light. उषस्‌ is called the daughter of the
sky. She is very beautiful and rich too. She gives
inspiration to all. The whole world starts working at
her arrival. Birds fly in the sky and go in search of
food. Animals go out for grazing. People salute her
auspicious light. People describe her beauty. She
creates joy and happiness in the world. People are

Vedic Values 65

eager to welcome her. She is a symbol of beauty and
beauty is a value.

Vedic seers

We have seen that different seers have contributed
towards the Vedic Samhitas. Let us know about them
in short.

1) जमदग्नि

One of the seers of hymns in Rigveda He was
born in the race of भृगुक्रषि. He was a great sage. Two
hymns in the ninth mandala of Rigveda and one hymn
in the tenth mandala of Rigveda are assigned to him.
He gave Vishwamitra one vidya called 'Sasarpari' and
compensated his defeat by shakti the son of Vasistha.

He has praised Pavamana soma in the ninth
mandala and he has praised Agni in the tenth mandala.
He has called the creator of sky and Earth as त्वष्टा. He
has stated that the offerings to gods given in agni should
be accompanied with the word swaha (स्वाहा).

जमदग्नि was very short tempered. Renuka was his
wife. Parashurama was his son. जमदग्नि was one of the
famous Saptarishis (सप्तर्षि) .
2) Gowtham (गौतम)

One of the seven famous sages (सप्तर्षि). He
belonged to the Angirasa family. He learnt Brahmavidya
from Sanatkumara. He also learnt how to meditate
Hansa and Paramhansa from sanatkumara. Ahalya the
daughter (मानसकन्या) of Brahmadeva was his wife.

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66 Vedic Values

Shatananda was his son. He underwent penance for a
long time. He advised yama as to how to discharge
Pitruruna (पितृऋण). Once there was a famine for twelve
years and Gautama saved sages by giving food to
them.

3) Kashyapa (काश्यप)

He was a Vedic seer. He had his contribution
towards Vedic Samhita. He was a priest in the sacrifice
of Parashurama and was given the whole earth as
Dakshina (दक्षिणा). He is the 17th sage among the 24
sages of Gayatrimantra. Kashyapa family was wide-
spread. It was a famous family.

4) Agastya (अगस्त्य)

He was a Vedic seer. He created obstruction in
the growth of Vindhya mountain. अगस्त्य was not his
original name but was an attribute given to him for a
great work done by him. He became famous by this
name only. He was the son of Mitra - Varuna and real
brother of Vasishtha. Lopamudra, the princess of
Vidarbha, was his wife. The hymn no. 179 in the first
mandala of Rigveda is assigned to Agastya. He was
the oldest among all sages. Three great victories are
recorded on his name: 1) Vindhya-Vijaya 2) Samudra-
vijaya and 3) Indra-vijaya. He was the disciple of god
shiva, the preceptor of vedic knowledge, and sage of
divine power.

5) Atri (अरि)

He was one of the seven Vedic seers. The 5th
mandala of Rigveda is known as Atri-mandala. 13

Vedic Values 67

hymns in this mandala are assigned to Atri and others
to his decendants. Atri was a great mathematician. He
has described solar eclipse in the 40th hymn in the 5th
mandala. He was expert in the activities related to
sacrifice. According to him "Evening- time" was
prohibited for sacrifice. He was popular among gods.

6) Vasishtha (वसिष्ट)

He was one of the Vedic seers. He was the son of
Gods Mitra-Varuna. His name was given to him with
reference to his high divine qualities (virtues). He is
the seer of the 7th mandala of Rigveda. The 104 hymns
in this mandala are assigned to him alone. His hymns
throw light on History and Geography. न्यूयं पात स्वस्तिभिः
सदा नः। You protect us all the time, this was his constant
demand. Two rivers Parushni and Yamuna are referred
to in his hymns. He underwent penance near river Vi
pasha. The hymns of Vasishtha are mainly addressed
to Indra, Varuna, Usha, Agni and Vishvedeva. They
are specially famous from poetic point of view. Their
language and similes in them are very appealing. The
cult of Bhakti has its seeds in the Vasishtha's hymns
addressed to indra and Agni.

7) Viswamitra (विश्वामित्र)

विश्वामित्र too was a Vedic seer. The third mandala
of Rigveda is assigned to Vishvamitra. As regards
greatness, he is equal to Vasishtha and Bharadwaja.
His biography (life story) is wonderful. He underwent
hard penance for years together, he wanted to send

:
68 Vedic Values

Trishanku to heaven along with his body. He freed
Shunahshep tied to the Yupa as an oblation and
accepted (adopted) him as his son. Originally he was
a kshatriya but on the merit of his penance he became
a brahmin and people started calling him विश्वामित्र.

विश्वामित्र was the leader of Kushika people. Sudasa
was the king of Bharatas. Vasishtha was the priest of
Sudasa. Sudasa wanted help of kushika people so he
removed Vasishtha and made Viswamitra his priest.
So there was enemity between Vasishtha and
Viswamitra. Once Shakti the son of Vasishtha defeated
Viswamitra in debate at a sacrifice. So Viswamitra learnt
Sasarpari Vidya from Jamadagni and defeated shakti.
Thus he was a powerful sage. Viswamitra protested
against the human oblation in the sacrifice and stopped
that tradition.

Sangyana Sukta (संज्ञानसुक्त)

Just 1116 ज्ञानेश्वर requested for God's favour in the
form of Pasayadan, at the end ग ज्ञानेश्वरी, similarly this
hymn is a kind of Pasayadana at the end of Rigveda
samhita. This is the last hymn in Rigveda. It expresses
good wishes for all. May there be joy everywhere. All
should be bound together by a common thought. Let
your behaviour and your minds be one. Let your hearts
be full with common emotion. Let your aim be one
and the same and may you all achieve it with helping
one another. Sit together, discuss things and then take
decision. Try to understand one another which creates
unity among you all. This unity will solve all your
problems and lead you towards progress. This hymn
suggests that all the world should be one.

मू ॐ *

:

Normally old people (वृद्ध) are respected for their
experience and knowledge. But the word वृद्ध is used
in two senses. 1) वयो वृद्ध 1.൦. old on account of
chronological age. 2) ज्ञाननृद्ध i.e. old on account of
knowledge irrespective of chronological age. In
sanskrit there is a saying which tells us.

न तेन वृद्धो भवति येनास्य पलितं शिरः।

It means that because his hair is grey he does not
become वृद्ध 1.e., ज्ञानवृद्ध. On the contrary

यो वे युवाऽप्यधीयान्स्तं देवाः स्थविरं विदुः।

He who inspite of being young is well educated, is
called वृद्ध 1.९. ज्ञानवृद्ध. (old regarding knowledge) by
Gods. "आचार्य पंचायतन' this picture may be cited as an
example of "तं देवाः स्थविरं विदुः।' Below the panchayatana
picture, a verse is cited. It is as follows:

चित्रं वटतरोमूले वृद्धा शिष्या गुरुर्युवा |
गुरोस्तु मोनं व्याख्यानं शिष्यास्तुच्छिन्न संशयाः ॥

It means that a miracle is seen under the banyan
tree. A young man is the teacher there and disciples
are all aged. The teacher is silent and the disciples
have understood every thing.

अष्टावक्र
अष्टावक्र was a young philosopher. He was only

twelve (12) years old. But he had achieved mastery
over all the shastras. His body was curved in eight (8)

Vedic Values 71

places, so he was named as Ashtavakra. Once he went
to the court of king Janaka who was a great philosopher.
There were a number of scholars in his court. When
the scholars looked at Ashtavakra, they began to laugh
at his deformed body. King Janaka pacified them and
told them that the boy wanted to debate with them.
The scholars were surprised. Ashtavakra explained to
them that though the body is curved, the soul within it
is not curved. Though a river is curved, the water
flowing in the current is not curved. He won over them
in the debate. King Janaka was much impressed by
his knowledge, scholarship, intelligence and the quality
of self control. He touched the feet of Ashtavakra and
said, "O revered one, please accept me as your disciple
and remove my ignorance by your advice. Please guide
me." Ashtavakra was pleased and explained him the
knowledge of various kinds and the principle of Atman
too. So it is said that chronological age is not taken
into account in - case of those who have well studied
about Darma. This is the example of the famous
expression.

यो वे युवाऽप्यधीयान्‌ तं ளே: स्थविरं विदुः|

* 9 യു;

:
Sham No Varunah (शं नो वरुणः)

Varuna is a vedic deity. Hymns assigned to varuna
are less in number than hymns assigned (addressed)
to Indra. This does not mean that Varuna is less
important. In Rigveda, Varuna's moral qualities are
more emphasised than his appearance. He sits in the
high heaven and observes all the good and bad
activities of men. He knows everthing (सर्वज्ञ). The seers
had deep reverence for his strength. He is the deity of
water. So he controls all the water sources on the earth
like rivers, oceans etc. His rules and regulations are
strict and constant. Even gods could not break them.
ऋत” was his universal law. शं नो वरुणः is the motto of
Indian Navy because எண is the ultmate controller of
water. The meaning of this motto is 'Let the God Varuna
be our protector and well-Wisher'. This is a kind of
prayer for the safety of all related to Navy. There was
a strong belief that if we pray to God, he protects us,
helps us. So this was a value.

मू 9 म

There are two main streams of Hindu Religion.
One is निगमप्रामाण्य i.e., believing in the authority of Vedas.
The second authenticity is आगमप्रामाण्य 1.൦. believing in
the authority of आगम i.e. sacred knowledge.

The निगम culture was called यज्ञसंस्कृति, because the
'sacrifice' was at the centre of life. There is no reference
to Idol worship in the Vedas. The sacrifice centred
culture was customary for thousands of years. At the
end of दापर युग, Lord Krishna brought in this अगम
culture in which १५०] worship' was at the centre. This
आगम culture was divided into two sub - divisions called
as 1) वैखानस (Vaikhanasa) and 2) पंचरात्र Pancharatra.
The Vaikhanasas developed the special preformance
of idol worship within the inside of a temple. They
used the Vedic mantras in this worship. At present the
worship of God Tirupati takes place according to
Vaikhanasa Agama. But no animal oblation is offered,
though they continue होम etc. So it is only वेदमंत्रपूजा i.e.
worship according to the mantras in the Vedas. But
Goddess Padmavati at the Trichanura city is
worshipped according to Pancharatra Agama. In that
worship both Veda-mantras and tantra are used. It is
described as “எண்‌ - उभयोद्भूतैः 51” So Particular
way of worship is a value and it is continued even at
present.

:

So far we have seen the meaning of the word Veda,
and general information about Vedas. We have
discussed the term value and its relation to vedas on
one hand and to human life on the other hand. The
values played a very important role in the life of men
and their society. There are many sotries in the Vedas
which explain and establish different values. Some of

them are time-dependent (कालसापेक्ष) while some are
place-dependent. But there are certain permanent values
which do not change in relation to place or time. They
are called ultimate values or eternal values. These values
make human relations strong and blind the society
together. They contribute towards progress of the
society and happiness of human life. So we must try
to understand the values and behave accordingly. They
develop good thoughts in your mind. We have a rich
heritage of values evolved through thousands of years
together. We should respect it, preserve it and transmit
it to the future generations. Those who have a divine
past can have a bright future. We must be proud of
our cultural heritage.

॥ इति शम्‌ ॥

वेददर्शन - St. Tas मुले

शैक्षिक - प्रवन्धकुसुमाकर : संपा. डो. मदनमोहन या.
Veda and Indian Culture - Kireet Joshi.
वेदकालीन नारीशिक्षा - Si. प्रमोदिनी पण्डा

Educational Ideals and Institutions in Mahabharata
- N. L. Gupta

प्राच्य विद्या 2004 - 2006

7) भारतीय संस्कृतिकोश, संपा. पं അണ്ടി जोशी.

8) ईशादिदशोपनिषदः शांकरभाष्यसहिताः। प्रकाशक - मोतीलाल
बनारसीदास

9) ठक्तिविशेष - अमरेद्र गाडमीठ

10) सुबोध भारती (इयत्ता 10 वी) - दीक्षित, ரகா,

11) world vedic Heritage - P. N. Oak.

nA ~>, WN ௮

ஓ

मू 9 म

SRI AUROBINDO KAPALI SHASTRY INSTITUTE OF VEDIC CULTURE #63, 13th Main, 4th Block East, Jayanagar Bangalore – 560 011

Devas in the Veda form a hierarchy with Surya, the spiritual Sun at the head. However the number of hymns in RV dedicated to Surya is small. But Agni has about 200 hymns and Indra, 250 out of about one thousand. The reason for the prominence of Agni and Indra is that human beings in their quest towards the all-sided perfection need the help of Agni and Indra much more and hence pray for them more often. The analogy is that of a student who spends more years at the pre-university level than in the university level itself.

The contribution of every rishi in the Rigveda begins with several hymns to Agni, then to Indra and then to the other devas. The RV begins with a hymn to Agni. According to tradition, the japa or conscious repetition of this hymn reveals the knowledge this deity stands for.

Agni in the Veda is not merely the fire on the vedic altar or even the deity behind this physical fire. The ordinary fire is a source of heat and light which prompted the vedic sages to symbolise the deity of spiritual Light and spiritual Force by the word Agni. The physical flame gives light all through the night amidst darkness and it impels human beings to study or work otherwise. Similarly the Divine Power of Agni is residing in every human being who is full of ignorance and in conscience pushing him or her towards progress. Agni is the Divine Power of will united with wisdom, denoted by the word kratu. It is not desire; but it embraces desire and surpasses it. In the Veda Agni is essentially Knowledge or Light taking the form of force. Agni is the mental force, will power, necessary for all action. It is Agni who makes the Divine knowledge of the Supreme Sun accessible to human beings.

He has many other functions, particularly the force of concentration tapas,

commonly called as austerity or mistranslated as penance. He is the force of combustion in the cosmos and also the fire in the stomach jataragni who digests the food in man.

In the RV Agni is said to reside hidden in the cave of the heart, guha. The ordinary human being in his outward activities is unaware of the presence of Agni. Still Agni prompts him/her on the journey.

After a long time, Agni, makes the outer being become aware of the Divine force Agni within. This important event is described as the birth of Agni. He is said to be born in man, jajnana, janayan in hundreds of verses.

Many translators mistake this phrase, ‘birth of Agni’ as the birth of Agni in the cosmos during the process of Creation. RV refers to the birth of Agni in every human. Agni and other devas are called twice born dvijanma, the first birth being in cosmos, the second in human. Depending on the response of the outer being of the human, the force of Agni, the divine will-force becomes stronger and stronger. Agni is pictured repeatedly as residing within and giving his direction. The worshipper develops a close relationship to Agni like that of son to father, friend, spouse etc. Agni reciprocates with the corresponding feeling.

In the RV, the devas perform not only the cosmic actions of maintaining all life, but also the individual actions, the credit for which performance is claimed by the humans. It is the devas who make the crops grow, trees blossom, digest food in humans and so on. But, human beings take the entire credit. RV views every action as a collaborative effort between the devas and the humans, the human role being nominal or subsidiary. This collaborative action is called as yajna, which is not a mere rite. Bhagavad Gita in Chapter 4 reaffirms the vedic view of yajna.

The first hymn in RV states that Agni is the master of yajna. He is repeatedly referred to as the performer of yajna. Often the rishis request Agni to perform the yajna and worship the other devas on their behalf. In the Vedic ritual, there are three types of priests, adhwaryu, the controller of path, hotr caller and the udgathr, singer. These three names denote distinct functions which Agni himself does. Agni guides our path to perfection at every step, hence he is the director of the yajna. Agni calls all the other devas to manifest in the human being, each deva developing a particular aspect of force in the human. Hence, Agni is the caller of the devas. He is also called the duta, the messenger of the humans to the devas, to request the latter to vitalize the human. Thirdly he is called the singer because he empowers the human being to express his aspiration to the Divine and devas by singing the hymns. Thus Agni the caller himself becomes the speech to be sung. In RV, the chief method of spiritual practice is the chanting of the hymns. This idea is repeated in the Aitareya Upanishad (1.2.4)

by the statement, “Agni becoming speech, vak”. This phrase makes no sense at all if we have not studied the Rig vedic concept of Agni. Agni propels the human aspirant towards perfection and hence is said to create the perfected being, the rishi.

Even a perusal of the 253 titles of the mantras in this book will convince the readers that whatever Agni is, it cannot be described as a simple fire in the fire- altar or even a forest fire.

The ninth verse in the first hymn is a prayer to Agni ‘cling to us like a father a son’. We know the effect of the physical fire clinging to us! Again the same hymn, in verse seven, states that obeisance or salutation to Agni is done by thought. In the first verse, Agni performs the yajna; there is no mention of a human priest performing the yajna.

The phrase, ‘kindling of Agni’, does occur as the title for the verse RV (1.26.5), verse 5 of hymn 26. Before we jump to the conclusion that this verse implies the kindling of the physical fire by a human, we have to read the qualifying phrases in the same verse, "The Gods Mitra and Varuna kindle Agni.'' Mitra is the Divine Force associated with friendship and harmony, Varuna with all vastness, including the vastness of the physical ocean.

Again in RV (1.12.5), there is the Sanskrit word ghrta, one of its meanings being melted butter, commonly poured into fire. The reader can read the discussion on this verse and convince himself/herself that to preserve the consistency of all the phrases in that verse, the alternative meaning of clarity of thought to ghrta is more appropriate.

The general impression conveyed by the titles of the verse and later by the translations is that Agni is a Divine Force endowed with consciousness. The epithet Kavi or seer, or one who has supraphysical visions, is commonly used for Agni.

Agni manifests his power in human beings as the commonly used epithet, ‘born in man’, implies. He summons the other divine powers also to manifest in man, hence the name summoner for Agni. Agni can be approached by thought as well by the recitation of the mantra. The rishi prays to the conscious power Agni, not merely for physical wealth like cows, but, all-round felicities, opulence and ultimately for the supreme knowledge and bliss. It is possible for a human being to enter into a conscious relationship with Agni like a friend, spouse, father, son,

etc. We see in Rigveda the beginnings of the yoga of devotion, bhakti yoga, described in later scriptures like Srimad Bhagavatam, Bhagavad Gita, the works of the ancient South Indian poets, alwars and nayanmars etc. The last hymn in this collection (1.99) is a prayer to Agni to carry us over all obstacles as in a boat to the shores of Supreme Bliss and Knowledge.

Some of the most poetic and lyrical hymns in the Rigveda are the nine hymns RV (1.65-1.73) by Sage Parashara. They have a wealth of similes for Agni which are easily understandable only if Agni is understood as a benevolent cosmic divine personality. In RV (1.65.5), we find the simile, ‘Agni sits amidst waters and breathes like a Swan'. Because of the mantra ‘I am He', aham sahwhich in repetition or japa becomes hamsa, there is an intense association between persons in deep mediation and the bird hamsa or swan. These epithets to Agni remind us very much of the epithets used in the litanies to describe the Goddesses, as in Lalita Sahasra Nama (thousand names of Lalita). Obviously these epithets make no sense to translators like Griffith, who insist on regarding Agni as a physical fire. No wonder, these verses are declared as unintelligible by these writers.

Nara in vedic Sanskrit means the hero or the leader whereas in classical Sanskrit it refers to the ordinary person. Vishva means the universe. Here Vaishvanara means the "Universal person, the one who is actively present in the universe, in all things and beings, Gods and men; it also means the leader within of Gods and men, of the Universe and within the Universe" [Kapali Sastry, Vol. 1]. There are about twenty suktas in the Rigveda where Agni is adored as the Vaishvanara, the Universal Person, or Leader within.

It has been mentioned earlier that whereas the Gods of the Rigveda form a hierarchy with the supreme God being simply mentioned by the phrase "That ONE" (tad ekam), the Seer experienced the ONE through individual Gods, primarily Agni. Agni is not only a distinct power and personality of the ONE, namely the illumined will, the knower of births of all creatures, the youngest God, the God who brings all other Gods into their habitation in the individual human being, etc. He is also seen and experienced as the Universal person or being by several rishis. We clearly see here how the strength of the spiritual experience or sight prevents them from forming groups, each of whom claim superiority for one particular God. For instance, the Seer Nodha Gotama hymns Agni as the Universal person in the sukta (RV I.59) and in the sukta (RV 1.61) he adores the deity Indra as the Ancient Person "whose greatness exceeds beyond heaven, earth, and mid region" (RV 1.61.9). The Rigveda is a happy compilation

of the distinct and individual experiences of more than one hundred seers with no note of discordance or disharmony. Seer hymns a God with some epithets used by others and some not used by others. If we compile the hymns of different seers to the same God (as Sri Aurobindo did regarding the deity Agni), we can easily see the special powers and personality associated with each deity. For instance, take the word "adhbhuta" or wonderful. It is used more than twenty times in the Rigveda, almost always as an appellation of the God Agni (except once when it is used for Indra). Again the word kumara or jatavedas is used only in connection with Agni. Even though the Gods are described in superlative epithets, the set of phrases describing each God is clearly distinct, indicating that the different Seers who hymn Indra really had the vision of that deity doing the divine tasks attributed to that deity.

It is also important to study the hymns dedicated to the Vaishvanara Agni because they form the basis for the experience of the Upanishadic seers named as "vaishvanara vidya" appearing in the Chandogya upanishad. There are several such bridges between the Rigveda and the upanishads like the doctrine of mystic honey, which will be considered elsewhere.

The glories of Agni Vaishvanara are extolled in about twenty suktas of the Rigveda. Translations of three of them will be given here with appropriate comments. All other fires are only thy branches. In thee, rejoice all the Gods. Thou, Vaishvanara, art the navel of men and supports them like a pillar (RV 1.59.1).

Agni has several forms depending on his functions. Primarily, Agni is the Divine and Will (kratu) who is eager to take birth in every person to lead him/her to the higher realm. This is the spiritual function. Agni is also the cosmic fire which maintains the universe. He is also the fire in the individual living being, jatara Agni, who coordinates all the forces of digestion and makes life possible. Thus the rishi, Nodasa Gotama, says that all other fires, representative of their different functions, are only your branches. The ritualistic interpretation of the phrase "all other fires" as different sacrificial fires in different houses is too narrow an interpretation.

All the Gods rejoice in Agni because he begins the task in which all of them are involved, namely the divinization of man here on earth. Agni, the Divine force and will, supports every creature just as pillars support a house. Head of heaven, centre of earth, Agni became the messenger of heaven and earth. O Vaishvanara, the Gods manifested thee as Light for the pilgrim sacrificer (1.59.2).

Even though Agni is stationed in the higher realms of heaven, his center of activity is on earth. In the veda, human life is viewed as a pilgrimage from our

imperfect state to a perfected condition, envisioned as the heaven. The individual progresses in this journey by means of offering all he has, all he is, all he does to the supreme. Agni provides the Light for this journey. Like the rays are firmly set in the Sun, All treasures are vested in Vaishvanara . Thou art the monarch of all the treasures in the mountains, in the herbs, waters, in men RV (1.59.3). Heaven and Earth got wide extended as it were for their Son. He, the priest, sings our words even as a man. Several are the flame powers of Vaishvanara , superb leader, luminous, with truth-sustaining light RV (1.59.4).

Heaven denotes the pure domain of Mind and earth, the wakeful domain of matter. Agni who is born in the human sacrificer (yajamana) to manifest the power is called as the Son. Both heaven and earth widen themselves in the sacrificer to facilitate the birth of the Son. Agni Vaishvanara performed all the functions of the yajamana, such as chanting the hymns. Agni Vaishvanara , knower of all existences, thy glory exceeds the great heavens. Thou art the sovereign of the striving peoples. Thou has brought the supreme good to the Gods by battle RV (1.59.5). I extol the greatness of the showerer, whom men celebrate as slayer of Vritra. He, the Vaishvanara Agni, slew the Dasyu, Thrust the waters down, cleaving the Shambara RV (1.59.6).

The epithet "knower of all existences" (jatavedas) is used exclusively for Agni in many places, clearly indicating the inadequacy of translating Agni as a mere physical fire. The last line refers to the battle between Gods, the powers of Light and Dasyus, the power of darkness. Even though Indra, the God of Divine Mind, is the leader in this battle, in this rik, he is identified with Agni since Agni is being extolled as the universal Godhead here. Thus the vedic conception of Gods is always subtle and never rigid. This is the Universal Godhead. The lustrous master of sacrifice, the flame with his hundred treasures, who, by his greatness, labours in all the peoples. This is he who has the Word of Truth RV (1.59.7).

The last line is very significant. Agni has the word of truth (Sunratawan) which has the power of fulfillment.

Next we will take another hymn RV (1.98) dedicated to the Agni Vaishvanara . May we be in the grace of Vaishvanara, for he is the foremost to be served, Sovereign of all beings. Spring hence, He beholds the universe and unites with the Sun RV (1.98.1). Set in Heaven, set in Earth Agni pervades all the plants. May Agni Vaishvanara , set in vigour, guard us from the foe day and night. O Vaishvanara, may this truth be attainable to us. May wealth laden with high riches wait upon us. May it be preserved for us by Mitra, Varuna, Aditi, Ocean, Earth and Heaven. (1.98.3). Agni pervades the entire universe, manifests individually in each person and grows in him/her, and connects each person to the Light above, the Sun (in the first rik). A common feature of the vedic hymns is a prayer to guard us from the foes, the forces of darkness who are opposed to

the growth of the force of Light in man. Even though some moderns may scoff at such a conception, the activity of the forces of darkness and falsehood is tangible for all persons who have done some spiritual practice. Only the forces of divine and not any purely human agency can protect us from these forces of falsehood.

The hymn closes with the recognition of the roles played by the various Gods in our divinization and journey to the higher realms of Light.

Some other references to Vaishvanara Agni will be referred here. (Kapali and Aurobindo translations modified). The messenger between Earth and heaven; with his Light he envelops the Vast Home RV (3.3.2). He is the measure for the seers and hymnists RV (3.3.4). At thy birth, thou has filled the worlds and earth and heaven Thou are there enveloping them with all thyself RV (3.3.10). I am from my birth the knower of all things I am measurer of the world RV (3.26.7). The heights of heaven were measured by this universal force, They were shaped by the intuition of the Immortal (6.7.6). Vaishvanara at his birth in the Supreme Heaven measured out the vast space (6.8.2). Born in the Supreme Heaven Thou like wind reaches at once the place of Gods (7.5.7). At thy birth, thou fillest the earth and heaven (7.13.2). Thou art the head of the world (10.88.5).

This vedic tradition of the universal Godhead has been preserved in the sadhana of the upanishads named as the vaishvanara vidya. The particular passage occurs in the chandogya upanishad (V. 11-18). The passage is "In all worlds, in all beings, in all selves, he eats the food." "sa sarveshu lokeshu sarveshu bhuteshu sarveshu atmasu annam atti."

In this passage the seer Ashvapathi, who also happens to be the king, instructs his pupils Aruni and others in the art of living in accord with the truths of the Vaishvanara, the universal Person. "As the sustenance of the material body is indispensable for living, he enjoins upon them not to eat the food and live as if the vaishvanara atman (the self of Vaishvanara) were something separate, but to live - and eat for living - with the knowledge of Him as the ONE FIRE who lives aglow in all the creatures. Anyone who so lives, lives also for other souls, for other beings around, for the rest of the whole universe. He lives in conscious union with Him, lives a conscious life aware of the fact that what we call creatures are formations for the housing of the Great Presence of the Universal Fire, the Vaishvanara Agni. When he eats, he knows and feels that it is the awakened Fire of the Universal Person in him that eats. His living is a source of joy and power to the living of others, to the general progress of the world, of all beings and of the human kind in particular that is closer to his/her level." [Kapali, Vol. 1, p. 215].

The vedic tradition of a deity, who is not only a separate power and personality of the Divine, but who also is viewed as the universal Godhead, has come down

into our times as the chosen deity (ishta devata) associated with each person who guides him/her to the highest. We have to remember that the practice of adoring Agni both as a separate power and as the universal Godhead is based on the intuitions and spiritual experiences of the vedic seers and not on any intellectual arguments. When the role of the intellect became stronger and when it was not followed by strong spiritual experiences, we see the development of different cults, each one having with a fixed a rigid hierarchy of Gods, the hierarchy justified by intellectual arguments. Naturally the highest God in one system is not the same in the other leading naturally to the quarrel between the cults. All these quarrels occur because the powers of intellect which insist on the differentiation and distinction, and the power of the heart which leads to unity have not been harmonized. This power of harmony, labeled Vijnara by Sri Aurobindo, is still latent in most of us. We can clearly hope for a time when these diverse and often divisive forces can be harmonized.

More than three thousand riks out of eleven thousand in the Rigveda samhita are dedicated to the God Agni. This feature does not indicate that Agni occupies the highest place in the hierarchy of vedic Gods - that role is assigned to Surya Savitri or Vishnu. Agni's preeminence comes from the fact that he initiates everyone to spiritual life and lays its foundation, which obviously takes a long time and effort. Thus every seer acknowledges his/her great debt to the deity by chanting several hymns to him adoring him and describing his glories.

A rough analogy to the role played by Agni in the spiritual life of a person is the primary education given to a child. Even though in the educational hierarchy, the graduate or post graduate education is considered higher than that of the primary school, the important role played by primary school education, clearly signified by its name, is crucial to a person.

Persons of the vedic age pondered on the question of how they can be free of the limitations posed by the material life so that they can behold again the infinite divine mother and become conscious of the infinity surrounding us. This searching attitude can be seen in the famous hymn of the Seer Shunahshepa in the RV (1.24.1). Which auspicious Name of God among Im mortals Shall we call? Who is he that will restore us to the mighty Aditi that I may behold the Father and the Mother? kasyu nunam katamasya amritanam manamahe caru devasya nama... (1.24.1).

Father represents the consciousness that is of the pure Mind; the consciousness that extends and is awake in the physical world is Earth, the Mother. The

persons of the vedic age had the intuitive perception that a God can be invoked by uttering (manamahe) his auspicious (charu) name (nama). The word manamahe comes from the root "man" which indicates the act of worship, contemplation, meditation, etc. The vedic persons had immense faith in the power of the name. The rik quoted above begins with the word "nunam" (doubt). The person does not know yet the name that can be called which will give the appropriate response.

agneh vayam prathamasya amrtanam manamahe karu devasya nama... The auspicious name of Agni, first among the immortals, (we) utter... (1.24.2).

We have seen earlier that every word carries a force of realization with it. There are many other places in the Rigveda when the aspirant asks "what word is uttered to Agni?" Note that Agni itself is a potent word. In addition, the seer is looking for the correct word which affirms the God and leads to his realization. This word must be illuminative of the power of Agni.

The answer comes in the rik quoted above (1.24.2). The auspicious word for Agni is "prathamasya amrtanam," the "first among the immortals." Agni is born first in man and then helps in the manifestation of other gods in us later.

As Sri Kapali Sastry says, "Agni's function begins as the voice in man, agnir vag bhutah. It is this aspect of Agni that the vedic sages were initially impressed with and used prayers to evoke him so that he may awake and take up the function of being first among immortals and of calling the higher powers. Vak as hymns, prayers addressed to Agni first and other Gods later, was the main instrument of their spiritual effort." The rishis were clearly not unaware of the spiritual methods used in later times like meditation and concentration on sacred syllables.

The self offering and self giving the rishis was done through Vak, of which the prayer was the motor force. "The inspired nature of the vedic Vak tended to attach greater importance to and enhance the value of the sacred utterance and the result was tangible, and comparatively speaking, unfailing as can be seen from a close study of most of the hymns addressed to the Gods in the Rigveda... Vak was the chief means used to awaken the Great God of the Earth, Agni, seated in the heart of man. Agni, then, is Vak, the power of expression, the voice of call, on the physical plane; in his subtler aspect at the back of the voice, he is the psychic fire whose flame throws up the force of Aspiration in the march toward the Godhead; radically he is the Godhead himself, his will secret in the heart of things." (Kapali, Vol. 1, pp. 355-356).

The word or laud as the unifying force between Agni and the seer is again brought out in 1.26.9. O immortal, may intimate words be mutual to both, to you and us mortals (1.26.9). In this rik, "prasastayah" means praises, secret words in confidence.

In 1.26.10, the seer calls upon Agni to accept the laud (vachah) and establish happiness in him. Agni is addressed as vision of immortality in 1.13.5 [amrtasya chakshanam].

The hymn 1.77 starts with a similar question. How shall we give to Agni? For him what word accepted by the Gods is spoken?" The answer is heard by the seer. That name is "martyeshu amrita rta barvah". i.e., Agni who is "immortal in mortals and possessed of the Truth."

The hymn RV 1.31 is particularly revealing of the problems encountered by the beginner. This hymn is addressed by the Seer Hiranyastupa Angirasa. The first three riks begin with the phrase "tvam agne praithamo," "You are important or first in the birth of the various Gods like Vayu." The beginner laments much about the difficulties in the path. The beginner is labeled "pururavase," "one who cries or laments to reach the high station." For such a person, Agni is sukrltarah, the superb doer of Gods.

Another reference for the help given by Agni to the beginner is 1.31.14. "Superbly knowing, thou instructs the immature in all directions." The word used for immature is "pakam," that which is to be cooked.

The God Agni helps and leads a devotee even when the devotee or sacrificer is not helpful. The seer prays in (1.31.16). "O Agni, as we have gone far from thee in the path, forgive this offense. Thou art our relative... Thou art the maker of seers of mortals."

The last line, "martyanam rsikrt," making seers out of mortals, is the special characteristic of Agni.

Similarly in 1.31.6, the Seer addresses Agni as one who takes the devotee away from the crooked path and leads the person to the divine place that has to be known, vidatha. Agni establishes the mortal man in high immortality for daily inspiration. "amrtatva uttame martam dadhasi divedive." It is clear that Agni is establishing immortality in man on this earth, not after the physical death of man. The same rik says that Agni creates for the devotee both happiness (mayah) and pleasure (prayah) [1.31.7]. The vedic seers believed in a rich and harmonious life where pleasures were not shunned. They were accepted and enjoyed as gifts from the great God. In 1.31.9, Agni is called upon to fashion a new body for the devotee, (tanu barkrt), a body fit for the divine birth. Similarly

in 1.71.4, yoga. Agni is stirred into action by the prana. This is the basis for the statement in svetashvatara upanishad where the devotee calls for a body which has been purified by the Agni yoga (yogagni mayam sariram). Mortals kindle thee O Agni with words of invocation (1.36.7). We pray to Agni, the great, with auspicious words for you all (1.36.1). Youthful Agni, auspicious, in thee alone all oblations are offered, convey it to the Gods (1.36.6).

All the hymns of the Seers of Rigveda share a common language. Most of them use the symbolism of fire-ritual. For instance, Kutsa says "may we be able to kindle thee, may we collect the fuel" (1.94). In the same rik, the seer makes clear that he is not referring to the physical fire: "Perfect our thoughts...." Still each rishi approaches the gods in a different way. Rig vedic hymns are records of spiritual experiences of the rishis. Just as we do not find any two human beings identical (or for that matter, any two trees or stones), similarly spiritual realizations of two rishis are distinct from one another. Different rishis deal with different aspects of spiritual realization and there is no end to it. Still just as each poet has his/her own style of writing, each rishi has his/her own unique realizations and unique style for expressing them. In addition, the compiler of Rigveda has made sure that contributions of the different seers are complimentary and that each seer makes some unique spiritual observations not made by others.

The Seer Kutsa's relationship to the Gods like Indra and Agni is that of a friend. Kutsa's hymns to Indra are reminiscent of the pleadings and prayers of Arjuna to his friend, the great God Krishna in the epic Mahabharata.

Kutsa dwells on an important aspect of Agni, namely that of purifier. Several commentators say that "veda desires all sins to be atoned for immediately expatriated through fire ritual" (Bose, p. 219) and the basis is the hymn RV. 1.97. Before we go into the role of Agni as purifier, we have to inquire into the ideas of Rigveda on sin itself. The word in veda for sin or evil is "papma" or "Agha." veda does not divide all actions into two rigid classes, the so-called good and evil. Rather, evil or sin is "basically a dark and opposing block of forces that prevents the release of the juice of delight, the flow of Soma (Kapali, p. 1.121). The evil forces enter these persons who offer a welcome as it were to them and the evil forces express themselves through humans in various forms. Rigveda mentions, for example, the person who would bring evil by voice or speech (aghashamsah, 4.4.3, 10.87.20, 6.8.5, 8.60.8), one who expresses evil through actions (aghayatah, aghayan, 4.2.6, 4.2.9). For example, in the much later book, the bhagavad gita, Arjuna asks his friend Krishna "Why does a man commit sin

forced as it were." Sri Krishna answers that the great forces of evil (maha papma) characterizing force of desire and anger (kama esha krodha esha... maha papma...).

We will consider the Rigveda 1.97 for detailed study. Its seer is Kutsa and it has 8 mantras. Each mantra ends with the refrain "May our sin wither in lament." O Agni, may our sin wither in lament, shine thy wealth on us. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.1). For happy fields, for safe paths, for wealth, we worship thee. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.2). Most auspicious among the lauders be Kutsa. Most auspicious be our wise ones. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.3). As thy worshippers become wise ones, May we, thine, O Agni, become likewise. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.4). As the conquering lustres of Agni go to every side may our sin wither in lament. To every side thy face is turned; Thou art our guardian everywhere. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.6). O thou who facest all sides, Take us beyond the foes as over the river May our sin wither in lament. Do thou convey us beyond, As in a ship for our welfare May our sin wither in lament (1.97.8).

In the entire hymn, there is not even a hint of the idea that the performance of a fire ritual is an atonement for a sin. The refrain "may our sin wither in lament" makes it clear that the Seer prays for Agni to destroy the forces of evil lodged in him so that they may wither. Note the use of the words "wither in lament." These forces are not abstract things. Rather they are personifications and they resist and lament being dislodged from a habitation in the particular human being.

Each one of the eight mantras indicates a different step or process in the eradication of the sin.

The first mantra says that only if Agni shines his wealth, namely the force of unshakable will, can these forces of evil be dislodged.

The second mantra says safe paths or happy fields are not possible if these forces persist. So the Seer calls upon Agni to destroy these forces.

The fourth mantra is the key. Only as wisdom dawns in the worshipper can these forces be thrown out.

The fifth mantra says that the forces of evil are lodged in every part of our personality. So the conquering lustres of Agni should pierce every side and dislodge these forces.

The seventh and eighty mantras clearly state that even when the environment may be permeated by these evil forces, Agni takes the worshipper safely across

these waters just like a good boat takes a traveler through stormy waters to the destination.

It is also instructive to see how the same Sanskrit mantra may suffer a grotesque translation. Take the example of the first half of 1.97.4. The translation of Griffiths is: So that thy worshippers and we thine, Agni, in our sons may live. The first two lines of the translation due to Kapali Sastry are: As thy worshippers become wise ones May we, thine, O Agni, become likewise. Note the vast difference in the meaning. The translation of Griffiths is incoherent. The difference between the two translations lies in the different meanings given to the word pra-jayemahi. Griffiths translates praja as son as in classical Sanskrit and translates prajayemahi as "to live in our sons." But the use of the word "surayaha" wise ones is redundant because both wise ones and stupid have children. All through the Rigveda Sri Kapali Sastry assigns for prajayemahi the meaning of "to become wise." [Also consider Sri Aurobindo's translation in which he uses praja in two different ways.]

Let us now consider the Kutsa's hymn to Agni emphasizing his friendship (1.94). Kutsa uses the words associated with the physical ritual like fire, but quickly adds phrases like "perfect our thoughts," etc., to emphasize the fact that he is using the physical ritual only as a symbol of the spiritual transformation occurring in his inner worlds. In Kutsa's hymns, it is clear that Agni himself is the sacrificer and not any human. Agni accomplishes everything for the human worshipper. He accomplishes unobstructed, He gains heroic might for whom, O Agni, thou sacrifices, Evil does not touch him. May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.2). May we, O Agni, collect the fuel, prepare the oblations reminding ourselves of the successive steps. Perfect our thoughts to prolong our life. May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.4). Graceful of form, O Agni, thou art alike on every side. When we see him from afar, yet he seems near to us, So brilliantly he shines across the gulfs. He sees beyond the darkness of our night May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.7). God among Gods, O Agni, thou are a great friend. Handsome, thou confirms the riches in the sacrifice. Under thy most wide protection, may we dwell, May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.13).

Each mantra in this hymn of fifteen mantras, ends with the refrain "May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship." As mentioned earlier, Kutsa uses some aspect of the esoteric or physical ritual as a symbol of the inner sacrifice. For instance, in (1.94.7), the phrase "thou art alike on every side" means that Agni is equally effective in illuminating all the different (inner) aspect of the Seer Kutsa, which may be illumined or in a state of obscurity. The phrase "darkness of the night" refers to the state of consciousness which is completely dark and has not been penetrated by the light.

The epithet jatavedas for Agni is found in many hymns. We will consider one such hymn, 1.99, for discussion It is the shortest sukta in the Rigveda, having exactly one mantra. It is repeated in later upanishad literature such as Mahanarayana upanishad (anuvaka two) as part of durga sukta, the sukta dedicated to durga. It is used extensively in the tantric literature and is part of the Prapanchasara tantra. It is recited to purify the environment in all vedic rituals.

The rishi of this hymn (I-99) is Kashyapa of, the son of Maricha. The metre is trishtubh. Agni is called knower of the births or knower of the worlds because he knows entirely the five worlds, the worlds in which, respectively, Matter, Life- energy, Mind, Truth and Beatitude are the essential energies. They are respectively bhur, bhuvar, svar, mahas, and jana or mayas (Sri Aurobindo). This is also the classification of worlds in the taittireya upanishad. Even though veda speaks of seven worlds, there is no conflict here because the world jana mentioned here represents the higher triple world of sat, chit, ananda or Existence, knowledge and bliss, in the other classification involving seven worlds.

jatavedase sunavama somam aratiyato nidahati vedah sa nah parshadati durgani vishva naveva sindhum durita ati agnih (1.99.1). To jatavedas, we offer the Soma, May he burn up the knowledge of our enemies. May Agni carry us through all difficulties, through grief as in a boat across a river.

What is the Soma mentioned here? If it is the herb, what connection could there be between an herb and the knower of all births? Western translators are fond of repeating that Soma is an intoxicating herb. However, all the Indian medicinal texts on herbs, both ancient and medieval, mention several plants belonging to the Soma family, but none of them possess any intoxicating properties. We have to look into Rigveda itself to understand the nature of Soma. The entire ninth book of Rigveda is dedicated to Soma. For instance, consider the following instances: Soma with thy natural powers thou pervades the all and flows Thou art the king and Lord of all the whole world (9.85.6). When they crush the herb, one thinks he has drunk the Soma, But no one ever tastes him whom brahmanas know to be Soma (10.85.3). These two quotations dismiss all notions of Soma as a creeper or Soma. The real meaning of Soma is "sarva anubhuti rasam," the distilled essence and delight of all experiences. Everything in this universe from the smallest particle to man exists only because it has in it the "rasa" or delight of existence. When we perform any work without expecting any return, the work releases its hidden Soma which brings us a touch of delight, the basis of the later karma yoga. Soma, the essence of all of our actions and experiences, is purified

We have mentioned earlier that Agni represents both Light and force. The rishi prays to Agni to protect his pilgrimage to the higher worlds from the onslaughts of the non-human evil powers who do not want the humans to progress and thus go beyond their grasp. Agni is called upon to destroy the wealth and knowledge of these non-human enemies. An interesting feature of this mantra is the analogy of the spiritual journey of the aspirant to one on a boat in a rough river or sea. Just as the sea has unfriendly creatures like crocodiles, the spiritual journey has also unfriendly powers. Just as a boat protects us from direct contact with the unfriendly creatures in the sea, Agni creates a protective environment around the aspirant so that he is free from unfriendly attacks. Recall the mantra (1.1.4) in which Agni is called upon to offer a protective enclosure to the onward path of the aspirant. The English word navy is derived from the Sanskrit word nava and this is one of the earliest references in history to travel by a boat.

1. How shall we give to Agni? For him what Word accepted by the Gods is spoken, for the lord of the brilliant flame? for him who in mortals, immortal, possessed of the Truth, priest of the oblation strongest for sacrifice, creates the gods ?

2. He who in the sacrifices is the priest of the offering, full of peace, full of the Truth, him verily form in you by your surrenderings; when Agni manifests for the mortals the gods, he also has perception of them and by the mind offers to them the sacrifice.

3. For he is the will, he is the strength, he is the effecter of perfection, even as Mitra he becomes the charioteer of the Supreme. To him, the first, in the rich- offerings the people seeking the godhead utter the word, the Aryan people to the fulfiller.

4. May this strongest of the Powers and devourer of the destroyers manifest by his presence the words and their understanding, and may they who in their extension are lords of plenitude, brightest in energy, pour forth their plenty and give their impulsion to the thought.

5. Thus has Agni, possessed of the Truth, been affirmed by the masters of light, the knower of the worlds by clarified minds. He shall foster in them the force of illumination, he too the plenty; he shall attain to increase and to harmony by his

Gotama Rahugana is the seer of this Hymn, which is a stoma in praise of Agni, the divine Will at work in the universe.

Agni is the most important, the most universal of the Vedic gods. In the physical world he is the general devourer and enjoyer. He is also the purifier; when he devours and enjoys, then also he purifies. He is the fire that prepares and perfects; he is also the fire that assimilates and the heat of energy that forms. He is the heat of life and creates the sap, the rasa in things, the essence of their substantial being and the essence of their delight.

He is equally the Will in Prana, the dynamic Life-energy, and in that energy performs the same functions. Devouring and enjoying, purifying, preparing, assimilating, forming, he rises upwards always and transfigures his powers into the Maruts, the energies of Mind. Our passions and obscure emotions are the smoke of Agni's burning. All our nervous forces are assured of their action only by his support.

If he is the Will in our nervous being and purifies it by action, he is also the Will in the mind and clarifies it by aspiration. When he enters into the intellect, he is drawing near to his divine birth-place and home. He leads the thoughts towards effective power; he leads the active energies towards light.

His divine birth-place and home, - though he is born everywhere and dwells in all things, - is the Truth, the Infinity, the vast cosmic Intelligence in which Knowledge and Force are unified. For there all Will is in harmony with the truth of things and therefore effective; all thought part of Wisdom, which is the divine Law, and therefore perfectly regulative of a divine action. Agni fulfilled becomes mighty in his own home - in the Truth, the Right, the Vast. It is thither that he is leading upward the aspiration in humanity, the soul of the Aryan, the head of the cosmic sacrifice.

It is at the point where there is the first possibility of the great passage, the transition from mind to supermind, the transfiguration of the intelligence, till now the crowned leader of the mental being, into a divine Light, - it is at this supreme and crucial point in the Vedic Yoga that the Rishi, Gotama Rahugana, seeks in himself for the inspired Word. The Word shall help him to realise for himself and others the Power that must effect the transition and the state of luminous

The Vedic sacrifice is, psychologically, a symbol of cosmic and individual activity become self-conscious, enlightened and aware of its goal. The whole process of the universe is in its very nature a sacrifice, voluntary or involuntary. Self- fulfillment by self-immolation, to grow by giving is the universal law. That which refuses to give itself, is still the food of the cosmic Powers. "The eater eating is eaten" is the formula, pregnant and terrible, in which the Upanishad sums up this aspect of the universe, and in another passage men are described as the cattle of the gods. It is only when the law is recognized and voluntarily accepted that this kingdom of death can be over passed and by the works of sacrifice Immortality made possible and attained. All the powers and potentialities of the human life are offered up, in the symbol of a sacrifice, to the divine Life in the Cosmos.

Knowledge, Force and Delight are the three powers of the divine Life; thought and its formations, will and its works, love and its harmonisings are the corresponding human activities which have to be exalted to the divine level. The dualities of truth and falsehood, light and darkness, conceptional right and wrong are the confusions of knowledge born of egoistic division; the dualities of egoistic love and hatred, joy and grief, pleasure and pain are the confusions of Love, perversities of Ananda; the dualities of strength and weakness, sin and virtue, action and inaction are the confusions of will, dissipaters of the divine Force. And all these confusions arise and even become necessary modes of our action because the triune powers of the divine Life are divorced from each other, Knowledge from Strength, Love from both, by the Ignorance which divides. It is the Ignorance, the dominant cosmic Falsehood that has to be removed. Through the Truth, then, lies the road to the true harmony, the consummated felicity, the ultimate fulfillment of love in the divine Delight. Therefore, only when the Will in man becomes divine and possessed of the Truth, amrtah rtava, can the perfection towards which we move be realized in humanity.

Agni, then, is the god who has to become conscient in the mortal. Him the inspired Word has to express, to confirm in this gated mansion and on the altar- seat of this sacrifice.

"How must we give to Agni?" asks the Rishi. The word for the sacrificial giving, dasema, means literally distribution; it has a covert connection with the root das in the sense of discernment. The sacrifice is essentially an arrangement, a distribution of the human activities and enjoyments among the different cosmic Powers to whose province they by right belong. Therefore the hymns repeatedly speak of the portions of the gods. It is the problem of the right arrangement and distribution of his works that presents itself to the sacrificer; for the sacrifice

must be always according to the Law and the divine ordainment (rtu, the later vidhi). The will to right arrangement is an all-important preparation for the reign of the supreme Law and Truth in the mortal.

The solution of the problem depends on right realization, and right realization starts from the right illuminative Word, expression of the inspired Thought which is sent to the seer out of the Vast. Therefore the Rishi asks farther, "What word is uttered to Agni?" What word of affirmation, what word of realization? Two conditions have to be satisfied. The Word must be accepted by other divine Powers, that is, it must bring out some potentiality in the nature or bring into it some light of realization by which the divine Workers may be induced to manifest in the superficial consciousness of humanity and embrace openly their respective functions. And it must be illuminative of the double nature of Agni, this Lord of the lustrous flame. Bhama means both a light of knowledge and a flame of action. Agni is a Light as well as a Force.

The Word arrives. yo martyeshu amrtah rtava. Agni is, pre-eminently, the Immortal in mortals. It is this Agni by whom the other bright sons of Infinity are able to work out the manifestation and self-extension of the Divine (devaviti, devatati) which is at once aim and process of the cosmic and of the human sacrifice. For he is the divine Will which in all things is always present, is always destroying and constructing, always building and perfecting, supporting always the complex progression of the universe. It is this which persists through all death and change. It is eternally and inalienably possessed of the Truth. In the last obscuration of Nature, in the lowest unintelligence of Matter, it is this Will that is a concealed knowledge and compels all these darkened movements to obey, as if mechanically, the divine Law and adhere to the truth of their Nature. It is this which makes the tree grow according to its seed and each action bear its appropriate fruit. In the obscurity of man's ignorance, - less than material Nature's, yet greater, - it is this divine Will that governs and guides, knows the sense of his blindness and the goal of his aberration and out of the crooked workings of the cosmic Falsehood in him evolves the progressive manifestation of the cosmic Truth. Alone of the brilliant Gods, he burns bright and has full vision in the darkness of Night no less than in the splendours of day. The other gods are usarbudhah, wakers with the Dawn.

Therefore is he the priest of the offering, strongest or most apt for sacrifice, he who, all-powerful, follows always the law of the Truth. We must remember that the oblation (havya) signifies always action (karma) and each action of mind or body is regarded as a giving of our plenty into the cosmic being and the cosmic intention. Agni, the divine Will, is that which stands behind the human will in its works. In the conscient offering, he comes in front; he is the priest set in front

(purah-hita), guides the oblation and determines its effectiveness.

By this self-guided Truth, by this knowledge that works out as an unerring Will in the Cosmos, he fashions the gods in mortals. Agni manifests divine potentialities in a death-besieged body; Agni brings them to effective actuality and perfection. He creates in us the luminous forms of the Immortals.

This work he does as a cosmic Power labouring upon the rebellious human material even when in our ignorance we resist the heavenward impulse and, accustomed to offer our actions to the egoistic life, cannot yet or as yet will not make the divine surrender. But it is in proportion as we learn to subjugate the ego and compel it to bow down in every act to the universal Being and to serve consciously in its least movements the supreme Will, that Agni himself takes form in us. The Divine Will becomes present and conscient in a human mind and enlightens it with the divine Knowledge. Thus it is that man can be said to form by his toil the great Gods.

The Sanskrit expression is here a krnudhvam. The preposition gives the idea of a drawing upon oneself of something outside and the working or shaping it out in our own consciousness. A kr corresponds to the converse expression, a bhu, used of the gods when they approach the mortal with the contact of Immortality and, divine form of godhead falling on form of humanity, "become", take shape, as it were, in him. The cosmic Powers act and exist in the universe; man takes them upon himself, makes an image of them in his own consciousness and endows that image with the life and power that the Supreme Being has breathed into His own divine forms and world-energies.

It is when thus present and conscient in the mortal, like a "house-lord", master in his mansion, that Agni appears in the true nature of his divinity. When we are obscure and revolt against the Truth and the Law, our progress seems to be a stumbling from ignorance to ignorance and is full of pain and disturbance. By constant submission to the Truth, surrenderings, namobhih, we create in ourselves that image of the divine Will which is on the contrary full of peace, because it is assured of the Truth and the Law. Equality of soul created by the surrender to the universal Wisdom gives us a supreme peace and calm. And since that Wisdom guides all our steps in the straight paths of the Truth we are carried by it beyond all stumblings (duritani).

Moreover, with Agni conscious in our humanity, the creation of the gods in us becomes a veritable manifestation and no longer a veiled growth. The will within grows conscious of the increasing godhead, awakens to the process, perceives the lines of the growth. Human action intelligently directed and devoted to the universal Powers, ceases to be a mechanical, involuntary or imperfect offering;

the thinking and observing mind participates and becomes the instrument of the sacrificial will.

Agni is the power of conscious Being, called by us will, effective behind the workings of mind and body. Agni is the strong God within (maryah, the strong, the masculine) who puts out his strength against all assailing powers, who forbids inertia, who repels every failing of heart and of force, who spurns out all lack of manhood. Agni actualizes what might otherwise remain as an ineffectual thought or aspiration. He is the doer of the Yoga (sadhu); divine smith labouring at his forge, he hammers out our perfection. Here he is said to become the charioteer of the Supreme. The Supreme and Wonderful that moves and fulfils Itself "in the consciousness of another", (we have the same word, adbhuta, as in the colloquy of Indra and Agastya), effects that motion with this Power as charioteer holding the reins of the activity. Mitra also, the lord of Love and Light is even such a charioteer. Love illuminated fulfils the harmony which is the goal of the divine movement. But the power of this lord of Will and Light is also needed. Force and Love united and both illumined by Knowledge fulfil God in the world.

Will is the first necessity, the chief actualizing force. When therefore the race of mortals turn consciously towards the great aim and, offering their enriched capacities to the Sons of Heaven, seek to form the divine in themselves, it is to Agni, first and chief, that they lift the realizing thought, frame the creative Word. For they are the Aryans who do the work and accept the effort, - the vastest of all works, the most grandiose of all efforts, - and he is the power that embraces Action and by Action fulfils the work. What is the Aryan without the divine Will that accepts the labour and the battle, works and wins, suffers and triumphs?

Therefore it is this Will which annihilates all forces commissioned to destroy the effort, this strongest of all the divine Puissances in which the supreme Purusha has imaged Himself, that must bestow its presence on these human vessels. There it will use the mind as instrument of the sacrifice and by its very presence manifest those inspired and realizing Words which are as a chariot framed for the movement of the gods, giving to the Thought that meditates the illuminative comprehension which allows the forms of the divine Powers to outline themselves in our waking consciousness.

Then may those other mighty Ones who bring with them the plenitudes of the higher life, Indra and the Ashwins, Usha and Surya, Varuna and Mitra and Aryaman, assume with that formative extension of themselves in the human being their most brilliant energies. Let them create their plenty in us, pouring it forth from the secret places of our being so as to be utilizable in its daylight tracts and let their impulsions urge upward the divinising thought in Mind, till it

The hymn closes. Thus, in inspired words, has the divine Will, Agni, been affirmed by the sacred chant of the Gotamas. The Rishi uses his name and that of his house as a symbol-word; we have in it the Vedic go in the sense "luminous", and Gotama means "entirely possessed of light". For it is only those that have the plenitude of the luminous intelligence by whom the master of divine Truth can be wholly received and affirmed in this world of an inferior Ray, -gotamebhir rtava. And it is upon those whose minds are pure, clear and open, vipra, that there can dawn the right knowledge of the great Births which are behind the physical world and from which it derives and supports its energies, - viprebhir jatavedah.

Agni is Jatavedas, knower of the births, the worlds. He knows entirely the five worlds and is not confined in his consciousness to this limited and dependent physical harmony. He has access even to the three highest states of all, to the udder of the mystic Cow, the abundance of the Bull with the four horns. From that abundance he will foster the illumination in these Aryan seekers, swell the plenty of their divine faculties. By that fullness and plenty of his illumined perceptions he will unite thought with thought, word with word, till the human Intelligence is rich and harmonious enough to support and become the divine idea.

Indra, Introduction Indra and Soma Vritra, Vala Battle of Indra and Vritra Indra, giver of light Indra, thought forces Mind in Indian thought

He comes down into our world as the Hero with his shining horses lightnings, And Pours waters, Finds in the trace of the hound, intuition, the lost or hidden illumination and Makes the Sun of truth mount high in the heaven of our mental plane.

The role of Indra, the lord of the Divine Mind, is to help man develop the abilities for mental formation and associated action. Indra is, primarily, the deity who gives the appropriate knowledge to human beings so that they can perform all the actions. Actions are not limited to those on the physical plane, i.e., those we do with our hands, legs, mouth etc. They include actions done at the inner levels also, the inner vital, inner physical, etc.

The actions of the Divine Mind, Indra, can be broadly divided into at least three categories. The first task is to manifest knowledge in all the humans who have aspired for it. Of course, this is not done in a single step. This task is imaged as the birth of the god Indra in man.

The second task is the preparation and building up of bodies which can absorb or sustain this knowledge. The physical body is made of material, vital and mental energies. In its ordinary condition, it is like an unbaked pot, which will break if knowledge of great intensity enters it. Hence, Indra has to create new forms or subtle bodies in the modern parlance which can receive the knowledge given and allow for its growth.

The third task of Indra is to offer protection for the individuals from the hostile forces. The existence of these non-human forces operated by the non-human typical beings is not a surprise for any one who has developed an inner life of sufficient depth. These hostile forces are the forces of falsehood which conceal Truth or divide the Truth into mutually opposite chunks, the forces which tend to stop the flow of consciousness, etc. Hence Indra battles these demonic forces led by Vrtra, the concealer or tearer. Vrtra and his followers operate not only at a cosmic level, but also in the inner life of every individual. Hence, Indra has to secure victory against Vrtra, the demon, in each individual.

The divine knowledge given by Indra is not meant to come in one step or at any one moment like the experience of samadhi in the later vedantic thought. The seers get this knowledge, one step at a time. Two mantras (1.10.1) and (1.10.2) describe this procedure graphically.

The seers of the mantra rise and attain thee as they climb a ladder, (1.10.1).

When a human being starts any spiritual discipline, his/her progress is slow in the beginning, like climbing a ladder. At each step, s/he sees the several steps which s/he has yet to climb, many of them hidden from his/her sight. There is no need for discouragement for at some stage Indra himself comes to the devotee and takes upon himself the task of guiding and helping the seer on his upward journey. In the language of the Rigveda, a god taking birth in a person means that the effort of the person has reached a culmination and hereafter the god himself will lead the person, pointing out to the devotee the new, untrodden paths. Hence, in the later mantra of the same hymn (1.10.11), Indra is described as one “who makes a seer'' and “gives a new life to the seer''.

In (1.6.3), ketu means knowledge born of inner understanding. A person who has no such knowledge is aketu. Indra aims to manifest in man the higher knowledge, the knowledge of the different planes, the knowledge of gods, methods of obtaining their grace, the methods of not exposing oneself to hostile forces, etc. The process of the birth of knowledge is imaged by the Rig Vedic poets as the birth of a son to human being, the person who does the yajna. The yajamana prays to the gods for them to be born as his sons.

However, there is a deeper reason for imaging the dawn of knowledge in man as the birth of a god. A first step in spiritual life of many persons is the vision of a deity or a divine hearing or an appropriate suprasensual experience. But such an experience, by itself, is not sufficient to sustain spiritual life. The memory of such a vision often fades with time, subject to natural forces. But, if we want to have a continuous vision of the Godhead and continuously feel its/his presence, then we need a subtle body in addition to a gross body to support the inner vision and other experiences. The power of gods like Indra manifesting in a human has a

subtle body which is as concrete as the physical body, but operates on a different plane. Thus the first line of (1.6.3) states, “giving knowledge to one who does not have it” and the second line says, “Indra gives an appropriate form pesho which can sustain this knowledge.” Just as the physical dawn denotes the advent of physical sun in the sky, the divine goddess Usha by her presence indicates the advent of the Spiritual Sun.

The quotation given above is not an isolated one, but one of a hundred or more such images in the Rigveda. In (1.4.1) Indra, is hymned as “surupa kratnu, fashioner of perfect forms.” Indra’s forms are perfect because he has access to complete knowledge. This idea of Indra as the author of forms and maker of seers (1.10.11) is not limited to the seer Madhuchchhandas. We give here the famous mantra of the seer Bharadwaja (6.47.18).

This mantra (6.47.18) is repeated in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (2.5) as a part of the madhu, “universal delight”, doctrine. It is sufficient to note that the Supreme Brahman of the vedantic thought, is also a Supreme Person, atman and every form is himself, his creation, a mould of the substance, a shape of his being. Indra is the divine counterpart of every form in existence; whatever we see is only a form of Indra through which Indra is pleased to reveal himself. The maya powers, in fact, have nothing to do with magic or illusion. They are his creative conscious powers, through which, he has set in motion, the countless life powers, which we behold. These life forces are imaged as his thousand horses, a fairly common image for life forces. The Sanskrit word for the four- footed animal horse, ashwa, is derived from the word ash, which denotes strength. Indra's steeds are not the animals needed for his transportation; but are his life powers, and ratha, the chariot, indicates movement.

The seer Nema in the eighth book, gives a reply to the question of a skeptic who asks “There is no Indra; who has ever seen him?” (8.100.3). The reply is in (8.100.4) and has been given earlier.

We will give below several descriptive epithets Madhuchchhandas to delineate Indra’s role as the Divine Mind; in the hymns of

These epithets cannot be explained if we regard Indra as the rainmaker or as a warring chieftain.

Indra is the intelligence that discriminates and counters the forces which are adverse to the yoga journey of the seer and offers the appropriate help, even if the beginner cannot have any intimation of the help received. Some epithets are: Indra of thousand activities (1.4.8), Doer of happy deeds (1.5.6), (giver of) manifold knowledge, abundant intelligence (1.5.3), brightens the word of praise, makes the word accomplished (1.6.9), Indra is the great harmoniser (1.7.8).

Indra himself creates the subtle body in man (1.10.11) and prepares the yajamana for the vision of Indra and other deities. The yajamana, human sacrificer, should be in a mood of inward surrender and outward activity.

In the Rigveda, Soma and Indra are hymned as great friends (1.4.10). When Indra manifests in a person, there is a profusion of Light and Delight which is clearly felt by the seer and expressed in hymns.

(Indra) who, in his vastness, is a continent of bliss. (1.4.10).

Note here the association between bliss and vastness. The descriptions of the Truth plane are “satyam-rtam-brhat,” “the Truth, the Right and the Vast.'' Bliss cannot manifest in a constricted environment. In (1.8.8), Indra is associated with Mahi, the goddess of vastness, who is sunrta, one with agreeable and auspicious speech, virapsi, flaming in exuberance, gomati, full of luminous knowledge, who comes to the performer of yajna like a ripe fruit.

The overall role of Indra is well described in the first four mantras of the hymn of the Seer Madhuchchhandas (1.4.1-1.4.4). surupakrtnum utaye sudughamiva goduhe juhumasi dyavi dyavi. (1.4.1) upa nah savana gahi somasya somapah piba goda idrevato madah. (1.4.2). atha te antamanam vidyama sumatinam ma no ati kya gahi. (1.4.3). The fashioner of perfect forms like a good yielder for the milker of herds we call for increase from day to day.

(1) Come to our Soma offerings, O Soma-drinker, drink the Soma wine; the intoxication of thy rapture gives Light.

(2) Then may be know of thy innermost right thinkings. Show not beyond us, come.

The pure bright knowledge coming from Indra is capable of effecting good mental movements and good actions which increase every day (1).

Nourished and joyous by partaking the Soma that is pressed out, Indra, the Lord of the knowledge of divine mind showers his own rays of illumination (2).

Even though we would be able to know the intimate movements of the divine knowledge by reason of the attainment of the special luminous consciousness, still may not Lord Indra go beyond our sense perception; may he show us the knowledge understandable to us at our level of attainment (3).

Indra is hymned as the king or protector of the heaven dyu "brhatah patih bhuh (1.52.13)." Indra is said to celebrate his self-dominion "archan anu swarajam (1.80.)," the latter phrase being the refrain of all the sixteen mantras of that hymn. However, Indra is not the only deity hymned as a king. The usual phrase for a king "rajan" is invoked for the deity Varuna frequently "raja Varunah (1.24.6)." It is also interesting to note that the phrase daksham or putadaksham which stands throughout the veda for skill in intelligence, "an intelligence of discriminating between good and bad, true and untrue, and deciding upon the truth of things" (Kapali, Vol. 4, p. 30T) is used exclusively for Varuna as in (1.2.7), (1.2.9), (1.24.7), etc. We will delineate between Varuna and Indra in a later essay on Varuna. It is sufficient to point out here that the rishis in the veda used words of everyday usage so that an inspection and meditation of the outward meanings of these words would indicate their inner symbolism. A king of an earthly country has not only overall sovereignty in that country but also has several specific functions like protecting the people from external forces, upholding the laws of the land, establishment of beauty and harmony in all walks of life in the country, etc. Indra is hymned as the "svarat," self-ruler, and "samrat," emperor. He represents the royalty of thought and action (Sri A., p. 454). Varuna is the king who is a fountainhead of discrimination, and omnipotent wisdom and he upholds the eternal law "rtam." We may recall that if satya is the absolute Truth, rtam is the projection of that Truth in manifestation, in this world characterized by time and space. So rtam is often translated as the "Right," but it also stands for the cosmic Law which cannot be violated. The deity Vrtra is also hailed as a king who upholds the harmony and beauty in all of the manifestations. Here the word king should not be interpreted in a very rigid way. The vedic poets were both deep and subtle, and a certain plasticity of the thought is necessary to understand their transcription of their spiritual experiences.

A common statement repeated in different variations is that Indra drinks the Soma juice offered by the rishis obtained by crushing the Soma, becomes intoxicated and with his strength increased, kills the demon Vrtra and releases the cows, horses, waters, Sun, etc. We need to study the symbolism in these statements. Skeptics may say "Why not take these statements at their face value?" The Rigveda itself says that Soma is a symbol. The entire ninth book (mandala) of Rigveda is dedicated to Soma. One cannot make any sense of all these mantras if Soma were merely a creeper.

For instance, consider the following mantra 9.86.5. "O thou, all-seeing, O Lord, Thy illumining rays encompass all abodes; Soma with thy natural powers pervades the all and flows, You are the King and lord of the whole world." How can a creeper be all-seeing? How can it have illumining rays? How can a creeper pervade the All?

Another quotation (10.85.3) from the tenth mandala sets all doubts to rest. The seer of this mantra is a lady, Savitri Surya. "When they crush the herb one thinks that he has drunk the Soma; but no one ever tastes him whom brahmanas know to be Soma." somam manyate papivan yat sampishantyoshidhim, somam yam brahmano viduh na tasyashnati kahchana. In addition, Kapali Sastry adds "Twenty four varieties of Soma plant are mentioned in the section on chikitsa sthana of the sushruta samhita (Ch. 29) (a compendium of the Indian herbal medicines and their application and their uses). But nowhere is the mention of its intoxicating property." (Vol.4, p.169).

So it is clear that the creeper is only the outer symbol of Soma. As before, its name gives a clue to its real nature. Just as the physical Sun is the outer symbol of the spiritual Sun, the physical fire a symbol of the mystic fire of aspiration, the physical dawn a symbol of the dawn of spiritual light, Usha, similarly Soma, the moon whose soothing light is praised by poets the world over, is the outer symbol of ananda, the delight of existence which upholds the Universe.

As Sri Aurobindo says in Savitri: A hidden bliss is at the root of things. A mute delight regards Time's countless works: To house God's joy in things space gave wide room, To house God's joy in self our souls were born. There is a joy in all that meets the sense, A joy in all the experience of the soul. A joy in evil and a joy in good, A joy in virtue, a joy in sin: It grows toward the Titan and the God. (Book 10, Canto 3, pp. 630-631). The delight is being sought after by both Gods and the titans like Vrtra whose role will be explained later.

This idea is already there in Rigveda. The fathers who have divine vision set Him within as a child that is to be born. (9.83.3) The ananda, Bliss, is everywhere in

seed form waiting to be manifested. The bliss is released in every activity and especially in activities involving intense self-offering like yajna. The joy a person feels in doing any work is an indication of this bliss. However, the effects of this bliss are not perceived because our minds are preoccupied with the supposed benefits to be obtained from the action. Even when we do the work for the sake of duty of do work for work's sake, still the egoistic feeling that "I am the doer, I am the cause of the success of the work," etc. dilutes the effects of this bliss since nature is the principal doer of all actions using individuals as instruments. Hence the seers of the Rigveda insist that the Soma or the bliss released in every activity of life like yajna be purified by divesting them of any individual claims and other gross elements and be offered to the Gods, principally Indra. The delight of existence offered to the Gods energizes them and promotes the manifestation of the powers of Gods in the person performing the self-offering activities and also in the humanity at large. This idea is present in numerous places in the Rigveda and we will quote here the mantra of the Seer Madhuchchhandas (1.5.5). Purified are these Soma juices, pure, they are spent for thy manifestation able then to bear their own intensity.

In 1.5.4, Indra, the God of the Divine Mind, is said to take the Soma purified by the subtle power of thought "anvibhih" and by extension in the outer physical consciousness (1.3.4).

A unique feature of the rig vedic Gods is their camaraderie with humans. The different vedic Gods do not support different human beings and cause them to fight one another as the Greek Gods do in Iliad. The vedic Gods are eater to help a person and manifest their power in him provided the person expresses his aspiration by recognizing the delight of existence present everywhere and released by the activities s/he is involved and offering them to the Gods. The Gods like Indra manifest in the human, remove the effects of hostile forces like Vrtra in the inner life of the person and promote the all around growth and happiness of the person.

In the Rigveda Soma and Indra are hymned as great friends (1.4.10). When Indra manifests in a person, there is a profusion of light and delight which is clearly felt by the seer and expressed in hymns. "godah idrevato madah" (1.4.2) The rapture of thee grown indeed gives Light. (1.4.2) "(Indra) who in his vastness is a continent of bliss." (1.4.10) "yah rajah avanih mahan." (1.4.10) Note here the association between bliss and vastness. The descriptions of the Truth plane are "satyam-rtam-brhat," "the Truth, the Right and the Vast." Bliss cannot manifest in a constricted environment. In (1.8.8), Indra is associated with Mahi, the goddess of vastness, who is sunrta under, one with agreeable and auspicious speech, virapsi under, flaming in exuberance, gomati under, full of luminous knowledge, who comes to the performer of yajna like a ripe fruit. "sam te santu pracetase" (1.5.7) "Peace to thee in thy forward looking awareness."

Here "prachetase" means forward looking awareness. Indra has to put his consciousness forward in thought and action, yet preserve the peace of the liberated soul. Thus Soma increases both power RV (1.5.6) and knowledge RV (1.5.7).

We will briefly discuss the meaning of the hostile forces led by Vrtra. We should resist the temptation of regarding the Gods and demons as two different clans or tribes with different ideals. The followers of Vrtra have no ideals at all. The aim of the hostile forces, also called as demons, in the Rigveda is to bring down and smash all the different ideals which motivate human beings. In contrast, the only aim of the Gods is to foster a harmonious development of wisdom and force in all human beings so that the whole environment is suffused with harmony and beauty. There is no need for warfare between individuals. Agni, the great God, works in the inner life of all persons, making them strive toward light, whether they worship Agni or not. It is not correct to say that Gods help only those who worship them. The act of worship makes a human in tune with the harmonious cosmic forces so that these forces get a firm hold in him and propel him or her toward higher vistas. The demonic forces want to capture all the spiritual wealth and light, hoard them, as it were, and they do not want to share them with anyone, human or otherwise.

Since the role of the Vrtra and other demons in the macro-cosmic worlds has been discussed in another essay, we will focus on their role at a microcosmic level, i.e., in the inner and outer life of a human individual. The names of the different demons give a clue to their power and personality. Vrtra is the coverer and tearer, having the same root as vrka, the wolf. Vrtra enforces the separation of each individual from one another. Since the bodies of two persons are different, two persons cannot have anything common. Vrtra, like the cloud, covers the universal Sun, the nourisher of all from us and Vrtra, like the wolf, tears apart the bonds that unify humans. Vrtra represents the physical consciousness of man, the consciousness of matter in its dominating mode, suppressing all other forces. Another name for Vrtra in the veda is Ahi, the serpent. In Indian thought, serpents are symbols of vital forces. Since serpents assume any shape and exude varieties of vital forces, they are good symbols of vital forces. Vrtra stands for the lower vital forces, the so-called five enemies: desire for possession for everything, anger, greed, arrogance and jealousy.

Vala is another demon whose name signifies a cave, the cave of unawakened consciousness, substratum of all impressions which is hidden in us without any knowledge to our outer or waking consciousness. Vala also denotes the tendency

to hoard all things, whether physical or vital. Vala does not enjoy the things he hoards, but takes pleasure in hoarding. Panis are the sense traffickers, derived from pana or transaction. For them every object is tradable and has no innate value. Sushna is another domain who sucks up the vital forces and renders the place like a desert. He is the cause of all depressions, etc. It is important to understand that the attitude of the vedic seers toward sense enjoyments is quite different from that found in the later vedantic thought (not the upanishads). The vedic seers recognized the divinity in every aspect of life and perceived that the delight that the object conveys via the senses is only an expression of the universal delight and hence must be enjoyed only after sharing with Gods and other human beings. The vedic seers were not ascetics who looked down upon the sense delights conveyed by objects around them. The human beings who, becoming selfish, insist that only they can enjoy the sense-delights and who do not want to share their delights and possessions with Gods or fellow humans, these are the followers of Vala and Vrtras, the titans. So, figuratively, it is said that these persons do not press the Soma or chant the mantras. These persons like Panis behave like sense traffickers. They steal the delight, as it were, from the common pool and try to hoard it in the cave. It should be noted that these demonic forces have found a place in each human being by invitation. If every part of the being declined to have any dealing with these forces, the power of these forces would decay at once. The God Agni works in this hostile atmosphere in each individual and tries to kindle the psychic fire and bring in the other Gods like Indra, who is the principle of universal mind with its numerous layers. Indra is endowed both with luminous knowledge and with luminous power. Thanks to the God Agni, we recognize the benefit of extracting the delight in all things and offer it to the Gods like Indra. Indra, by accepting the Soma, pours in the luminous forces of the universal mind and destroys the Vrtras in the body of worshipper. Indra, having access to the perfect knowledge, can give perfect guidance about the actions to be done so that these actions to not encourage the forces of falsehood. Thus the mind deformed due to the pursuit of sense- objects only and deluded by false knowledge is offered release from bondage and constriction by Indra by exposing the worshipper to the vast knowledge. Indra by his rays burst the hill (1.7.3) The hill is the obscure insensate world of our subconscience. Indra we call for affluence, great and little, the thunderer assailing the Vrtras (1.7.5) i.e., we resort to Indra not merely in prosperity but even in adversity. O thou, by whose strong action, we shall completely deter the foes, guarded by thee and well powered with the steed (of life forces) (1.8.2). O Indra, guarded by thee, may we wield the vajra, May we conquer the jealous foes in battle. (1.8.3) O Indra, thy glory is manifest well. Unobstructed in its movement, it has been cleansed by Thee. O Master of the hill, open the gate of the home of the cows and release the rays of divine consciousness. (1.10.7) O Indra, thou wins the Waters of svar, the luminous world. Impel us towards the rays of knowledge. (1.10.8) O Indra, thou thrust open the cave of Vala (hoarder) with the cows. (1.11.5) O Indra, thou has slain with thy skill the cunning

Shushna. (1.11.7) As the name indicates, Shushna is the titan who robs the environment of its sap and converts it into a desert.

One of the roles played by the hostile forces is to oppose to the maintenance of harmony and to encourage the forces of disintegration in a human being. Indra alone has the knowledge and power to separate the forces of destruction from effecting the body. The human body is the abode of both immortality and mortality. Indra in his role of disseminating the divine knowledge, can give the force which opposes destruction. "tanunam ma abhidruhan" "isanah yavaya vadham" (1.5.10). May not our bodies be harmed. Separate all destruction from us.

The battle has numerous references in the Rigveda. To understand its significance, we have to control our tendency to interpret the rig vedic words in terms of their meanings in medieval or classical Sanskrit. It is not our intention here to claim that the people of rig vedic times where peaceful and did not indulge in wars. From what little evidence we have, we can say that they were organized into clans which fought with each other for the recovery of stolen cows and horses. Our claim is that the battles appearing in the Rigveda are symbolic. The seers of the Rigveda used the images of scenes around them like the battles, milking of cows, the dawn, the oceans, etc., to convey their spiritual experiences in the form of poetry. Since they were not intellectuals, they used the imagery associated with the words to convey their ideas. Hence the words occurring in the Rigveda cannot be assigned the meanings of words available in modern day dictionaries. Rigveda itself describes the meaning of the various words in various places.

For instance, take the vajra. It is translated as the bolt or the weapon with which Indra killed the demon Vrtra. It is translated by those who interpret rig vedic gods as nature powers as the bolt of lightening with which the cloud signified demon Vrtra is struck by Indra, releasing the rain. But Rigveda clearly gives the meaning of the word "vajra." In 1.32.2, the vajra is said to be formulated by the divine sculptor tvasta belonging to the luminous world "svar." "tvasta asmai vajram svaryam tataksha." Note the use of the word "svar." It is a world full of opulence which have nothing to do with the rigid materialism of earth. The architect tvasta like the Ribhus fashion for man and gods the things of immortality. To emphasize that the vajra is formed by the mantra, the poet says in RV (1.121.12) "vajra, which Ushanas, son of kavya, gave thee (to Indra)." Ushanas is one of the preeminent seer-poets of Rigveda and it is hard to think of a great poet fashioning a material weapon. In RV (1.51.10), addressed to Indra

the seer-poet Angirasa Savya says "When Ushanas sharpens thy strength with his own."

It is not with physical weapons that Indra fights Panis, but with words. "panin vacobhir abhi yodad Indra." (6.39.2). It is the force of truth alone. "By Truth, the cows (illumined thoughts) enter into the Truth; The aggressive force of the Truth seeks the cows breaking through (the enemy)..." (4.23.9). Consider the phrase (1.7.3). "(He) burst open the hill with the rays." "gobhih adrim airayat." Here there is no mention of a physical weapon at all. We have translated "go" as "rays." To translate "go" as "cows" is ridiculous because how can cows burst open the hill?

Similarly, neither the horses of Indra are earthly animals nor the chariot made of matter. For instance, the seer Gotama says (1.82.6). "I yoke thy lustre-maned steeds with the mantra." "te hari brahmana yunajmi." Again in 1.20.2, the steeds of Indra are yoked by speech (vacoyujah).

Again in the battle when the Indra kills the demon Vrtra and releases the waters, the poet says that the released waters as "ascending the mind" (mano ruhanah, 1.32.8). Elsewhere the waters have knowledge "apo vichetasah" (1.83.1).

Further, the veda often describes in various places six distinct benefits occurring from the battle, namely killing of Vrtra (ii) release of the waters (iii) release of the Sun and the Dawn (iv) release of the Soma (v) release of cows (vi) release of the horses. All of these are interconnected and occur simultaneously as stated in the Rigveda in many places. For instance, take the Seer Bharadwaja's mantra in RV (6.30.5). "O Indra, thou opened the waters wide, Broke the hardness of the mountain. Thou became the king of the world of the men that see, together gave birth to Sun, heaven and Dawn."

The release of the cows and horses cannot be separated from the release of the Dawn or Sun. For instance, in RV (1.62.5). O Reducer of foes, praised by Angiras with the dawn, Sun and rays (cows) then destroyest the blind darkness.

The exponents of the nature power theory explain Vrtra as the rain bearing cloud which covers the Sun. Indra, by breaking the cloud, causes rain and the release of the Sun. But they cannot account for the cows and horses. So they way that the release of the cows and the horses is a separate incident involving a battle between clans. They have to ignore most of the key phrases like "yoked to the mind" or "ascending to the mind," saying that the passage is vague.

Indra is not the only player among the Gods in this battle. In different hymns, Agni, the Angirasa seers, Brihaspati, Ashwins, Maruts, Pushan, the All-Gods and even Saraswati are also credited with the victory against the demons. Elsewhere

the connections between the roles of the various Gods and seers will be discussed.

For rig vedic seers, life is simultaneously a journey, a sacrifice and a battle. Since any poetry has to be written sequentially, one of these three aspects takes prominence in a particular hymn.

Life is for the Seers of Rigveda a spiritual journey in which we go from a plateau to a higher plateau (1.10.2). We can see what is to be done next only after reaching a plateau, not before. In this journey, they meet resistance of the hostile forces resulting in a battle. The means used in the battle are not physical weapons, but the mantra and the yajna, translated as sacrifice.

The Seer Hiranyastupa Angirasa describes the battle between Indra and Vritra in two hymns (RV 1.32 and 1.33), emphasizing the symbolism. We will explain these presently. The symbolism in the veda is like the special notation used in the classic grammar of Panini. Just as ignorance of the notation will not allow us to appreciate the beauty of grammar, the ignorance of the symbolism of Rigveda makes one regard it as gibberish. The battle takes place both at a macrocosmic level and at a microcosmic level in the spiritual life of an individual life. We will first focus on the macrocosmos.

The words Adri, Parvata (hill, mountain) signify the universe with its three lower worlds of earth (prithvi), the mid world (antariksha) and the lower heaven (dyu). These three worlds are said to be the worlds subjected to ignorance, i.e., the forces and influences of the titans and demons like Vritras, Vala, etc. Above this triple world is the world of svar or brihat dyu or uru loka, the wide world. Beyond this is the higher triple worlds of bliss, the worlds of sat-chit-ananda (existence- knowledge-bliss) of the later vedantas. Each of the seven worlds embody and manifest a separate principle. For instance, the lowest world, our earth, manifests the principle matter; the antariksha or mid world manifests the principle of prana or life energies; the lower heavens or dyu manifests the lower mind; svar manifests the higher mind, etc.

Below the worlds is the ocean below of the inconscient, aprekatam salilam, hymned by the Seer paramestin in 10.129. From this inconscient base rises (or is created) the hill of the laws three worlds. The higher triple world above is also identified with the superconscient ocean above, the supraketam (4.50.2). The triple world and svar is between these two oceans. Similarly the Light (Jyoti), Truth (satyam, ritam) is above and is perpetual. It signifies the eternal day. The tamas (darkness) and falsehood is the Night. The triple world is said to lie between Light and Darkness.

There are two principal types of typal (or nonevolving) beings, the Gods or the

children of Aditi and the demons, the children of Diti. Human beings are different from both these groups since they are evolving. The humans come under the influence of both these two kinds of typal beings.

The gods like Indra are also called Adityas, since they are all sons of Aditi, the infinite Nature, the unslayable cow, signifying the forces of cohesion and unity. The gods are always pure and are not tainted by the lower human qualities like jealousy, hatred, etc. The gods are fosterers and sharers with man; they help man in his yajna, the process of the ascension of the consciousness toward Light. They help him at every step, or plateau (sanau), pointing out what remains to be done at each step (1.10.2) in his ultimate goal of immortality. The gods take birth in man, manifest their powers in him and accomplish the yajna or sacrifice through him. These are the dwellers of svar, the luminous world and dyu, the lower heaven.

The Dasyus, the Danavas, the Vrtras, Panis are the children of Diti, the divided Nature which signifies multiplicity and which has become quite separate from the principle of unity or harmony. These are children of darkness, forces of anarchy, beings that cover the light (Vrtra), the hoarders (Vala), the misers and sense- traffickers (Panis), etc. Instead of fostering harmony, sharing, the light, self offering yajna, they originate and encourage the forces of clash, hoarding, the darkness, robbing and grabbing. These Dasyus take control of human beings who incline themselves to such behavior and offer a welcome, albeit unconsciously, to these forces. The residence of the Dasyus is the cave or hole (bila) at the bottom of the hill. But their activities extend to all the three worlds. There is continuous battle between the forces of Light, the Gods, the Adityas headed by Indra and the Dasyus headed by Vrtra. The battle between them occurs in the antariksha, the mid world and even the lower heavens (Dyu).

However, the regions of Truth and that of Falsehood are not distinctly demarcated; they are mixed, leading to confusion. As the substance of Truth increases with each ascent, the substance of Falsehood increases downward, culminating in the Inconscience of the Earth-matter.

The daityas or asuras not only distort Truth, "but even simulate Truth by Falsehood" (Sri Kapali, vol. 10, p. 165). As the vedantins insist, ignorance is not the total absence of knowledge; it is deformed knowledge. One of the principle asuras is Kuyava (RV. 1.104.3) whose purpose is adulterate Truth with Falsehood. Truth has several layers and one level of truth covers another. (rtena rtam apihitam; isha upanishad?). Each layer has its own level of truth. A statement valid at one level need not be valid at another. What proponents of falsehood do is to use a statement of truth valid at one level to negate another statement at another level. As an illustration, it is well known that there exist realms of truth which are beyond the realm of speech or other modes of human

activity (yatha vacho nivarthanthe - taittireya upanishad). The proponents of Falsehood use this truth and say "what is the use of acts like prayer, chanting, giving gifts, etc., in reading the highest truth? The scripture itself documents their futility." This statement is a falsehood masquerading as truth because there are realms of Truth which are completely accessible to spiritual practices like prayer and an artificial opposition is set up between spiritual practices like prayer and meditation.

In an earlier battle between the gods and daityas, the Gods were vanquished. This battle does not get any description, but its results are mentioned at many places. They are (i) the blocking of the seven celestial rivers, (ii) the covering of Sun and Dawn, (iii) the covering of Soma, (iv) the concealing of the cows and horses in the nether cave, the Cave of Hill. In the battle hymned by Hiranyastupa Angirasa (1.32, 1.33), these effects are undone.

Let us take the Sun. In the veda, Surya is the master of truth, the illuminator, the creator and increaser. The solar energy which energizes the whole solar system and enables life on this earth is the physical form of the spiritual Sun, Surya, Lord of Light and Truth. The Seers of the veda intuitively felt that the forces and processes of physical world repeat the truths of supraphysical worlds which produce it. The rishis imaged the functioning of their inner life using the symbols of the outward life. The rays of the spiritual Sun enter the three worlds including the earth via the fourth world of Svar, the luminous wide world, ura loka, the vast heaven, brihat dyu (1.36.8). What the daityas like Vritra did was to cover the luminous world of svar so that it is invisible to the denizens of the earth. At an individual level, the Seer experienced an intense darkness where the influence of the Sun was shut out, as it were. This phenomena is, of course, temporary and similar experiences have been recorded by mystics of other parts of the world. For instance, one European mystic complains of the darkness of the night of the soul. Thus the Sun and along with it the Dawn are termed as lost. Similarly there are the seven rivers of consciousness flowing out of the ocean of superconscient situated above, supraketum salilam. Each river signifies one of the principles of existence like matter, vital or pranas, lower mind, etc. Vrtra also blocked these rivers and prevented them from reaching the earth. Next let us come to the cows and horses. In the veda, consciousness is described using two different sets of images. One description is that of a stream or a movement of consciousness, described earlier. Consciousness is also described as embodied in distinct packets, the so-called cows, often translated as rays of consciousness. Just as each ray of the physical Sun is distinct, yet contains in it the properties of luminous cow, symbolizes a distinct sunlight, similarly each cow, the manifestation of the supreme consciousness. The four-footed animal cow was used as the symbol of the seers because of the utility and reverence associated

with that animal among the people at that time. Similarly, horses shared for the vital energy.

Now consider Soma, the delight of existence. Every human activity, ordinary or special, high or low, commonplace or creative, generates a certain rasa or essence which is the delight of existence. This rasa may have some psychological impurities in it such as the notion of doer and possessor, viz. "this activity becomes successful because of my efforts, my abilities," etc. Recognizing that all activities involve the dominating role of cosmic forces for which we as separate human beings cannot take credit, we can purify this rasa by removing our personal claims and offer the purified rasa or Soma to the Gods. The Gods Indra are pleased to accept the Soma offering and nourish the humans. It should be understood that the high Gods like Indra are not traffickers. They offer their help to all persons, both to those who adore him in their yajna and those who do not. As the later mystics explain, their grace is like the breeze in the lake. Anyone can use it to sail their boat, provided they take the trouble of unfurling the sail and pointing it in the proper direction. The daityas cover the Soma also. In all persons who perform yajna, the daityas place the idea that their activities are the result of their own strength and abilities and there is not need to be thankful to the higher powers. Hence these individuals are deprived of the experience of the delight of existence which is Soma. Hence Soma is said to be covered by the daityas.

Indra kills the Vrtra, the coverer, and releases the waters, the Sun, Dawn and Soma. Indra, helped by the Angirasa rishis with their hymns, breaks open the cellars of the nether world, releases the cows and drives them upward so that they are accessible. The divine power of intuition, the goddess Sarama, often imaged as a divine hound, shows Indra the cave where the cows are imprisoned. "This is the constant work of Indra in which he is Supreme. Though he has originally achieved and established for the benefit of mankind this victory of the recovery of the cave with the ancient Angirasa rishis, even today, this king of the Gods, engaged in ceaseless search of the cow-treasurer, repeats his feat for the benefit of man" (Kapali, vol. 10, p. 6).

Seer Hiranyastupa hymn to Indra. I just relate the valorous deeds performed mainly by Indra He killed the demon Ahi, struck the hill and released the waters. (1) He struck the demon hidden in the hill. The divine sculptor fashioned for him a bolt of the luminous worlds (svar). The flowing waters reached the ocean by a straight path like lowing cows the calves. (2) Acting like a bull, he drank the Soma in three infusions, Opulent, he wielded the weapon vajra and struck this first born of demons. (3) O Indra, thou struck the first born of demons, and destroyed the deceptive knowledge of the fraudulent. Illuminating the Sun (Surya), the dawn (Ushas) and the heaven (dyau) thou had not got at the enemy. (4) Indra, with a mighty blow of vajra, cut off the shoulders of the

superb coverer Vritra. The vile one lay dormant close to the earth like tree trunks specially cut with an axe. (5) The haughty and intoxicated Vritra challenged the great warrior Indra, the remover of foes. He (Vritra) ground to a halt the rivers. He could not parry the impact of blows. (6) Bereft of hands and feet, he fought Indra, who struck him at the crown. Like a eunuch desiring to act virile, Vritra fell down with his limbs shattered. (7) Like a river breaking the bank The waters which mount the minds of men flow over Vritra lying on the floor. The Vritra lay at the very feet of those whom he besieged with his might. (8) Vritra's mother lowered her arms; Indra flung the striking weapon below her; The Mother was above, the son below; She lay like a cow with the calf. (9) Vritra's body lay concealed at the bottom amidst the changing currents of waters. Vritra lay in prolonged sleep. (10) The waters constrained by Vritra stood fettered like the cows confined by the Pani. The striker of Vritra uncovered the closed aperture of the waters. (11) O Indra, when he struck thee back thou chased him away. O the supreme God, thou was the Soma, and released the seven rivers to flow. (12) When Indra and Vrtra fought each other, neither the lightening, the roar, nor the rains nor the thunderclap got at Indra. And Indra surmounted other deceitful tricks as well. (13) In thy mind a doubt arose, who else is the slayer of Vritra; Doubting, thou traversed the ninety-nine rivers and worlds like a hawk. (14) vajra-armed Indra is the king of the mobile and the immobile; the quiescent and the forceful. He, as a king rules over men is around them all like the rim encircling the spokes. (15) Notes on the hymn 1.32.

In hymn 1, Vritra is called by the name Ahi, the serpent, to indicate that he is a man of energy without any fixed shape.

In hymn 2, it is stated that the Indra's weapon vajra, translated here as bolt, was made by the divine sculptor tvasta from the luminous world of svar, the world beyond the reaches of the lower mind. Clearly in the world of svar all the objects are fashioned out of light, not out of any matter as in our earth.

Note that the poet says "the flowing waters, released by Indra, reach the ocean by a straight path." The rain water or rivers do not reach the ocean by a straight path. Hence these waters are not the physical rivers of northern India, but the streams of consciousness held up by Vritra.

In mantra 3, the three infusions of Soma taken by Indra are nothing but the essence of the three worlds of matter, life and mind.

In mantra 4, poet states that the demon Vritra is not an ordinary cloud. By the killing of Vritra, the deceptions of the fraudulent are also destroyed. In mantra 5, for Vritra, the poet adds the adjective Vritranam, clearly indicating that among the coverer, he is the most coverer.

In mantras 7 and 8, Indra has cut off the limbs of Vritra and the demon's body is lying on the floor of the ocean over which the waters flow. Again the poet describes the waters as "mounting the minds of men."

In mantra 9, the mother of Vritra, Diti, is mentioned. She is said to protect her son by placing herself above her son, Vritra.

In mantra 11, the poet says that the Indra removed the closed aperture in the hill and allowed the waters to flow. In the inner yoga of tantriks, these closed apertures are the closed knots (or granthas) which have to be cut before the psychic energy can flow freely.

In mantra 12, the seven rivers are the seven streams of consciousness. Mantra 13 says that when the battle was going on, the whole of nature was in a turmoil, indicated by the roaring winds, pouring rains, the thunderclaps, etc. This turmoil was caused by the tricks of Vritra, but had no effect on the outcome.

Since Vritra's body was hidden under his mother's body, the rik 14 indicates that Indra could not see the Vritra's body; hence Indra had a fear that Vritra was not slain and looked for him in many places.

Seer Hiranyastupa Angirasa Hymn to Indra (1.33). Come, let us go seeking the cows to Indra; For it is he that increases the thought in us; Invincible, he releases for us (from darkness) in plenty the supreme knowledge of the luminous cows. (1) I fly to the unassailable giver of the riches like a falcon to its beloved nest, bowing down to Indra with the supreme words of light, who is invoked by his affirms in their journey. (2) Along with all his armies, he has fastened the quivers; He is the fighter who brings the luminous cows to him whom he favours O Indra, who has increased (by our word) hold not back for thy self much delight Become not in us the Pani. (3) Thou slayest with thy weapon the wealthy Dasyu, ranging alone with thy powers that serve thee, O Indra; The ungiving foes, the Shanakas, came from all sides to thy bow, And met their end. (4) O Lord of the shining steeds, firm of poise Thou cast out from heaven and earth those who observe not the workings of thy law. They who do not sacrifice, but strove with sacrificers, turned their heads away and ran. (5) They (demons) fought against the blameless Indra, the Navagwa men set him (Indra) on his march; Dispersed by him, they fled from Indra by steep paths like emasculates before the potent hero. (6) O Indra, thou hast fought them who laughed and wept, on the borders of the heaven. From the high heavens, thou has burnt down the Dasyu Thou has superbly protected the sacrificers who pour Soma and affirm thee with hymns. (7) Encircling the earth, shining gold-jeweled, rushing (to fight) they could not pass beyond Indra for he set spies all around by the Sun. (8) O Indra, possessing the earth and heaven all around by thy vastness, Attacking those who think not the truth by those who think, Thou did cast out the Dasyu by the

speakers of the word. (9) Stalled by Vritra, they (the waters) from heaven did not reach the earth. Under his spell, they could not attain to Indra. Indra, the bull, made lightening his helper and he milked the shining cows out of darkness.

(10) The last line of rik 3 is often translated as "Become not a miser" decreasing the power of the original line. Indra is a beneficent god, whose as the Panis, are hoarders. The seer asks Indra not to hold back his delight like a Pani.

The rik 6 indicates that even though Virtra was dead, his followers had not stopped fighting. Moreover, the mother of the Danavas, Diti is still active. Hence Indra has still to fight repeated battles to vanquish the forces of darkness. In this fight Angirasa seers labeled here as Navagvas, "those with nine cows," help Indra with their mantra-powers.

The rik 7 indicates that the battle between Indra and Vritra was fought in the borders of heaven.

In rik 10, Indra, the lord of divine mind, is seen milking the cows and releasing the light from them. Note that in Indian thought, mind is not the source of knowledge. It is an instrument of action which can help knowledge enter our system and suffuse it with light. This process is imaged as the milking of cows.

1. The fashioner of perfect forms, like a good yielder for the milker of the Herds, we call for increase from day to day.

2. Come to our Soma-offerings. O Soma-drinker, drink of the Soma-wine; the intoxication of thy rapture gives indeed the Light.

3. Then may we know somewhat of thy uttermost right thinkings. Show not beyond us, come.

4. Come over, question Indra of the clear-seeing mind, the vigorous the un overthrown, who to thy comrades has brought the highest good.

5. And may the Restrainers say to us, " Nay, forth and strive on even in other fields, reposing on Indra your activity."

6. And may the fighters doers of the work, declare us entirely blessed, O achiever; may we abide in Indra's peace

7. Intense for the intense bring though this glory of the sacrifice that intoxicates the man, carrying forward on the way Indra who gives joy to his friends.

8. When though hadst drunk of this, O thou of the hundred activities, thou becamest a slayer of the coverers and protectedst the rich mind in its riches.

9. Thee thus rich in thy riches we enrich again, O Indra, O thou of the hundred activities, for the safe enjoyment of our havings.

10. He who in his vastness is a continent of bliss, --the friend of the soma-giver and he carries him safely through,- to that Indra raise the chant.

1. The doer of ( works that have) a good shape, Indra, we call daily for protection as (one calls) for the cow-milker a good milch-cow.

2. Come to our (three) libations, drink the soma, O soma drinker; the intoxication of thee, the wealthy one, is indeed cow-giver.

3. Then (standing) among the intelligent people who are nearest to the, may we know thee. Do not (go) beyond us (and) manifest (thyself to others, but) come to us.

4. Come to him and question about me, the intelligent one, (whether I have praised him rightly or not), -- to the intelligent and unhurt Indra who gives to thy friends (the priests) the best wealth.

5. Let of us (i.e. our priests) speak (i.e. praise Indra),-and also, O you who censure, go out from here and from elsewhere too, - (our priests) doing service all about Indra.

6. O destroyer [of foes], may even our enemies speak of us as having good wealth, --men (i.e. our friends will say it of course) may we be in the peace (bestowed) by Indra.

7. Bring this Some, that wealth of the sacrifice, the cause of exhilaration to men, (the Soma) that pervades (the three oblations) for Indra who pervades (the Soma-offering), that attains the rites and is friendly to (Indra) who gives joy (to the sacrificer).

8. Drinking of this, o thou of many actions, thou becamest a slayer of Vrtras (i.e.

enemies led by Vrtra) and didst protect entirely the fighter in the fights.

9. O Indra of many actions, for enjoyment of riches we make thee abundant in food who art strong in the tattles.

10. Sing to that Indra who is a protector of wealth, great, a good fulfiller (of works) and a friend of the sacrificer.

Madhuchchhandas, son of Vishvamitra, invokes in the Soma- offering lndra, the Master of luminous Mind, for increase in the Light. The symbols of the hymn are those of a collective sacrifice. Its subject is the growth of power and delight in Indra by the drinking of the Soma, the wine of immortality, and the consequent illumination of the human being so that the obstructions of his inner knowledge are removed and he attains to the utmost splendours of the liberated mind.

But what is this Soma, called sometimes amrta, the Greek ambrosia, as if it were itself the substance of immortality? It is a figure for the divine Ananda, the principle of Bliss, from which, in the Vedic conception, the existence of Man, this mental being, is drawn. A secret Delight is the base of existence, its sustaining atmosphere and almost its substance. This Ananda is spoken of in the Taittireya Upanishad as the ethereal atmosphere of bliss without which nothing could remain in being. In the Aitareya Upanishad Soma, as the lunar deity, is born from the sense-mind in the universal Purusha and, when man is produced, expresses himself again as sense-mentality in the human being. For delight is the raison detre of sensation, or, we may say, sensation is an attempt to translate the secret delight of existence into the terms of physical consciousness. But in that consciousness, - often figured as adri, the hill, stone, or dense substance, - divine light and divine delight are both of them concealed and confined, and have to be released or extracted. Ananda is retained as rasa, the sap, the essence, in sense-objects and sense-experiences, in the plants and growths of the earth- nature, and among these growths the mystic Soma-plant symbolises that element behind all sense-activities and their enjoyments which yields the divine essence. It has to be distilled and, once distilled, purified and intensified until it has grown luminous, full of radiance, full of swiftness, full of energy, gomat, asu, yuvaku. It becomes the chief food of the gods who, called to the Soma-oblation, take their share of the enjoyment and in the strength of that ecstasy increase in man, exalt him to his highest possibilities, make him capable of the supreme experiences. Those who do not give the delight in them as an offering to the divine Powers, preferring to reserve themselves for the sense and the lower life, are adorers not of the gods, but of the Panis, lords of the sense-

consciousness, traffickers in its limited activities, they who press not the mystic wine, give not the purified offering, raise not the sacred chant. It is the Panis who steal from us the Rays of the illumined consciousness, those brilliant herds of the sun, and pen them up in the cavern of the subconscient, in the dense hill of matter, corrupting even Sarama, the hound of heaven, the luminous intuition, when she comes on their track to the cave of the Panis.

But the conception of this hymn belongs to a stage in our inner progress when the Panis have been exceeded and even the Vrtras or Coverers who seclude from us our full powers and activities and Vala who holds back the Light, are already over- passed. But there are even then powers that stand in the way of our perfection. They are the powers of limitation, the Confiners or Censurers, who, without altogether obscuring the rays or damming up the energies, yet seek by constantly affirming the deficiencies of our self-expression to limit its field and set up the progress realised as an obstacle to the progress to come. Madhuchchhandas calls upon Indra to remove the defect and affirm in its place an increasing illumination.

The principle which Indra represents is Mind-Power released from the limits and obscurations of the nervous consciousness. It is this enlightened Intelligence which fashions right or perfect Forms of thought or of action not deformed by the nervous impulses, not hampered by the falsehoods of sense. The image presented is that of a cow giving abundantly its yield to the milker of the herds. The word go means in Sanskrit both a cow and a ray of light. This double sense is used by the Vedic symbolists to suggest a double figure which was to them more than a figure; for light, in their view, is not merely an apt poetic image of thought, but is actually its physical form. Thus, the herds that are milked re the Herds of the Sun, - Surya, God of the revelatory and intuitive mind, or else of Dawn, the goddess who manifests the solar glory. The Rishi desires from Indra a daily increase of this light of Truth by his fuller activity pouring rays in a rich yield Upon the receptive mind.

The activity of the pure illuminated Intelligence is sustained and increased by the conscious expression in us of the delight in divine existence and divine activity typified by the Soma-wine. As the Intelligence feeds upon it, its action becomes an intoxicated ecstasy of inspiration by which the rays come pouring abundantly and joyously in. "Light-giving indeed is the intoxication of thee in thy rapture.”

For then it is possible, breaking beyond the limitations still insisted upon by the Confiners, to arrive at something of the finalities of knowledge possible to the illuminated intelligence. Right thoughts, right sensibilities, - this is the full sense of the word sumati; for the Vedic mati includes not only the thinking, but also the emotional parts of mentality. Sumati is a light in the thoughts; it is also a bright gladness and kindness in the soul. But in this passage the stress of the

sense is upon right thought and not on the emotions. It is necessary, however, that the progress in right thinking should commence in the field of consciousness already attained; there must not be flashes and dazzling manifestations which by going beyond Our Powers elude expression in right form and confuse the receptive mind. Indra must be not only illuminer, but a fashioner of right thought- formations, surupakrtnu.

The Rishi, next, turning to a comrade in the collective Yoga, or, perhaps, addressing his Own mind, encourages him or it to pass beyond the Obstruction of the adverse suggestions opposed to him and by questioning the divine Intelligence progress to the highest good which it has already given to others. For it is that Intelligence which clearly discerns and can solve or remove all still- existing confusion and obscuration. Swift of movement, intense, energetic, it does not by its energy stumble in its paths like the impulses of the nervous consciousness. Or perhaps it is rather meant that owing to its invincible energy it does not succumb to the attacks whether of the Coverers or of the powers that limit.

Next are described the results towards which the seer aspires. With this fuller light opening on to the finalities of mental knowledge the powers of Limitation will be satisfied and of them- selves will withdraw, consenting to the farther advance and to the new luminous activities. They will say, in effect, "Yes, now you have the right which we were hitherto justified in denying. Not only in the fields won already, but in other and untrod provinces pursue then your conquering march. Repose this action wholly on the divine Intelligence', not upon your lower capacities. For it is the greater surrender which gives you the greater right."

The word arata, move or strive, like its congeners ari, arya, arya, arata, arani, expresses the central idea of the Veda. The root ar indicates always a movement of effort or of struggle or a state of surpassing height or excellence; it is applied to rowing, ploughing, fighting, lifting, climbing. The Aryan then is the man who seeks to fulfil himself by the Vedic action, the internal and external karma or apas, which is of the nature of a sacrifice to the gods. But it is also imaged as a journey, a march, a battle, a climbing upwards. The Aryan man labours towards heights, fights his way on in a march which is at once a progress forward and an ascent. That is his Aryahood, his arete, virtue, to use a Greek word derived from the same root Arata, with the rest of the phrase, might be translated, "Out and push forward in other fields".

The idea is taken up again, in the subtle Vedic fashion of thought-connections by word-echoes, with the arih krstayah of the next verse. These are, I think, not the Aryan nations on earth, although that sense too is possible when the idea is that of a collective or national Yoga, but the powers that help man in his ascent, his

spiritual kindred bound to him as comrades, allies, brothers, yoke-fellows (sakhayah, yujah, jamayah), for his aspiration is their aspiration and by his completeness they are fulfilled. As the Restrainers are satisfied and give way, so they too, satisfied, must affirm finally their task accomplished by the fullness of human bliss, when the soul shall rest in the peace of lndra that comes with the Light, the peace of a perfected mentality standing as upon heights of consummated consciousness and Beatitude.

Therefore is the divine Ananda poured out to be made swift and intense in the system and offered to Indra for the support of his intensities. For it is this profound joy manifest in the inner sensations that gives the ecstasy by which the man or the God grows strong. The divine Intelligence will be able to move forward in the journey yet incompleted and will return the gift by fresh powers of the Beatitude descending upon the friend of God.

For it was in this strength that the Divine Mind in man destroyed all that opposed, as coverers or besiegers, its hundred fold activities of will and of thought; in this strength is protected afterwards the rich and various possessions already won in past battles from the atris and dasyus, devourers and plunderers of our gains.

Although, continues. For it is this profound joy manifest in the inner sensations that gives the ecstasy by which the man or the God grows strong. The divine Intelligence will be able to move forward in the journey yet incompleted and will return the gift by fresh powers of the Beatitude descending upon the friend of God.

Although, continues Madhuchchhandas, that Intelligence is already thus rich and variously stored we seek to increase yet more its force of abundance, removing the Restrainers as well as the Vrtras, so that we may have the full and assured possession of our riches.

For this Light is, in its entire greatness free from limitation, a continent of felicity; this Power is that which befriends the human soul and carries it safe through the battle, to the end of its march, to the summit of its aspiration.

1. To you I come with this obeisance, by the perfect word I seek right mentality from the swift in the passage. Take delight, O Maruts, in the things of knowledge, lay aside your wrath, unyoke your steeds.

2. Lo, the hymn of your affirmation, O Maruts; it is fraught with my obeisance, it was framed by the heart, it was established by the mind, O ye gods. Approach these my words and embrace them with the mind; for of submission are you the increasers.

3. Affirmed let the Maruts be benign to us, affirmed the lord of plenitude has become wholly creative of felicity. Upward may our desirable delights be uplifted, O Maruts, upward all our days by the will towards victory.

4. I, mastered by this mighty one, trembling with the fear of Indra, O Maruts, put far away the offerings that for you had been made intense. Let your grace be upon us.

5. Thou by whom the movements of the mind grow conscient and brilliant in our mornings through the bright power of the continuous Dawns, O Bull of the herd establish by the Maruts inspired knowledge in us—by them in their energy thou energetic, steadfast, a giver of might.

6. Do thou, O Indra, protect the Powers in their increased might; put away thy wrath against the Maruts, by them in thy forcefulness upheld, who have right perceptions. May we find the strong impulsion that shall break swiftly through.

A Sequel to the colloquy of lndra and Agastya, this sukta is Agastya's hymn of propitiation to the Maruts whose sacrifice he had interrupted at the bidding of the mightier deity. Less directly, it is connected in thought with the 165th hymn of the (First) Mandala, the colloquy of Indra and the Maruts, in which the supremacy of the Lord of Heaven is declared and these lesser shining hosts are admitted as subordinate powers who impart to men their impulsion towards the high truths which belong to lndra. "Giving the energy of your breath to their thoughts of varied light, become in them impellers to the knowledge of my truths. Whensoever the doer becomes active for the work and, the intelligence of the thinker creates us in him, O Maruts, move surely towards that illumined seer", - such is the closing word of the colloquy, the final injunction of Indra to

These verses fix clearly enough the psychological function of the Maruts. They are not properly gods of thought, rather gods of energy; still, it is in the mind that their energies become effective. To the uninstructed Aryan worshipper, the Maruts were powers of wind, storm and rain; it is the images of the tempest that are most commonly applied to them and they are spoken of as the Rudras, the fierce, impetuous ones, - a name that they share with the god of Force, Agni. Although Indra is described sometimes as the eldest of the Maruts, - indrajyestho marudganah, - yet they would seem at first to belong rather to the domain of Vayu, the Wind-God, who in the Vedic system is the Master of Life, inspirer of that Breath or dynamic energy, called the Prana, which is represented in man by the vital and nervous activities. But this is only a part of their physiognomy. Brilliance, no less than impetuosity, is their characteristic. Everything about them is lustrous, themselves, their shining weapons, their golden ornaments, their resplendent cars. Not only do they send down the rain, the waters, the abundance of heaven, and break down the things best established to make way for new movements and new formations, - functions which, for the rest, they share with other gods, Indra, Mitra, Varuna, -but, like them, they also are friends of Truth, creators of Light. It is so that the Rishi, Gotama Rahugana, prays to them, "O ye who have the flashing strength of the Truth, manifest that by your might; pierce with your lightning the Rakshasa. Conceal the concealing darkness, repel every devourer, create the Light for which we long" (1.86.9,10). And in another hymn, Agastya says to them, "They carry with them the sweetness (of the Ananda) as their eternal offspring and play out their play, brilliant in the activities of knowledge" (1.166.2). The Maruts, therefore, are energies of the mentality, energies which make for knowledge. Theirs is not the settled truth, the diffused light, but the movement, the search, the lightning-flash, and, when Truth is found, the many-sided play of its separate illuminations.

We have seen that Agastya in his colloquy with Indra speaks more than once of the Maruts. They are Indra's brothers, and therefore the god should not strike at Agastya in his struggle towards perfection. They are his instruments for that perfection, and as such Indra should use them. And in the closing formula of submission and reconciliation, he prays to the god to parley again with the Maruts and to agree with them so that the sacrifice may proceed in the order and movement of the divine Truth towards which it is directed. The crisis, then, that left so powerful an impression on the mind of the seer, was in the nature of a violent struggle in which the higher divine Power confronted Agastya and the Maruts and opposed their impetuous advance. There has been wrath and strife between the divine Intelligence that governs the world and the vehement aspiring powers of Agastya's mind. Both would have the human being reach his goal; but not as the inferior divine powers choose must that march be directed, -

rather as it has been firmly willed and settled above by the secret Intelligence that always possesses for the manifested intelligence that still seeks. Therefore the mind of the human being has been turned into a battlefield for greater Powers and is still quivering with the awe and alarm of that experience.

The submission to Indra has been made; Agastya now appeals to the Maruts to accept the terms of the reconciliation, so that the full harmony of his inner being may be restored. He approaches them with the submission he has rendered to the greater god and extends it to their brilliant legions. The perfection of the mental state and its powers which he desires, their clearness, rectitude, truth- observing energy, is not possible with- out the swift coursing of the Thought- Forces in their movement towards the higher knowledge. But that movement, mistakenly directed, not rightly illumined, has been checked by the formidable opposition of Indra and has departed for a time out of Agastya's mentality. Thus repelled, the Maruts have left him for other sacrificers; elsewhere shine their resplendent chariots, in other fields thunder the hooves of their wind-footed steeds. The Seer prays to them to put aside their wrath, to take pleasure once more in the pursuit of knowledge and in its activities; not passing him by any more, let them unyoke their steeds, descend and take their place on the seat of the sacrifice, assume their share of the offerings.

For he would confirm again in himself these splendid energies, and it is a hymn of affirmation that he offers them, the stoma of the Vedic sages. In the system of the Mystics, which has partially survived in the schools of Indian Yoga, the Word is a power, the Word creates. For all creation is expression, everything exists already in the secret abode of the Infinite, guha hitam, and has only to be brought out here in apparent form by the active consciousness. Certain schools of Vedic thought even suppose the worlds to have been created by the goddess Word and sound as first etheric vibration to have preceded formation. In the Veda itself there are passages which treat the poetic measures of the sacred mantras, - anustuph, tristuph, jagati, gayatri, - as symbolic of the rhythms in which the universal movement of things is cast.

By expression then we create and men are even said to create the gods in themselves by the mantra. Again, that which we have created in our consciousness by the Word, we can fix there by the Word to become part of ourselves and effective not only in our inner life but upon the outer physical world. By expression we form, by affirmation we establish. As a power of expression the word is termed gih or vacas; as a power of affirmation, stoma.

In either aspect it is named manma or mantra, expression of thought in mind, and brahman, expression of the heart or the soul, - for this seems to have been the earlier sense of the word brahman, afterwards applied to the Supreme Soul or Universal Being. The process of formation of the mantra is described in the

second verse along with the conditions of its effectivity. Agastya presents the stoma, hymn at once of affirmation and of submission, to the Maruts. Fashioned by the heart, it receives its just place in the mentality through confirmation by the mind. The mantra, though it expresses thought in mind, is not in its essential part a creation of the intellect. To be the sacred and effective word, it must have come as an inspiration, from the supramental plane, termed in Veda, rtam, the Truth, and have been received into the superficial consciousness either through the heart or by the luminous intelligence, manisa. The heart in Vedic psychology is not restricted to the seat of the emotions; it includes all that large tract of spontaneous mentality, nearest to the subconscient in us, out of which rise the sensations, emotions, instincts, impulses and all those intuitions and inspirations that travel through these agencies before, they arrive at form in the intelligence. This is the "heart" of Veda and Vedanta, hrdaya, hrd, or brahman. There in the present state of mankind the Purusha is supposed to be seated centrally. Nearer to the vastness of the subconscient, it is there that, in ordinary mankind, - man not yet exalted to a higher plane where the contact with the Infinite is luminous, intimate and direct, - the inspirations of the Universal Soul can most easily enter in and most swiftly take possession of the individual soul. It is therefore by the power of the heart that the mantra takes form. But it has to be received and held in the thought of the intelligence as well as in the perceptions of the heart; for not till the intelligence has accepted and even brooded upon it, can that truth of thought which the truth of the Word expresses be firmly possessed or normally effective. Fashioned by the heart, it is confirmed by the mind.

But another approval is also needed. The individual mind has accepted; the effective powers of the Cosmos must also accept. The words of the hymn retained by the mind form a basis for the new mental posture from which the future thought- energies have to proceed. The Maruts must approach them and take their stand upon them, the mind of these universal Powers approve and unite itself with the formations in the mind of the individual. So only can our inner or our outer action have its supreme effectivity.

Nor have the Maruts any reason to refuse their assent or to persist in the prolongation of discord. Divine powers who themselves obey a higher law than the personal impulse, it should be their function, as it is their essential nature, to assist the mortal in his surrender to the Immortal and increase obedience to the Truth, the Vast towards which his human faculties aspire.

Indra, affirmed and accepted, is no longer in his contact with the mortal a cause of suffering; the divine touch is now utterly creative of peace and felicity. The Maruts too, affirmed and accepted, must put aside their violence. Assuming their gentler forms, benignant in their action, not leading the soul through strife and disturbance, they too must become purely beneficent as well as puissant

This complete harmony established, Agastya's Yoga will proceed triumphantly on the new and straight path prescribed to it. It is always the elevation to a higher plane that is the end, - higher than the ordinary life of divided and egoistic sensation, emotion, thought and action. And it is to be pursued always with the same, puissant will towards victory over all that resists and hampers. But it must be an integral exaltation. All the joys that the human being seeks with his desire, all the active energies of his waking consciousness, - his days, as it is expressed in the brief symbolic language of the Veda, - must be uplifted to that higher plane. By vanani are meant the receptive sensations seeking in all objectivities the Ananda whose quest is their reason for existence. These, too, are not excluded. Nothing has to be rejected, all has to be raised to the pure levels of the divine consciousness.

Formerly Agastya had prepared the sacrifice for the Maruts under other conditions. He had put their full potentiality of force into all in him that he sought to place in the hands of the Thought-Powers; but because of the defect in his sacrifice he had been met midway by the Mighty One as by an enemy and only after fear and strong suffering had his eyes been opened and his soul surrendered. Still vibrating with the emotions of that experience, he has been compelled to renounce the activities which he had so puissantly prepared. Now he offers the sacrifice again to the Maruts, but couples with that brilliant Name the more puissant godhead of Indra. Let the Maruts then bear no wrath for the justly guided interrupted sacrifice but accept action.

Agastya turns, in the two closing verses, from the Maruts to Indra. The Maruts represent the progressive illumination of human mentality, until from the first obscure movements of mind which only just emerge out of the darkness of the subconscient, they are transformed into an image of the luminous consciousness of which Indra is the Purusha, the representative Being. Obscure, they become conscient; twilit, half-lit or turned into misleading reflections, they surmount these deficiencies and put on the divine brilliance. This great evolution is effected in Time gradually, in the mornings of the human spirit, by the unbroken succession of the Dawns. For Dawn in the Veda is the goddess symbolic of new openings of divine illumination on man's physical consciousness. She alternates with her sister Night; but that darkness itself is a mother of light and always Dawn comes to reveal what the black-browed Mother has prepared. Here, however, the seer seems to speak of continuous dawns, not broken by these intervals of apparent rest and obscurity. By the brilliant force of that continuity of successive illuminations the mentality of man ascends swiftly into fullest light. But always the force which has governed and made possible the transformation, is the puissance of Indra. It is that supreme Intelligence which through the

Dawns, through the Maruts, has been pouring itself into the human being. Indra is the Bull of the radiant herd, the Master of the thought-energies, the Lord of the luminous dawns.

Now also let Indra use the Maruts as his instruments for the illumination. By them let him establish the supramental knowledge of the seer. By their energy his energy will be supported in the human nature and he will give that nature his divine firmness, his divine force, so that it may not stumble under the shock or fail to contain the vaster play of puissant activities too great for our ordinary capacity.

The Maruts, thus reinforced in strength, will always need the guidance and protection of the superior Power. They are the Purushas of the separate thought- energies, Indra the one Purusha of all thought-energy. In him they find their fullness and their harmony. Let there then be no longer strife and disagreement between this whole and these parts. The Maruts, accepting Indra, will receive from him the right perception of the things that have to be known. They will not be misled by the brilliance of a partial light or carried too far by the absorption of a limited energy. They will be able to sustain the action of lndra as he puts forth his force against all that may yet stand between the soul and its consummation.

So in the harmony of these divine Powers and their aspirations may humanity find that impulsion which shall be strong enough to break through the myriad oppositions of this world and, in the individual with his composite personality or in the race, pass rapidly on towards the goal so constantly glimpsed but so distant even to him who seems to himself almost to have attained.

Before explaining the characteristics of the deity of the Divine Mind, we will have a brief discussion of the concept of human mind in Indian thought. Even though there are numerous systems of Indian spiritual thought, and metaphysics, all of them, more or less, share the same concept. "The (human) mind is not an instrument of knowledge, it is incapable of finding knowledge, but it must be moved by knowledge. Knowledge belongs to a much higher domain than that of the human mind, far above the domain of pure ideas. The mind has to be silent and attentive to receive knowledge from above and manifest it. For it is an instrument of formation, of organization and action and it is in these functions that in attains its full value and real usefulness." [Mother, CW, Vol. 12, pp. 3]

The three key functions of mind are organization, formation, and action. Let us

focus on its first task, the organization. The mind with the power of reasoning takes any topic, divides it into different aspects, and contrasts them, looks for consistency among them, rearranges them, etc. The key idea behind all major discoveries in science, metaphysics, philosophy, comes from levels of intuition and higher mind which are all very much above the human mind. But there is nothing definitive about the details of the metaphysical systems or philosophies. They are all "turbaned with doubt." As Sri Aurobindo says, "What men call knowledge is the reasoned acceptance of false appearance. Wisdom looks behind the veil and sees." "Either do not give the name of knowledge to your beliefs only and of error, ignorance or charlatanism to the beliefs of others; or do not rail at the dogmas of the sects and their intolerance." [Sri Aurobindo; Thoughts and Aphorisms, 1982 edition, p. 4]. One person receives a key idea and develops an entire system based on this idea. He and his followers think that all persons who do not believe are ideological, stupid, etc. Then another creative person comes and he begins with an idea which completely contradicts the earlier idea and builds another "complete" system. This sort of situation happens fairly often in all branches of modern thought, metaphysics, philosophy, science and mathematics. Let us take an example from mathematics which is the subject often perceived to be based on pure reason. One of the key ideas behind the geometry of Euclid is that no more than one straight line can be drawn going through two given points. The truth behind the idea is often considered self- evident, especially because of the widespread use of the results of Euclidean geometry in everyday life. Hence, Euclid's geometry reigned supreme for about eighteen centuries until the great mathematician Riemann developed another geometry which begins with the negation of the key idea of Euclid, i.e., Riemann assumed that there exist pairs of points through which numerous lines could be drawn. This is the Riemann Geometry which has numerous applications of its own. Hence systems of thought based on mutually contradictory first principles can be developed and no one can say that one is more "truthful" than the other. But in a particular situation or application one system may be better than the other. The distinction between the absolute truth and the relative truth is needed in different circumstances. They used the word satyam for the absolute truth; the Seers perceived that at any point of space and time and circumstance, one particular type of action is better than another and they called this action as "rtam", often translated as the "Right." rtam embodies the truth of action valid at different places and time.

Investigation is only one of the functions of the mind. Its other two functions are formation and action. There are several widespread misconceptions about the role of reason in action. It is said that every rational person evaluates the given situation objectively and comes to a course of action needed on that occasion based on reason. In Indian thought, such a view is considered as simplistic. Each one of us is made up of different personalities, as it were. One

part may want one to be a respectable member of the community, another may want to enjoy the pleasures, still another may want to involve in creative endeavors. In most of us there is no peace between these warring factions. When a situation for action arises, the appropriate action is decided upon whichever personality in us is dominating at that time. Once the decision for action is done, reason is called upon to come up with justifications for this action. Later we convince ourselves that the course of action was "best" under the circumstances. "Our blind or erring government of life, a loose republic of wants and needs, ...bowed to the uncertain sovereign mind." (Savitri, Bk. 7, Ch. 5)

A similar misconception is there about the so-called "objective evaluation of situation" which precedes action. The close connection between mental formations and action is well recognized in Indian thought. We commonly label the daydreams, imagination, the thought formations in our subconscious mind which suddenly bubbles up, nightmares, dreams, etc. as mental formations and think of them as irrelevant to the "real world" dealing with action. But the Indian psychologists claim that these mental formations which are never formally expressed which may often be not recognized, dictate the course of action. For instance, consider a person having some health problems. There are two dominant views regarding health and disease. According to the first view, propounded by the ancient Indian science of ayurveda (the science of longevity), every human being is designed to enjoy adequate health, provided s/he has a minimal knowledge of the functioning of the overall personality made up of several layers and s/he takes sufficient care. There is a condition of perfect health which anyone can enter and attain. It is not that every person of this age did not suffer headache or fever. The idea is that the overall system is robust and it will come back to the normal (good) state of health, provided there are no adverse movements in the way of life of the individual. The second view, proposed by the modern Western doctors, is that a human being is a very fragile machine which is invaded by millions and billions of harmful entities like virus and bacteria. They attack by each family of virus or bacteria needs a different chemical preparation to cure it. The disease is caused by external agents and hence external agents like drugs are needed to cure it. The way of life of the person does not come into the picture at all. These ideas are never stated in such clear-cut terms, but one or the other dominates us. The Indian psychologists say that the people who have a strong belief in the idea of perfect health also have access to helpful psychic forces which can counteract and withstand any jolts to the health caused by external agents like bacteria whose presence is not denied. According to these scientists, the disease is not caused by the virus; rather the protective armour provided by your mental formation of "perfect health" has had chinks in it so that the bacterial attacks caused by fever. Restoring the faith in the condition of perfect health is the first step in the

The power of mental formations is recognized by the Western authors who publish their books in the alternative press, i.e., the press not controlled by the academics of the current medical establishment. Even the powers of mental formation have been recognized and used successfully in several instances. For instance, the use of "mental visualization" in training for athletic events are well known. A swimmer, instead of practicing in a swimming pool, may sit in a chair and mentally visualize in great detail every step of the swimming activity and this visualization is often more effective than the actual physical activity.

Soma is an enigmatic deva. The Occidentals have treated Soma as nothing but a plant whose creepers, on being squeezed, yield a juice which is intoxicating. There are numerous passages where Soma occurs with the word suta meaning pressed or squeezed. It is said that Indra drinking this juice becomes intoxicated and in his intoxication kills the adversary Vrtra. There are some references to Indra killing Vrtra after drinking Soma. The verses on Soma number more than 1,200, including all the verses in the entire ninth mandala consisting of 114 suktas or 1,108 verses. Reading carefully all the epithets to Soma in these verses gives a completely different picture. Let us begin with what RV has to say about whether the Soma is a herb or not, by quoting the famous verse (10.85.3) in the hymn titled "marriage of Surya''

"Laymen or those addicted to rituals may regard Soma as a creeper which is crushed for getting its juice for use in the ritual. But to the wise poets Soma is not something to be drunk.''

The clue to its deeper meaning is indicated by the common epithet for Soma, vanaspati, the lord of vana; vana means in Sanskrit both herb and delight. Kena Upanishad (4.6) uses vana in the sense of delight. Soma in the deeper sense is the Lord of Delight, the Delight of Existence. In RV, every aspect of existence has an inherent delight, the idea popularised later in the Taittiriya Upanishad. Every action exerts a pressure on existence; this squeezing, suta, releases the Soma or bliss contained in that aspect of creation. We feel joy in work because of this released delight, Soma.

Here we recognise that action is done primarily by the devas and the humans are only subsidiary players; we should free the released Soma from our claim. This declaration, "this is not mine'', is the way of purifying the Soma, purifying it of our attachment. This purified Soma is offered to the deva, especially Indra, the Lord of Divine Mind. This delight exhilarates Indra who takes steps to destroy the forces of ignorance, like Vrtra and Vala, the kill-joys or misers who do not want the supreme knowledge go and the energies apah (waters) to reach all human beings.

We will quote some verses in RV which bring out the power of Soma. Rigveda

speaks of Soma in (9.96) in the vibhutiyoga style as in Bhagawad Gita:

This Soma is placed in the midst of all these Constellations, (Nakshatra). (10.85.2)''

"Soma advances heroic with his swift chariots by the force of subtle thought to the perfected activity of Indra. (9.15.1)''

"You are the ocean, you reveal everything; Under thy law are the five places;

The Brilliant one Hari clothes himself with the Waters and the Rays. (9.42.1)''

"Giving birth'' means manifesting these energies in the human being.

Soma is connected to moon; ""cool moon-rays which cause delight among lovers'' is a common phrase.

"Those who are utterly perfected in Works taste the enjoyment of his honey- sweetness. (9.83.4)''

This is the supreme dappled bull that makes the Dawn to shine out. '' (9.83.3)

We can combine all the different quotes and understand why persons who merely squeeze the Soma herb cannot know this delight. Only the person who has done tapas can release the delight. Delight encompasses everything. Delight makes the Sun shine as the Taittiriya Upanishad declares. Delight is the basis of everything. Soma denotes the delight released from actions or works, Ananda refers to Delight in its entirety.

Soma's connection with Knowledge and Light is contained in many hymns.

"You are the master of all-existence satpati. You are the slayer of Vrtra and the auspicious will in action. (1.91.5)''

"Soma, thou hast generated all the delights Vana, the energies apah and the Light go;

Soma, Lord of Delight and Immortality (RV 9.83) 1. Wide spread out for thee is the sieve of thy purifying, O Master of the soul; becoming in the creature thou pervadest his members all through. He tastes not that delight who is unripe and whose body has not suffered in the heat of the fire; they alone are able to bear that and enjoy it who have been prepared by the flame.

2. The strainer through which the heat of him is purified is spread out in the seat of Heaven; its threads shine out and stand extended. His swift ecstasies foster the soul that purifies him; he ascend to the high level of Heaven by the conscious heart.

3. This is the supreme dappled Bull that makes the Dawns to shine out, the Male that bears the worlds of the becoming and seeks the plenitude; the Fathers who had the forming knowledge made a form of him by that power of knowledge which is his; strong in vision they set him within as a child to be born.

4. As the Gandharva he guards his true seat; as the supreme and wonderful One he keeps the births of the gods; Lord of the inner setting, by the inner

setting he seizes the enemy. Those who are utterly perfected in works taste the enjoyment of his honey-sweetness.

5. Thou in whom is the food, thou art that divine food, thou art the vast, the divine home; wearing heaven as a robe thou encompassest the march of the sacrifice. King with the sieve of thy purifying for thy chariot thou ascendest to the plenitude; with thy thousand burning brilliances thou conquerest the vast knowledge.

It is a marked, an essential feature of the Vedic hymns that, although the Vedic cult was not monotheistic in the modern sense of the word, yet they continually recognise, sometimes quite openly and simply, sometimes in a complex and difficult fashion, always as an underlying thought, that the many godheads whom they invoke are really one Godhead, - One with many names, revealed in many aspects, approaching man in the mask of many divine personalities. Western scholars, puzzled by this religious attitude which presents no difficulty whatever to the Indian mind, have invented, in order to explain it, a theory of Vedic henotheism. The Rishis, they thought, were polytheists, but to each God at the time of worshipping him they gave pre-eminence and even regarded him as in a way the sole deity. This invention of henotheism is the attempt of an alien mentality to understand and account for the Indian idea of one Divine Existence who manifests Himself in many names and forms, each of which is for the worshipper of that name and form the one and supreme Deity. That idea of the Divine, fundamental to the Puranic religions, was already possessed by our Vedic forefathers.

The Veda already contains in the seed the Vedantic conception of the Brahman. It recognises an Unknowable, a timeless Existence, the Supreme which is neither today nor tomorrow, moving in the movement of the Gods, but itself vanishing from the attempt of the mind to seize it (1.170.1). It is spoken of in the neuter as That and often identified with the Immortality, the supreme triple Principle, the vast Bliss to which the human being aspires. The Brahman is the Unmoving, the Oneness of the Gods. "The Unmoving is born as the Vast in the seat of the Cow (Aditi), ... the vast, the mightiness of the Gods, the One" (3-55.1). "It is the one Existent to whom the seers give different names, Indra, Matarishwan, Agni" (1.164.46).

This Brahman, the one Existence, thus spoken of impersonally in the neuter, is also conceived as the Deva, the supreme Godhead, the Father of things who appears here as the Son in the human soul. He is the Blissful One to whom the

movement of the Gods ascends, manifest as at once the Male and the Female, vrsan, dhenu. Each of the Gods is a manifestation, an aspect, a personality of the one Deva. He can be realised through any of his names and aspects, through Indra, through Agni, through Soma; for each of them being in himself all the Deva and only in his front or aspect to us different from the others contains all the gods in himself.

Thus Agni is hymned as the supreme and universal Deva. "Thou O Agni, art Varuna when thou art born, thou becomest Mitra when thou art perfectly kindled, in thee are all the Gods, O Son of Force, thou art Indra to the mortal who gives the sacrifice. Thou becomest Aryaman when thou bearest the secret name of the Virgins. They make thee to shine with the radiances (the cows, gobhih) as Mitra well-established when thou makest of one mind the Lord of the house and his consort. For the glory of thee, O Rudra, the Maruts brighten by their pressure that which is the brilliant and varied birth of thee. That which is the highest seat of Vishnu, by that thou protectest the secret Name of the radiances (the cows, gonam). By thy glory, O Deva, the gods attain to right vision and holding in themselves all the multiplicity (of the vast manifestation) taste Immortality. Men set Agni in them as the priest of the sacrifice when desiring (the Immortality) they distribute (to the Gods) the self-expression of the being.... Do thou in thy knowledge extricate the Father and drive away (sin and darkness), he who is borne in us as thy Son, O Child of Force" (5.3). Indra is similarly hymned by Vamadeva and in this eighty-third Sukta of the ninth Mandala, as in several others, Soma too emerges from his special functions as the supreme Deity.

Soma is the Lord of the wine of delight, the wine of immortality. Like Agni he is found in the plants, the growths of earth, and in the waters. The Soma-wine used in the external sacrifice is the symbol of this wine of delight. It is pressed out by the pressing-stone (adri, gravan) which has a close symbolic connection with the thunderbolt, the formed electric force of Indra also called adri. The Vedic hymns speak of the luminous thunders of this stone as they speak of the light and sound of Indra's weapon. Once pressed out as the delight of existence Soma has to be purified through a strainer (pavitra) and through the strainer he streams in his purity into the wine bowl (camu) in which he is brought to the sacrifice, or he is kept in jars (kalasa) for Indra's drinking. Or, sometimes, the symbol of the bowl or the jar is neglected and Soma is simply described as flowing in a river of delight to the seat of the Gods, to the home of Immortality. That these things are symbols is very clear in most of that hymns of the ninth Mandala which are all devoted to the God Soma. Here, for instance, the physical system of the humar being is imaged as the jar of the Soma-wine and the strainer through which it is purified is said to be spread out in the seat of

The hymn begins with an imagery which closely follows the physical facts of the purifying of the wine and its pouring into the jar. The strainer or purifying instrument spread out in the seat of Heaven seems to be the mind enlightened by knowledge (cetas); the human system is the jar. Pavitram te vitatam brahmanaspate, the strainer is spread wide for thee, O Master of the soul; prabhur gatrani paryesi visvatah, becoming manifest thou pervadest or goest about the limbs everywhere. Soma is addressed here as Brahmanaspati, a word sometimes applied to other gods, but usually reserved for Brihaspati, Master of the creative Word. Brahman in the Veda is the soul or soul-consciousness emerging from the secret heart of things, but more often the thought, inspired, creative, full of the secret truth, which emerges from that consciousness and becomes thought of the mind, manma. Here, however, it seems to mean the soul itself. Soma, Lord of the Ananda, is the true creator who possesses the soul and brings out of it a divine creation. For him the mind and heart, enlightened, have been formed into a purifying instrument; freed from all narrowness and duality the consciousness in it has been extended widely to receive the full flow of the sense-life and mind-life and turn it into pure delight of the true existence, the divine, the immortal Ananda.

So received, sifted, strained, the Soma-wine of life turned into Ananda comes pouring into all the members of the human system as into a wine-jar and flows through all of them completely in their every part. As the body of a man becomes full of the touch and exultation of strong wine, so all the physical system becomes full of the touch and exultation of this divine Ananda. The words prabhu and vibhu in the Veda are used not in the later sense, "lord", but in a fixed psychological significance like pracetas and vicetas or like prajnana and vijnana in the later language. "Vibhu" means becoming, or coming into existence pervasively, "Prabhu" becoming, coming into existence in front of the consciousness, at a particular point as a particular object or experience. Soma comes out like the wine dropping from the strainer and then pervading the jar; it emerges into the consciousness concentrated at some particular point, prabhu, or as some particular experience and then pervades the whole being as Ananda, vibhu.

But it is not every human system that can hold, sustain and enjoy the potent and often violent ecstasy of that divine delight. Ataptatanur na tad amo asnute, he who is raw and his body not heated does not taste or enjoy that; srtasa id vahantas tat samasata, only those who have been baked in the fire bear and entirely enjoy that. The wine of the divine Life poured into the system is a strong, overflooding and violent ecstasy; it cannot be held in the system unprepared for it by strong endurance of the utmost fires of life and suffering

and experience. The raw earthen vessel not baked to consistency in the fire of the kiln cannot hold the Soma-wine; it breaks and spills the precious liquid. So the physical system of the man who drinks this strong wine of Ananda must by suffering and conquering all the torturing heats of life have been prepared for the secret and fiery heats of the Soma; otherwise his conscious being will not be able to hold it; it will spill and lose it as soon as or even before it is tasted or it will break down mentally and physically under the touch.

This strong and fiery wine has to be purified and the strainer for its purifying has been spread out wide to receive it in the seat of heaven, tapospavitram vitatam divaspade; its threads or fibres are all of pure light and stand out like rays, Socanto asya tantavo vyasthiran. Through these fibres the wine has to come streaming. The image evidently refers to the purified mental and emotional consciousness, the conscious heart, cetas, whose thoughts and emotions are the threads or fibres. Dyau or Heaven is the pure mental principle not subjected to the reactions of the nerves and the body. In the seat of Heaven, - the pure mental being as distinguished from the vital and physical consciousness, - the thoughts and emotions become pure rays of true perception and happy psychical vibration instead of the troubled and obscured mental, emotional and sensational reactions that we now possess. Instead of being contracted and quivering things defending themselves from pain and excess of the shocks of experience they stand out free, strong and bright, happily extended to receive and turn into divine ecstasy all possible contacts of universal existence. Therefore it is divaspade, in the seat of Heaven, that the Soma-strainer is spread out to receive the Soma.

Thus received and purified these keen and violent juices, these swift and intoxicating powers of the Wine no longer disturb the mind or hurt the body, are no longer spilled and lost but foster and increase, avanti, mind and body of their purifier, avantyasya pavitaram asavah. So increasing him in all delight of his mental, emotional, sensational and physical being they rise with him through the purified and blissful heart to the highest level or surface of heaven, that is, to the luminous world of Swar where the mind capable of intuition, inspiration, revelation is bathed in the splendours of the Truth (rtam), liberated into the infinity of the Vast (brhat). Divasprstham adhi tisthanti cetasa.

So far the Rishi has spoken of Soma in his impersonal manifestation, as the Ananda or delight of divine existence in the human being's conscious experience. He now turns, as is the habit of the Vedic Rishis, from the divine manifestation to the divine Person and at once Soma appears as the supreme Personality, the high and universal Deva. Arurucad usasah prsnir agriyah, the supreme dappled One, he makes the dawns to shine: uksa bibharti bhuvanani vajayuh, he, the Bull, bears the worlds, seeking the plenitude. The word prsnih, dappled, is used

both of the Bull, the supreme Male, and of the Cow, the female Energy; like all words of colour, sveta, sukra, hari, harit, krsna, hiranyaya, in the Veda it is symbolic; colour, varna, has always denoted quality, temperament, etc., in the language of the Mystics. The dappled Bull is the Deva in the variety of his manifestation, many-hued. Soma is that first supreme dappled Bull, generator of the world of the becoming, for from the Ananda, from the all-blissful One they all proceed; delight is the parent of the variety of existences. He is the Bull, uksan, a word which like its synonym vrsan, means diffusing, generating, impregnating, the father of abundance, the Bull, the Male; it is he who fertilizes Force of consciousness, Nature, the Cow, and produces and bears in his stream of abundance the worlds. He makes the Dawns shine out, - the dawns of illumination, mothers of the radiant herds of the Sun; and he seeks the plenitude, that is to say the fullness of being, force, consciousness, the plenty of the godhead which is the condition of the divine delight. In other words it is the Lord of the Ananda who gives us the splendours of the Truth and the plenitudes of the Vast by which we attain to Immortality.

The fathers who discovered the Truth, received his creative knowledge, his Maya, and by that ideal and ideative consciousness of the supreme Divinity they formed an image of Him in man, they established Him in the race as a child unborn, a seed of the godhead in man, a Birth that has to be delivered out of the envelope of the human consciousness. mayavino mamire asya, mayaya, nrcaksasah pitaro garbham a dadhuh. The fathers are the ancient rishis who discovered the Way of the Vedic mystics and are supposed to be still spiritually present presiding over the destinies of the race and, like the gods, working in man for his attainment to Immortality. They are the sages who received the strong divine vision, nrcaksasah, the Truth-vision by which they were able to find the Cows hidden by the Panis and to pass beyond the bounds of the rodasi, the mental and physical consciousness, to the Superconscient, the Vast Truth and the Bliss (I.36.7; TV.I.13-18; IV.2.15-18 etc.).

Soma is the Gandharva, the Lord of the hosts of delight, and guards the true seat of the Deva, the level or plane of the Ananda; gandharva ittha padam asya raksati. He is the Supreme, standing out from all other beings and over them, other than they and wonderful, adbhutah, and as the supreme and transcendent, present in the worlds but exceeding them, he protects in those worlds the births of the gods, pati devanam janimani adbhutah. The "births of the gods" is a common phrase in the Veda by which is meant the manifestation of the divine principles in the cosmos and especially the formation of the godhead in its manifold forms in the human being. In the last verse the Rishi spoke of the Deva as the divine child preparing for birth, involved in the world, in the human consciousness. Here he speaks of Him as the transcendent guarding the world of the Ananda formed in man and the forms of the godhead born in him by the

divine knowledge against the attacks of the enemies, the powers of division, the powers of undelight (dvisah, aratih), against the undivine hosts with their formations of a dark and false creative knowledge, Avidya, illusion, (adevir mayah).

For he seizes these invading enemies in the net of the inner consciousness; he is the master of a profounder and truer setting of world-truth and world-experience than that which is formed by the senses and the superficial mind. It is by this inner setting that he seizes the powers of falsehood, obscurity and division and subjects them to the law of truth, light and unity; grbhnati ripum nidhaya nidhapatih. Men therefore protected by the lord of the Ananda governing this inner nature are able to accord their thoughts and, actions with the inner truth and light and are no longer made to stumble by the forces of the outer crookedness; they walk straight, they become entirely perfect in their works and by this truth of inner working and outer action are able to taste the entire sweetness of existence, the honey, the delight that is the food of the soul. sukrttama madhuno bhaksam asata.

Soma manifests here as the offering, the divine food, the wine of delight and immortality, havih, and as the Deva, lord of that divine offering (havismah), above as the vast and divine seat, the superconscient bliss and truth, brhat, from which the wine descends to us. As the wine of delight he flows about and enters into this great march of the sacrifice which is the progress of man from the physical to the superconscient. He enters into it and encompasses it wearing the cloud of the heavenly ether, nabhas, the mental principle, as his robe and veil. havir havismo mahi sadma daivyam, nabho vasanah pari yasi adhvaram. The divine delight comes to us wearing the luminous-cloudy veil of the forms of mental experience.

In that march or sacrificial ascent the all-blissful Deva becomes the King of all our activities, master of our divinised nature and its energies and with the enlightened conscious heart as his chariot ascends into the plenitude of the infinite and immortal state. Like a Sun or a fire, as Surya, as Agni, engirt with a thousand blazing energies he conquers the vast regions of the inspired truth, the superconscient knowledge; raja pavitraratho vajam aruhah, sahasrabhrstir jayasi sravo brhat. The image is that of a victorious king, sunlike in force and glory, conquering a wide territory. It is the immortality that he wins for man in the vast Truth-Consciousness, sravas, upon which is founded the immortal state. It is his own true seat, ittha padam asya, that the God concealed in man conquers ascending out of the darkness and the twilight through the glories of the Dawn into the solar plenitudes.

With this hymn I close this series of selected hymns from the Rigveda. My

object has been to show in as brief a compass as possible the real functions of the Vedic gods, the sense of the symbols in which their cult is expressed, the nature of the sacrifice and its goal, explaining by actual examples the secret of the Veda. I have purposely selected a few brief and easy hymns, and avoided those which have a more striking depth, subtlety and complexity of thought and image, - alike those which bear the psychological sense plainly and fully on their surface and those which by their very strangeness and profundity reveal their true character of mystic and sacred poems. It is hoped that these examples will be sufficient to show the reader who cares to study them with an open mind the real sense of this, our earliest and greatest poetry. By other translations of a more general character it will be shown that these ideas are not merely the highest thought of a few rishis, but the pervading sense and teaching of the Rigveda.

Understanding Veda Sarasvati is not a mere river Sarasvati mantras

Sarasvati or Sarasvati is described in 72 mantra-verses of Rig Veda Samhita, some of which are repeated in Yajur Veda. Even though there was a river of that name flowing in North India in Rig Vedic times which is now dry, the mantras deal primarily with the goddess of inspiration and this was recognised by the rishis even though the commoners of that age, like the moderns, believe that Sarasvati described in Veda is a mere river or atmost a river-goddess, whatever it may mean.

We will pose here some popular questions and give our answers in the next several sections. The first question is, “what is inspiration, why is it needed?'' The more aggressive ones declare, “inspiration is needed only by poets and writers; it is irrelevant for others''. It is this attitude of judging an issue without even bothering to get its essentials that is preventing many persons from deriving the benefit of Veda mantras. The attitude of these persons is similar to those who have no interest in the topic of well-ness or health till sickness hits them.

Questions of the second group state, “we have read in the translations of Rig Veda by eminent Western Indologists like Wilson (or even the famous Sayana) that Sarasvati is a physical river which rises in the Himalayas; here and there she may be described as dealing with prose and poetry (described as gadya padya, commentary of Sayana on RV (3.54.13)). You state that she represents the power of inspiration. What is your basis? Why should we believe you instead of the earlier mentioned eminent scholars''. We give a glimpse of the foundations of the Vedic interpretation according to Sri Aurobindo. The first principle is that we should focus only on the mantras of Rig Veda Samhita and not introduce passages from Purana, Ramayana, Brahmana books like Taittiriya Brahmana etc.,

which are thousands of years later than the Veda mantras. Secondly fix one meaning for each word and not give ten or twenty meanings to the same word as Sayanacharya does to force ritualists meaning he wants. In the fifth section we detail many epithets for Sarasvati from the Veda such as awakening the consciousness (chetanti), the thoughts (dhiya), etc. All these epithets are consistent with the labeling of Sarasvati as the goddess of inspiration, only a few epithets are consistent with Sarasvati as a physical river.

The questions of the third group state, “There are many stotras of Sarasvati in Purana and Ramayana. There is also the Mahasarasvati stotra in the Durga Saptashati. What is the difference between them and Veda mantra? Why are Veda mantras regarded as more powerful?

We give the annotated translation of most of the mantras, divided into 3 categories. In the first group, we consider the sukta and mantras specifically dedicated to Sarasvati such as the complete sukta (6.61), (7.95) and (7.96) the subhymns each having 3 mantras in RV (1.3), RV (2.41) and others. We give the detailed translation of all these mantras.

In the Rig Veda there are 10 suktas called Apri suktas in which there is one mantra (in each sukta) dealing with the three goddesses Sarasvati (inspiration), Ila and Mahi or Bharati.

There are 25 mantras dedicated to other gods like Agni or Vishvedevas, in which the word Sarasvati occurs.

Inspiration is a power of Truth (satyam). Truth is intimately connected with beauty and harmony, sundaram and shivam, not only at the individual level but at the community level. In a sense Truth is the path and all-round bliss is the goal. Sin or falsehood is merely wrongly inspired emotion, wrongly directed will and action. We tell a lie because our ego tells us that the actual telling of the limited truth on the occasion is not palatable to the emotion. Similarly a person indulges in an illegal or immoral action because the ego directs the will for its own reasons of security. For most of us the central idea of our everyday life is permeated by falsehood. The wrongly directed emotion, will and action leads to a completely distorted results.

Inspiration is that power which leads to a perfect action (perfect with respect to time and space) by means of steps which are not perceivable to our mind. The perfection is all-round; beneficial to the individual and the community,

harmonious. The result of the action directed by inspiration leads to a result pervaded by beauty and harmony.

The action may occur in any field, poetry, carpentry, science, technology, music.

But we cannot order the inspiration to come; it comes to us when it likes; we have to understand its operation for its manifestation.

“Truth comes to us as a light, a voice, compelling a change of thought, imposing a new discernment of ourselves and all around us. Truth of thought creates truth of vision and truth of vision forms in us the truth of being, and out of the truth of being (satyam) flows naturally truth of emotion, will and action. This is the central idea of the Veda.'' (Sri Aurobindo)

Inspiration cannot be developed by any mechanical procedure. The three mantra verses RV (1.3.10) - RV (1.3.12) give us some hints only to develop the inspiration, that too in stages. The full text and translation of the three verses is in section 8, along with others.

The first step is to become conscious of the work to be done in all its details, i.e., we become aware of the details noting both the things we claim to know and those which we do not know. We must establish some measure of mental tranquillity in us. Then the person has to become conscious that he is an instrument and the real doer is the supreme energy. Even though the supreme spirit or shakti is pouring in the energies, the person is blocking its flow by his feelings of egoism, petty emotion etc. He/she must try to counter the psychological foes like greed, delusion etc., systematically. Then we have to regard the work on hand, in which the inspiration is needed, as a self-offering (yajna) to the divine. Next recognize that Sarasvati can give plenty of everything in all possible forms. The Sanskrit word is vaja, the plenitude, plenty of everything or all-forms. Hence there is no reason for us to indulge in the inimical acts like hoarding or being greedy, jealous, arrogant etc. We always get our turn, there is no need to be jealous etc. She is also rich in thought or rich in the substance of thought (dhiyavasu). First she uses her powers to purify (pavaka) us, i.e., remove the layers of falsehood embedded in our emotions, will and action. These are all negative thoughts and they can be neutralized by positive thoughts. The falsehood should go. She can do it because she is rich in the substance of thought.

Next she introduces her positive powers of thought and consciousness. She is

the impeller (chodayitri) of happy truths (sunrtanam) and the awakener in consciousness (chetanti) of right mentalising. Sarasvati's power makes us became more and more conscious so that our emotions do not jump to the path of falsehood. She creates in us the right states of emotion and right movement of thought which are in accordance with the supreme Truth. She pours her illumination; she impels the truth to manifest in our emotion, will and action. She thus liberates our life and being (the so called individuality) from falsehood, weakness and limitation. Then only are the un-opened doors of supreme felicity become open.

By this constant awakening and impulsion represented by the word ketu, Sarasvati brings down the great flood of Truth into the active consciousness in the human being. She illumines all the aspects with this consciousness. Thus our emotion, will and action become coordinated with this divine truth; and action naturally leads to a stage of perfection consistent with the time and space. Complete perfection cannot come in a single step.

Action is very much necessary even if we have ample inspiration. Completely false is the idea that chanting of the mantra will yield the required physical results without any physical action.

We will give here an anecdote of an eminent yogi and engineer (MKG) regarding the play of inspiration. MKG has a bachelor's degree in biology and he has no degree in engineering. Still he became a senior engineer in a company which had collaboration with the famous Japanese company Mitsubishi. Different metals like steel, aluminium, silicon have different properties of strength. The properties of many metals are complimentary, i.e., the properties which are weak in one will be strong in other and vice versa. So combining two or more metals into a single one is called a composite so that the composite has all the good properties of its constituents. But the constituents have to be bonded, a procedure which is a secret of the supplier to the Japanese Company. MKG was faced with developing a composite. He could easily fix the types of the constituents with his intuition. However he had no clue to the bonding. He focussed all his thought to apparently no avail. The next day was Sunday; in the afternoon nap, he distinctly heard the sound ‘four' repeatedly. It was around 5 pm. MKG got the clue that, “for bonding, the requisite metals should be dipped in the liquid aluminium- silicon bonding material for about 4 minutes''. He went to the workshop and did the experiment. The new composite had properties which even the Japanese material did not have. MKG promptly sent a sample to the head office of the Mitsubishi in Japan. Reply by cable came 2 days later, “we are amazed at your

achievement, we have not been able to develop a composite with such properties. Your product has one hundred and fifty percent strength of our product.''

Other anecdotes: The biography of the famous fighter for freedom, poet and savant entitled, The glory of Vasishtha Ganapati Muni (published by SAKSIVC, 1999) has numerous anecdotes dealing with the inflow of inspiration in a variety of circumstances including the harassment by police, composition of poetry, accidents etc. Many persons who have done some spiritual practice can relate incidents involving inspiration in their lives. The disciples of Sri Aurobindo have written many books detailing their own experiences.

The Rig Veda is dated much prior to 4000 B.C.E. Still Sri Aurobindo (1872-1950) was the first person to write in detail defending the Rig Veda mantras as dealing with knowledge, specifically the philosophical and psychological wisdom. In addition to writing essays of about 1500 pages, he translated roughly 3000 mantras out of 10,512 in Rig Veda, often giving a detailed explanation for the assignment of the meanings of words.

1. Fundamentally Veda is a spiritual document, Veda is book of knowledge, not of rituals.

2. In the Indian tradition, the rishis to whom the mantras were revealed are regarded as yogins or men of wisdom. However in the current translations of Rig Veda Samhita by Griffith or Wilson who follow closely the Sanskrit commentary of Sayana, many mantra-verses do not have any coherent meaning; there is no coherence between the several mantras in the same sukta. Then there are only two alternatives:

a) Accept the validity of ritualist commentary of Sayana in which there is no coherence in many verses in the same sukta and thus accept that rishis are not men and women of wisdom.

b) Accept the rishis as men and women of wisdom, accept that mantras are coherent, then automatically reject the supreme authority of the Sayana commentary; the commentary is still very useful even though it is not accepted as the final authority.

Sri Aurobindo clearly prefers the alternative (b). As he would say, the obscurantist tendency in the decadent era is so strong that the mutual exclusiveness of the two alternatives is not even acknowledged; the people want to venerate both the rishis and the commentary of S, but refuse to acknowledge the incoherence in the meanings of the mantras in the commentary.

3) Assignment of meaning for words in the Veda: collect all the verses having a given Samskrt word and assign the most appropriate meaning to it valid in all these verses. Each word should have one meaning. To force his ritualist interpretation, Sayana gives ten to twenty meanings for the same word. For instance he assigns 30 meanings for the word gau, cow in popular parlance. In Veda gau means a ray of knowledge. Hence Sri Aurobindo translated gau as Ray- Cow. Similarly dhi in Veda is thought or intellect; S would accept this meaning in some places, but also translate dhi as anna (food) in many places.

4) Veda reveals its own secret. Trying to understand Veda through the legends in Purana or Ramayana or the Brahmana books leads to incoherent results. The symbolism and aims of these books are different. Brahmana books emphasise rituals only and scarcely acknowledge any wisdom in the mantras. Purana and Ramayana emphasise the strife between rishis or gods. Veda simply states that the Gods overcome the demon of falsehood and help the human beings.

Sarasvati is not a mere river - epithets of Sarasvati dealing with consciousness

River Sarasvati: Sarasvati was undoubtedly a mighty river in the Rig Vedic age which flowed from the mountain heights to the sea as declared in RV (7.95.2). The Sarasvati verses were revealed or composed more than eight thousand years before the present era. According to geologists, “this time synchronizes with the first interglacial period in the Holocene age marking the break up of the glaciers and release of the pent up waters which was the source for the rivers Sarasvati and Sindhu. The next three thousand years did not witness major changes in climate as revealed by the lake sediments. At the end of this period, tectonic disturbances caused major changes in drainage. As a consequence the upper course of Sarasvati in the mountain - bound Himalaya was diverted South Eastward to Yamuna; Sutlej, which earlier had joined Sarasvati, changed its course, migrated westward and became a tributary of Indus... The consequence of these changes was the drying up of the river Sarasvati which was cut off from the perennial source of water from the snowy Himalaya. It became an ephemeral stream, and finally lost itself in the sandy desert of Thar.'' [B.P. Radhakrishna, Jour. Geological Soc. of India, Vol. 51, June 1998]. The drying up of Sarasvati made its inhabitants move westwards resulting in the new civilization- the Indus

Valley Civilisation (3100-1900 BCE). In January 1997, the scientists at the Bhabha Atomic Energy Research Center have reconfirmed the existence of the Sarasvati river and its associated ground water sanctuaries and aquifers by using water samples collected from the deep wells in the Jaisalmer regions and North Eastern Rajasthan to conduct tritium (hydrogen isotope) analysis to establish the quality of water, flow and the age of water [ranging from 4000 to 8000 years before the present era]. More information is available in the monographs, “Vedic Sarasvati River'', by Kalyanaraman and “Vedic Sarasvati'', by B.P. Radhakrishna and S.S. Merh (ed), published by the Geological Society of India, 1999.

prachetayati ketuna: makes (us) conscious by constant awakening and impulsion, (1.3.12)

yaste stana shashayo: O Sarasvati, the word of yours that is asleep in you, (1.164.49)

yo ratnadha vasuvid: the word that holds the ecstasy and knows the substance, (1.164.49)

divyam suparnam vayasam: the bird divine of beautiful wings, (addressed to Sarasvati) (1.164.52)

sarasvatim sadhayantim dhiyam: perfecting our understanding, (2.3.8)

sarasvati virapatni dhiyam dhat: may she, the mate of hero-power, hold our thought, (6.49.7)

shushmebhihbisakha ivarujat sanum girinam: by her forces she broke the peaks of mountains (ignorance) like weak fibres, (6.61.2)

sarasvati devanido ni barhaya: Sarasvati destroys the censurers of the gods and the creator of illusory forms, (6.61.3)

dhinam avatryavatu: May the guardian of thoughts protect us, (6.61.4)

atannaheva surya: she has extended us like the Sun the day, (6.61.9)

trishadhastha saptadhatu: abiding in triple session, with seven elements, (6.61.12)

mahinasu chekite dyumnebhih: becomes fully conscious by the thoughts, (6.61.13)

payasa mana a dhak: do not burn us with knowledge (payasa), (6.61.14)

There are several prayers or stotras addressed to Sarasvati in the Puranas. Whereas the prayers in the Puranas are composed by some spiritual persons, the Rig Veda mantra directly comes from the supreme ether and are revealed to the rishi. RV (1.164.39) of Rishi Dirghatamas states, “The riks abide in the unchangeable supreme Ether (parame vyoman) where are seated all the gods; what can he do with the rik who knows not that?''

There is another mantra RV (1.164.45): “The voice, vak, is measured out in four steps; the wise persons (brahmana) know them. Three of them concealed in the profound secrecy cause no movements; the fourth step is what men call the human speech''.

Thus the mantras of Rig Veda were not composed but were seen by the seer (kavi), the hearer of the Truth (satyashrut). Because the paramevyoman the abode of the Gods and the original source of the Veda mantras is not a creation of anyone, the Veda mantras are also eternal and all-powerful. Hence the common belief that the mantra is an extraordinary means of achieving all the ends of life.

All these powers associated with the Veda mantras are not associated with any puranic prayer, even the Vishnu Sahasranama or popular verses in praise of Sarasvati.

The goddess Sarasvati appears in the Tantra as the, ‘secret channel or river' (guptagamini). Recall the three channels connecting the bottom centre Mooladhara to the centre between the eye-brows Ajna chakra, namely Ida, Pingala and Sushumna. The first two are identified with the subtle currents of the names Ganga and Jamuna. The subtle current flowing in the Sushumna, the middle channel, is Sarasvati. She is asleep normally. When she is activated by spiritual practises, she rises up indicating her manifestation (see RV (1.164.49)). She reaches the ajna chakra and starts to descend. Her descent indicates the manifested inspirational power is being directed to the performance of actions. The importance of the tantrik experience and explanation is that it acknowledges that the power of inspiration or Sarasvati is not only in cosmos (brahmanda) but also in our subtle body (pindanda).

These three Goddesses are celebrated together in all the apri hymns namely: 1.13.9; 1.142.9; 1.188.8; 2.3.8; 3.4.8; 5.5.8; 7.2.8; 9.5.8; 10.70.8; 10.110.8; Note that Mahi and Bharati are same. We reproduce below the comments of Sri Kapali Sastry.

The puranas speak of no difference between Bharati and Sarasvati. According to the puranic story, Ila, male head of the lunar dynasty, son of Manu, attained womanhood and became Ila. But in the Veda, it is to be noted, these three associated together, conferring Sight, Hearing Vastness on the sacrificer, the rishi, have their dwelling in Svar. Of these, Bharati signified by the term Mahi, the divine Power connected with the Vast Light, issuing from the House of svar, brings first the consciousness of the vast, brhat, to the Seer-Poet; Ila favours him with the consciousness-sight, commensurate with this vastness. But Sarasvati, the carrier of inspiration makes the seer capable of hearing the divine inspiration, the hearer of Truth.

The truth of Bharati or Mahi is described in (1.8.8) with the three adjectives sunrta, one with true speech, virapshi, flowing abundantly, and gomati, full of the rays of Light. The entire hymn (1.8) entitled "Indra and Mahi'' will be discussed in the second volume. Even though sunrta is used for Sarasvati also in (1.3.11), we have to grasp the distinction between the deities.

Ila, Sarasvati and Bharati, conferring Sight, Hearing and Vastness respectively, are divine, born of the Truth-Light, powers of the Sun of the Light of Truth impeller supreme of the Universe. The adjective vishvaturtih (who carries all) used for Her of the Vastness, establishes the relation of Bharati to the very Impeller who is sought to impel our thoughts. All these three create supreme happiness-mayobhuvah. They are not to be taken as some indistinct or formless divine powers; though they are mutually associated, the seers see their form as distinct, beautiful, supeshasah, of good form.

May Ila, Sarasvati, Mahi, the three Goddesses of delight come to the seat, unharmed (1.13.9).

May Sarasvati affecting our thought dhiyam and Goddesses Ila and Bharati who carry all to their goal sit on our altar seat and guard our house of refuge by the self-law of things svadhaya. (2.3.8)

In unison may Bharati with her muses of invocation bharatibhih, Ila with gods, men and Agni, Sarasvati with her powers of inspiration sarasvatebhirvak, come down to us; may the three goddesses be seated, (7.2.8) and (3.4.8).

May Ila, Sarasvatii and Mahi, the three Goddesses who create the bliss sit on the sacred seat, they who never err (5.5.8).

May Bharati come swiftly to our sacrifice, Ila awakening to knowledge like a human thinker and Sarasvati, the three Goddesses, --may they sit, perfect in works, on this sacred seat of happy ease (10.110.8).

O ye three Goddesses, sit on the superior seat which we have made delightful for you; may the mother of revelation, Ila, and the two goddesses with the luminous feet, ghrtapadi, accept our firmly placed offerings and our human worship of sacrifice (10.70.8).

The translations are all due to Sri Aurobindo (HMF). Note in (10.70.8), the usual translation of ghrtapadi as having feet of ghee does not make sense.

In the Rigveda there are forty five mantras to the deity Vishnu spread over seven suktas. We will be discussing only the six mantras in the 22nd hymn in the first mandala, (1.22.16)-(1.22.21), popularly known as shad vaishnavam.

We will give a brief picture of the functions of Vishnu. Vishnu creates or manifests the universe of seven planes, unveils its laws and maintains the universe under these laws. This happens not only in the macrocosm, but also in the microcosm, the subtle body of man. "Vishnu paces out the vast framework of the inner-worlds in which our soul-action takes place. It is by him and with him that we rise into his highest seats where we find waiting for us the Friend, the Beloved and the Beatific Godhead.'' [Sri Aurobindo]

The puranic triad of Vishnu-Brahmanaspati-Rudra is intimately related to the Vedic triad of Vishnu-Brahmanaspati-Rudra. We give a brief description of the connection. Brahma in the Veda means mantra and Brahmanaspati is the Lord of mantras. In the Veda Brahmanaspati creates all by speech. He brings out all things from the darkness of Inconscience and gives them life-forms and mental- forms.

Rudra forcibly leads this creation upwards. He puts down all those who arrogantly obstruct his courses and kills the evil opponents. Though thus terrible, he is beneficent, and compassionate to the distressed.

Vishnu pervades the entire manifestation and organizes it into several planes or worlds, each plane, based on a particular principle. For instance this world, earth, is dominated by matter. The midworld, antariksha, is dominated by life- energies, emotional energies etc. The world of heaven, dyu, is dominated by the mental energies. The highest station is said to be Vishnu's supreme step. He creates the path by which the mortals can reach the supreme station after traversing the intermediate worlds.

"When Vishnu is said to sleep on the folds of the snake ananta upon the ocean of sweet milk, ananta is clearly seen to be not the common serpent, nor the milk the material sweet milk, nor the ocean an expanse of milky liquid. The symbolic meaning is that the All-pervading Vishnu rests on the coils of the Infinite in the blissful ocean of Eternal Existence. It may be said that the authors of the puranas were priests, gross minds who knew not even the truth of the solar and lunar eclipses; how could they be in the know of profound varieties? They mean only the usual physical serpent and the material ocean of real milk and it is we who read into them the symbolic meaning we could point out that there is no necessity for us to imagine so. These poets themselves have imprinted the symbolic thought by means of figures and words and made known impenetrable truths for the benefit of all. Note, those words are: Vishnu means all-pervading, the serpent Shesha is ananta, the infinite; sweet milk is a symbol of bliss; the ocean is a symbol of the Eternal Existence.''

1. Of Vishnu now I declare the mighty works, who has measured out the earthly worlds and that higher seat of our self-accomplishing he supports, he the wide-moving, in the threefold steps of his universal movement.

2. That Vishnu affirms on high by his mightiness and he is like a terrible lion that ranges in the difficult places, yea, his lair is on the mountain-tops, he in whose three wide movements all the worlds find their dwelling-place.

3. Let our strength and our thought go forward to Vishnu the all-pervading, the wide-moving Bull whose dwelling- place is on the mountain, he who being One has measured all this long and far-extending seat of our self-accomplishing by only three of his strides.

4. He whose three steps are full of the honey- wine and they perish not but have ecstasy by the self-harmony of their nature; yea, he being One holds the triple principle and earth and heaven also, even all the worlds.

5. May I attain to and enjoy that goal of his movement, the Delight, where souls that seek the godhead have the rapture; for there in that highest step of the wide-moving Vishnu is that Friend of men who is the fount of the sweetness.

6. Those are the dwellings-places of ye twain which we desire as the goal of our journey, where the many-horned herds of Light go travelling; the highest

step of wide-moving Vishnu shines down on us here in its manifold vastness.

The deity of this hymn is Vishnu the all-pervading, who in the Rig-veda has a close but covert connection and almost an identity with the other deity exalted in the later religion, Rudra. Rudra is a fierce and violent godhead with a beneficent aspect which approaches the supreme blissful reality of Vishnu; Vishnu's constant friendliness to man and his helping gods is shadowed by an aspect of formidable violence, - "like a terrible lion ranging in evil and difficult places",- which is spoken of in terms more ordinarily appropriate to Rudra. Rudra is the father of the vehemently-battling Maruts; Vishnu is hymned in the last Sukta of the fifth Mandala under the name of Evaya Marut as the source from which they sprang, that which they become, and himself identical with the unity and totality of their embattled forces. Rudra is the Deva or Deity ascending in the cosmos, Vishnu the same Deva or Deity helping and evoking the powers of the ascent.

It was a view long popularised by European scholars that the greatness of Vishnu and Shiva in the -Puranic theogonies was a later development and that in the Veda these gods have a quite minor position and are inferior to lndra and Agni. It has even become a current opinion among many scholars that Shiva was a later conception borrowed from the Dravidians and represents a partial conquest of the Vedic religion by the indigenous culture it had invaded. These errors arise inevitably as part of the total misunderstanding of Vedic thought for which the old Brahmanic ritualism is responsible and to which European scholarship by the exaggeration of a minor and external element in the Vedic mythology has only given a new and yet more misleading form.

The importance of the Vedic gods has not to be measured by the number of hymns devoted to them or by the extent to which they are invoked in the thoughts of the Rishis, but by the functions which they perform. Agni and Indra to whom the majority of the Vedic hymns are addressed, are not greater than Vishnu and Rudra, but the functions which they fulfill in the internal and external world were the most active, dominant and directly effective for the psychological discipline of the ancient Mystics; this alone is the reason of their predominance. The Maruts, children of Rudra, are not divinities superior to their fierce and mighty Father; but they have many hymns addressed to them and are far more constantly mentioned in connection with other gods, because the function they fulfilled was of a constant and immediate importance in the Vedic discipline. On the other hand, Vishnu, Rudra, Brahmanaspati, the Vedic originals of the later Puranic Triad, Vishnu-Shiva-Brahma provide the conditions of the Vedic work and

assist it from behind the more present and active gods, but are less close to it and in appearance less continually concerned in its daily movements.

Brahmanaspati is the creator by the Word; he calls light and visible cosmos out of the darkness of the inconscient ocean and speeds the formations of conscious being upward to their supreme goal. It is from this creative aspect of Brahmanaspati that the later conception of Brahma the Creator arose.

For the upward movement of Brahmanaspati’s formations Rudra supplies the force. He is named in the Veda the Mighty One of Heaven, but he begins his work upon the earth and gives effect to the sacrifice on the five planes of our ascent. He is the Violent One who leads the upward evolution of the conscious being; his force battles against all evil, smites the sinner and the enemy; intolerant of defect and stumbling he is the most terrible of the gods, the one of whom alone the Vedic Rishis have any real fear. Agni, the Kumara, prototype of the Puranic Skanda, is on earth the child of this force of Rudra. The Maruts, vital powers which make fight for themselves by violence, are Rudra's children. Agni and the Maruts are the leaders of the fierce struggle upward from Rudra's first earthly, obscure creation to the heavens of thought, the luminous worlds. But this violent and mighty Rudra who breaks down all defective formations and groupings of outward and inward life, has also a beginner aspect. He is the supreme healer. Opposed, he destroys; called on for aid and propitiated he heals all wounds and all evil and all sufferings. Tile force that battles is his gift, but also the final peace and joy. In these aspects of the Vedic god are all the primitive materials necessary for the evolution of the Puranic Shiva-Rudra, the destroyer and healer, the auspicious and terrible, the Master of the force that acts in the worlds and the Yogin who enjoys the supreme liberty and peace.

For the formations of Brahmanaspati's word, for the actions of Rudra's force Vishnu supplies the necessary static elements, - Space, the ordered movements of the worlds, the ascending levels, the highest goal. He has taken three strides and in the space created by the three strides has established all the worlds. In these worlds he the all-pervading dwells and gives less or greater room to the action and movements of the gods. When Indra would slay Vrtra, he first prays to Vishnu, his friend and comrade in the great struggle (1.22.19), "O Vishnu, pace out in thy movement with an utter wideness", (IV.18.11), and in that wideness he destroys Vrtra who limits, Vrtra who covers. The supreme step of Vishnu, his highest seat, is the triple world of bliss and light, paramam padam, which the wise ones see extended in heaven like a shining eye of vision (1.22.20); it is this highest seat of Vishnu that is the goal of the Vedic journey. Here again the Vedic Vishnu is the natural precursor and sufficient origin of the Puranic Narayana, Preserver and Lord of Love.

In the Veda indeed its fundamental conception forbids the Puranic arrangement of the supreme Trinity and the lesser gods. To the Vedic rishis there was only one universal Deva of whom Vishnu, Rudra, Brahmanaspati, Agni, Indra, Vayu, Mitra, Varuna are all alike forms and cosmic aspects. Each of them is in himself the whole Deva and contains all the other gods. It was the full emergence in the upanishads of the idea of this supreme and only Deva, left in the riks vague and undefined and some- times even spoken of in the neuter as That or the one sole existence, the ritualistic limitation of the other gods and the progressive precision of their human or personal aspects under the stress of a growing mythology that led to their degradation and the enthronement of the less used and more general names and forms, Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra, in the final Puranic formulation of the Hindu theogony.

In this hymn of Dirghatamas Auchathya to the all-pervading Vishnu it is his significant activity, it is the greatness of Vishnu's three strides that is celebrated. We must dismiss from our minds the ideas proper to the later mythology. We have nothing to do here with the dwarf Vishnu, the Titan Bali and the three divine strides which took possession of Earth, Heaven and the sunless subterrestrial worlds of Patala. The three strides of Vishnu in the Veda are clearly defined by Dirghatamas as earth, heaven and the triple principle, tridhatu. It is this triple principle beyond Heaven or superimposed upon it as its highest level, nakasya prsthe (I. 125.5), which is the supreme stride or supreme seat of the all-pervading deity.

Vishnu is the wide-moving one. He is that which has gone abroad, - as it is put in the language of the Isha Upanishad, sa paryagat, - triply extending himself as Seer, Thinker and Former, in the superconscient Bliss, in the heaven of mind, in the earth of the physical consciousness, tredha vicakramanah. In those three strides he has measured out, he has formed in all their extension the earthly worlds; for in the Vedic idea the material world which we inhabit is only one of several steps leading to and supporting the vital and mental worlds beyond. In those strides he supports upon the earth and mid-world, -the earth the material, the mid-world the vital realms of Vayu, Lord of the dynamic Life-principle, - the triple heaven and its three luminous summits, trini rocana. These heavens the rishi describes as the higher seat of the fulfilling. Earth, the mid-world and heaven are the triple place of the conscious being's progressive self-fulfilling, trisadhastha (1.56.5), earth the lower seat, the vital world the middle, heaven the higher. All these are contained in the threefold movement of Vishnu.

But there is more; there is also the world where the self- fulfilment is accomplished, Vishnu's highest stride. In the second verse the seer speaks of it simply as "that". "That" Vishnu, moving yet forward in his third pace affirms or firmly establishes, pra stavate, by his divine might. Vishnu is then described in a

language which hints at his essential identity with the terrible Rudra, the fierce and dangerous Lion of the worlds who begins in the evolution as the Master of the animal, Pashupati, and moves upward on the mountain of being on which he dwells, ranging through more and more difficult and inaccessible places, till he stands upon the summits. Thus in three wide movements of Vishnu all the five worlds and their creatures have their habitation. Earth, heaven and "that" world of bliss are the three strides. Between earth and heaven is the Antariksha, the vital worlds, literally "the intervening habitation". Between heaven and the world of bliss is another vast Antariksha or intervening habitation, Maharloka, the world of the superconscient Truth of things.

The force and the thought of man, the force that proceeds from Rudra the Mighty and the thought that proceeds from Brahmanaspati, the creative Master of the Word, have to go forward in the great journey for or towards this Vishnu who stands at the goal, on the summit, on the peak of the mountain. His is this wide universal movement; he is the Bull of the world who enjoys and fertilizes all the energies of force and all the trooping herds of the thought. This far-flung extended space which appears to us as the world of our self-fulfilment, as the triple altar of the great sacrifice has been so measured out, so formed by only three strides of that almighty Infinite.

All the three are full of the honey-wine of the delight of existence. All of them this Vishnu fills with his divine joy of being. By that they are eternally maintained and they do not waste or perish, but in the self-harmony of their natural movement have always the unfailing ecstasy, the imperishable intoxication of their wide and limitless existence. Vishnu maintains them unfailingly, preserves them imperishably. He is the One, he alone is, the sole-existing Godhead, and he holds in his being the triple divine principle to which we attain in the world of bliss, earth where we have our foundation and heaven also which we touch by the mental person within us. All the five worlds he upholds." The tridhatu, the triple principle or triple material of existence, is the Sachchidananda of the Vedanta; in the ordinary language of the Veda it is vasu, substance, urj, abounding force of our being, priyam or mayas, delight and love in the very essence of our existence. Of these three things all that exists is constituted and we attain to their fullness when we arrive at the goal of our journey.

That goal is Delight, the last of Vishnu's three strides. The rishi takes up the indefinite word "tat" by which he first vaguely indicated it; it signified the delight that is the goal of Vishnu's movement. It is the Ananda which for man in his ascent is a world in which he tastes divine delight, possesses the full energy of infinite consciousness, realises his infinite existence. There is that high-placed source of the honey-wine of existence of which the three strides of Vishnu are full. There the souls that seek the godhead live in the utter ecstasy of that wine

of sweetness. There in the supreme stride, in the highest seat of wide- moving Vishnu is the fountain of the honey-wine, the source of the divine sweetness, - for that which dwells there is the God- head, the Deva, the perfect Friend and Lover of the souls that aspire to him, the unmoving and utter reality of Vishnu to which the wide-moving God in the cosmos ascends.

These are the two, Vishnu of the movement here, the eternally stable, bliss- enjoying Deva there, and it is those supreme dwelling places of the Twain, it is the triple world of Sachchidananda which we desire as the goal of this long journey, this great upward movement. It is thither that the many-horned herds of the conscious Thought, the conscious Force are moving - that is the goal, that is their resting-place. There in those worlds, gleaming down on us here, is the vast, full, illimitable shining of the supreme stride, the highest seat of the wide- moving Bull, master and leader of all those many-horned herds, - Vishnu the all- pervading, the cosmic Deity, the Lover and Friend of our souls, the Lord of the transcendent existence and the transcendent delight.

We will first consider Surya and Savitr or Savitri. Since their names appear together in many hymns, we consider them together with the name Surya Savitri, translated as the Divine Sun; later we will point out the distinction between Surya and Savitri in the Veda.

Surya Savitri is the Godhead of the Supreme Truth and knowledge hymned as ekam sat, One Truth. He represents the truth of being, truth of knowledge, truth of process and act and movement and functioning. He is therefore the creator or rather the manifester of all things for creation is releasing srj or expressing what is present in the Truth-will; He is the father, fosterer and enlightener of our souls. Thus the luminous vision and luminous creation are the two functions of Surya Savitri.

He is present both in the microcosm and the macrocosm. He is the light of the Truth rising in the human consciousness. We may recall that the devi usha, Dawn, represents the onset of the first rays of Light in our night-ridden consciousness, the consciousness covered by the forces of darkness, ignorance and inconscience. So the Surya Savitri comes after the Dawn, and follows and expands the path traced for him by her. Hence it is said that Surya pursues the Dawn as a lover follows after his beloved (1.115.2).

All the Gods follow in the march of Surya, i.e., all other Divine faculties or potentialities in man expand with the expansion of Truth and Light. This is the reason for the wide spread use of the mantra for Surya-Savitri known as Gayatri of Vishvamitra (3.62.10).

The name Surya is rarely used when there is a question of creation. Surya is reserved for his passive aspects as the body of infinite Light and the revelation. In his active power he is addressed by various names like Savitri, Tvashtr etc. Savitri is used whenever the rishi is concerned with the idea of creation i.e., the manifestation of the powers both in humans and cosmos; Savitr and Surya come from the same root. Savitri again manifests himself especially in the formation of the Truth in man through the four great and active deities, Mitra, Varuna, Bhaga and Aryaman, representing the Lords of pure wideness, luminous Harmony,

Surya and Savitr appellations are used sometimes as if identical and as if distinct at others. In the Veda, there is only one deity, ekam sat, one existence of which all other powers are aspects connected to one another by an intricate web. We cannot partition this web into several separate rigid parts so that each part is a separate deity.

1. Men illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to him who is illumination and largeness and clear perceiving. Knowing all phenomena he orders, sole the Energies of the sacrifice. Vast is the affirmation in all things of Savitri, the divine Creator.

2. All forms he takes unto himself, the Seer, and he creates from them good for the twofold existence and the fourfold. The Creator, the supreme Good, manifests Heaven wholly and his light pervades all as he follows the march of the Dawn.

3. In the wake of his march the other gods also reach by his force to the greatness of the Divinity. He has mapped out the realms of earthly light by his mightiness,-the brilliant one, the divine Creator.

4. And thou reachest, O Savitri, to the three luminous heavens; and thou art utterly expressed by the rays of the Sun; and thou encompassest the Night upon either side; and thou becomest by the law of thy law of thy actions the lord of Love, O God.

5. And thou art powerful for every creation; and thou becomest the Increase, O God, by thy movings; and thou illuminest utterly all this world of becomings. Shyavashwa has attained to the affirmation of thee, O Savitri.

Indra with his shining hosts, the Maruts, Agni, the divine force, fulfiller of the Aryan sacrifice, are the most important deities of the Vedic system. Agni is the beginning and the end. This Will that is knowledge is the initiator of the upward effort of the mortal towards Immortality; to this divine consciousness that is one with divine power we arrive as the foundation of immortal existence. Indra, lord

of Swar, the luminous intelligence into which we have to convert our obscure material mentality in order to become capable of the divine consciousness, is our chief helper. It is by the aid of Indra and the Maruts that the conversion is effected. The Maruts take our animal consciousness made up of the impulses of the nervous mentality, possess these impulses with their illuminations and drive them up the hill of being towards the world of Swar and the truths of Indra. Our mental evolution begins with these animal troops, these pasus; they become, as we progress in the ascension, the brilliant herds of the Sun, gavah, rays, the divine cows of the Veda. Such is the psychological sense of the Vedic symbol.

But who, then, is Surya, the Sun, from whom these rays proceed? He is the Master of Truth, Surya the Illuminator, Savitri the Creator, Pushan the Increaser. His rays in their own nature are supramental activities of revelation, inspiration, intuition, luminous discernment, and they constitute the action of that transcendent principle which the Vedanta calls Vijnana, the perfect knowledge, the Veda Ritam, the Truth. But these rays descend also into the human mentality and form at its summit the world of luminous intelligence, Swar, of which Indra is the lord.

For this Vijnana is a divine and not a human faculty. Man's mind is not constituted of the self-luminous truth, like the divine mind; it is a sense- mentality, Manas, which can receive and understand Truth, but is not one with it. The light of knowledge has to present itself in this human understanding tempered so as to suit its forms to the capacities and limitations of the physical consciousness. And it has to lead up progressively to its own true nature, to manifest successive evolutionary stages for our mental development. Therefore the rays of Surya, as they labour to form our mental existence, create three successive worlds of mentality one superimposed on the other, - the sensational, aesthetic and emotional mind, the pure intellect and the divine intelligence. The fullness and perfection of these triple worlds of mind exists only in the pure mental plane of being, where they shine above the three heavens, tisro divah, as their three luminosities, trini rocanani. But their light descends upon the physical consciousness and effects the corresponding formations in its realms, the Vedic parthivani rajamsi, earthly realms of light. They also are triple, tisrah prthivih, the three earths. And of all these worlds Surya Savitri is the creator.

We have in this figure of various psychological levels, each considered as a world in itself, a key to the conceptions of the Vedic rishis. The human individual is an organised unit of existence which reflects the constitution of the universe. It repeats in itself the same arrangement of states and play of forces. Man, subjectively, contains in himself all the worlds in which, objectively, he is contained. Preferring ordinarily a concrete to an abstract language, the rishis speak of the physical consciousness as the physical world, earth, Bhu, Prithivi.

They describe the pure mental consciousness as heaven, Dyau, of which Swar, the luminous mind, is the summit. To the intermediate dynamic, vital or nervous consciousness they give the name either of Antariksha, the intermediate vision, or of Bhuvar, - multiple dynamic worlds formative of the Earth.

For in the idea of the rishis a world is primarily a formation of consciousness and only secondarily a physical formation of things. A world is a loka, a way in which conscious being images itself. And it is the causal Truth, represented in the person of Surya Savitri, that is the creator of all its forms. For it is the causal Idea in the infinite being, - the idea, not abstract, but real and dynamic, - that originates the law, the energies, the formations of things and the working out of their potentialities in determined forms by determined processes. Because the causal Idea is a real force of existence, it is called satyam, the True in being; because it is the determining truth of all activity and formation, it is called rtam, the True in movement; because it is broad and infinite in its self-view, in its scope and in its operation, it is called brhat, the Large or Vast.

Savitri by the Truth is the Creator, but not in the sense of a fabrication or mechanical forming of things. The root of the word means an impulsion, a loosing forth or sending out, - the sense also of the ordinary word for creation, srsti, - and so a production. The action of the causal Idea does not fabricate, but brings out by Tapas, by the pressure of consciousness on its own being, that which is concealed in it, latent in potentiality and in truth already existent in the Beyond.

Now the forces and processes of the physical world repeat, as in a symbol, the truths of the supraphysical action which produced it. And since it is by the same forces and the same processes, one in the physical worlds and the supraphysical, that our inner life and its development are governed, the rishis adopted the phenomena of physical Nature as just symbols for those functionings of the inner life which it was their difficult task to indicate in the concrete language of a sacred poetry that must at the same time serve for the external worship of the Gods as powers of the visible universe. The solar energy is the physical form of Surya, Lord of Light and Truth; it is through the Truth that we arrive at Immortality, final aim of the Vedic discipline. It is therefore under the images of the Sun and its rays, of Dawn and day and night and the life of man between the two poles of light and darkness that the Aryan seers represent the progressive illumination of the human soul. It is so that Shyavashwa of the house of Atri hymns Savitri, Creator, Increaser, Revealer.

Surya enlightens the mind and the thoughts with the illuminations of the Truth. He is vipra, the illumined. It is he who delivers the individual human mind from the circumscribed consciousness of self and environment and enlarges the

limited movement which is imposed on it by its preoccupation with its own individuality. Therefore he is brhat, the Large. But his illumination is not a vague light, nor does his largeness come by a confused and dissolved view of self and object; it holds in itself a clear discernment of things in their totality, their parts and their relations. Therefore he is vipascit, the clear in perception. Men, as soon as they begin to receive something of this solar illumination, strive to yoke their whole mentality and its thought-contents to the conscious existence of the divine Surya within them. That is to say, they apply, as it were, all their obscure mental state and all their erring thoughts to this Light manifested in them so that it may turn the obscurity of the mind into clearness and convert the errors of thought into those truths which they distortedly represent. This yoking (yunjate) becomes their Yoga. "They yoke the mind, and they yoke their thoughts, the enlightened, of (i.e. to, or so that they may be part of or belong to) the Enlightened, the Large, the Clear-perceptioned."

Then the Lord of Truth orders all the human energies offered up to him in the terms of the Truth; for he becomes in man a sole and sovereign Power governing all knowledge and action. Not interfered with by conflicting agencies, he governs perfectly; for he knows all manifestations, comprehends their Causes, contains their law and process, compels their right result. There are seven of these sacrificial energies (Hotras) in the human being, one corresponding to each of the seven constituents of his psychological existence, - body, life, mind, supermind, bliss, will and essential being. Their irregular action or wrong relation, caused and maintained by the obscuration of knowledge in Mind, is the source of all stumbling and unhappiness, of all evil act and evil state. Surya, Lord of Knowledge, puts each of them to its right place in the Sacrifice. "Knower of phenomena sole he arranges the sacrificial energies."

Man thus arrives at a vast and all-embracing affirmation in himself of this divine Creator. It is implied in this passage and indicated more clearly in the next. verse that the result is a right and happy creation - for all our existence is a constant creation .-of the universe of man's whole being. "Vast is the comprehensive affirmation of the god Savitri."

Surya is the seer, the revealer. Ms Truth takes into its illumination all forms of things, all the phenomenal objects and experiences which constitute our world, all the figures of the universal Consciousness within and without us. It reveals the truth in them, their sense, their purpose, their justification and right use. Ordering rightly the energies of the sacrifice it creates or produces good as the law of our whole existence. For all things have their justifiable cause of being, their good use and their right enjoyment. When this truth in them is found and utilized, all things produce good for the soul, increase its welfare, enlarge its felicity. And this divine revolution is effected both in the lower physical existence

and in the more complete inner life which uses the physical for its manifestation. "The Seer takes to himself all forms, he brings out (creates or manifests) good for the twofold (two-footed), for the fourfold (four-footed)."

The process of this new creation is described in the rest of the hymn. Surya, as the creator, as the supreme good, manifests in our human consciousness its concealed heavenly summit on the levels of the pure mind, and we are able to look up above from the earth of our physical existence and are delivered from the obscurities of the night of Ignorance. He follows, sunlike, the march of the Dawn, illuminating all the regions of our being on which falls its light; for there is always needed the precursory mental illumination before the Truth itself, the supramental principle, can take possession of this lower existence. "The creator, the supremely desirable, manifests all heaven and shines pervadingly following (after or according to) the movement forward of the Dawn."

All the other gods follow in this march of Surya and they attain to his vastness by the force of his illumination. That is to say, all the other divine faculties or potentialities in man expand with the expansion of the Truth and Light in him; in the strength of the ideal supermind they attain to the same infinite amplitude of right becoming, right action and right knowledge. The Truth in its largeness moulds all into the terms of the infinite and universal Life, replaces with it the limited individual existence, maps out in the terms of their real being the realms of the physical consciousness which, as Savitri, it has created. This also is in us a creation, although in reality it only manifests what already exists but was concealed by the darkness of our ignorance, - just as the realms of the physical earth are concealed from our eyes by the darkness, but reveal themselves as the sun in his march follows the Dawn and measures them out one by one to the vision. "Following whose march the other gods too reach the vastness of the divinity by his strength, he who maps out entirely - that brilliant one - the earthly realms of light, the god Savitri, by his greatness."

But it is not only the full capacity of our physical or earthly consciousness that this divine Truth illuminates and forms for a perfect action. It pervades the three luminous realms of the pure mind (trini rocana); it puts us in contact with all the divine possibilities of the sensations and emotions, of the intellect, of the intuitive reason and liberating the superior faculties from their limitation and constant reference to the material world fulfils our entire mental being. Its activities receive their completest manifestation; they are gathered up into the life of the complete Truth by the rays of the sun, that is to say, by the full splendour of the divine Super mind manifested in us. "And thou goest, O Savitri, to the three luminousnesses, and thou art perfectly expressed by the rays of the Sun (or, art gathered together by means of the rays)."

Then it is that the higher kingdom of the Immortality, Sachchidananda revealed, shines out perfectly in this world. The higher and lower are reconciled in the light of the supramental revelation. The Ignorance, the Night, is illumined upon both sides of our complete being, not only as in our present state upon one. This higher kingdom stands confessed in the principle of Beatitude which is for us the principle of Love and Light, represented by the god Mitra. The Lord of Truth, when he reveals himself in the full godhead, becomes the Lord of Bliss. The law of his being, the principle regulating his activities is seen to be Love; for in the right arrangement of knowledge and action everything here comes to be translated into terms of good, felicity, bliss. "And thou encompassest Night upon both sides, and thou becomest, O God, Mitra by the laws of thy action."

The Truth of the divine existence becomes eventually the sole Lord of all creation in ourselves; and by his constant visitations or by his continual progressions the Creator becomes the Increaser, Savitri becomes Pushan. He aggrandizes us by a constantly progressive creation until he has illumined the whole world of our becoming. We grow into the complete, the universal, the infinite. So has Shyavashwa, of the sons of Atri, succeeded in affirming Savitri in his own being as the illuminative Truth, the creative, the progressive, the increaser of man - he who brings him out of egoistic limitation into universality, out of the finite into the infinite. "And thou hast power alone for creation; and thou becomest the Increaser, O God, by the goings; and thou illuminest entirely all this world (literally, becoming). Shyavashwa has attained to the affirmation of thee, O Savitri."

1. Of Savitri divine we embrace that enjoying, that which is the best, rightly disposes all, reaches the goal, even Bhaga’s, we hold by the thought. 2. For of him no pleasure in things can they diminish, for too self-victorious

3. This he that sends forth the delights on the giver, the god who is the bringer forth of things; that varied richness of his enjoyment we seek. 4. Today, O divine producer, send forth o us fruitful felicity, dismiss what

5. All evils, O divine producer, dismiss; what is good, that send forth on us 6. Blameless for infinite being in the outpouring of the divine Producer, we

7. The universal godhead and master of being we accept into ourselves by perfect words today, the producer whose production is of the truth-

8. He who goes in front of both this day and night never faltering, placing rightly his thought, the divine Producer.

9. He who by the rhythm makes heard of the knowledge all births and produces the, the divine producer.

Four great deities constantly appear in the Veda as closely allied in their nature and in their action, Varuna, Mitra, Bhaga, Aryaman. Varuna and Mitra are continually coupled together in the thoughts of the Rishis; sometimes a trio appears together, Varuna, Mitra and Bhaga or Varuna, Mitra and Aryaman. Separate Suktas addressed to any of these godheads are compartively rare, although there are some important hymns of which Varuna is the deity. But the Riks in which their names occur, whether in hymns to other gods or in invocations to the All-gods, the visve devah, are by no means inconsiderable in number.

These four deities are, according to Sayana, solar powers, Varuna negatively as lord of the night, Mitra positively as lord of the day, Bhaga and Aryaman as names of the Sun. We need not attach much importance to these particular identifications, but it is certain that a solar character attaches to all the four. In them that peculiar feature of the Vedic gods, their essential oneness even in the play of their different personalities and functions, comes prominently to light. Not only are the four closely associated among themselves, but they seem to partake of each other's nature and attributes, and all are evidently emanations of Surya Savitri, the divine being in his creative and illuminative solar form.

Surya Savitri is the Creator. According to the Truth of things, in the terms of the rtam, the worlds are brought forth from the divine consciousness, from Aditi, goddess of infinite being, mother of the gods, the indivisible consciousness, the Light that cannot be impaired imaged by the mystic Cow that cannot be slain. In that creation, Varuna and Mitra, Aryaman and Bhaga are four effective Puissances. Varuna represents the principle of pure and wide being, Sat in Sachchidananda; Aryarman represents the light of the divine consciousness working as Force; Mitra representing light and knowledge, using the principle of Ananda for creation, is Love maintaining the law of harmony; Bhaga represents Ananda as the creative enjoyment; he takes the delight of the creation, takes the delight of all that is created. It is the Maya, the formative wisdom of Varuna, of Mitra that disposes multitudinously the light of Aditi brought by the Dawn to manifest the worlds.

In their psychological function these four gods represent the same principles working in the human mind, in the human temperament. They build up in man the different planes of his being and mould them ultimately into the terms and the forms of the divine Truth. Especially Mitra and Varuna are continually described as holding firm the law of their action, increasing the Truth, touching the Truth and by the Truth enjoying its vastness of divine will or its great and uncontracted sacrificial action. Varuna represents largeness, right and purity; everything that deviates from the right, from the purity recoils from his being and strikes the offender as the punishment of sin. So long as man does not attain to the largeness of Varuna's Truth, he is bound to the posts of the world- sacrifice by the triple bonds of mind, life and body as a victim and is not free as a possessor and enjoyer. Therefore we have frequently the prayer to be delivered from the noose of Varuna, from the wrath of his offended purity. Mitra is on the other hand the most beloved of the gods; he binds all together by the fixities of his harmony, by the successive lustrous seats of Love fulfilling itself in the order of things, mitrasya dhamabhih. His name, Mitra, which means also friend, is constantly used with a play upon the double sense; it is as Mitra, because Mitra dwells in all, that the other gods become the friends of man. Aryaman appears in the Veda with but little distinctness of personality, for the references to him are brief. The functions of Bhaga are outlined more clearly and are the same in the cosmos and in man.

In this hymn of Shyavashwa to Savitri we see both the functions of Bhaga and his oneness with Surya Savitri; for it is to the creative Lord of Truth that the hymn is addressed, to Surya, but to Surya specifically in his form as Bhaga, as the Lord of Enjoyment. The word bhaga means enjoyment or the enjoyer and that this sense is the one held especially appropriate to the divine name, Bhaga, is emphasised by the use of bhojanam, bhaga, saubhagam in the verses of the hymn. Savitri, we have seen, means Creator, but especially in the sense of producing emitting from the unmanifest and bringing out into the manifest.

Throughout the hymn there is a constant dwelling upon this root sense of the word which it is impossible to render adequately in a translation. In the very first verse there is a covert play of the kind; for bhojanam means both enjoyment and food and it is intended to be conveyed that the "enjoyment of Savitri" is Soma from the same root su, to produce, press out, distil, Soma, the food of divine beings, the supreme distilling, highest production of the great Producer. What the rishi seeks is the enjoyment in all created things of the immortal and immortalising Ananda.

It is this Ananda which is that enjoyment of the divine Producer, of Surya Savitri, the supreme result of the Truth: for Truth is followed as the path to the divine beatitude. This Ananda is the highest, the best enjoyment. It disposes all aright:, for once the Ananda, the divine delight in all things is attained, it sets right all the distortions, all the evil of the world. It carries man through to the goal. If by the truth and right of things we arrive at the Ananda, by the Ananda also we can arrive at the right and truth of things. It is to the divine Creator in the name and form of Bhaga that this human capacity for the divine and right enjoyment of all things belongs. When he is embraced by the human mind and heart and vital forces and physical being, when this divine form is received into himself by man, then the Ananda of the world manifests itself.

Nothing can limit, nothing can diminish, neither god nor demon, friend nor enemy, event nor sensation, whatever pleasure this divine Enjoyer takes in things, in whatever vessel or object of his enjoyment. For nothing can diminish or hedge in or hurt his luminous self-empire, svarajyam, his perfect possession of himself in infinite being, infinite delight and the vastnesses of the order of the Truth.

Therefore it is he that brings the seven delights, sapta ratna, to the giver of the sacrifice. He looses them forth on us; for they are all there in the world as in the divine being, in ourselves also, and have only to be loosed forth on our outer consciousness. The rich and varied amplitude of this sevenfold delight, perfect on all the planes of our being, is the bhaga, enjoyment or portion of Bhaga Savitri in the completed sacrifice, and it is that varied wealth which the rishi seeks for himself and his fellows in the sacrifice by the acceptance of the divine Enjoyer.

Shyavashwa then calls on Bhaga Savitri to vouchsafe to him even today a felicity not barren, but full of the fruits of activity, rich in the offspring of the soul, prajavat saubhagam. Ananda is creative, it is jana, the delight that gives birth to life and world; only let the things loosed forth on us be of the creation conceived in the terms of the truth and let all that belongs to the falsehood, to the evil dream created by the ignorance of the divine Truth, duhsvapnyam, be dismissed, dispelled away from our conscious being.

In the next verse he makes clearer the sense of duhsvapnyam. What he desires to be dispelled is all evil, vivani duritani. Suvitam and duritam in the Veda mean literally right going and wrong going. Suvitam is truth of thought and action, duritam error or stumbling, sin and perversion. Suvitam is happy going, felicity, the path of Ananda; duritam is calamity, suffering, all ill result of error and ill doing. All that is evil, visvani duritani, belongs to the evil dream that has to be turned away from us. Bhaga sends to us instead all that is good, - bhadram , good in the sense of felicity, the auspicious things of the divine enjoying, the happiness of the right activity, the right creation.

For, in the creation of Bhaga Savitri, in his perfect and faultless sacrifice, - there is a double sense in the word sava, "loosing forth”, used of the creation, and the sacrifice, the libation of the Soma, - men stand absolved from sin and blame by the Ananda, anagasah, blameless in the sight of Aditi, fit for the undivided and infinite consciousness of the liberated soul. The Ananda owing to that freedom is capable of being in them universal. They are able to hold by their thought all things of the delight, visva vamani; for in the dhi, the understanding that holds and arranges, there is right arrangement of the world, perception of right relation, right purpose, right use, right fulfilment, the divine and blissful intention in all things.

It is the universal Divine, the master of the Sat, from whom all things are created in the terms of the truth, satyam, that the sacrificers today by means of the sacred mantras seek to accept into themselves under the name of Bhaga Savitri. It is the creator whose creation is the Truth, whose sacrifice is the outpouring of the truth through the outpouring of his own Ananda, his divine and unerring joy of being, into the human soul. He as Surya Savitri, master of the Truth, goes in front of both this Night and this Dawn, of the manifest consciousness and the unmanifest, the waking being and the subconscient and superconscient whose interaction creates all our experiences; and in his motion neglects nothing, is never unheeding, never falters. He goes in front of both bringing out of the night of the subconscient the divine Light, turning into the beams of that Light the uncertain or distorted reflections of the conscient, and always the thought is rightly placed. The source of all error is misapplication, wrong placing of truth, wrong arrangement, wrong relation, wrong positing in time and place, object and order. But in the Master of Truth there is no such error, no such stumbling, no such wrong placing.

Surya Savitri, who is Bhaga, stands between the Infinite and the created worlds within us and without. All things that have to be born in the creative consciousness he receives into the Vijnana; there he puts it into its right place in the divine rhythm by the knowledge that listens and receives the Word as it descends and so he looses it forth into the movement of things, asravayati slokena pra ca suvati. When in us each creation of the active Ananda, the

prajavat saubhagam, comes thus out of the unmanifest, received and heard rightly of the knowledge in the faultless rhythm of things, then is our creation that of Bhaga Savitri, and all the births of that creation, our children, our offspring, praja, apatyam, are things of the delight, visva vamani. This is the accomplishment of Bhaga in man, his full portion of the world- sacrifice.

1. Do thou manifest the sacrificial energies that are unmanifested, even as a revealer of felicity and doer of the work; O Vayu, come in thy car of happy light to the drinking of the soma-wine.

2. Put away from thee all denials of expression and with thy steeds of the yoking, with Indra for thy charioteer come, O Vayu, in thy car of happy light to the drinking of the Soma-wine.

3. The two that, dark, yet hold all substances, shall observe thee in their labour, they in whom are all forms. O Vayu, come in thy car of happy light to the drinking of the Soma-wine.

4. Yoked let the ninety and nine bear thee, they who are yoked by the mind. O Vayu, come in thy car of Happy light to the drinking of the Soma-wine. 5. Yoke, O Vayu, thy hundred brilliant steeds that shall increase, or else with

The psychological conceptions of the Vedic rishis have often a. marvelous profundity and nowhere more than when they deal with the phenomenon of the conscious activities of mind and life emerging out of the subconscient. It may be said, even, that this idea is the whole basis of the rich and subtle philosophy evolved in that early dawn of knowledge by these inspired Mystics. Nor has any other expressed it with a greater subtlety and felicity than the rishi Vamadeva, at once one of the most profound seers and one of the sweetest singers of the Vedic age. One of his hymns, the last of the fourth Mandala, is indeed the most important key we possess to the symbolism which hid behind the figures of the sacrifice those realities of psychological experience and perception deemed so sacred by the Aryan forefathers.

In that hymn Vamadeva speaks of the ocean of the subconscient which underlies all our life and activities. Out of that ocean rises "the honeyed wave" of sensational existence with its undelivered burden of unrealised delight climbing full of the ghrta and the Soma, the clarified mental consciousness and the illumined Ananda that descends from above, to the heaven of Immortality. The "secret Name" of the mental consciousness, the tongue with which the gods taste the world, the nexus of Immortality, is the Ananda which the Soma symbolises. For all this creation has been, as it were, ejected into the subconscient by the four-horned Bull, the divine Purusha whose horns are infinite Existence, Consciousness, Bliss and Truth. In images of an energetic incongruity reminding us of the sublime grotesques and strange figures that have survived

from the old mystic and symbolic art of the prehistoric world, Vamadeva describes the Purusha in the figure of a man-bull, whose four horns are the four divine principles, his three feet or three legs the three human principles, mentality, vital dynamism and material substance, his two heads the double consciousness of Soul and Nature, Purusha and Prakriti, his seven hands the seven natural activities corresponding to the seven principles. "Triply bound" - bound in the mind, bound in the life-energies, bound in the body- "the Bull roars aloud; great is the Divinity that has entered into mortals".

For the ghrtam, the clear light of the mentality reflecting the Truth, has been hidden by the Panis, the lords of the lower sense-activity, and shut up in the subconscient; in our thoughts, in our desires, in our physical consciousness the Light and the Ananda have been triply established, but they are concealed from us. It is in the cow, symbol of the Light from above, that the gods find the clarified streams of the ghrtam. These streams, says the rishi, rise from the heart of things, from the ocean of the sub- conscient, hrdyat samudrat, but they are confined in a hundred pens by the enemy, Vrtra, so that they may be kept from the eye of discernment, from the knowledge that labours in us to enlighten that which is concealed and deliver that which is imprisoned. They move in the path on the borders of the subconscient, dense if impetuous in their movements, limited by the nervous action, in small formations of the life-energy Vayu, vatapramiyah. Purified progressively by the experiences of the conscious heart and mind, these energies of Nature become finally capable of the marriage with Agni, the divine Will-force, which breaks down their boundaries and is himself nourished by their now abundant waves. That is the crisis of the being by which the mortal nature prepares its conversion to immortality.

In the last verse of the hymn Vamadeva describes the whole of existence as established above in the seat of the divine Purusha, below in the ocean of the subconscient and in the Life, antah samudre hrdi antar ayusi. The conscious mind is, then, the channel through which there is communication between the upper ocean and the lower, between superconscient and subconscient, the light divine and the original darkness of Nature.

Vayu is the Lord of Life. By the ancient Mystics life was considered to be a great force pervading all material existence and the condition of all its activities. It is this idea that was formulated later on in the conception of the Prana, the universal breath of life. All the vital and nervous activities of the human being fall within the definition of Prana, and belong to the domain of Vayu. Yet this great deity has comparatively few hymns to his share in the Rigveda and even in those suktas in which he is prominently invoked, does not usually figure alone but in company with others and as if dependent on them. He is especially coupled with Indra and it would almost seem as if for the functionings demanded from him by the vedic rishis he needed the aid of the superior deity. When there is question

of the divine- action of the Life-forces in man, Agni in the form of the vedic Horse, Ashwa, Dadhikravan, takes usually the place of Vayu.

If we consider the fundamental ideas of the rishis, this position of Vayu becomes intelligible. The illumination of the lower being by the higher, the mortal by the divine, was their principal concept. Light and Force, go and ashva, the Cow and the Horse, were the object of the sacrifice. Force was the condition, Light the liberating agency; and Indra and Surya were the chief bringers of Light. Moreover the Force required was the divine Will taking possession of all the human energies and revealing itself in them; and of this Will, this force of conscious energy, taking possession of the nervous vitality and revealing itself in it, Agni more than Vayu and especially Agni Dadhi- kravan was the symbol. For it is Agni who is master of Tapas, the divine Consciousness formulating itself in universal energy, of which the Prana is only a representative in the lower being. Therefore in Vamadeva's hymn, the fifty-eighth of the fourth Mandala, it is Indra and Surya and Agni who effect the great manifestation of the conscious divinity out of the subconscient. Vata or Vayu, the nervous activity, is only a first condition of the emergent Mind. And for man it is the meeting of Life with Mind and the support given by the former to the evolution of the latter which is the important aspect of Vayu. Therefore we find Indra, Master of Mind, and Vayu, Master of Life, coupled together and the latter always somewhat dependent on the former; the Maruts, the thought-forces, although in their origin they seem to be as much powers of Vayu as of Indra, are more important to the Rishis than Vayu himself and even in their dynamic aspect are more closely associated with Agni Rudra than with the natural chief of the legions of the Air.

The present hymn, the forty-eighth of the Mandala is the last of three in which Vamadeva invokes Indra and Vayu for the drinking of the Soma-wine. They are called in conjointly as the two lords of brilliant force, Savasaspati, as in another hymn, in a former Mandala (1.23.3), they are invoked as lords of thought, dhiyaspati. Indra is the master of mental force, Vayu of nervous or vital force and their union is necessary for thought and for action. They are invited to come in one common chariot and drink together of the wine of the Ananda which brings with it the divinising energies. Vayu, it is said, has the right of the first draught; for it is the supporting vital forces that must first become capable of the ecstasy of the divine action.

In the third hymn, in which the result of the sacrifice is defined, Vayu is alone invoked, but even so his companionship with Indra is clearly indicated. He is to come in a chariot of happy brightness, like Usha in another hymn, to drink of the immortalizing wine. The chariot symbolises movement of energy and it is a glad movement of already illuminated vital energies that is invoked in the form of Vayu. The divine utility of this brightly happy movement is indicated in the first three verses.

The god is to manifest - he is to bring into the light of the conscious activity sacrificial energies which are not yet manifested, are yet hidden in the darkness of the subconscient. In the ritualistic interpretation the phrase may be translated, "Eat of offerings that have not been eaten" or, in another sense of the verb vi, it may be rendered, "Arrive at sacrificial energies which have never been approached"; but all these renderings amount, symbolically, to the same psychological sense. Powers and activities that have not yet been called up out of the subconscient, have to be liberated from its secret cave by the combined action of Indra and Vayu and devoted to the work.

For it is not towards an ordinary action of the nervous mentality that they are called. Vayu is to manifest these energies as would "a revealer of the felicity, a doer of the Aryan work", vipo na rayo aryah. These words sufficiently indicate the nature of the energies that are to be evoked. It is possible, however, that the phrase may have a covert reference to Indra and thus indicate what is afterwards clearly expressed, the necessity that Vayu's action should be governed by the illumined and aspiring force of the more brilliant god. For it is Indra's enlightenment that leads to the secret of beatitude being revealed and he is the first labourer in the Work. To Indra, Agni and Surya among the gods is especially applied the term arya, which describes with an untranslatable compactness those who rise to the noble aspiration and who do the great labour as an offering in order to arrive at the good and the bliss.

In the second verse the necessity of Indra's guidance is affirmed expressly. Vayu is to come putting away all denials that may be opposed to the manifestation of the unmanifested, niryuvano asastih. The word asastih means literally "not- expressings" and describes the detention by obscuring powers like Vrtra of the light and power that are waiting to be revealed, ready to be called out into expression through the influence of the gods and by the instrumentality of the Word. The Word is the power that expresses, sastram, gih, vacas. But it has to be protected and given its right effect by the divine Powers. Vayu is to do this office; he has to expel all powers of denial, of obscuration, of non-manifestation. To do this work he must arrive "with his steeds of her yoking and Indra for charioteer", niyutvan Indra sarathih. The steeds of Indra, of Vayu, of Surya have each their appropriate name. Indra's horses are hari or babhru, red gold or tawny yellow; Surya's harit, indicating a more deep, full and intense luminousness; Vayu's are niyut, steeds of the yoking, for they represent those dynamic movements which yoke the energy to its action. But although they are the horses of Vayu, they have to be driven by Indra, the movements of the Master of nervous and vital energy guided by the Master of mind.

The third verse would seem at first to bring in an unconnected idea; it speaks of a dark Heaven and Earth with all their forms obeying or following in their labour the movements of Vayu in his lndra-driven car. They are not mentioned by name

but described as the two black or dark holders of substance or holders of wealth, vasudhiti; but the latter word sufficiently indicates earth and by implication of the dual form Heaven also, its companion. We must note that it is not Heaven the father and Earth the mother that are indicated, but the two sisters, rodasi, feminine forms of heaven and earth, who symbolise the general energies of the mental and physical consciousness. It is their dark states - the obscured consciousness between its two limits of the mental and the physical, - which by the happy movement of the nervous dynamism begin to labour in accordance with the movement or under the control of Vayu and to yield up their hidden forms; for all forms are concealed in them and they must be compelled to reveal them. Thus we discover that this verse completes the sense of the two that precede. For always when the Veda is properly understood, its verses are seen to unroll the thought with a profound logical coherence and pregnant succession.

The two remaining Riks indicate the result produced by this action of Heaven and Earth and by their yielding up of hidden forms and unmanifested energies on the movement of Vayu as his car gallops towards the Ananda. First of all his horses are to attain their normally complete general number. "Let the ninety-nine be yoked and bear thee, those that are yoked by the mind". The constantly recurring numbers ninety-nine, a hundred and a thousand have a symbolic significance in the Veda which it is very difficult to disengage with any precision. The secret is perhaps to be found in the multiplication of the mystic number seven by itself and its double repetition with a unit added before and at the end, making altogether 1+49+49+1=100. Seven is the number of essential principles in manifested Nature, the seven forms of divine consciousness at play in the world. Each, formulated severally, contains the other six in itself; thus the full number is forty-nine, and to this is added the unit above out of which all develops, giving us altogether a scale of fifty and forming the complete gamut of active consciousness. But there is also its duplication by an ascending and descending series, the descent of the gods, the ascent of man. This gives us ninety-nine, the number variously applied in the Veda to horses, cities, rivers, in each case with a separate but kindred symbolism. If we add an obscure unit below into which all descends to the luminous unit above towards which all ascends we have the full scale of one hundred.

It is therefore a complex energy of consciousness which is to be the result of Vayu's movement; it is the emergence of the fullest movement of the mental activity now only latent and potential in man, - the ninety and nine steeds that are yoked by the mind. And in the next verse the culminating unit is added. We have a hundred horses, and because the action is now that of complete luminous mentality, these steeds, though they still carry Vayu and Indra, are no longer merely niyut, but hari, the colour of Indra's brilliant bays. "Yoke, O Vayu, a hundred of the brilliant ones, that are to be increased."

But why to be increased? Because a hundred represents the general fullness of the variously combined movements, but not their utter complexity. Each of the hundred can be multiplied by ten; all can be increased in their own kind: for that is the nature of the increase indicated by the word posyanam. Therefore, says the rishi, either come with the general fullness of the hundred to be afterwards nourished into their full complexity of a hundred tens or, if thou wilt, come at once with thy thousand and let thy movement arrive in the utter mass of its entire potential energy. It is the completely varied all-ensphering, all-energizing mental illumination with its full perfection of being, power, bliss, knowledge, mentality, vital force, physical activity that he desires. For, this attained, the subconscient is compelled to yield up all its hidden possibilities at the will of the perfected mind for the rich and abundant movement of the perfected life.

1. It is not now, nor is It tomorrow; who knoweth that which is Supreme and Wonderful? It has motion and action in the consciousness of another, but when It is approached by the thought, It vanishes.

2. Why dost thou seek to smite us, O Indra? The Maruts are thy brothers. By them accomplish perfection; slay us not in our struggle.

3. Why, O my brother Agastya, art thou my friend, yet settest thy thought beyond me? For well do I know how to us thou willest not to give thy mind.

4. Let them make ready the altar, let them set Agni in blaze in front. It is there, the awakening of the consciousness to Immortality. Let us two extend for thee thy effective sacrifice.

5. O Lord of substance over all substances of being, thou art the master in force! O Lord of Love over the powers of love, thou art the strongest to hold in status! Do thou, O lndra, agree with the Maruts, then enjoy the offerings in the ordered method of the Truth.

The governing idea of the hymn belongs to a stage of spiritual progress when the human soul wishes by the sheer force of Thought to hasten forward beyond in order to reach prematurely the source of all things without full development of the being in all its progressive stages of conscious activity. The effort is opposed

by the gods who preside over the universe of man and of the world and a violent struggle takes place in the human consciousness between the individual soul in its egoistic eagerness and the universal Powers which seek to fulfil the divine purpose of the Cosmos.

The seer Agastya at such a moment confronts in his inner experience Indra, Lord of Swar, the realm of pure intelligence, through which the ascending soul passes into the divine Truth.

Indra speaks first of that unknowable Source of things towards which Agastya is too impatiently striving. That is not to be found in Time. It does not exist in the actualities of the present, nor in the eventualities of the future. It neither is now nor becomes hereafter. Its being is beyond Space and Time and therefore in itself cannot be known by that which is in Space and Time. It manifests itself by its forms and activities in the consciousness of that which is not Itself and through those activities it is meant that It should be realised. But if one tries to approach it and study it in Itself, It disappears from the thought that would seize It and is as if It were not.

Agastya still does not understand why he is so violently opposed in a pursuit which is the eventual aim of all being and which all his thoughts and feelings demand. The Maruts are the powers of thought which by the strong and apparently destructive motion of their progress break down that which is established and help to the attainment of new formations. Indra, the Power of pure Intelligence, is their brother, kin to them in his nature although elder in being. He should by their means effect the perfection towards which Agastya is striving and not turn enemy nor slay his friend in this terrible struggle towards the goal.

Indra replies that Agastya is his friend and brother, -- brother in the soul as children of one Supreme Being, friends as comrades in a common effort and one in the divine love that unites God and man, - and by this friendship and alliance has attained to the present stage in his progressive perfection; but now he treats Indra as an inferior Power and wishes to go beyond without fulfilling himself in the domain of the God. He seeks to divert his increased thought-powers towards his own object instead of delivering them up to the universal Intelligence so that it may enrich its realisations in humanity through Agastya and lead him forward by the way of the Truth. Let the egoistic endeavour cease, the great sacrifice be resumed, the flame of the divine Force, Agni, be kindled in front as head of the sacrifice and leader of the march. Indra and Agastya together, the universal Power and the human soul, will extend in harmony the effective inner action on the plane of the pure Intelligence so that it may enrich itself there and attain beyond. For it is precisely by the progressive surrender of the lower being to the

divine activities that the limited and egoistic consciousness of the mortal awakens to the infinite and immortal state which is its goal.

Agastya accepts the will of the God and submits. He agrees to perceive and fulfill the Supreme in the activities of lndra. From his own realm Indra is supreme lord over the substances of being as manifested through the triple world of mind, life and body and has therefore power to dispose of its formations towards the fulfillment, in the movement of Nature, of the divine Truth that expresses itself in the universe, - supreme lord over love and delight manifested in the same triple world and has therefore power to fix those formations harmoniously in the status of Nature. Agastya gives up all that is realised in him into the hands of Indra, as offerings of the sacrifice, to be held by him in the fixed parts of Agastya's consciousness and directed in the motional towards fresh formations. Indra is once more to enter into friendly parley with the upward aspiring powers of Agastya's being and to establish agreement between the seer's thoughts and the illumination that comes to us through the pure Intelligence. That power will then enjoy in Agastya the offerings of the sacrifice according to the right order of things as formulated and governed by the Truth which is beyond.

Both in the puranas and the Agamas, Rudra is lauded as Shiva the benevolent and the destroyer. Though Gods like Agni have specific features in the front according to their several functions, yet each is only a front of the All-Gods supporting from within, one light of the original Godhead. Hence though specific features of each deity are denoted, yet mention of those of other deities alongside makes it difficult to determine the sole specialty of each. Thus in certain hymns (e.g. 4.3.1) there is hardly any distinction between Agni and Rudra; similarly between Indra and Rudra elsewhere. Still inspite of the fact that the features of Agni, Indra, the supreme Godhead, are ascribed to Rudra, it is possible to sift certain specific characteristics of Rudra. Though the qualities of Rudra are described in the Yajur and Atharva vedas, here we take into account only the hymns in the Rigveda. Let us note, in passing, that the number of hymns devoted to each God do not measure his importance. Gods like Surya, Vishnu, Rudra may have fewer hymns, but that does not lessen their eminence. Why then are such a large number of hymns devoted to Indra or Agni? The hymns stress the role of the deities whose favour is indispensable in the upward path of the ancient rishis engaged in the inner sacrifice. Neither Vishnu nor Rudra are as relevant in these states of the ascent as Agni or Indra.

To come to the description of Brahma, Rudra and Vishnu: Brahma creates all by Speech. The creation is a manifestation. Things lost in darkness are brought out into light. He who thus effects the manifestation is Brahma, Brahmanaspati, the creator. He brings out all things from the darkness of Inconscience and gives them life-forms and mental forms.

Rudra forcibly leads this creation upwards. He as Shiva, puts down all those who arrogantly obstruct his course, punishes them as with a whip, kills the evil opponents with his weapons. Though is beneficent, compassionate to the distressed, effects the auspicious with his healing balm.

Upholding the Universe with his three steps, Vishnu creates for Indra wide station amongst us mortals by which we can reach the supreme station above.

Even derivatively, the word Rudra denotes the fierce or terrible one. The hymns speak of him as the source of life-strengths, father of Rudras, parent of Maruts, as Shiva the benevolent. They speak of his greatness, plentiful progeny, parentage of Maruts and giver of the universe, who spreads felicity among all. The profound Mantra, trayambakam yajamahe (7.59.12) [discussed at the end of this chapter] celebrates his power to liberate all persons from death. The half of the Mantra illustrating the release from bondage contains a truth of direct experience in yoga relevant even today. It reads, urvarukamiva bandhanat

mrtyor mukshiya mamrtat; even as the fruit as it ripens gets loosened from the hard shell covering it, the soul within gets separated from the external body subject to death. So, the rishi says: release from bondage to death, but not from immortality. This is the basis of the passage in the Katha upanishad (6.17) which speaks of extracting the soul from the body as the fiber from a blade of grass.

Viewed on the surface, Varuna is an omniscient and omnipotent Lord or Creator, Master of the oceans and the sky, whose strength and speed cannot be matched by anyone else. He maintains all the laws in the Earth, mid-region and the heavens, punishing the transgressors. But a closer look reveals the esoteric meaning of the hymns just as with the other hymns of Rigveda. Varuna is the Godhead who creates pathways for the Sun in our being which is full of darkness so that the Sun can pour his knowledge into all the dark corners of the being. The oceans, of which Varuna is the master, symbolize the waters of the Truth and Varuna pours these Waters on our three bodies, viz. physical, vital and mental, and removes all sin, evil and falsehood from our lives. The seer Shunahshepa explicitly requests Varuna to release or loosen the three knots or bonds which represent the bonds of the three planes, namely physical, vital and mental. These knots restrict the flow of the universal psychic energies in our body. Varuna is prayed to release these knots. These knots are the celebrated knots associated with the names Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra in the tantric literature of a later date.

A common descriptor used for Varuna is uru, which means always ‘wide’ in the Rigveda. Varuna is the lord of all infinities, master of all the oceans and ether. Varuna's dwelling is in the vast, urukshaya (1.2.9), Varuna has wide vision uru chakshasam (1.25.16). He is hymned as urushamsa in (1.24.11) and (2.28.3). shamsa in the Veda always stands for the perfect expression or speech. Recall that different formations are brought out by the power of speech or vak in the Veda. uru shamsa means ""wide expression'' the bringing out of our being (or sat) that which is latent in it and manifesting it in our action. Thus Varuna grants us a broader vision, removes the narrowness of our outlook so that we can express our aspiration for the attainment of infinities.

Consequently, he is also hymned as swarat (2.28.1), the self-ruler and samrat the emperor (8.25.3, 8.42.1). samrat means one who has complete kingship or control over both subjective and objective existence. Among the people of the vedic age, the emperor is also a sage; he is both a thinker and a hero. He has a plenitude of both wisdom and will, thought and action. Varuna is the king of all the dominions (8.42.1 and 8.42.2.). Hence Varuna is pictured as self-knowing, self-mastering, moving freely with the laws because he is perfectly aware of the laws. Recall that satya is the Truth-Absolute in the Veda. rta is the Truth in manifestation everywhere and at any time. It is the Truth of Divine Being regulating the right activity of both body and mind. Varuna is said to be touching with the Truth rtasparsha (1.2.8). Varuna is also called rtavrdha, increaser of Truth, because he along with Mitra increase the Truth in the human being, the yajamana who performs the yajna, the harmonious arrangement of actions.

Varuna is endowed with a vast will-power, brahantam kratum (1.2.8). He increases the will-power in man so that the human can perform all actions consistent with the Truth in manifestation (rta). He is hymned as ‘superbly laudable among the laudable' (1.17.5). Laud or praise in the veda is not simply a casual utterance, but has the power to bring out the intentions expressed in speech.

We will give here the description of Varuna given by seer Nabhaka of the family Kanva. "Luminous Varuna has embraced the nights; He holds the Dawns within him by his creative knowledge; Visioned, he is around every object.'' (8.41.3) "He who supports the worlds of life, he who well knows the hidden names of the rays of the dawns, He cherishes much wisdom (8.41.5).'' "In whom all wisdom centers as the nave is set within the wheel (8.41.6).'' "He wraps these regions as a robe; He contemplates the hosts of Gods and all the works of mortals; In the home of Varuna all the Gods follow his decree (8.41.7).'' "He is the hidden ocean and he climbs passing beyond heaven; when he has placed the sacrificial word in these dawns, then with his luminous feet he tramples illusions and ascends to the Heavens (8.41.8).'' [Sri Aurobindo, SV].

In the Rigveda, three different oceans are mentioned. The vedic mystics saw below them "an unfathomable night and surging obscurity, darkness hidden within darkness...''; Above them, they beheld "a remote ocean of light and sweetness, a highest either, the supreme step of Vishnu to which their being should ascend''; between these two oceans they saw "a third sea of ever- developing conscious being, a sort of boundless wave...'' (Sri Aurobindo). We have to navigate through this ocean to reach the superconscient blissful ocean above.

"Three delightful dawns increase according to the law of his workings. He of the all- seeing wisdom dwells in three white-shining earths; Three are the higher worlds of Varuna whence he rules over the harmonies of seven and seven (8.41.9).''

The three dawns mentioned here are the illuminations of the three bodies in man, the physical, the vital and the mental. He harmonizes all the activities both in the macrocosm and in the microcosm, in every individual human being.

Varuna prepares the great pathways in the human being so that the illumination of the Sun, Surya, can enter all the unlit regions of the human. The heart is the dwelling place of the inner self of man. Afflictions of the heart are indicative of the effects of the forces of ignorance on our inner being. The vedic seers did not compartmentalize the physical and psychological ailments as the moderns do. Only the Light brought in by the Sun can dislodge the forces of ignorance which cause the afflictions as declared in (1.25.7).

In the hymns of the Seer Shunahshepa there is repeated mention of the words sin, enah, disregard, hela, etc., which need special attention. Recall that Varuna is the upholder of the Laws, vratani, upholder of rtam which is the Truth of Divine being regulating the right activity in both mind and body. The Rig Vedic seers were very much aware of the human frailties. They saw around them persons steeped in selfishness and prayed that they may not be in the same boat. "May I not live, O Varuna, to witness my wealthy, liberal dear friend's destitution (3.28.10).''

There is no listing of the set of actions which constitute sins and otherwise, because such a mechanical classification is not possible. The attempts at codifying these highly plastic modes of life and conduct are found in the several ancient books of Hindus called as dharma shastras. The period of these books is several millennia after the age of Rigveda. Every religion like Christianity, Judaism, Islam, etc. has its own books of conduct, often represented as the word of God. Among all these books, the special feature of the Hindu dharma shastras is that they alone recognize that these books have some eternal elements and some other elements which are appropriate to a particular time, place and society. The seers of each generation are expected to reframe the variable parts of the rules appropriate to that time and place.

We summarize the observations of Sri M.P. Pandit: "The movement against the law of being may be with full knowledge of what one is doing or in ignorance of the wrong nature of the movement. In each case Karma is forged and the results suffered. Yet where one acts contrary to the law of Truth consciously, the results are particularly detrimental to the growth of Soul within. A thick crust of darkness gathers round the soul and prevents its Light from coming through (to the other parts of our body). But in the action in ignorance, the reactions are mostly on the surface and do not go deep.

Both types of sin are held up before God Varuna, the Lord of Purity, so that he may first loosen these impurities from the being of the seeker and then cut them asunder, as the following quotation from the Seer Atri indicates. ‘Our sin against Truth and our sin by ignorance, All these clear away like loosened things. (5.85.8)'

Note that premature death itself is a transgression of the Law. Sacred is the life consecrated to the God. If it is not robbed, but well-protected, it fulfils itself. For Varuna, the master of infinities, the establishment of the forces of harmony in human bodies is not difficult as declared in (1.24.14).

In (1.25.3), the seer prays "O Varuna, we bind your mind excellently with our praises like the charioteer the ready horse.'' There are three ingredients in the attempt of the seer to bind Varuna namely namas (homage), yajna and havis (offerings). The first step is to have faith and express it by the homage or adoration. The next step is to try to perform all actions in a spirit of harmony. We may recall that yajna is not merely a ritual. It is an orderly arrangement of all actions and their offerings to the cosmic powers to whom they rightly belong. The ritual of yajna is one such orderly arrangement. The next is the offering to the Gods of the delight or rasa released from our actions. This is the threefold way. Then the bonds of sins will be loosened as will be explained below.

The force of ignorance or the falsehood in our being signified by the deity, nirriti, causes in us the triple cord or bond of obscure physical animality, inefficient life often dominated by the lower vital impulses and limited mind which revels in doubts. These are the three bonds or ropes which bind every one of us. The result is an inert poverty of being; it is the origin of the sheer inability of the mortal to come in touch with the universal Bliss or Delight which pervades this universe. It makes him march towards decay and death at every step. When the mighty Varuna comes and cuts this threefold bondage we are freed to move towards Delight and Riches. "Uplifted, the real man arises to his true kingship in his undivided being. The upper cord which is limiting the mental movements flies upward releasing the wings of the soul into superconscient heights; the middle cord which is limiting the movements of our life forces parts both ways and all ways, the constrained life breaking out into a happy breadth of existence; the lower cord which binds to the matter and our animal origins collapses downward taking with it the alloy of our physical being to disappear and be dissolved in the stuff of the inconscient.'' (Sri Aurobindo) Thus we have a threefold liberation of being hymned by the Seer Shunahshepah in the three mantras , (1.24.13- 1.24.15).

As Sri Kapali Sastry states (CWKS, Vol. 6) "there is no doubt whatsoever that the triple bondage corresponds to the three knots famous in the tantra yoga under the names of Brahma, Vishnu and Rudra. The triple bondage obstructs the entry and spread of the Truth-light in the threefold being of mind, life and body. Release from it is possible by the grace of God Varuna.''

We will give here the relevant passages from, lalita sahasra nama stotra, a standard text of tantra yoga giving all the main aspects of tantra in the form of one thousand names addressed to the Divine Mother. The three bonds are mentioned in the names 99 through 104: Residing in the muladhara (99), Severing the knot called Brahma granthi (100), Appearing in the manipura (101), Severing the knot called Vishnu granthi (102), Residing in the centre of the ajnachakra (103), Severing the knot called Rudra granthi (104).

We may recall that the subtle body has seven centers of psychic consciousness, arranged along the subtle counterpart of the physical spinal column. These centres are called as Lotuses or chakras. The bottom one is the muladhara where the Supreme Energy Kundalini resides. By cutting the knot here, the knot of brahma, the knot of matter, the energy Kundalini raises to the next chakra the manipura. In the manipura is the knot of Vishnu signifying the bonds which prevent the life-forces from contacting the Supreme Delight. By cutting this knot, the energy goes to the sixth center (via the fourth and fifth), the ¡jna chakra. This chakra has the knot of Rudra cutting which the energy attains union with the superconscient ocean above.

The Rbhus are humans who have attained divinity by their askesis. There are about ten hymns in the RV addressed to the Rbhus. It is said that they are the sons of Sudhanvan Angirasa. Some say that they are Solar Rays. To us both are acceptable. The Truth, the Supreme Light, is denoted in the Veda by the Sun. A human being is inert because of his material body. Rays of Sun, manifestations of the Consciousness, descending on this field of Matter, gross and inert, uplift man. And these very Rbhus become special powers of man by virtue of his development; and man becomes immortal by a Divine Birth, effected by that special power.

How then are they spoken of as sons of Sudhanvan? Dhanva is the arid land, a field with no water, denoting inertness, sheer matter just as the Hill is the place where cows are hidden or denotes darkness that covers the Waters. The arid land acquires splendour by accepting the descending Divine Rays and absorbing the higher essence. Then it blooms forth the glory of the Rbhus as Sudhanvan (fair arid land).

Having attained to divinity by virtue of their action and knowledge, these deities work to help man to attain to divinity. And whatever acts they do they become divine acts only. The actions of the Rbhus are mentioned in symbolic language only. It is clear that without resort to the hidden symbolic meaning, it is not possible to explain in a straight manner these hymns that are like riddles. We will demonstrate further on.

Rbhu, Vibhva, Vaja{ these three are spoken of. The singular denotes their collectivity. And due to their association all are indicated by the word Rbhu, the eldest of them. The specialty of each of the three is celebrated by the name itself. By means of intellect and activity, Rbhu, the eldest, builds the forms conforming to the qualities of Immortality. Vibhava brings about its extension. Vaja effects the plenitude of the Divine Light and Substance. They are called the carpenters, the artisans of immortality for man.

1. Lo, the affirmation made for the divine Birth with the breath of the mouth by illumined minds, that gives perfectly the bliss;

2. Even they who fashioned by the mind for Indra his two bright steeds that are yoked by Speech, and they enjoy the sacrifice by their accomplishings of the work.

3. They fashioned for the twin lords of the voyage their happy car of the all-pervading movement, they fashioned the fostering cow that yields the sweet milk.

4. O Rbhus, in your pervasion you made young again the Parents, you who seek the straight path and have the Truth in your mentalisings.

5. The raptures of the wine come to you entirely, to you with Indra companioned by the Maruts and with the Kings, the sons of Aditi.

6. And this bowl of Twashtri new and perfected you made again into four.

7. So establish for us the thrice seven ecstasies, each separately by perfect expressings of them.

8. They sustained and held in them, they divided by perfection in their works the sacrificial share of the enjoyment among the Gods.

The Rbhus, it has been suggested, are rays of the Sun. And it is true that like Varuna, Mitra, Bhaga and Aryaman they are powers of the solar Light, the Truth. But their special character in the Veda is that they are artisans of Immortality. They are represented as human beings who have attained to the condition of godhead by power of knowledge and perfection in their works. Their function is to aid Indra in raising man towards the same state of divine light and bliss which they themselves have earned as their own divine privilege. The hymns addressed to them in the Veda are few and to the first glance exceedingly enigmatical; for they are full of certain figures and symbols always repeated. But once the principal clues of the Veda are known, they become on the contrary exceedingly clear and simple and present a coherent and interesting idea which sheds a clear light on the Vedic gospel of immortality.

The Rbhus are powers of the Light who have descended into Matter and are there born as human faculties aspiring to become divine and immortal. In this character they are called children of Sudhanwan, a patronymic which is merely a parable of their birth from the full capacities of Matter touched by the luminous energy. But in their real nature they are descended from this luminous Energy and are sometimes so addressed, "Offspring of Indra, grandsons of luminous Force" (4.37.4). For Indra, the divine mind in man, is born out of luminous Force as is Agni out of pure Force, and from Indra the divine Mind spring the human aspirations after Immortality.

The names of the three Rbhus are, in the order of their birth, rbhu or rbhuksan, the skilful Knower or the Shaper in knowledge, vibhva or vibhu, the Pervading, the self-diffusing, and vaja, the Plenitude. Their names indicate their special nature and function, but they are really a trinity, and therefore, although usually termed the Rbhus, they are also called the Vibhus and Vajas. Rbhu, the eldest is the first in man who begins to shape by his thoughts and works the forms of immortality; Vibhwa gives pervasiveness to this working; Vaja, the youngest, supplies the plenitude of the divine light and substance by which the complete work can be done. These works and formations of immortality they effect, it is continually repeated, by the force of Thought, with the mind for field and material; they are done with power; they are attended by a perfection in the creative and effective act, svapasyaya, sukrtyaya, which is the condition of the working out of Immortality. These formations of the artisans of Immortality are, as they are briefly summarised in the hymn before us, the horses of Indra, the car of the Ashvins, the Cow that gives the sweet milk, the youth of the universal Parents, the multiplication into four of the one drinking-bowl of the gods originally fashioned by Twashtri, the Framer of things.

The hymn opens with an indication of its objective. It is an affirmation of the power of the Rbhus made for the divine Birth, made by men whose minds have attained to illumination and possess that energy of the Light from which the Rbhus were born. It is made by the breath of the mouth, the life-power in the world. Its object is to confirm in the human soul the entire delight of the Beatitude, the thrice seven ecstasies of the divine Life. This divine Birth is represented by the Rbhus who, once human, have become immortal. By their accomplishings of the work, the great work of upward human evolution which is the summit of the world-sacrifice, - they have gained in that sacrifice their divine share and privilege along with the divine powers. They are the sublimated human energies of formation and upward progress who assist the gods in the divinising of man. And of all their accomplishings that which is central is the formation of the two brilliant horses of Indra, the horses yoked by speech to their movements, yoked by the Word and fashioned by the mind. For the free movement of the luminous mind, the divine mind in man, is the condition of all

The second work of the Rbhus is to fashion the chariot of the Ashvins, lords of the human journey, - the happy movement of the Ananda in man which pervades with its action all his worlds or planes of being, bringing health, youth, strength, wholeness to the physical man, capacity of enjoyment and action to the vital, glad energy of the light to the mental being, - in a word, the force of the pure delight of being in all his members.

The third work of the Rbhus is to fashion the cow who gives the sweet milk. It is said elsewhere that this cow has been delivered out of its covering skin, - the veil of Nature's outward movement and action, - by the Rbhus. The fostering cow herself is she of the universal forms and universal impetus of movement, visvajuvam visvarupam, in other words she is the first Radiance, Aditi, the infinite Consciousness of the infinite conscious Being which is the mother of the worlds. That consciousness is brought out by the Rbhus from the veiling movement of nature and a figure of her is fashioned here in us by them. She is, by the action of the powers of the duality, separated from her offspring, the soul in the lower world; the Rbhus restore it to constant companionship with its infinite mother.

Another great work of the Rbhus is - in the strength of their previous deeds, of the light of Indra, the movement of the Ashvins, the full yield of the fostering Cow - to restore youth to the aged Parents of the world, Heaven and Earth. Heaven is the mental consciousness, Earth the physical. These in their union are represented as lying long -old and prostrate like fallen sacrificial posts, worn-out and suffering. The Rbhus, it is said, ascend to the house of the Sun where he lives in the unconcealed splendour of his Truth and there slumbering for twelve days afterwards traverse the heaven and the earth, filling them with abundant rain of the streams of Truth, nourishing them, restoring them to youth and Vigour. They pervade heaven with their workings, they bring divine increase to the mentality, they give to it and the physical being a fresh and young and immortal movements. For from the home of the Truth they bring with them the perfection of that which is the condition of their work, the movement in the straight path of the Truth and the Truth itself with its absolute effectivity in all the thoughts and words of the mentality. Carrying this power with them in their pervading entry into the lower world, they pour into it the immortal essence.

It is the wine of that immortal essence with its ecstasies which they win by their works and bring with them to man in his sacrifice. And with them come and sit Indra and the Maruts, the divine Mind and its Thought-forces, and the four great Kings, sons of Aditi, children of the Infinite, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, the purity and vastness of the Truth-Consciousness, its law of love and light and

harmony, its power and aspiration, its pure and happy enjoyment of things.

And there at the sacrifice the gods drink in the fourfold bowl, chamasam chaturvayam, the pourings of the nectar. For Twashtri, the Framer of things, has given man originally only a single bowl, the physical consciousness, the physical body in which to offer the delight of existence to the gods. The Rbhus, powers of luminous knowledge, take it as renewed and perfected by Twashtri's latter workings and build up in him from the material of the four planes three other bodies, vital, mental and the causal or ideal body.

Because they have made this fourfold cup of bliss and enabled him thereby to live on the plane of the Truth-Consciousness they are able to establish in the perfected human being the thrice seven ecstasies of the supreme existence poured into the mind, vitality and body. Each of these they can give perfectly by the full expression of its separate absolute ecstasy even in the combination of the whole.

The Rbhus have power to support and contain all these floods of the delight of being in the human consciousness; and they are able to divide it in the perfection of their works among the manifested gods, to each god his sacrificial share. For such perfect division is the whole condition of the effective sacrifice, the perfect work.

Such are the Rbhus and they are called to the human sacrifice to fashion for man the things of immortality even as they fashioned them for themselves. "He becomes full of plenitude and strength for the labour, he becomes a rishi by power of self expression, he becomes a hero and a smiter hard to pierce in the battles, he holds in himself increase of bliss and entire energy whom Vaja and Vibhwa, the Rbhus foster.... For you are seers and thinkers clear-discerning; as such with this thought of our soul we declare to you out knowledge. Do you in your knowledge moving about our thoughts fashion for us all human enjoyings, - luminous plenitude and fertilizing force and supreme felicity. Here issue, here felicity, here a great energy of inspiration fashion for us in your delight. Give to us, O Rbhus, that richly-varied plenitude by which we shall awaken in our consciousness to things beyond ordinary men."

Some, like the ancient commentator Shakapuni, believe that Vishvedevah constitute a special class of Deities. In the opinion of Yaska, the term Vishva is in the sense of all; hence it refers to the collectivity of all the Gods including the Gods with specific names like Agni etc. and those not specifically mentioned. This view seems to be better since all the hymns addressed to them carry the implied sense of the assembly of all the Gods. These hymns especially stress the qualities common to all the Gods. Vishvedevah occurs in the Rigveda for the first time in Hymn 3, mantras (3.7) to (3.9).

She is the goddess of infinity as the verse (1.89.10) given below unambiguously declares.

The five peoples are the beings of the five planes of matter (earth), praana (mid- region), manas (heaven), svar (world of light) and ananda (the world of bliss). This verse is also the invocation to the Prashna upanishad.

To understand Aditi, we have to understand the puranic story of Kashyapa and his two wives, Diti and Aditi in a symbolic sense. Diti in the RV denotes finiteness. All the devas are called as adityas because they are descended from Aditi. RV makes several interesting references to Diti and Aditi together, as in (4.2.11).

the Mitra, You behold the Infinite Aditi and the finite Diti. (7.62.8). Varuna, in uprising of the Sun, you ascend;

May we abide in the law of thy workings and be blameless before the Mother infinity aditaye. (1.24.15).

Aditi is the Mother of all, Mother of all the Gods, Mother of all creation. She is the infinite consciousness. We can become blameless only by rejecting all things that are contrary to the Supreme Law.

Ashvins are the twin divine powers whose primary function is to effect action and enjoyment. They are commonly referred to as "madhuman," (4.45.1), full of honey, the honey of delight of existence. "Of all the Gods, they are most ready to come to man and create for him ease or bliss." Hence they are called as "subhaspati," the guardians of bliss (1.34.6). Their action is to guide the humans across the travails and obstacles in the physical, vital or mental aspects of everyday life to the supreme beatitude characterized by bliss or honey. Arising from the ocean of infinite existence and endowed with Truth-Force, they are doers of action in superb thought. In the human mentality they acquire and hold the delight and treasures of the life supreme, by means of a special thought power. They effectuate in man the luminous power of impulsion needed for great action.

Recall that in veda, the vital world (prana) and its counterpart in the individual is the source of all the energies put forth by the humans. The physical world is referred to as "anna," it is insentient; the mental world (mana) is the world of thought, the information gathering of sense organs, the subjective judgments, intellectual analyses, etc. The vital activities in man cover a broad range. It includes the lower vital movement like small desires, creature comforts, petty ambitions, jealousy, etc. The higher vital deals with movements like courage, nobility, self giving, capacity for self-sacrifice for the sake of others, the urge for beauty and harmony at all levels, etc. Ashvins energize and propel forward all the higher vital movements. They put forth also the energies which damp or reduce the effect of lower vital movements like desire and anger which lead to physiological and psychological illness, the fear of old age, death, etc. Two principle characteristics of Ashvins are lauded in all the hymns. They are swift of movement aided by swift steeds and a fast chariot which has the freedom to go anywhere in the three planes of existence, namely matter, vital and mind with one of its wheels centered on the summit of heaven. Chariot in the veda always symbolizes movement and steeds characterize force. The name Ashvins is derived from Ashva, the physical horse or vital force indicating that they energize the vitality of the human being in its onward journey, but they also work in thought and lead them to truth.

There are several mantras which describe the Ashvins as helping the human

aspirants to cross the ocean of ignorance by rowing them in a boat. We will describe some of these mantras later.

Their second principle characteristic is their capacity for enjoyment and bestowing enjoyment on the humans. We recall that in veda honey or Soma always symbolizes the delight of existence which pervades all manifestation. The reason d'etre for every action, every object, is the delight behind it which holds it together. All the Gods are lovers of honey or Soma, the seers repeatedly pray for the Gods to come and accept the Soma that is being released in all their actions. The Ashvins not only seek honey everywhere but they also distribute the honey to all the human seekers. They carry three parts of satisfying delights in their car - satisfactions for the physical body, satisfactions of vitality and satisfactions of mind and these are given to the human engaged in self-giving (yajna).

These three forms of satisfaction are not all that their chariot holds. There is always a fourth, turi barya (4.45.1), a skin full of honey and out of this skin the honey breaks and overflows on every side (4.45.10). Just as the three satisfactions "trayo" in the word preceding turiya in (4.45.1) refers to the three satisfactions associated with the three planes of our consciousness, namely the body, life and mind, the fourth (turiya) refers to the fourth plane of our consciousness, the mahas, the svar, the ritam britam, Truth-vast. drtisturiyo madhuno vi rapshate (4.45.1). The fourth skin overflows with honey. drtim vahethe madhumantamasvina (4.45.3). O Ashvin, full of honey is the skin you bear. The Ashvins bear with them the honey, the madhu in a skin that is torn, drti. drti literally means something that is cut or torn. The Ashvins bring with them the skin, a partial formation out of the Truth consciousness to contain the honey of beatitude. The beatitude, always characterized by infinities, cannot be limited to any enclosure or skin. Hence the skin is torn. The abundant and infinite sweetness of the honey overflows everywhere, drenching all the planes of our existence with delight.

A corollary of their activity in distributing the honey to the seeker is their work as divine physicians who render relief to the human aspirants in curing their diseases, both physical and psychological. The adverse forces in nature, especially in the vital, both individual and cosmic, are opposed to the human worshippers' attempts in rising to the higher levels of consciousness and they introduce obstacles in his/her path in the form of physical or psychological ailments. Ashvins offer the required cures. Ashvins are also praised as giving the humans the relief for the ailments of old age so that old age does not hold out frightening prospects. Ashvins are prayed so that "we can enter old age comfortably with happiness just as we enter our own homes." We will discuss this aspect of Ashvins in some detail later.

Ashvins first make their appearance very early in the Rigveda in the sukta (1.3)

of the Seer Madhuchchhandas. In this sukta the seer prays to the Ashvins prior to his prayer to Indra, the lord of the Divine mind. We will reproduce the three mantras and comment on them. ashvina yajvaririsho dravatpanni subhaspati, purubhuja chanasyatam. (1.3.1). O Ashvins, swift-footed, guardians of bliss, abundant enjoyers, Take delight in the impelling energies of the yajna. (1.3.1). ashvina purudamsasa nara shaviraya dhiya, dhishnya vanatam girah. (1.3.2). A Ashvins, accomplished of varied action, upholders in the intellect, Take joy in our words by a luminous energetic thought. (1.3.2).

In (1.3.1), the Ashvins are described as swift-footed guardians of bliss and abundant enjoyers. Guardians of bliss implies that they both accept bliss and bestow bliss on the human aspirants. Ashvins are asked to accept the delight flowing out of the performance of the yajna or sacrifice. yajna is not simply a ritual. It is self-giving. It is a way of communing with the Gods and for the rishis, their entire life was yajna. In the yajna, Soma, which indicates the delight of existence, is released as a result of all the actions done by the aspirant. These are the impelling energies in the mantra (1.3.1). Ashvins are requested to accept these flowing energies impregnated with delight.

In the second mantra (1.3.2), Ashvins are described as "upholders in the intellect." When the Soma is pressed and the honey is released, words capable of manifesting fresh forms of consciousness well up. The phrase "take joy in our words by a luminous energetic thought" means that the Ashvins have to establish the words in the thought, give them a thought form and then accept them. Speech is to be made one in nature with thought abounding with the strength. The Ashvins are also called as accomplishes of varied action. The subhymn (1.3.1) through (1.3.3) comes prior to the subhymn of Indra, the lord of divine mind. The rishi wants the help of Ashvins in strengthening the nervous mentality before praying for the power of Indra in strengthening his higher mind.

We mentioned earlier that the Ashvins hold the delight of the honey in man by a special thought power which is mentioned in (1.3.2). There are several mantras which support this statement. Ashvins, diligent in their tasks, children of ocean, making felicities accessible thro' the mind, finding the substance with thought (1.46.2). The Ashvins obtain the divine riches beyond the reach of mind. They have the thought that knows their source. Rapid as thought, strong, speeding to the joy, Lords of plenty, with many aids for our protection. (8.22.16). By the thought, the somas have been yoked. (1.46.8).

Because of their association with madhu or honey or delight of existence, they

can cure all the ailments, both physical and psychological and grant longevity. trirno ashvina divyani bheshaja, ...tridhatu sharma vahatam shubaspati (1.34.6). Give us thrice, O Ashvins, the heavenly medicaments. ...O Guardians of auspicious, give us the well-being of three bodies (1.34.6).

The medicaments remove illnesses of various kinds. The words "three bodies" stand for the physical, vital and mental bodies.

In the suktas (1.116) through (1.120) by the Seer Kakshivan, there are numerous instances of the healing help given by Ashvins to various persons in various contexts. We will consider several mantras. paravatam nasatyanudetham ucchabudhnam chakrathurjihmbaram, ksharannapo na payanaya raye sahasraya trshyate gotamasya. (1.116.9). O Nasatyas, ye raised up the well and made the door curved so that abundant riches flowed like water for thirsty Gotama's drink (1.116.9).

Ashvins are called nasatyas because they are lords of movement, nas under. Well refers to the physical body which is hidden in the waters of the lower vital currents characterized by anger, greed, etc. Ashvins raise up the physical body and open the doors which are blocking the flow of the spiritual current from above, the sahasrara center of the tantric tradition. Once the door is opened, these spiritual riches automatically flow into the rishi. Clearly neither the thirst of Gotama nor the drink are physical, but psychological. In vedic yoga, the energies of demons and other asuras harass the rishi engaged in the inner yajna. One such rishi is Atri who is the recipient of the grace of Ashvins, as indicated in the following mantra. himena agnim grmsam ava barrayetha barm pitumati barm u barrjvam asmai adhattam, rbi barse atrim asvina avani bartam ut ninyathuh sarvaganam svasti (1.116.8). O Ashvins, ye quenched with cold the (inward) burning fires, ye gave him nourishing stuff; Atri, cast downward in the dark cavern, Ye restored with his hosts (senses) to well being. (1.116.8).

The burning fires do not refer to the external heat caused by the Sun, etc., but to the internal heat characterized by physical ailments like fever or psychological ailments caused by the lower vital movements like anger, sex, tasty palate, etc. Ashvins cool down the heated senses. Similarly, the rishi finds himself in a psychological cavern devoid of light and Atri restore him back to light and also expose his sense organs (gana or hosts) both internal and external to light and well being.

The next mantra also confirms the symbolic character of the Ashvins healing powers. O Ashvins, ye raised up Rebha (seer), like soma in a ladle who for ten nights and nine days had lain fettered in cruel bonds, distressed, immersed in waters (1.116.24). Ashvins, leaders, showerers, rescuing Rebha cast by unassailable enemies in waters ye made the (maimed) rishi whole with your

healing skills like a wounded steed. Your past deeds do not fade (1.117.4).

Both the mantras refer to the same rishi Rebha. The waters as before refer to the lower vital currents. Ashvins raise up the seer immersed in these currents. They heal all his wounded parts just like healing a wounded steed. Again the wounds here are both physical and psychological. The characteristic of Ashvins to endow an integral perfection as the seer, i.e., making the maimed rishi whole, is also mentioned in (1.117.19).

Ashvins also have the power of freeing persons from the limitations of old age. We will quote two mantras. na jujuruso na barsatyota vavrim pramuncatam drapimiva cyava bar n a bart, pra bartiratam jahitasya a baryuh dasra bar a barditpatin krnutam kani barna barm 11 (1.116.10). O Nasatyas, ye stripped old age from aged yavana as it were mail (armour). Ye prolonged his life and made him husband of youthful maidens (1.116.10). "Maidens" symbolize the potential unmanifested powers within a person waiting to be manifested. "Becoming their husband" means manifesting these powers. The Ashvins are full of honey of the delight of existence. Bestowing this honey on a person rejuvenates all the parts of the being and the conditions and symptoms of old age are removed in one stroke like a dress or armour. The analogy of armour or mail also indicates that old age is not easy to break up. uta pasyan asnuvan di barrgam a bar yuh astamivet jarimanam jagamyam. (1.116.25). May I, enjoying life with all senses active, enter old age as a master his house (1.116.25).

When a master enters his own home, all the persons obey and love him and all the objects are at his command. Similarly even in old age, the rishi prays that he may be in command of all his facilities including physical, mental and spiritual. Another mantra (1.119.7) says "ye restored Vandana worn out with old age; by his lauds he brought forth the sage (Vamadeva) from the womb." Here the poet is not referring to the physical delivery of a child from a mother's womb. In the veda, birth of a child from a womb always symbolizes the manifestation of the power of godhead in man. To be in the womb means that the power is only potential and unmanifested. The Ashvins help in manifesting this power. In this sense they bring forth the seer from the womb. In the veda and upanishad "hiranya garba" (golden womb) indicates the cosmic condition when all the things that have to be manifested are in a seed condition, ready to manifest. Since each power is divine and is shining, it is called golden.

We will quote two mantras from the eighth book to show that the powers of Ashvins are described in all books and not just the first book. And may the Ashvins, the divine physicians effect our weal (8.18.8). You both accomplishes, physicians, bringers of delight, you both won the praise of Daksha (8.86.1).

In another section, we will discuss the relationship of the Ashvins to the doctrine

of mystic honey elucidated in the brhadaranyaka upanishad. The Ashvins give the secret of mystic honey to Dadhyan, son of the seer Atharvan. This incident in mentioned in several mantras of Rigveda (1.117.22, 1.116,12, 1.119.9). Ashvins as guides.

There are several mantras which describe the Ashvins as the leaders of the journey. They lead the human aspirants from the present state of confusion and unhappiness to the other shore of happiness. Ashvins are commonly called as nasatyas, the leaders of movement (derived from the word "nas," to move). vartanim madhuna bar jinvathas panthah. (4.45.3)

With the honey, you gladden the movements and its paths (4.45.3). "By the action of Ashvins, man's progress toward beatitude becomes itself beatific; all his travail and struggle and labour grows full of divine delight... By the growing law of Truth in the mental and physical consciousness we finally arrive beyond the mind and body to the superconscient Truth" (Sri Aurobindo, Secret of Veda, p. 320). yate vishva baram anu svadhya chetathaspathah. (4.45.6). By force of Nature's self-arranging, you move consciously along all paths. (4.45.6). du parametave pantha rtasya sadhuya. (1.46.11). The fit path was ready to reach the shores of truth. The Ashvins follow the path of Truth, rtasya pantha bar, and the force is "svadha," their innate force, Nature's self-arranging force. Give us, O Ashvins, the luminous impulsion that may carry us across darkness. (1.46.6). We call the Ashvins, of auspicious car, superbly charioted, the Gods who reach the heaven. (1.22.2). Ashvins, ye have created for man this adorable light from Heaven. Do ye bring into us powerful strengths (1.92.17).

In several of the Agni hymns of Rigveda, Agni is described as helping the aspirant cross all the obstructions like a boat over the river. See for instance, (1.99). Since Ashvins are also described as helpers in the journey, what is the connection between their respective roles? This is given in (1.112.1). I laud heaven and earth to know them first, then Agni, kindled and bright shining for their coming for worship Come hither into us, O Ashvins with these aids with which you please the sacrificer for your share of the sacrifice. This mantra says that by the grace of shining Agni the path becomes clear and Ashvins help the aspirant across the indicated path. They symbols of vehicles of the journey are the "ratha" chariot or the boat. Recall that in veda, "ratha" commonly translated as car, always denotes a movement. As Sri Aurobindo says chariot or car if the Ashvins signify "the happy movement of the Ananda in man which pervades with its action all his worlds or planes of being." tribandhurena trivrta supesasa rathena yatam asvina. (1.47.2). O Ashvins come ye in your beautiful car three columned, moving in the three worlds (1.47.2). trisadhasthe barhisi vishvavedasa madhva yajnam mimiksatam. (1.47.4). O Ashvins, omniscient, seated in the triple seat sprinkle our sacrifice with your honey. (1.47.4). "Your car born of truth" (3.58.8) "Come Ashvins in the car of solar skin" (8.8.2) "Gold-seated, gold-

reined (car) touching the heaven" (8.5.28). "Your car by which you move at once over all the worlds towards the enjoyment rich in offerings that make thro' the goal.” (4.45.7). On the summit of the hill, you placed firm the wheel of car, The other wheel goes around. (1.30.19). One wheel of the Ashvins car is placed on the summit of the plane of the physical consciousness, the peak of ripened consciousness of man. The other wheel (or the other two wheels) go in the other worlds.

This Ashvins bring health, youth, strength and wholeness to the physical man, capacity of action and enjoyment to the vital man and the "glad energy of the light" to the mental man. They act on the three planes of bhur, bhuvah and svar, the planes of matter, life (or vital) and mental energy. Their chariot is often described as three wheeled or three seated or three columned. "Seat" in the veda is that which supports and is synonymous with the body. The three seats refers to the three bodies of man, namely physical, vital and mental. In the ritualistic interpretations, the three seated is interpreted as the three heaps of grass.

The hymn (1.34) having twelve mantras makes repeated references to the number three, "three pillars of support" (1.34.2), journey thrice by night (1.34.2), journey thrice by day (1.34.2), render faultless yajna thrice on the same day (1.34.3), sprinkle our sacrifice thrice with the celestial honey or madhu (1.34.3), sprinkle thrice for us the opulent forceful impulsions, day and night.

"Come thrice to our dwelling" (1.34.4) Thrice to the sacrifice deserving protection (1.34.4) Thrice reach us the wealth (1.34.5) Thrice come to the assembly of gods (1.34.5) Bring us inspiration thrice (1.34.5) Give us the well being of the three substances (1.34.6) travel thrice around our earth (1.34.7) Come ye far to our threefold earth (1.34.7) .in -.5i

We will consider three mantras in this hymn in some detail. O Ashvins, thrice is the Soma distilled by the seven mother streams; Three are the receptacles; in the three ways is the oblation done; Moving above the three earths, ye guard the Sun in the firmament of heaven, established by day and by night. (1.34.8).

The seven streams are the streams of consciousness, namely the three streams of the lower triple worlds, viz matter, life and mind, the three streams of the upper triple world, existence (sat), consciousness-force (chit), delight (ananda) and the stream, mahas or svar, linking the two triples. Soma, the essence of Delight of all existence, is prepared by the radiant powers of the sevenfold Being, associated with the seven streams. The receptacles of the Soma are the three planes of matter, life and mind and they are ready. O Ashvins, accept the Soma, travel above the three worlds and guard the supreme Light. Working day and night, the Sun of truth has been established by the (inner) sacrifices, so that

It should be clear that interpreting seven streams as the seven rivers of Punjab as most Western indologists are wont to do even today, will make the mantra unintelligible. But when we take the hints of Sri Aurobindo and look for the hidden secret, the mantra's meaning shines luminously.

The next mantra (1.34.9) of the same hymn, is again clear if we interpret it in the esoteric sense.

Where, O Ashvins, are the three wheels of your triangular car? Where are the seat-supporting three pillars? When will the powerful ass be yoked to arrive at our sacrifice? (1.34.9).

The seer of the mantra says "we are ready to receive you, the Soma is prepared, but your car is yet to be seen; be quick of grace, yoke the asses to the car and come quickly to us."

In several mantras, Ashvins are also hymned as carrying the seer to the other shore of truth with a boat. O Ashvins, come with the boat to reach the shore beyond the thoughts; harness your car. (1.46.7). Your boat is vaster than heaven, your car is on the shore of the heavens. (1.46.8).

The twin powers, Ashvins, always appear together in all the mantras; they are never separated from each other. There are other twin powers in the Rigveda like Mitra and Varuna. Even though there are several mantras for the twin deities together, there are a large number of mantras for Varuna and Mitra separately. This is not the case with the Ashvins. It is not that they are identical rishi Paura Atreya notes that they are born "separately" (5.7.34). "They are co-existent and interdependent for their effective effectioning which they discharge in common." Gritsamada's hymn (2.39) likens them to a splendid named pair, to the two lips that speak sweet words, to the two nostrils, etc. "Ashvins are two distinct formations of the same Godhead for the same purpose but representing severally Light and Power, or knowledge and will... Their mutual relation is that of a balance and harmony, neither of them can be explained by itself without the term of the other... their mutual dependence can be explained by that one secret the madhu, the delight of being in all existence which affects, supports and holds them in close harmony."

1. Lo, that Light is rising up and the all pervading car is being yoked on the high level of this Heaven; there are placed satisfying delights in their triple pairs and the fourth skin of honey overflows.

2. Full of honey upward rise the delight; upward horses and cars in the wide-shinings of the Dawn and they roll aside the veil of darkness that encompassed on every side and they extend the lower world into a shining form like that of the luminous heaven.

3. Drink of the honey with your honey-drinking mouths, for the honey yoke your car beloved. With the honey you gladden the movements and its paths; full of honey, O Ashvins, is the skin that you bear.

4. Full of the honey are the swans that bear you, golden winged, waking with the Dawn, and they come not to hurt, they rain forth the waters, they are full of rapture and touch that which holds the Rapture. Like bees to pouring of honey you come to the Soma-offerings.

5. Full of the honey the fires lead well the sacrifice and they woo your brightness, O Ashvins, day by day, when one with purified hands, with a perfect vision, with power to go through to the goal, has pressed out with the pressing- stones the honeyed Soma-wine.

6. Drinking the wine near them, the fires ride and run and extend the lower world into a shining form like that of the luminous heaven. The Sun too goes yoking his steeds; by force of Nature’s self-arranging you move consciously along all paths.

7. I have declared, O Aahvins, holding the Thought in me, your car that is undecaying and drawn by perfect steeds, -your car by which you move at once over all the worlds towards the enjoyment rich in offerings that makes through to the goal.

The hymns of the Rig-veda addressed to the two shining Twins, like those addressed to the Ribhus, are full of symbolic expressions and unintelligible without a firm clue to their symbolism. The three leading features of these hymns to the Ashvins are the praise of their chariot, their horses and their rapid all- pervading movement; their seeking of honey and their joy in the honey,

madhu, and the satisfying delights that they carry in their car; and their close association with the Sun, with Surya the daughter of the Sun and with the Dawn.

The Ashvins like the other gods descend from the Truth- Consciousness, the rtam; they are born or manifested from Heaven, from Dyau, the pure Mind; their movement pervades all the worlds, - the effect of their action ranges from the body through the vital being and the thought to the superconscient Truth. It commences indeed from the ocean, from the vague of the being as it emerges out of the subconscient and they conduct the soul over the flood of these waters and prevent its foundering on its voyage. They are therefore nasatya, lords of the movement, leaders of the journey or voyage.

They help man with the Truth which comes to them especially by association with the Dawn, with Surya, lord of the Truth, and with Surya, his daughter, but they help him more characteristically with the delight of being. They are lords of bliss, Subhaspati; their car or movement is loaded with the satisfactions of the delight of being in all its planes, they bear the skin full of the overflowing honey; they seek the honey, the sweetness, and fill all things with it. They are therefore effective powers of the Ananda which proceeds out of the Truth-Consciousness and which manifesting itself variously in all the three worlds maintains man in his journey. Hence their action is in all the worlds. They are especially riders or drivers of the Horse, Ashvins, as their name indicates, - they use the vitality of the human being as the motive-force of the journey: but also they work in the thought and lead it to the Truth. They give health, beauty, wholeness to the body; they are the divine physicians. Of all the gods they are the most ready to come to man and to create for him ease and joy, agamistha, subhaspati. For this is their peculiar and perfect function. They are essentially lords of weal, of bliss, subhaspati.

This character of the Ashvins is brought out with a continual emphasis by Vamadeva in the present hymn. In almost every verse occurs with a constant iteration the words madhu, madhuman, honey, honied. It is a hymn to the sweetness of existence; it is a chant of the delight of being. The great Light of lights, the Sun of Truth, the illumination of the Truth-Consciousness is rising up out of the movement of life to create the illumined Mind, Swar, which completes the evolution of the lower triple world. Esa sya bhanur udiyarti. By this rising of Sun in man, the full movement of the Ashvins becomes possible; for by the Truth comes the realised Delight, the heavenly beatitude. Therefore, the chariot of the Ashvins is being yoked upon the height of this Dyau, the high level or plane of the resplendent mind. That chariot is all-pervading; its motion goes everywhere; its speed runs freely on all planes of our consciousness. Yujyate rathah parijma divo asya sanavi.

The full all-pervading movement of the Ashvins brings with it the fullness of all

the possible satisfactions of the delight of being. This is expressed symbolically in the language of the Veda by saying that in their car are found the satisfactions, prksasah, in three pairs, prksaso asmin mithuna adhi trayah. The word prksa, is rendered food in the ritual interpretation like the kindred word prayas. The root means pleasure, fullness, satisfaction, and may have the material sense of a "delicacy" or satisfying food and the psychological sense of a delight, pleasure or satisfaction. The satisfactions or delicacies which are carried in the car of the Ashvins are, then, in three pairs; or the phrase may simply mean, they are three but closely associated together. In any case, the reference is to the three kinds of satisfaction or pleasure which correspond to the three movements or worlds of our progressive consciousness, - satisfactions of the body, satisfactions of vitality, satisfactions of the mind. If they are in three pairs, then we must understand that on each plane there is a double action of the delight corresponding to the double and united twinhood of the Ashvins. It is difficult in the Veda itself to distinguish between these brilliant and happy Twins or to discover what each severally represents. We have no such indication as is given us in the case of the three Ribhus. But perhaps the Greek names of these two Dioskouroi, divo napata, sons of Heaven, contain a clue. Kastor, the name of the elder, seems to be Kashitri, the Shining One; Poludeukes may possibly be Purudansas, a name which occurs in the Veda as an epithet of the Ashvins, the Manifold in activity. If so, the twin birth of the Ashvins recalls the constant Vedic dualism of Power and Light, Knowledge and Will, Consciousness and Energy, go, and ashva. In all the satisfactions brought to us by the Ashvins these two elements are inseparably united; where the form is that of the Light or Consciousness, there Power and Energy are contained; where the form is that of the Power or Energy, there Light and Consciousness are contained.

But these three forms of satisfaction are not all that their chariot holds for us; there is something else, a fourth, a skin full of honey and out of this skin the honey breaks and overflows on every side. drtis turiyo madhuno vi rapsate. Mind, life and body, these are three; turiya, the fourth plane of our consciousness, is the superconscient, the Truth-Consciousness. The Ashvins bring with them a skin, drti, literally a thing cut or torn, a partial formation out of the Truth-Consciousness to contain the honey of the superconscient Beatitude; but it cannot contain it; that unconquerably abundant and infinite sweetness breaks out and overflows everywhere drenching with delight the whole of our existence.

With that honey the three pairs of satisfactions, mental, vital, bodily, are impregnated by this all-pervasive overflowing plenty and they become full of its sweetness, madhumantah. And so becoming, at once they begin to move upward. Touched by the divine delight all our satisfactions in this lower world soar upward irresistibly attracted towards the superconscient, towards the Truth, towards the Beatitude. And with them, for, secretly or openly, consciously or

subconsciously it is the delight of being that is the leader of our activities, -all the chariots and horses of these gods take the same soaring upward movement. All the various movements of our being, all the forms of Force that give them their impulsion, all follow the ascending light of Truth towards its home. ud vam prksaso madhumanta irate, ratha asvasa usaso vyustisu.

“In the wide-shinings of the Dawn” they rise; for Dawn is the illumination of the Truth rising upon the mentality to bring the day of full consciousness into the darkness or half-lit night of our being. She comes as Dakshina, the pure intuitive discernment on which Agni the God-force in us feeds when he aspires towards the Truth or as Sarama, the discovering intuition, who penetrates into the cave of the subconscient where the niggard lords of sense-action have hidden the radiant herds of the Sun and gives information to Indra. Then comes the lord of luminous Mind and breaks open the cave and drives upward the herds, udajat, upwards towards the vast Truth-Consciousness, the own home of the gods. Our conscious existence is a hill (adri) with many successive levels and elevations, sanuni, the cave of the subconscient is below; we climb upwards towards the godhead of the Truth and Bliss where are the seats of Immortality, yatramrtasa asate.

By this upward movement of the chariot of the Ashvins with its burden of uplifted and transformed satisfactions the veil of Night that encompasses the worlds of being in us is rolled away. All these worlds, mind, life, body, are opened to the rays of the Sun of Truth. This lower world in us, rajas, is extended and shaped by this ascending movement of all its powers and satisfactions into the very brightness of the luminous intuitive mind, Swar, which receives directly the higher Light. The mind, the act, the vital, emotional, substantial existence, all becomes full of the glory and the intuition, the power and the light of the divine Sun, - tat savitur varenyam bhargo devasya. The lower mental existence is transformed into an image and reflection of the higher Divine. apornuvantas tama a parivrtam, svar na sukram tanvanta a rajah.

This verse closes the general description of the perfect and final movement of the Ashvins. In the third the Rishi Vamadeva turns to his own ascension, his own offering of the Soma, his voyage and sacrifice; he claims for it their beatific and glorifying action. The mouths of the Ashvins are made to drink of the sweetness; in his sacrifice, then, let them drink of it. madhvah pibatam madhupebhir dsabhih. Let them yoke their chariot for the honey, their chariot beloved of men; uta priyam madhune yunjathamh ratham. For man's movement, his progressive activity, is made by them glad in all its paths with that very honey and sweetness of the Ananda. A vartanim madhuna jinvathas pathah. For they bear the skin full and overflowing with its honey. drtim vahethe madbumantam asvina. By the action of the Ashvins man's progress towards the beatitude becomes itself beatific; all his travail and struggle and labour grows full of a divine delight. As it

is said in the Veda that by Truth is the progress towards the Truth, that is to say, by the growing law of the Truth in the mental and physical consciousness we arrive finally beyond mind and body to the superconscient Truth, so here it is indicated that by Ananda is the progress towards the Ananda, -by a divine delight growing in all our members, in all our activities we arrive at the superconscious beatitude.

In the upward movement the horses that draw the chariot of the Ashvins change into birds, into swans, hamsasah. The Bird in the Veda is the symbol, very frequently, of the soul liberated and upsoaring, at other times of energies so liberated and upsoaring, winging upwards towards the heights of our being, winging widely with a free flight, no longer involved in the ordinary limited movement or labouring gallop of the Life-energy, the Horse, asva. Such are the energies that draw the free car of the Lords of Delight, when there dawns on us the Sun of the Truth. These winged movements are full of the honey showered from the overflowing skin, madhumantah. They are unassailable, asridhah, they come to no hurt in their flight; or, the sense may be, they make no false or hurtful movement. And they are golden-winged, hiranyaparnah. Gold is the symbolic colour of the light of Surya. The wings of these energies are the full, satisfied, attaining movement, parna, of his luminous knowledge.

For these are the birds that awake with Dawn; these are the winged energies that come forth from their nests when the feet of the daughter of Heaven press the levels of our human mentality, divo asya sanavi. Such are the swans that bear the swift-riding Twins. hamsaso ye vam madbumanto asridho hiranyaparna uhuva usarbudhah.

Full of the honey these winged energies shower on us as they rise the abundance of the waters of heaven, the full outpouring of the high mental consciousness; they are instinct with ecstasy, with rapture, with the intoxication of the immortal wine; and they touch, they come into conscious contact with that superconscient being which is eternally in possession of the ecstasy, rapturous for ever with its divine intoxication. udapruto mandino mandinisprsah. Drawn by them the Lords of delight come to the rishi's Soma-offering like bees to tricklings of honey; madhvo na maksah savanani gacchathah. Makers themselves of the sweetness, they like the bees seek whatever sweetness can serve them as their material for more delight.

In the sacrifice the same movement of general illumination already described as the result of the ascending flight of the Ashvins is now described as being effected by the aid of the fires of Agni. For the flames of the Will, the divine Force burning up in the soul, are also drenched with the overflowing sweetness and therefore they perform perfectly from day to day their great office of leading the sacrifice progressively to its goal. For that progress they woo with their

flaming tongues the daily visitation of the brilliant Ashvins who are bright with the light of the intuitive illuminations and uphold them with their thought of flashing energy. svadhvarso madhumanto agnaya usra jarante prati vastor asvina.

This aspiration of Agni happens when the Sacrificer with pure hands, with a perfectly discerning vision, with power in his soul to travel to the end of its pilgrimage, to the goal of the sacrifice through all obstacles, breaking all opposers, has pressed out the immortalising wine with the pressing-stones and that too becomes full of the honey of the Ashvins. yan niktahastas taranir vicaksanah, somam susava madhumantam adribhih. For the individual's delight in things is met by the Ashvins' triple satisfactions and by the fourth, the delight pouring from the Truth. The cleansed hands of the Sacrificer, niktahastah, are possibly symbolic of the purified physical being; the power comes from a fulfilled life-energy; the force of clear mental vision, vicaksana, is the sign of the truth- illumined mind. These are the conditions in mind, life and body for the overflowing of the honey over the triple satisfactions of the Ashvins.

When the sacrificer has thus pressed out the honey-filled delight of things in his sacrifice, the flames of the Will are able to drink them from near, they are not compelled to bring them meagrely or with pain from a distant and hardly accessible plane of consciousness. Therefore, drinking immediately and freely, they become full of an exultant force and swiftness and run and race about over the whole field of our being to extend and build up the lower consciousness into the shining image of the world of free and luminous Mind. akenipaso ahabhir davidhvatah, svar na sukram tanvanta a rajah. The formula used is repeated without variations from the second Rik; but here it is the flames of the Will full of the fourfold satisfaction that do the work. There the free upsoaring of the gods by the mere touch of the Light and without effort; here the firm labour and aspiration of man in his sacrifice. For then it is by Time, by the day, that the work is perfected, ahabhih, by successive dawns of the Truth each with its victory over the night, by the unbroken succession of the sisters of which we have had mention in the hymn to the divine Dawn. Man cannot seize or hold at once all that the illumination brings to him; it has to be repeated constantly so that he may grow in the light.

But not only the fires of the Will are at work to transform the lower consciousness. The Sun of Truth yokes also his lustrous coursers and is in movement; surascid asvan yuyujana iyate. The Ashvins too take knowledge for the human consciousness of all the paths of its progress so that it may effect a complete, harmonious and many-sided movement. This movement advancing in many paths is combined in the light of the divine knowledge by the spontaneous self-arranging action of Nature which she assumes when the will and the knowledge are wedded in the perfect harmony of a fully self-conscious,

Vamadeva closes his hymn. He has been able to hold firmly the shining Thought with its high illumination and has expressed in himself by the shaping and fixing power of the Word the chariot, that is to say, the immortal movement of the delight of the Ashvins; the movement of a bliss that does not fade or grow old or exhaust itself, - it is ageless and undecaying, ajarah, - because it is drawn by perfect and liberated energies and not by the limited and soon exhausted, soon recalcitrant horses of the human vitality. pra vam avocam asvina dhiyamhdhah, rathah svasvo ajaro yo asti. In this movement they traverse in a moment all the worlds of the lower consciousness, covering it with their speeding delight, and so arrive to that universal enjoyment in man full of his offering of the Soma-wine by which they can lead him, puissantly entering into it, through all opposers and to the great goal. yena sadyah pari rajamsi yatho havismantam taranim bhojam accha.

The two deities are closely connected to each other. The Rigveda contains fourteen hymns ded to Brhaspati and Brahmanaspati. Each is mentioned in the hymn to the other. They are mentioned in other riks also. In all there are over one hundred riks dealing with these two deities. These riks clear picture of their powers and personalities without resorting to puranas or other books.

The name Brahmanaspati literally means the lord of brahmanas. What are these brahmanas word brahman or brahmana occurs more than a hundred times in the Rigveda. In only one place, the purusha sukta occurring in the tenth mandala, a relatively late composition, does brahmana signify the ideal caste. In all other places, brahmana has nothing to do with caste. Again brahman of the Rigveda has nothing to do with the brahman parabrahman of the upanishads, the highest principle of Existence. Rigveda uses the word "tad ekam", "That one," to signify the parabrahman or "The one without a second" of the upanishads.

Again, the word brahma or brahman should not be confused with the puranic God Brahma, the creator, part of the puranic trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva. Brhaspati of the Rigveda has no connection either to the Brhaspati of puranas where he is the teacher of the Gods or to the plant Jupiter whose Sanskrit name is Brhaspati.

A word about the connection between the vedic Gods and puranic Gods is appropriate here. In the veda, all the Gods are pure and harmonious with no qualities like competition and others of the vital human nature. Each vedic God has a distinct power and personality, but he or she carries also th presence of the Supreme, "That one." All the vedic Gods harmoniously work together in divinizing the individual person by being born in him. When the age of the vedic samhita came to an end, several centuries later the upanishadic period started to capture the truths of the vedic period. At a much later period, the puranas started to state the esoteric truths of the veda a language accessible to the so called common man or woman. However, in this attempt the qualities of the vedic Gods were mixed up with the qualities of some other lower vital Gods. Thus in the puranas, the various Gods work together sometimes, but also quarrel with one another. The concept of Brahma as the creator in the purana is clearly derived from the Brahmanaspati/Brhaspati of the veda where they are the creators through the power of the Word. The elephant-faced tantrik God Ganapatii clearly captures some aspects of the vedic God Brahmanaspati. Ganapati is invoked by a vedic rik associated with the Brahmanaspati. The elephant-face appears like the written letter om, the primal word, the source of all creation. The word Ganapati means the lord of ganas or hosts. In the purana, the hosts (ganas the beings of the vital world. But in the Rigveda, the ganas or hosts of Brhaspati/Brahmanaspati are stated to be the chants, the riks and the stomas, the words of praise (RV. 4.50). In the Rigveda

Brahmanaspati/Brhaspati is a God of a very high plane and has little to do with the lower vital levels.

According to Sri Aurobindo, "brahman in the veda signifies the vedic Word or mantra in its profound aspect as the expression of the intuition arising out of the depths of the soul or being. It is a voice of the rhythm which has created the worlds and creates perpetually. To give a simplified picture, we can speak of creation at two levels, namely the cosmic level and the individual level. Although the infinite consciousness designated in the Rigveda by the phrase ekam sat - That one (1.164.46) (or Satchidananda in the upanishads) upholds the universe from the superconscious levels (signified in the R.V. by the phrase "parama paravat" in RV. 4.50), it enters the inconscient and works to release the concealed truths of existence from the inconscient waters (signified by the phrase "apraketam salilam, RV. 10.129) and lead them upwards in manifestation. brahman in the Rigveda also signifies the propelling consciousness which creates the different planes and worlds at the cosmic level. Next creation is perpetually happening in every one of us, humans and the different planes are being born in us, signified by the birth of the corresponding Gods in each person and this creation is also the office of the Supreme Word. Of this supreme word, fashioning the worlds in the individual beings, Brhaspati or Brahmanaspati is the master. Brahmanaspati means the master of the word. The word Brhaspati, according to grammarians, is formed from the "brhat" the vast and "pati," the Master. "brhat" the vast, part of the trinity of satyam, rtam and brhat (the Truth, the Right and the Vast) is the home of the mantras. Hence Brhaspati also means the master of the Word or mantra. There is a slight distinction between the two deities into which we will not dwell here. The two deities are intimately connected to each other, the name of one comes often in the hymn dedicated to the other.

We will begin our description of the powers, glories and deeds of the great God Brahmanaspati with the rik of the Seer Grithsamada. This rik is widely used even today in worship and it also occurs in tva ganapatim havamahe kavim kavinam shiva purana and other puranas. gananam upamashravastamam, jyeshta rajam brahmanam Brahmanaspatim na shrnvantu uthibihi sadanam. We call thee, Brahmanaspati Lord and leader of heavenly hosts Seer among seers, leads to inspired knowledge King Supreme of mantras Hear us with guidance; may you take your seat in the home. ''RV(2.23.1)". kavi in vedic Sanskrit means a seer, one endowed with the vision of higher levels of existence. In classical Sanskrit kavi means a poet. As Sri Aurobindo says elsewhere, poetry raised to its highest pitch is mantra to which the seer gives utterance.

This deity is addressed as Ganapati, the leader of the heavenly hosts. In later puranas and in present times, the deity Ganapati is the elephant-headed one, son of Shiva and Parvati, patron of studies and art, scribe of the epic mahabharata, etc. Who are these hosts? In shiva purana, these hosts or are gnomes and other beings of the lower vital worlds. However, there is no need to bring in such descriptions in the veda because puranas came several millennium after the Rigveda and the puranas express the truths of Rigveda, diluted as it were so that they are easily accessible to the common person.

But the Rigveda itself describes the gana or hosts in RV(4.50.5) They are the mantras.

sa sushtubha sa rikvata ganena. "He with his cohort of rhythm that affirms, of the chant that illumines...". The hosts or ganas are the riks and stubhs. As Sri Aurobindo says, "rik, connected with

the work arka which means light or illumination, is the Word considered as a power of realization in the illuminating consciousness; stubh is the Word considered as a power which affirms and confirms in the settled rhythm of things. It is by the powers of the Word, by the rhythmic army of soul-forces that Brhaspati brings all into expression and dispels all the darknesses that encompass us makes an end of the Night" (p. 310). The deity gives us guidance (uthibih) continuously.

Brahmanaspati's role as a creator, alluded earlier, is brought out vividly in the following 10.72.2). The Seer sees the deity as a blacksmith who, using the fire and the forge, shapes the metal into desired objects. Brahmanaspatireta sam karmara evadhamat devanam purve yuge asata sadajayata (10.72.2) Brahmanaspati like a smith fashioned them into a perfect shape, And in the primal age of devas from nonexistence existence sprang translation from Bose, p. 267. Brahmanaspati is stationed within many as if asleep. In the hymn RV. 1.40, there is a prayer for this deity to awake and lead. By the power of his Word, the happy speech of Truth, the Maruts, Indra, Mitra, Varuna and other gods take their position within the man. uttishta brahmanaspate devayantastvemahe, upa pra yantu marutah sudanava Indra prashurbhava sacha RV(1.40.1). Rise up, Brahmanaspati; Aspiring for Gods, we beseech thee, May Maruts with auspicious gifts arrive O Indra, come swiftly with him. There are several riks attesting to the power of Brahmanaspati in leading the aspirant on the divine path and removing all the obstacles in the path. It is this aspect which was later expanded in the role of the tantric God, the elephant-faced Ganapati as Vijnaraja, king and remover of obstacles. The obstacles are the forces and beings of the vital planes and worlds who do not want the progress of man toward Light. We will quote one such rik here tvam no gopah pathikrt vichakshanastava vrataya mathibhirjaramahe brhaspate yo no abhi hvaro dadhe sva tam marmartu duchhuna harasvati 2.23.6 Thou are our keeper, wise, prepare of our paths, We pray to thee with the hymn of praise. Brhaspati, whoever lays a snare for us, Him may his evil fate, destroy (Griffith's translation).

The obstacles in the path of each one of us is caused by the forces and beings of darkness which are housed in the inconscient regions of each one of us. Their presence becomes evident only when some of their effects, like intense anger, sickness, depression, etc., bubble up, as it were, from the inconscient regions and make their appearance to the surface consciousness. We should clearly understand that these forces are not abstract conceptions, but concrete beings with distance powers and personalities visible to persons with occult vision. These individual evil forces residing in us are only projections of the broader and more powerful cosmic forces and powers of evil and darkness, called as Asuras or Dasyus or demons. The name asura is derived from the root as, denoting might. These bings, as their name indicates, are full of might. The vedic seers looked upon life as a continuous battle between the forces of light represented by the devas or Gods and the forces of darkness, represented by the Asuras or Dasyus or demons. The prize in this battle is the souls of human being on earth. In the Rigveda several Dasyus such as Vala, Vrtra, Panis, etc., are specifically mentioned and their names clearly indicate their function. The chief of Dasyus is Vala, whose name signifies circumscriber or "encloser." Vila means a cave. Vala, along with his followers, confines the cows, the horses and waters in the cave. The cave is nothing but the universal inconscient. The cows (or go in Sanskrit) are not the four-footed animals but stand for the rays of knowledge. The word go (or cow) occurs in the Rigveda in numerous places (more than a thousand) and its interpretation as a four-footed animal can be sustained only in a minority of cases, probably less than a quarter. Cows in the veda stand for the rays of Light, knowledge and wisdom. Similarly the horse (or ashva) stands for

the vital forces open to the light and knowledge. Waters always stand for the powers consciousness. Vala confines these powers into the cave. Another prominent Dasyu is Vrtra which means obstructer or enfolding coverer. The Dasyus who steal the cows and horses are called as Panis which means dealers, traffickers, misers or hoarders. They want to hoard the knowledge and strength and not allow for their circulation. The veda speaks of the battle between the Gods led by Indra and the Dasyus. Rigveda mentions that the Indra smashes the Adri, the hill of conscient (where the cave and horses have been hidden) by means of his vajra, the thunderbolt and releases the cows and the currents of divine consciousness confined in the cave. The Rigveda mentions again and again that this vajra is not a physical weapon. It is fashioned by the mantra. We have to reiterate that devas Indra or Agni are not physical persons, as the western orientalists are wont to do. The battle is not a physical one, but psychological and psychical. The victory over the Dasyus is the common victory of all the devas. For instance, RV. 1.11.5 says "O Lord of the thunderbolt, thou didst uncover the hole of Vala of the cows; the devas, unfearing, entered putting their face into thee." Consequently in different riks we find different devas like Agni, Brhaspati, Maruts, being praised for the victory. For instance, in the hymn RV. 5.2, Agni is praised in the recovery of the cows.

Brhaspati (Brahmanaspati) is more frequently the hero of this victory. The hymns clearly state that the Brhaspati slays the foe by the hymns of illumination, as quoted below. Brhaspati, Angirasa, the hill breaker, first-born, possessed of the truth, the giver of oblation, pervader of the two-worlds, dweller in the heat and light of the sun, Roars aloud as the bull to the two firmaments. (RV 6.73.1) Brhaspati who for the man the voyager has fashioned that other world in the calling of the Gods Slaying the Vrtra-forces breaks open the cities, Conquering foes in his battles (RV 6.73.2). Brhaspati conquers for him the treasures, great pens this god wins full of knie. Seeking the conquest of the world of unassailable; Brhaspati slays the foe by the hymns of illumination (arkaih) (RV 6.73.3).

This hymn clearly brings out the help given by Brhaspati both at the individual level and cosmic level. He is the hill-breaker, the breaker of the hill of the inconscient where the cows have been imprisoned. He breaks the hill by his mantras. He gives the treasures to the devotee who recites the hymns.

When Brhaspati breaks the hill with his cry, he releases the imprisoned streams of honey, the the Soma sweetness (RV 2.24.3). This secret well of honey is drunk by all those who are able to see the highest heaven svar (covered earlier) and they pour out its billowing fountain of sweetness in manifold streams together (RV. 2.24.4). These many streams poured out together are the seven rivers poured down the hill by Indra after slaying of the Vrtra, the rivers or streams of truth. Thus the seven rivers are not the physical rivers of Punjab, but the seven headed though of veda.

Sri Aurobindo says that this well of honey covered by the rock must be the ananda or divine beatitude of the Supreme threefold world of bliss, the satya, tapas and jana of the worlds of the puranic based upon the three supreme principles of sat, chit-tapas and ananda. (RV 5.40) Brhaspati.

We will give here Sri Aurobindo's translation of the 50th hymn from the first mandala of Rigveda (4.50) since it gives not only all the dominant powers and characteristics of the deity Brhaspati (Brahmanaspati), but also the benefits of adoring Brhaspati. Brhaspati, by his cry, has established in his might the extremities of the earth, in the triple world of our fulfillment. On him the pristine sages

meditated, and illumined, 'set him in their front with his tongue of ecstasy. (1)' O Brhaspati, they vibrating with the impulse of their movement rejoicing in perfected consciousness, wove for us abundant, rapid, invincible, wide, the world from which this being was born. 'That do thou protect, O Brhaspati.(2)' O Brhaspati, that which is the highest supreme of existence, Thither from this world they attain and take their seat who touch the truth. For thee are dug wells of honey which drains this hill 'And their sweetnesses stream out on every side and break into overflowing. (3)' Brhaspati first in his birth from the vast light in the highest place with his seven fronts, with his seven rays, with his many births, drives utterly away the darkness 'that encompasses us with his cry. (4)' He with his cohort of rhythm that affirms, of the chant that illumines, Has broken Vala into pieces with his cry. Brhaspati drives upward the Bright ones who speed our offerings, 'he shouts as he leads them, lowing they reply. (5)' Thus to the Father, the universal Godhead, the Bull of the herds, May we dispose our sacrifices and submissions and oblations, O Brhaspati, full of energy and rich in offspring, 'may we become masters of the felicities. (6)' Verily is he King and conquers by his energy, by his heroic force all that is in the worlds that confront him, who bears Brhaspati in him well contained and has the exultant dance and adores 'and gives him the first fruits of his enjoyment. (7)' Yea, he dwells firmly seated in his proper home and for him, Ila at all times grows in richness. To him all creatur themselves submit, the King, he is whom the soul-power goes in front. Ila: seeing speech. None can assail him, he conquers utterly all the riches of the worlds which confront him and the world in which he dwells; he who for the Soul-Power that seeks it manifestation. 'creates in himself that highest good, cherished by the gods. (9)' Thou, O Brhaspati, and Indra, drink the Soma-wine rejoicing in this sacrifice, lavishing substance. Let the powers of its Delight enter into you 'And take perfect form, control in us a felicity full of energy. (10)' O Brhaspati, O Indra, increase in us together And may that your perfection be created in us; foster the thoughts, bring out the mind's multiple powers 'Destroy all poverties that they bring who seek to conquer the Aryan. (11)' In rik 1, it is clearly said Brhaspati has firmly established the limits of the earth, i.e., the material consciousness. This he does by his cry, ravena, for the Word is the cry of the soul as it awakens to ever new perceptions and formatio meditating on Brhaspati, the seven sages became illumined and became full of the joy of perfected consciousness. They have woven for the human race the truth-consciousness which is the womb of the birthplace of the conscious being. The nature of this truth-consciousness is its abundance in its out flowings; it is many colored in the variety of its harmonized qualities; it is rapid in its motion; it triumphs over all that seek to quell it; it is wide, infinite (rik 2).

In the hill of the physical being there are dug for the soul these abounding wells of sweetness which draw out of its hard rigidity, the concealed ananda, the associated rivers of the honey of immortality cover the whole extent of human consciousness (rik 3).

Thus Brhaspati becoming manifest in man presents himself in the full sevenfold aspect of our consciousness (seven rays) and with his triumphant cry dispels all powers of the inconscient, the Night (rik 4).

Brhaspati breaks the cave of the demon Vala into fragments by the power of the Word, by the mantra powers, by his cry so that all imprisoned lustres are released. The demon Vala holds the light in himself (literally in his cave) and denies its manifestation. After breaking the cave, Brhaspati calls to these hidden lights with the voice of superconscient knowledge, they follow him with the response of

conscious intuition. We climb to the highest levels of consciousness by means of these lights which is established in us by Brhaspati (rik 5).

This self-expressive Soul, Brhaspati is the supreme Divinity, the father of all things; to this deity we offer all the materials of our being by sacrificial action. By the grace of this Godhead, we shall become full of heroic energy for the battle of life, masters of the felicities which are attained by divine enlightenment and right action (rik 6).

The person who bears in himself and able to bear firmly this conscious soul-power of Brhaspati masters all that comes to him in all worlds in the progress of his being. He becomes the ruler of his environment. This person adores the Godhead Brhaspati always giving it the first fruits of enjoyments (rik 7).

Ila, the seeing word, the goddess of the direct revealing vision in knowledge grow in him. All creatures submit to the Truth in him because they see in him the Truth of themselves (rik 8).

The creature Soul, the brahma, seeks to manifest and increase himself in the royalty of the human nature. He who attains to that royalty of light and power finds himself cherished and fostered by all the divine powers. Nothing can assail or affect his progress (rik 9).

Indra, the divine mental power and Brhaspati, the soul power, are the two divine powers whose fullness in us are the conditions of our perfection. May they create in us the perfection of the mind and bring out the mind's multiple powers. The powers that attack the aspirant create in his weaknesses, the poverties of mind and the poverties of the emotive nature. Soul-force (Brhaspati) and mental-force (Indra) destroy all such forces of poverty and bring man to his perfect Kinghood ( and 11).

1. He who established in his might the extremities of the earth, Brhaspati, in the triple world of our fulfilment, by his cry, on him the pristine sages meditated and illumined, set him in their front with his tongue of ecstasy.

2. They, O Brhaspati, vibrating with the impulse of their movement, rejoicing in perfected consciousness wove for us abundant, rapid, invincible, wide the world from which this being was born. That do thou protect, O Brhaspati.

3. O Brhaspati, that which is the highest supreme of existence, thither from this world they attain and take their seat who touch the Truth. For thee are dug the wells of honey which drain this hill and their sweetnesses stream out on every side and break into overflowing.

4. Brhaspati first in his birth from the vast light, in the highest heavenly space, with his seven fronts,

with his seven rays, with his many births, drives utterly away the darknesses that encompass us with his cry.

5. He with his cohort of the rhythm that affirms, of the chant that illumines, has broken Vala into pieces with his cry. Brhaspati drives upward the Bright Ones who speed our offerings; he shouts aloud as he leads them, lowing they reply.

6. Thus to the Father, the universal Godhead, the Bull of the herds, may we dispose our sacrifices and submission and oblation; O Brhaspati, full of energy and rich in offspring, may we become masters of the felicities.

7. Verily is he King and conquers by his energy, by his heroic force all that is in he worlds that confront him, who bears Brhaspati in him well-contained and has the exultant dance and adores and gives him the first fruits of his enjoyment.

8. Yea, he dwells firmly seated in his proper home and for him Ila at all times grows in richne him all creatures of themselves submit, the King, he in whom the Soul-Power goes in front.

9. None can assail him, he conquers utterly all the riches of the worlds which confront him and the world in which he dwells; he who for the Soul-Power that seeks its manifestation creates in himself that highest good, is cherished by the gods.

10. Thou, O Brhaspati, and Indra, drink the Soma-wine rejoicing in this sacrifice, lavishing substance. Let the powers of its delight enter into you and take perfect form, control in us a felicity full of every energy.

11. O Brhaspati, O Indra, increase in us together and may that your perfection of mind be created in us; foster the thoughts, bring out the mind’s multiple powers; destroy all poverties that they bring who seek to conquer the Aryan.

Brhaspati, Brahmanaspati, Brahma are the three names of the god to whom the rishi Vamadeva addresses this mystic hymn of praise. In the later puranic theogonies Brhaspati and Brahma have long become separate deities. Brahma is the Creator, one of the Three who form the great puranic Trinity; Brhaspati is a figure of no great importance, spiritual teacher of the gods and incidentally guardian of the planet Jupiter; Brahmanaspati, the middle term which once linked the two, has disappeared. To restore the physiognomy of the Vedic deity we have to reunite what has been disjoined and correct the values of the two separated terms in the light of the original Vedic conceptions.

Brahman in the Veda signifies ordinarily the Vedic Word or Mantra in its profoundest aspect as the expression of the intuition arising out of the depths of the soul or being. It is a voice of the rhythm

which has created the worlds and creates perpetually. All world is expression or manifestation, creation by the Word. Conscious Being luminously manifesting its contents in itself, of itself, atman the super-conscient; holding its contents obscurely in itself it is the subconscient. The higher, the self luminous descends into the obscure, into the night, into darkness concealed in darkness, tamasa gulham, where all is hidden in formless being owing to fragmentation of consciousness, tucchyenabhvapihitam. It arises again out of the Night by the Word to reconstitute in the conscient its vast unity, consciousness is Brahman. It is the Soul that emerges out of the subconscient in Man and rises towards the superconscient. And the word of creative Power welling upward out of the soul is also brahman.

The Divine, the Deva, manifests itself as conscious Power of the soul, creates the worlds by the Word out of the waters of the subconscient, apraketam salilam sarvam, - the inconscient ocean that was this all, as it is plainly termed in the great Hymn of Creation (10.129). This power of the Deva is Brahma, the stress in the name falling more upon the conscious soul-power than upon the Word which expresses it. The manifestation of the different world-planes in the conscient human being culminates in the manifestation of the superconscient, the Truth and the Bliss, and this is the office of the supreme Word or Veda. Of this supreme Word Brhaspati is the master, the stress in this name failing upon the potency of the Word rather than upon the thought of the general soul-power which is behind it. Brhaspati gives the Word of knowledge, the rhythm of expression of the superconscient, to the gods and especially to Indra, the lord of Mind, when they work in man as "Aryan" powers for the great consummation. It is easy to see how these conceptions came to be specialised in the broader, but less subtle and profound puranic symbolism into Brahma, the Creator, and Brhaspati, the teacher of the gods. In the name, Brahmanaspati, the two varying stresses are unified and equalised. It is the link name between the general and the special aspects of the same deity.

Brhaspati is he who has established firmly the limits and definitions of the Earth, that is to say of the material consciousness. The existence out of which all formations are made is an obscure, fluid and indeterminate movement, - salilam, Water. The first necessity is to create a sufficiently stable formation out of this flux and running so as to form a basis for the life of the conscient. This Brhaspati does in the formation of the physical consciousness and its world, sahasa, by force, by a sort of mighty constraint upon the resistance of the subconscient. This great creation he effects by establishing the triple principle of mind, life and body, always present together and involved in each other or evolved out of each other in the world of the cosmic labour and fulfilment. The three together form the triple seat of Agni and there he works out the gradual work of accomplishment or perfection which is the object of the sacrifice. Brhaspati forms by sound, by his cry, ravena, for the Word is the cry of the soul as it awakens to ever-new perceptions and formations. "He who established firmly by force the ends of the earth, Brhaspati in the triple seat of the fulfilment, by his cry."

On him, it is said, the ancient or pristine rishis meditated; meditating, they became illumined in mind; illumined, they set him in front as the god of the ecstatic tongue, mandra-jihvam, the tongue that takes joy of the intoxicating wine of Soma, mada, madhu, of that which is the wave of sweetness, madhuman urmih (9.20.2), hidden in the conscient existence and out of it progressively delivered. But

of whom is there question? The seven divine rishis, rsayo divyah, who fulfilling consciousness in each of its seven principles and harmonising them together superintend the evolution of the world, or the human fathers, pitaro manusyah, who first discovered the higher knowledge and formulated for man the infinity of the Truth-Consciousness? Either may be intended, but the reference seems to be rather to the conquest of the Truth by the human fathers, the Ancients. The word didhyanah in the Veda means both shining, becoming luminous, and thinking, meditating, fixing in the thought. It is constantly being used with the peculiar Vedic figure of a double or complex sense. In the first sense it must be connected with viprah, and the suggestion is that the rishis became more and more luminous in thought by the triumphant force of Brhaspati until they grew into Illuminates, viprah. In the second it is connected with dadhire and suggests. that the rishis, meditating on the intuitions that rise up from the soul with the cry of Brhaspati in the sacred and enlightening Word, holding them firmly in the thought, became illuminated in mind, open to the full inflow of the superconscient. They were thus able to bring into the front of the conscious being that activity of the soul-thoughts which works usually in the background, veiled, and to make it the leading activity of their nature. As a result Brhaspati in them became able to taste for them the bliss of existence, the wine of Immortality, the supreme Ananda. The formation of the definite physical consciousness is the first step, this awakening to the Ananda by the bringing. forward in mind of the intuitive soul as the leader of our conscious activities is the consummation or, at least, the condition of the consummation.

The result is the formation of the Truth-Consciousness in man. The ancient rishis attained to the most rapid vibration of the movement; the most full and swift streaming of the flux of consciousness which constitutes our active existence, no longer obscure as in the subconscient, but full of the joy of perfected consciousness, - not apraketam like the Ocean described in the Hymn of Creation, but supraketam. Thus they are described, dhunetayah supraketam madantah. With this attainment of the full rapidity of the activities of consciousness unified with its full light and bliss in the human mentality they have woven for the race by the web of these rapid, luminous and joyous perceptions the Truth Consciousness, rtam brhat, which is the womb or birth-place of this conscient being. For it is out of the superconscient that existence descends into the subconscient and carries with it that which emerges here as the individual human being, the conscious soul. The nature of this Truth Consciousness is in itself this that it is abundant in its outflowings, prsantam, or, it may be, many coloured in the variety of its harmonised qualities; it is rapid in its motion, srpram; by that luminous rapidity it triumphs over all that seeks to quell or break it, it is adabdham; above all it is wide, vast, infinite, urvam. In all these respects it is the opposite of the first limited movement which emerges out of the subconscient; for that is stinted and grey, slow and hampered, easily overcome and broken by the opposition of hostile powers, scanty and bounded in its scope. But this Truth-Consciousness manifested in man is capable of being again veiled from him by the insurgence of the powers that deny, the Vritras, Vala. The rishi therefore prays to Brhaspati to guard it against that obscuration by the fullness of his soul-force.

The Truth-Consciousness is the foundation of the superconscient, the nature of which is the Bliss. It is the supreme of the supraconscient, parama paravat, from which the being has descended, the parardha of the Upanishads, the existence of Sachchidananda. It is to that highest existence that those arise out of this physical consciousness, atah, who like the ancient rishis enter into contact with

the Truth-Consciousness. They make it their seat and home, ksaya, okas. For in the hill of the physical being there are dug for the soul those abounding wells of sweetness which draw out of its hard rigidity the concealed Ananda; at the touch of the Truth the rivers of honey, the quick pourings of the wine of Immortality trickle and stream and break out into a flood of abundance over the whole extent of the human consciousness.

Thus Brhaspati, becoming manifest first of the gods out of the vastness of that Light of Truth Consciousness, in that highest heavenly space of the supreme superconscient, maho jyotisah parame vyoman, presents himself in the full sevenfold aspect of our conscious being, multiply born in all the forms of the interplay of its seven principles ranging from the material to the purest spiritual, luminous with their sevenfold ray which lights all our surfaces and all our profundities, and with his triumphant cry dispels and scatters all powers of the Night, all encroachments of the inconscient, all possible darknesses.

It is by the powers of the Word, by the rhythmic army of the soul-forces that Brhaspati brings all into expression and dispelling all the darknesses that encompass us makes an end of the Night. These are the Brahmas of the Veda, charged with the word, the brahman, the mantra; it is they in the sacrifice who raise heavenward the divine Rik, the stubh or Stoma. Rik, connected with the Word arka means light or illumination, is the Word considered as a power of realisation in the illuminating consciousness; stubh is the Word considered as a power which affirms and confirms in the settled rhythm of things. That which has to be expressed is realised in consciousness, affirmed, finally confirmed by the power of the Word. The Brahmas or Brahmana forces are the priests of the Word, the creators by the divine rhythm. It is by their cry that Brhaspati breaks Vala into fragments.

As Vritra is the enemy, the Dasyu, who holds back the flow of the sevenfold waters of conscient existence, - Vrtra, the personification of the inconscient, so Vala is the enemy, the Dasyu, who holds back in his hole, his cave, bilam, guha, the herds of the Light; he is the personification of the subconscient. Vala is not himself dark or inconscient, but a cause of darkness.

Rather his substance is of the light, valasya gomatah, valasya govapusah, but he holds the light in himself and denies its conscious manifestation. He has to be broken into fragments in order that the hidden lustres may be liberated. Their escape is expressed by the emergence of the Bright Ones, the herds of the Dawn, from the cavern below in the physical hill and their driving upward by Brhaspati to the heights of our being whither with them and by them we climb. He calls to them with the voice of the superconscient knowledge; they follow him with the response of the conscious intuition. They give in their course the impulsion to the activities which form the material of the sacrifice and constitute the offerings given to the gods and these also are carried upward till they reach the same divine goal.

This self-expressive Soul, Brhaspati, is the Purusha, the Father of all things; it is the universal Divinity; it is the Bull of the herds, the Master and fertilizer of all these luminous energies evolved or involved, active in the day or obscurely working in the night of things, which constitute the becoming or world existence, bhuvanam. To the Purusha under the name of Brhaspati the rishi would have us dispose in the order of a sacrifice all the materials of our being by sacrificial action in which they are given up to

the All-Soul as acceptable ablations offered with adoration and surrender. By the sacrifice we shall become through the grace of this godhead full of heroic energy for the battle of life, rich in the offspring of the soul, masters of the felicities which are attained by divine enlightenment and right action.

For the soul's energy and overcoming force are perfected in the human being who bears in himself and is able to bear firmly this conscious Soul-Power brought forward as the leading agency in the nature, who arrives by it at a rapid and joyous movement of the inner activities as did the pristine sages, compasses that harmonious bound and gallop of the steed of Life within and adores always this godhead giving it the first fruits of results and enjoyments. By that energy he throws himself upon and masters all that comes to him in the births, the worlds, the planes of consciousness that open upon his perception in the progress of the being. He becomes the king, the samrat, ruler of his world environment.

such a soul attains to a firmly settled existence in its own proper home, the Truth-Consciousness, the infinite totality, and for it at all times Ila, the highest Word, premier energy of the Truth Consciousness, she who is the direct revealing vision in knowledge and becomes in that knowledge the spontaneous self- attainment of the Truth of things in action, result and experience, - Ila grows perpetually in body and richness. To him all creatures of themselves incline, they submit to the Truth in him because it is one with the Truth in themselves. For the conscious Soul-Power that is the universal creator and realiser, leads in all his activities. It gives him the guidance of the Truth in his relations with all creatures and therefore he acts upon them with an entire and spontaneous mastery. This is the ideal state of man that the soul-force should lead him, Brhaspati, Brahma, the spiritual light and counsellor, and he realising himself as Indra, the royal divinity of action, should govern himself and all his environment in the right of their common Truth, brahma rajani purva eti.

For this Brahma, this creative Soul seeks to manifest and increase himself in the royalty of the human nature and he who attains to that royalty of light and power and creates in himself for Brahma that highest human good, finds himself always cherished, fostered, increased by all the divine cosmic powers who work for the supreme consummation. He wins all those possessions of the soul which are necessary for the royalty of the spirit, those that belong to his own plane of consciousness, and those that present themselves to him from other planes of consciousness. Nothing can assail or affect his triumphant progress.

Indra and Brhaspati are thus the two divine powers whose fullness in us and conscious possession of the Truth are the conditions of our perfection. Vamadeva calls on them to drink in this great sacrifice the wine of immortal Ananda, rejoicing in the intoxication of its ecstasies, pouring out abundantly the substance and riches of the spirit. Those outpourings of the superconscient beatitude must enter into the soul-force and there take being perfectly. Thus a felicity will be formed, a governed harmony, replete with all the energies and, capacities of the perfected nature which is master of itself and its world.

So let Brhaspati and Indra increase in us and that state of right mentality which together they build

will be manifested; for that is the final condition. Let them foster the growing thoughts and bring into expression those energies of the mental being which by an enriched and multiple thought become capable of the illumination and rapidity of the Truth-Consciousness. The powers that attack the Aryan fighter, would create in him poverties of mind and poverties of the emotive nature, all infelicities. Soul force and mental-force increasing together, destroy all such poverty and insufficiency. Together they bring man to his crowning and his perfect kinghood.

As their name indicates, the Maruts are gods associated both with intense energy and mental movements. They are powers of both action and knowledge. In the esoteric interpretations Maruts are imaged as powers of wind, storm and rain, particularly of the tempest. They are always hymned in their collectivity, ganas the hosts, never individually. Next to Agni and Indra, the Maruts have the largest number of hymns dedicated to them in the Rigveda, clearly indicating their importance in the spiritual evolution of the individual aspirant and the humanity at large. Because of their impetuousness, they are called as the children of the fierce and terrible God Rudra [rudraha, RV. 1.39.7; rudrasah, 1.39.4]. Because they have more hymns dedicated to them than Rudra does not imply that in the vedic hierarchy they have a higher place than the great god Rudra. Their importance comes from the help offered by them to the beginning spiritual aspirant because of their proximity to the earth plane.

The Maruts also give a divine motion to the activities of the intelligence illumined by the light and strength of Indra, the Lord of the divine mind. Hence they are called as brothers of Indra (Indrajyestha, 1.23.8; Marutvantam Indra, 1.23.7]. This aspect of aiding the work of Indra, the divine mind, gives them the appellation, thought-Gods. We should realize that their functions are not limited to the control and origination of thoughts.

Since Maruts have been as thought-Gods, it is appropriate for us to delineate the distinction between thoughts and mind in the psychology of the sages of the vedic periods and the later periods. The viewpoint is best expressed in the following quotation: "Mind is an instrument of formation, of organization and action, and it is in these functions that it attains its full value and real usefulness." The mind collects the information given by the five senses and the information stored in the memory about earlier sense contacts. Thoughts are mental entities formed and released by the mind. Each one of us forms these thoughts and releases them. Once they are released, their life is independent of the mind that formed them and they travel around according to their own laws. Each thought has an idea in it. When the thought travels, it is caught by the minds of all persons who offer a welcome to it and the thought spreads the idea it contains to the mind of the recipient. The power of thought depends on the power given to it by the originator. As Sri Aurobindo says elsewhere, the thought containing the ideas of equality, fraternity and liberty were originated by some sage on the peak of Himalayas endowed with immense power, but they were welcomed, as it were, only in France, causing the great French Revolution which popularized the three words. These thoughts have a life of their own. A thought released by a person joins together with similar thoughts released by others and they form a group or a flock like the flock of birds. A flock of birds in the Rigveda

is a common symbol for Maruts [1.37.9]. They travel together, acquire more and more power, and finally return to the originators with their power augmented by the power of the kindred thoughts. Thus a person who radiates a thought of love and harmony receives in turn the thoughts of love and harmony and thus this tendency in him/her becomes stronger. Similarly, a person who is always critical of others is radiating continuously thoughts of criticisms and recriminations and he/she continuously receives these kindred thoughts. Mind organizes the thoughts, analyses the situation and takes appropriate action. The action may be on the physical plane like travel from one place to another, or the action may be on the mental plane like preferring one intellectual viewpoint to another. When the mind makes up its decision, it gives the appropriate instruction to the organs of action to carry out the task and at the same time the mind releases the relevant thought when it has formed.

The originators of thoughts, which are mental movements or carriers of ideas, need not be human beings on earth. In vedic psychology, we have the three lower worlds of matter (anna), life-energy (prana) and the mind (manas). The beings on these worlds - who are called as typal beings since they are not subject to evolution as the beings on the earth - also radiate thoughts or mental movements which will impact on the minds of earthly beings. There are typal beings, called as Gods, who are the source of wisdom, harmony, beauty, strength, perfection in all aspects and who help the humans to develop these qualities. There are also the typal beings called as demons, rakshasas, who encourage and foster the opposite qualities in man and retard the march of evolution. These demonic forces can be classified roughly into three categories - those which encourage the mind in its feeling of self sufficiency and in its doubting and disputing every influence at enlightenment and change; these which encourage the vital in man in its refractory and petty desires and its ill-will toward every divine influence, and these that encourage "the power of incapacity, inertia and tamas in man's physical consciousness which obstructs and clings to its pleasure in smallness and darkness and cries out against every touch which disturbs its dull sloth or torpid slumber." These demonic forces go by the names of Vrtra, Vala, Panis and Dasyus in the Rigveda.

Only the Divine mind signified by Indra can battle and vanquish these forces using the weapons of the powers of the potent word; the vajra.

Maruts, the thought-Gods, are the helpers of Indra in his battle against the demonic forces. They are called as the younger brothers of Indra (Indrajyesthah, 1.23.8). The Maruts begin the work of Indra in introducing the harmonious thoughts and mental movements in man.

The Maruts make their appearance in the Rigveda very early (1.6.5, 1.6.6).

"The Maruts are particular gods who set a divine pace to the mental movements of fierce speed and brilliance." All the Gods have two births as it were. The first birth is in the collective creation for their own function. Their second birth is their birth in man when their faculties find expression in man. The rebirth of Maruts in man follow the birth of Indra in man. The first step in the manifestation of the divine mind of Indra is the birth of mental movements of fierce speed and brilliance which are needed to counter the influences put forth by the demonic forces.

One entire sukta RV(1.19) is dedicated to Agni requesting him to come with the Maruts. The psychological meaning of this request is straightforward. Agni is the God of aspiration, the divine will manifesting in man. The work of this will can only be strengthened when there is an abundance of mental movements signified by Maruts who break down all petty impediments to the work of Agni. The adjectives to Maruts in this sukta are revealing: "Maruts, who know the great mid world" (RV 1.19.3). "The brave Maruts unassailed by the might of others" (RV 1.19.4). "Maruts, who are radiant, awful in form or mighty and devourers of foes" (RV 1.19.5). "Maruts, the gods who are in the luminous world above the Heavens" (RV 1.19.6). "Maruts, who move mountains and scorn the ocean of waters" (RV 1.19.7).

The last epithet needs some explanation. Maruts, who are the sons of Vayu, the life force, become powers of luminous intelligence. "They set in movement the inert body heaving with tamas (or gross knowledge gone inert) symbolized by the term mountain in whose womb lies the being of knowledge, power, etc. That brings about the blossoming of knowledge, power, etc. By the movement of the whole being, unmoving and difficult to cross, potent with all powers, the infinite substances symbolized by the term ocean, the manifestation of its parts, is effected."

Mountain in the veda specifies the heavy crust of materialism in whose womb lies the true knowledge symbolized by the cows. The Maruts along with Agni and Indra break down the tamas and the mountain of ignorance in man and allow the beneficent streams of higher consciousness to purify all the parts of being and raise them to a higher level of consciousness. Borne by spotted deer, with revealing weapons of speech. The Maruts are self luminous (RV 1.37.2). "ye prshatibhi rshtibiih sakam vashibhih anjibih ajayanta svabhanavah" (RV 1.37.2). The spotted deer are the vehicles of Maruts. Their triple hues indicate the physical, vital and mental. Often the deer are described as red (RV 1.39.6) which signifies the principle of life-force of action and enjoyment. As for all the other Gods, the word is their weapon. Words arising from their tempestuous movement bring out what is hidden.

The benefits of the mantras addressed to Maruts are described in the next mantra. na eheva shrnva esham kasha hasthesu yadvadan ni yaman chitram runjate. (RV 1.37.3). Words are their whip in hand, I hear instantly the moment it is uttered. Their speech works wonders in my journey. (RV 1.37.3) Just as a charioteer guides the vehicle with his whip, the words of the Maruts guide the aspirant. Their help is immediately apparent to the aspirant. Note that when the God utters the mantra, the Seer hears it and he repeats it himself. Word is the vehicle and force in all these transactions.

A brief word on Rudra is appropriate since Maruts are described as children of Rudra. The puranic trinity of brahma, Vishnu and Shiva has its root in the Rigveda where the rough correspondences are Brahmanaspati, Vishnu and Rudra. Brahmanaspati is the creator who fashions the light and the visible cosmos out of the darkness of the inconscient ocean and he does it by the Word. For the upward movement of Brahmanaspati's formaliars, Rudra supplies the force. Rudra begins his work on this earth and supplies his force on all the planes of existence for evolution. He is the "violent one who leads the upward evolution of the conscious being; his force battles against all evil, smites the sinner and the enemy; intolerant of defect and stumbling, he is one God of whom alone the vedic rishis have any fear." For the formation of Brahmanaspati's word and for the actions of Rudra's force, Vishnu supplies the necessary static elements.

The Maruts, the children of Rudra are not divinities superior to their mighty father; but there are more hymns addressed to them and they are more commonly mentioned because the function they fulfilled was of constant and immediate importance in the vedic discipline. During the initial period of the spiritual ascent of the aspirant, the hostile forces strive to block or undo the spiritual progress by causing doubts in the mind of the aspirant such as "Gods may not exist; even if they do, they are not relevant to man; even if they help, it may be very limited; their help may be useful in life after death, but they are irrelevant in this life." The rsshi repeatedly calls upon the Maruts to ward off such attacks. "The rakshasas who rush to the attack in the birth of the Godheads (in the aspirant), O Maruts, him assail in your wheeless cars." (RV 5.42.10) Such attacks by the asuric forces are not products of our lurid imagination, but daily happenings noted in the diaries of spiritual aspirants. For instance, Sri Aurobindo in his record of yoga of January 9, 1917, quoted this mantra as indicative of his experience. There are many such prayers in the Rigveda. We will quote one more mantra: mo shu nah parapara nirriti dorhana vadheet padeeshta thrishnaya saha. (RV 1.38.6) May not the nirriti, sin-spirit, highly powerful difficult to overcome, strike me down; May she be consumed by her (own) thirst. Again, "O ye, who have the flashing strength of truth Manifest that by your might; Pierce with your lightening the rakshasa. Conceal the concealing darkness, repel every devourer, Create the light for which we long (RV 1.86.9, 1.86.10).

The powers of Maruts is so strong that they create the rasa of life even in the physical sapless, inert, physical body. This power is imaged in the Rigveda as "causing windless rain in the desert" (RV 1.3.87). Just as the desert is a piece of land where nothing grows, similarly the body of the beginner aspirant is inert. Maruts pour the nectarous essence of on the desert like body of aspirant and in becomes supple and pliant. "Maruts represent the progressive illumination of human mentality, until from the first obscure movements of mind which only just emerge out of the darkness of the subconscient, they are transformed into an image of luminous consciousness. Twilight, half-lit or turned into misleading reflections they surmount these deficiencies and put on divine brilliance." (Sri Aurobindo, Secret of the Veda, p. 261). The Maruts are energies of the mentality, energies which make for knowledge. "They carry with them the sweetness of the ananda as their eternal offspring and play out their play, brilliant in the activities of knowledge." (RV 1.166.2). Maruts in later Indian literature.

Maruts play a very important role in the shaping of the spiritual life of the beginning aspirant. Only after the birth of Agni and Maruts in man have been stabilized, the other Gods can take birth in man manifesting their corresponding powers. When the age of the Rigveda in general and vedas in particular come to an end, the knowledge and powers of the vedic Gods were lost to mankind as it were.

The later puranas have Gods by the name Maruts. They are also brothers of Indra. But there is a fundamental difference between the puranic Gods and vedic Gods. The vedic Gods are pure, completely harmonious with one another, friends for man and urge the aspirants to move speedily on the roads of evaluation. The vedic Gods do not have any of the petty human qualities like jealousy and discordance. However, the Gods of puranas appear to have many of the human qualities. Of course, there is a symbolism in the puranic Gods. But it is difficult to unravel them.

The power of Maruts of Rigveda is again unravelled under the name of Maruti, Hanuman, the leader of the monkeys and the assistant and c collaborator of Sri Ramachandra in the epic Ramayana composed by Valmiki. Sri Ramachandra signifies the divine mind, Indra of the Rigveda and he is a personification of discrimination endowed with knowledge. In every situation, he always opts for the decision or action which upholds the high tenets of dharma, the principle that upholds the universe. The great battle between Sri Rama and the demon king Ravana is reminiscent of the Indra-Vrtra battles of the Rigveda. It is also one of the perpetual battles fought in different periods of time, between the forces of good and the forces of evil. Ravana, the demon king, has ten heads. In the battle between Rama and Ravana, when Rama cuts off one head by an arrow, another head automatically appears. This incident clearly indicates the symbolism

of Ravana as the storehouse of all evil mental movements. Destroying the evil mental movements one by one is not possible. They have to be destroyed together in one stroke. Sri Rama gets this intuition, acts accordingly, and destroys the demon king.

Just as the Maruts help Indra in the Rigveda, Maruti helps Sri Rama in the Ramayana. Maruti is the son of wind God Vayu. His mother is anjani, reminiscent of Prishni, the mother of Maruts of Rigveda. The adjectives of Maruti in Ramayana are self explanatory: "speedy like the mud, unmatched in speed, one with perfectly controlled sense organs, superior among the ones endowed with intelligence," etc. Thus he is both a God of action and God of knowledge. In the tantrik works associated with Sri Rama, Maruti plays a role very akin to that of Ganesha in the tantrik works associated with Shiva. All the children pray for Maruti to grow them both physical and mental godly strength which is brilliant, harmonious and forceful. Maruti provides the foundations of spiritual life for all the youngsters and prepares their bodies for the manifestation of the powers of the other Gods.

Usha is the Goddess of spiritual consciousness whose outer or physical symbol is the physical Dawn. The symbol is so amenable for poetic metaphors at the hands of the inspired poets of Rigveda that one is apt to view Usha simply as the physical dawn and miss the deeper meanings of these hymns. As Sri Aurobindo says, "In the veda, there are no merely ornamental epithets. Each word is meant to tell, to add something to the sense and bear a strict relation to the thought of the sentence in which it occurs."

The deity Usha is lauded in about twenty suktas of the Rigveda. She is also prominently mentioned in the ten apri suktas and other suktas. A careful reading of all these suktas indicates that many of the functions and characteristics attributed to the Goddess do not make sense if we simply interpret her as the physical dawn as many of the Western indologists and their Indian followers are wont to do. Usha signifies the dawn of divine consciousness in the individual aspirant. The physical dawn which we see every morning is a physical symbol of this divinity. The onset of the divine consciousness indicates to us the existence of the higher worlds of bliss and perfection which are beyond the pale of our ordinary consciousness. By divine consciousness we mean the consciousness of the various Gods like Indra, Varuna, etc., both individually and in toto. When the God Varuna's power manifests in man - symbolically referred to as the birth of Varuna in man - the consciousness of the human aspirant is widened by Varuna's power since wideness is characteristic of Varuna. The narrowness of outlook characteristic of our ordinary human condition is washed away, as it were, like the tropical monsoon washes away all the dirt in the streets. We are less prone to be critical of other people, less prone to magnify the limitations of people around us, have more faith in the ability of the divine to bring about greater harmony and progress among all of us, and in our collaboration with the divine. Similarly, when Indra is born in man, the person becomes fearless and mighty. The God Mitra's influence endows the aspirant's atmosphere with friendship, love and harmony among all the beings of the universe, both animate and inanimate. The Goddess Sarama endows us with the power of intuition and the Goddess Ila, the power of revelation of the divine happenings which are covered by our ordinary consciousness. Of course the manifestation of the full power of each God in man is not instantaneous. It takes time. There are periods of rapid advance and there are periods in which nothing changes. Again the light of Usha

We will give here just one mantra to show that the Usha cannot be limited to the physical dawn. Lover of praises, O Usha, deathless one, which mortal is fit to enjoy thee? O luminous one, whom does thou attain? (1.30.20).

To see and enjoy the ordinary physical dawn, no special capacity is required. Only the eyesight is enough. The exclamation "which mortal if fit to enjoy thee" clearly implies that only rare persons have the good fortune of having the experience of Usha. Thus Usha cannot be the ordinary dawn.

How does the Dawn emerge? The answer is in several mantras, one of which is given below. satyamantra ajanayan ushasam. (7.76.4). By the truth in their thoughts, they brought to birth the Dawn. (7.76.4)

The seeker has to open himself systematically to the reign of Truth, rejecting the rule of falsehood. His mind and its activity of thinking must be filled with the movements of truth. Truth in thought, truth in feeling, truth in speech, must become normal to his life. It is only then that the Dawn consents to manifest and open the gates of Heaven. Just as the physical dawn and day do not last long, alternating with the night, similarly the dawn of divine consciousness in man does not last long. It is followed by the condition of ordinary consciousness, appropriately termed "nakta" or "night."

The Goddess Usha is often with the deity "nakta" (night) and the combined phrase "nakta-ushas" or "ushanakta" occurs more than twenty times in the Rigveda. We need to understand the relationship between these two deities. nakta is the same as the deity "ratri" for whom there is a sukta (RV 10.127). The first reference to Usha in the Rigveda is in (RV 1.13.7), one of the mantras of an apri sukta, where she is paired with the night. naktoshasa supeshasa sman yajna upahvaye idam no barhira sade. (RV 1.13.7) I call in this sacrifice Night and Dawn, beautiful of form, to arrive at our seat. (RV 1.13.7) Dawn and Night, we seek with desire Two mighty mothers of the Truth with their fair front to us, who increase our beings space. (RV 5.5.6) Common, unending is the path of the sisters; Guided by the Sun alternately, they travel; Well-lighted, different in hues, common-minded, Night and Dawn do not clash, neither to they tarry. (RV 1.113.3)

In all these mantras, nakta or naktas stands for our ordinary consciousness which is open to all sorts of forces and influences, including that from the great darkness "tamah." Note that the rig vedic seers make a clear distinction everywhere between "naktas" and "tamah," the enveloping darkness which is the haunt of inertia and forces of darkness like the demons, rakshasas, pisachas, etc. When Usha, the divine consciousness arrives, so do all other Gods except Agni,

the leader of our journey, the God of aspiration, who is always active and is putting the pressure on us and propels us toward the higher goals. When the human aspiration reaches a certain level, Usha makes her appearance, signifying the onset of divine consciousness and she brings the other Gods or powers. Usha literally opens the doors in our inner being and allows the divine light to flood our inner beings. The opening of the doors of inner being which are usually closed is a capital experience in spiritual life, popularized later in the tantrik literature. We find this experience mentioned repeatedly in the Rigveda as in (RV 1.113.4) below and (RV 1.48.15), etc. The opening of the inner doors is mentioned explicitly in all the ten apri suktas to be mentioned later. bha svati netri sunrtanam acheti chitra vi duro na avah. prapyar jagadyu no rayo akhyat ushah aji ga bhuvanani vishva. (RV 1.113.4) Brilliant guide to happy truths is Usha of many hues. She has opened our doors. Lighting up the entire world, she has illuminated wealth for us. She issues forth all the worlds. (1.113.4)

When the divine consciousness dawns on us, it cannot last very long because the human vital which clamours for excitement cannot appreciate the bliss of the divine consciousness which is suffused with calm and is untinged with sorrow. The ordinary human mental personality which loves to wallow in doubts is not comfortable with the certitude offered by the divine consciousness. Thus Usha, the divine consciousness, recedes from the human and in its place, naktas, the night or the ordinary consciousness takes its place. During this period, the great God Agni keeps up the pressure on all the members of the human personality and prepares it for another onrush of the divine consciousness, Usha. Thus dawn and night alternate, as indicated below. apasvasaram sanutarthuyoti (RV 1.92.11). In secret she separates her sister (RV 1.92.11). araik krishna sadani asyah (RV 1.113.2). The dark night has vacated dwellings.

The two sisters do not clash nor do they tarry (RV 1.113.6). "There is a constant rhythm and alternation of night and dawn, illuminations of the Light and periods of exile from it, openings up of our darkness and its settling upon us once more, till the Celestial Birth is accomplished and again it is fulfilled in its greatness, knowledge, love and power. These later nights are other than these of utter darkness which are dreaded as the occasion of the enemy, the haunt of the demons of division who devour; these are rather the pleasant nights, the divine and blessed ones who equally labour for our growth. Night and Dawn are then of different forms but one mind and suckle alternately the luminous child". They are commonly referred to as "two sisters," beautiful of form (RV 1.13.7, 5.5.6). They are both called as "mighty mothers of the Truth" (RV 5.5.6). Usha is associated with Aditi, the mother of undivided consciousness, the mother of Gods, the supreme creatrix. nakta is associated with "Diti," the mother of divided consciousness. Their path is said to be unending (RV 1.113.3) and they are said to increase our beings space (RV 5.5.6).

The goddess Usha is termed as having many hues (RV 1.113.4) or variegated since she helps in the manifestation of (or brings in) the various other deities or powers. The wealth she gives us is not limited to the material. She allows all the latent powers to manifest and hence issues forth all the worlds (RV 1.113.4).

Usha and nakta are also referred to as "different in hue," "viuupe" (RV 1.113.3). This phrase is often interpreted as its external meaning, namely night is characterized by darkness whereas the Dawn is associated with the rosy color of the rising Sun and other multifarious colors. Here the hue refers to the psychological character of the divine and ordinary consciousness.

There is always the mention of the Usha who has dawned in the past. Phrases like these would not be used by the Seers who display extraordinary abilities if they were merely referring to the regular recurring physical dawn and night. Before the full illumination of the solar glory of Truth Light, the sacrificer has several experiences of the consciousness of the dawns of knowledge. These are termed as the dawns of the past. The divine Ushas hat dawned and dawned again. (1.48.3) She follows the path of the Dawns that are past. parayati nam anveti sadhu. (RV 1.113.8) First of eternal dawns to come.

There are several verses in which Usha is lauded as dispelling the thick darkness. pratyarchi rushadasya adarshi vithishtate bhadhate krishnam abhvam. (RV 1.92.5) Her radiant lustre beheld again, spreads everywhere and dispels darkness. (RV 1.92.5) atarishma tamasah param asya ushah ucchanti vayuna krnoti. (RV 1.92.6) We have crossed over to the other share of darkness, Leaving darkness, she prepares discoveries of knowledge. (RV 1.92.6)

In the first line of 1.92.6, the rishi Gotama Rahugana praises the deity in joyous exultation after having her experience in his inner being. Some modern commentators think that this line only indicates that the seers were afraid of the darkness and all the beings associated with it like the goblins. The vedic seers do not know that dawn and night alternate and they perform the vedic ritual. When the physical dawn arises, they feel the effectiveness of their ritual and this gives rise to the explanation in the first line of 1.92.6. A moment's reflection will reveal the hollowness of the argument. Morning vedic ritual - yajna - is performed only after the onset of physical dawn. There is no need to pray for the dawn when it is already there. The vedic sages were very well aware of the alternations of the physical night and physical dawn as given by the riks "The actions of the Gods are undeviating" (RV 1.124.2), "It (dawn) follows well the path of Truth."

Note also the next line of 1.92.6 which clearly says "Dawn prepares fresh discoveries of knowledge." Clearly what is meant here is not the physical dawn, but the Goddess of Truth who brings fresh revelation of knowledge at each

Let us mention some other specific descriptions used for Usha which clearly indicate that Usha is not merely the physical Dawn, but is the goddess of solar radiance who manifests herself in advance before the rise of the Sun which symbolizes the rise or beginning of the Sun of Truth hymned on the Vedas as the "Supernal Light."

The word satya signifies that which is the eternal, the supreme, existence in its own from sat. rtam signifies that which is evident or perceptible, manifested out of the satya, what has come to be in accordance with satya or that which represents the satya. rta is the Truth in manifestation. Usha is the guardian of this rta and she manifests it.

rteja: one who manifests the Truth (1.113.12) {rtasya~passtham} under anveti sadhu... ...praja nativa na diso minati (1.124.3). She moves according to the path of the Truth And, as one that knows, she limits not the regions (1.124.3) dyutad-ya ma nam brhatam rtena rtavarim svar a vahantim (5.80.1) Of a luminous movement, vast with the Truth, Supreme in the Truth, bringing with her svar (5.80.1).

Note the use of the word "svar," the fourth vyahriti, the mahas, the vast, the world of solar light. vyusa a vo divija rtena, aviskrnva na mahimanam a gat (7.75.1)

Dawn born in heaven opens out things by the Truth, She comes manifesting the greatness. (7.75.1) bhadra rtaja tasatyah (4.51.7). Happy and tru born from the Truth (4.51.7). rtasya devi hi sadaso bhudhana. The Goddesses who awake from the seat of Truth. (4.51.8) Horses of Usha are yoked to Truth. (4.51.5) She is born from Truth. (4.51.5) Usha and night are mothers of Truth. (5.5.6) Usha follows the path of Truth. (1.124.3) satya satyebhir mahati mahadbhir devi devebhih. (7.75.7) Dawn, true in her being with the Gods who are true Vast with Gods who are vast. (7.75.1)

"sunrta i rayanti": impeller of true and happy words. Giver of wealth.

rayah in veda always denotes spiritual wealth which does not exclude material wealth. saha vamena...uccha...dyumnena brhata,...raya. (1.48.1) Dawn on us

with great blissful prosperity, with the glory of the vast, with divine wealth. nah rayah vyakhyat. She has illumined the spiritual wealth for us. (1.113.4) Other adjectives of Usha.

Usha, the goddess of illumination first activates the inner being or the soul (jiva) to come forward and she prepares the path for all the Sun's powers to pervade all the parts of our being, physical, vital, mental, etc., and carry us to the supramental home of Truth which has an abundance of the powers of life and other powers. Note the use of the word "jiva" which in the esoteric expression always means the "soul," the essence of man which participates in divine action. Usha propels the "soul" toward divine action and gives expression to the thought of the soul in the form of inspired speech or mantras.

"jivam udarayanti" impels the jiva to move upward and forward (1.113.8). "mritam bodhayanti" awakens someone who is like dead, devoid of the glow of immortality (1.113.8). praminati manusya yagani (1.124.2, 1.92.11). devi martasya ayuh jarayanti (1.92.10). She strikes at the mortal span, and replaces it with immortality.

Each advent of the Goddess Usha gives fresh spiritual experiences for the seer which manifest in the form of speech or mantras. vishvam jeevam charase bodhayanti vishvasya vacham avidan mana yoho. (1.92.9) Awakening every person (jiva) she propels them towards divine actions. She creates expression for the thought of the soul. (1.92.9)

In the translations where Usha is identified with physical dawn, this verse (1.92.9) is translated to mean that the physical dawn activates all the living beings like birds, animals, etc., to movement and speech. This translation ignores the word "manayoh" ,which can only mean thought of humans. The use of the word "jiva" exclusively for the "soul" and not to an ordinary living being is

clear in (1.113.16). udirdvam jivo asurna agadapa pragattama a jyotireti araikpantham yatave suryayaganma yatra pratiranta ayuh (1.113.6). Arise! Our inner being (jiva) has emerged; The darkness has departed; light approaches, It (soul) opens the way for the sun's rays (to permeate us). Let us repair to the home of truth where life increases. (1.113.16) mata devanam aditeh ani kam yajnasya ketuh brhati vibahi prashastikrt brahmane nah viuccha a nah jane janaya vishvavare. (1.113.19) Mother of the Gods, face of the infinite, the vast vision that awakes from the sacrifice, she creates expression (mantra) for the thought of the soul and gives us universal birth in all that is born. (1.113.19)

The word "Aditi" is translated here as "infinite." "brhti" always stands for the plane of the vast, the plane of mahas, the fourth vyahriti. Usha's vision is vast. ketu can only mean ray or vision. Its translation as "ensign" is typical of the translations which emphasize the outward ritual associated with the yajna. brahmana always means mantra. She creates the appropriate mantra for expressing the thought of the soul. The seer prays to Usha to be born or manifest amidst us so that we can march to the higher worlds.

In the earlier mantras, we have spoken of the role played by Usha in helping the seers who have already taken to the spiritual path to go forward. But what about the persons who are beginners or who are not even aware of the existence of spiritual vistas? "Opulent Usha sets the lazy on the right course - one for enjoyment, one for sacrifice, one for wealth. To those seeing little, she gives extended vision. Usha issues forth all the worlds." (1.113.5) One to hero- strength, one to divine hearing, one to great sacrifice, one to pursue high gain - all to follow their different vocations, Usha issues forth the worlds. (1.113.6)

Usha creates the appropriate conditions for each person to progress. One who has propensities toward heroism gets the appropriate opportunity. Persons who want enjoyment or physical wealth or occult powers obtain the desired ends without being aware of the help provided by the Goddess. Slowly she extends the vision of these persons and brings to their attention forces and powers of which humans are only instruments. Thus Usha creates a separate world, as it were, for each individual.

Another common descriptor of Usha is "Ashvavati Gomati" (1.48.2, 7.80.3). It is often translated as "giver of horses, giver of cows" without making much sense. How does the physical dawn give horses or cows? Ashva in the Veda always stands for the life-powers or vital energies leading to the actions for the enjoyment of the all pervading bliss. "Go" in the veda stands for the rays of consciousness of knowledge. Therefore, the rishi prays to Usha for the grant of the powers of life and powers of intelligence. sa asmasu dha gomad-ashvavat uktyah usho vajam suviryam. (1.48.12) Usha, do thou establish in us the plenitude of intelligences, life powers and hero might lauded in the hymns.

"vajram" denotes plenitude. The seer prays to Usha to establish in him all the powers so that he may progress onward in his quest toward perfection. praja vato nrvato ashvabudhyan usho govgrah upa ma si vajan. (1.92.7) O Usha thou gives the bounty of progeny, heroes known for steeds, fronted by cows. (1.92.7)

Progeny always stands for the transmission of knowledge, not merely biological children. The seer prays that the divine knowledge may be preserved in his community aided by a high level of vital and mental energies signified by horses and cows.

Let us consider the mantras in which the words dvipada (translated commonly as two-footed) and chatushpada (four-footed) are used which are interpreted as the humans and animals activated by Dawn. dvipade used in (1.49.3) refers in the esoteric interpretation to the two states of consciousness of the human aspirant, the ordinary consciousness, the condition of obscurity and the divine consciousness, the condition of Light. Similarly the word chatushpade (1.49.3) refers to the four planes of earth (bhuh), mid region (bhuvah), the mind (suvah) and the great vast (mahas) which have been attained by this seer. Again the (1.48.5) and phrases "paptivamsah vayah" are interpreted as "birds" which are activated by the onset of dawn in the external sense. However, "birds" in the Veda always stand for the upward movements and seeking for knowledge which soar upward to the heavenly regions. This point is made very specific in the 1.49.3. vayahchitte patatrino dvipachhatushpadarjuni usha praran rtun anudivo antebhyaspari (1.49.3). Twin stationed, four stepped with high soaring energies Moving fast beyond the heavenly regions, the sacrificer follows thy advents, O fair Usha. (1.49.3)

We have interpreted "vayachitte patatrino" as high soaring energies and not merely as birds because of the subsequent phrase "moving fat beyond the heavenly regions." Clearly this phrase has to be interpreted as a poetic exaggeration for birds. When the mantra is interpreted in its spiritual sense, the meaning flows smoothly.

Similarly in 1.48.6, the phrase "Soaring birds rest not" "vayah nakirasate" can only mean the seekings of knowledge of the inner sacrificer which soar upward. The symbolism of birds for the powers of knowledge soaring upward to the higher planes is fairly common in Rigveda. See, for instance, the hymns to Varuna (1.25.4, 1.25.7). The mantra of Vamadeva (4.51.5) explicitly mentions that the phrases "dvipad" and "chatushpad" refer to the movements of the jiva, the soul. "dvipachatushpada-charayayah jivam (4.51.5). "jivam" is used in the Rigveda only for the soul. Hence, "chatushpad" cannot mean "four-footed." It

can only mean the soul which can traverse the four planes or vyahritus mentioned earlier. Again consider (1.164.41) dealing with speech which uses the words "one-footed," "two-footed," "four-footed," "eight-footed," etc. Clearly animals or insects are not referred to here, but the spiritual meanings mentioned earlier. gauri mimaya salilani takshat akapadi dwipadi sa chatushpadi ashtapadi navapadi bhabhu vushi sahasrakshara parame vyoman (1.164.41). Fashioning the waters, the radiant cow of speech hath lowed, one-footed, two-footed, yea, four-footed. She of the eight feet hath become nine-footed, the thousand immutable letters in the sky supernal. There is another complementary interpretation of the twin deities Night and Day suggested by Sri Kapali Sastry, while discussing a set of suktas in Rigveda entitled apri hymns. apri means "to fill." During the inner worship or sacrifice, the human yajamana implores Agni and the other higher powers of God, through Agni, to come down and fill him with their powers. The primary deity in these hymns in Agni even though these hymns mention and invoke other gods like Indra, Ila, Saraswati, Mahi, Usha, etc. A special feature of Agni is that in his heavenward activity he is endowed with attributes that distinguish severally the other gods of the vedic system while retaining his distinguishing feature of the Divine will that is initially born as the flame of human aspiration to the divine.

There are about ten apri suktas, viz 1.13, 1.142, 1.188, 2.3, 3.4, 5.5, 7.2, 9.5, 10.70, 10.110. Each sukta has ten to thirteen mantras, the sixth or seventh mantra is dedicated to the twin deities Night and Dawn.

Day, in another way, represents the broad open light, the light of consciousness in which the different powers or the different deities are beheld severally. Usha is said to bring in all the other Gods. Each God has a distinct power. Wideness characterizes Varuna. Mightiness characterizes Indra. Moon is full of charm. Rudra is fierce and terrible. Maruts are impetuous and swift. Mitra is tender, kind and loving. Brahmanaspati is the great harmonizer, etc. "Night represents a concentration and self absorption in the consciousness, an intensity of self- gathering in what we may call the immobile, static existence in which all is absorbed". All the powers are latent in the condition. Night represents the "seed" condition whereas the "Day" represents the manifested condition. The seers realized the need for both the states of consciousness. Hence in the apri mantra (1.13.7) quoted earlier, both the deities night and day are called upon to their seat for worship and they both have auspicious form "supeshasa".

The need for their appearance is clear from the other apri mantras. sadhvapamsi sanata na ukshite usha sanakta vayyeva rnvate, tantum tatam samyanti samichi yajnasya peshah sudughe payasvati (2.3.6) Milch cows, good milers, pouring out on us, may Night and Dawn, eternal and equal sisters, come like weaving women, full of gladness, weaving out the weft that is spun, the weft of our

Note the phrase "eternal and equal" sisters. Both of them together weave the cloth of our works, make it perfect and render it a yajna, translated as sacrifice, which is an arrangement of works reflecting the harmony of all the powers of Universe.

Both Night and Day prepare the yajamana for the manifestation of the various powers of Gods in him. This idea is clear from the apri mantra (3.4.6). May night and dawn differently formed in their body, Be joined close and smile on us in their gladness, So that Mitra may take pleasure in us and Varuna or Indra with the life gods. (3.4.6).

Notice that here the night and day are prayed to be "joined close." Note the significance of invoking both night and dawn together so that the consciousness of the rishi becomes familiar with both the forms. uta yoshane divye mahi na ushasanakta sudhugheva dhenuk barhishada puruhu te maghoni a yagniye suvitaya shrayetam. (7.2.6) May too dawn and night, matrons great and divine, like good milch-cows, queens of sacrifice, queens of plenty called by many seekers, sit on the sacred grass And lodge with us for our happiness. (7.2.6)

Both Usha and Dawn together bring happiness to the rishi. surukme hi supeshasa adhi shriya vira jatah, ushasa veha si datam. (1.188.6) With gay adornment, fair to see, in glorious beauty shine they forth Let night and morning rest them here. sushilpe brhati mahi pavamano vrshanyati naktoshasa na darshate (9.5.6). Night and Dawn, beautifully formed, vast and lofty beauteous maidens, pavamana longs for. (9.5.6). devi divo duhitara sushilpe usha sa nakta sadata mni yonau, avam deva sa ushati ushanta urau si dantu subhage upaste (10.70.6). Let the two divine daughters of heaven, formed beautifully, dawn and night, sit in their native seat. O dawn and night, O you who aspire, O blissful ones, may the Gods aspiring sit on your wide lap. (10.70.6)

As Sri Kapali says, "It is this twin aspect of consciousness with necessary variation in its connotation that is the origin and support of the dictum of the upanishad that both 'knowledge and ignorance' must be known together. He who knows THAT as both in one, the knowledge and ignorance, by ignorance crosses beyond death and by the knowledge enjoys immortality" (isha upanishad).

This isha upanishad passage clearly says that both knowledge and ignorance have to be known together, and "We have heard it from the wise ones of your, who explained thus to us" iti shushruma dhi ranam ye nastad vicacaksire (isha upanishad)

Who else could be these wise ones but the mystics of vedic wisdom, "dhirah"?

We may also note that this concept of Day and night is expressed figuratively in the famous passage of the Bhagavad gita (2.69) ya ni sa sarvabhutanam tasyam jagarti samyami yasyam jagrti bhutani sanisapasyati museh. "That (higher being) which is to all creatures a night, is to the self mastering sage his waking (his luminous day of true being, knowledge and power); the life of the dualities which is to them their waking (their day, their condition of activity) is a night (a troubled sleep and darkness of the soul) to the sage who sees" (2.26).

To confirm the different interpretation of the deity night, we will quote two other mantras, one taken from the ratri sukta, the sukta dedicated to the deity night by the seer, daughter of Bharadwaja (10.127) and the other from the fifth book (5.84) of the Atri family of seers. O vipra amartya nivato devyudvatah; jyotisha badhate tamah. (10.127.2) The Goddess immortal, she fills the vast, the high and the low places; she repels darkness with light.

This (10.127.2) is the rik used by the tantriks for invoking the goddess Kali. varshantu te vibhavari divo abrasya vidyatah 1 rohantu sarvabijanyava brahmadvijo jahi O Night, disguising the light, May the lightnings of thy divine cloud pour down. May all the seeds grow; strike down the haters of the Divine (appendix of 5.84)

Usha is mentioned along with the twin-deities Ashvins in many hymns as their beloved, again indicating the psychological character of Usha. Ashvins are gods "full of capacity for enjoyment, drinkers of the honey of the soma, donors of the health to the sick, physicians. They speed like buds." Usha, their beloved, goes riding in their chariot. Usha is also mentioned as the daughter of Surya, the supreme Truth-Light (7.75.5)

1. Dawn, richly stored with substance, conscious cleave to the affirmation of him who expresses thee, O thou of the plenitudes. Goddess, ancient, yet ever young thou movest many-thoughted following the law of thy activities, O bearer of every boon.

2. Dawn divine, Shine out immortal in thy car of happy light sending forth the pleasant voices of the Truth. May steeds well-guided bear thee here who are golden-brilliant of hue and wide their might.

3. Dawn, confronting all the worlds thou standest high-uplifted and art

their perception of Immortality; do thou move over them like a wheel, O new Day, traveling over an equal field.

4. Dawn in her plenitude like one that lets fall from her a sewn robe moves, the bride of the Bliss; creating Swar, perfect in her working, perfect in her enjoying, she widens from the extremity of Heaven over the earth.

5. Meet ye the Dawn as she shines wide towards you and with surrender bring forward your complete energy. Exalted in heaven is the force to which she rises establishing the sweetness; she makes the luminous worlds to shine forth and is a vision of felicity.

6. By heaven’s illuminings one perceives her a bearer of the Truth and rapturous she comes with its varied light into the two firmaments. From Dawn as she approaches shining out on thee, O Agni, thou seekest and attainest to the substance of delight.

7. Putting forth his impulsions in the foundation of the Truth, in the foundation of the Dawns, their Lord enters the Vastness of the firmaments. Vast the wisdom of Varuna, of Mitra, as in a happy brightness, orders multitudinously the Light.

Surya Savitri in his task of illumination follows the progress of the Dawn. In another hymn the movements of the mind have been described as growing conscient and brilliant by the bright power of the continuous Dawns. Throughout the Veda Usha, daughter of Heaven, has always the same function. She is the medium of the awakening, the activity and the growth of the other gods; she is the first condition of the Vedic realisation. By her increasing illumination the whole nature of man is clarified; through her he arrives at the Truth, through her he enjoys the Beatitude. The divine dawn of the rishis is the advent of the divine Light throwing off veil after veil and revealing in man's activities the luminous godhead. In that light the Work is done, the sacrifice offered and its desirable fruits gathered by humanity.

Many are the hymns, indeed, in which rich and beautiful figures of the earthly dawn veil this inner truth of the goddess Usha, but in this hymn of the great rishi Vishwamitra the psychological symbolism of the Vedic Dawn is apparent from beginning to end by open expressions and on the surface of the thought. "O Dawn rich of store in thy substance," he cries to her, "conscient cleave to the affirmation of him who expresses thee, O thou who hast the plenitudes." The

word prachetas and the related word, vichetas, are standing terms of Vedic phraseology; they seem to correspond to the ideas expressed in later language by the Vedantic prajnana and vijnana. Prajnana is the consciousness that cognizes all things as objects confronting its observation; in the divine mind it is knowledge regarding things as their source, possessor and witness. Vijnana is comprehensive knowledge containing, penetrating into things, pervading them in consciousness by a sort of identification with their truth. Usha is to occupy the revealing thought and word of the rishi as a power of Knowledge conscient of the truth of all that is placed by them before the mind for expression in man. The affirmation, it is suggested, will be full and ample; for Usha is vajena vajini, maghoni; rich is the store of her substance; she has all the plenitudes.

This dawn moves in her progression always according to the rule of a divine action; many are the thoughts she brings in that motion, but her steps are sure and all desirable things, all supreme boons, the boons of the Ananda, the blessings of the divine existence, - are in her hands. She is ancient and eternal, the dawn of the Light that was from the beginning, purani, but in her coming she is ever young and fresh to the soul that receives her.

She is to shine wide, she that is the divine Dawn, as the light of the immortal existence bringing out in man the powers or the voices of Truth and Joy, (sunrtah, - a word which expresses at once both the true and the pleasant); for is not the chariot of her movement a car at once of light and of happiness? For again, the word candra in candraratha, - signifying also the lunar deity Soma, lord of the delight of immortality pouring into man, ananda and amrta, - means both luminous and blissful. And the horses that bring her, figure of the nervous forces that support and carry forward all our action, must be perfectly controlled; golden, bright in hue, their nature (for in this ancient symbolism color is the sign of quality, of character, of temperament) must be a dynamism of ideal knowledge in its concentrated luminousness; wide in its extension must be the mass of that concentrated force, -prthupajaso ye.

Divine Dawn comes thus to the soul with the light of her knowledge, prajnana, confronting all the worlds as field of that knowledge, - all provinces, that is to say, of our universal being, - mind, vitality, physical consciousness. She stands uplifted over them on our heights above mind, in the highest heaven, as the perception of Immortality or of the Immortal, amrtasya ketuh, revealing in them the eternal and beatific existence or the eternal all-blissful Godhead. So exalted she stands prepared to effect the motion of the divine knowledge, progressing as a new revelation of the eternal truth, navyasi, in their harmonised and equalized activities like a wheel moving smoothly over a level field; for they now, their diversities and discords removed, offer no obstacle to that equal motion.

In her plenitude she separates, as it were, and casts down from her the elaborately sown garment that covered the truth of things and moves as the wife of the Lover, the energy of her all-blissful Lord, svasarasya patni. Full in her enjoyment of the felicity, full in her effectuation of all activities, subhaga sudamsah, she brings into existence in us by her revelations Swar, the concealed luminous mind, our highest mental heaven; and thus from the farthest extremities of mental being extends herself over the physical consciousness.

As this divine Dawn pours out widely its light upon them, so have men by submission to the law of her divine act and movement to bring forward for her the fully energised completeness of their being and their capacities as a vehicle for her light or as a seat for her sacrificial activities.

The rishi then dwells on the two capital works of the divine Dawn in man, - her elevation of him to the full force of the Light and the revelation of the Truth and her pouring of the Ananda, the Amrita, the Soma-wine, the bliss of the immortal being into the mental and bodily existence. In the world of the pure mind, divi, she rises into the full force and mass of the Light, urdhvam pajo asret, and from those pure and high levels she establishes the sweetness, madhu, the honey of Soma. She makes to shine out the three luminous worlds, rocana; she is then or she brings with her the beatific vision. By the effectual illuminations of the pure mentality, through the realising Word, divo arkaih, she is perceived as the bearer of Truth and with the Truth she enters from the world above Mind, full of the delight, in a varied play of her multiple thought and activity, into the mental and bodily consciousness, those established limits between which man's action moves. It is from her, as she comes thus richly laden, vajena vajini, that Agni, the divine Force labouring here in body and mind to uplift the mortal, prays for and attains to the Soma, the wine of the Beatitude, the delightful substance.

The supramental world in us, foundation of the Truth, is the foundation of the Dawns. They are the descent upon mortal nature of the light of that immortal Truth, rtam jyotih. The Lord of the Dawns, Master of Truth, Illuminer, Creator, Organiser, putting forth in the foundation of Truth, above mind, the impulsion of his activities, enters with them by this goddess into a bodily and mental existence no longer obscured but released from their limits and capable of vastness, mahi rodasi. The Lord of Truth is the sole Lord of things. He is Varuna, soul of vastness and purity; he is Mitra, source of love and light and harmony. His creative Wisdom, mahi mitrasya varunasya maya, unlimited in its scope, - for he is Varuna, - appearing, candreva, as a light of bliss and joy, - for he is Mitra, - arranges, perfectly organises, in multitudinous forms, in the wideness of the libe- rated nature, the luminous expansions, the serene expressions of the Truth. He combines the various brilliancies with which his Dawn has entered our

firmaments; he blends into one harmony her true and happy voices.

Dawn divine is the coming of the Godhead. She is the light of the Truth and the Felicity pouring on us from the Lord of Wisdom and Bliss, amrtasya ketuh, svasarasya patni.

Pushan is one of the Adityas. He nourishes both the yajamana and the Earth. Though the home of all the Gods is high above, urdhvam ayatanam, yet their main station or field of action differs. Thus the abode of Indra, Lord of the Divine Mind, is the Mind Station, Svar. Agni is stationed on Earth. The Maruts belong to the mid-region, the Life-world. Similarly the other Gods preside over their respective places and carry on their activities. Pushan belongs to the third station; still his station is taken as the Earth because he is the lord of mother Earth, supports and nourishes her. When he nourishes by his Aditya power the outer Earth-field, physical Matter, and the inner physical consciousness and is himself nourished and manifest, then comes Usha, the Deity of the Dawn of higher Consciousness. And when the Ashvins espouse Usha, he adopts these increasing nourishment as parents (10.85.14). health-givers who effect Nourished thus, Pushan Aditya showers the bounty of Indra and becomes his brother (6.55.5). Ultimately he becomes the brother of Earth and the space (divided into quarters) (6.58.4).

Even after the slaying of Vrtra, the demons or Panis obstruct the path of the sacrificer, steal or cover the knowledge (cows); other haters of the Gods harass the devotee in his upward course, directly or indirectly, by robbing him of his wealth-Rays, veiling the path, showing wrong directions etc. It is here that the work of Pushan is specially seen. The traffickings of the Pani and the like do not affect God Pushan. He is the lord of the Paths pathaspati. He does not lose cattle. Pushan aids in the effort of the sacrificer to reach the sun-world, even while living (6.53.3, 6.53.5, 6.56.5).

Pushan nourishes the sacrificer as well as the Earth. He is the progeny of Aditya as Indra who showers the wealth of knowledge, light, strength; elder to Usha, he protects the Earth; brother of Indra, master of the route of the sacrificer, he guards the path, searches out the sacrificer, urges his effort (10.17.3).

Gods of the Veda   
 
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SAKSIVC   Page 3 of 167 Agni  
 
 Agni, brief view  
 Agni, the mystic fire 
 Agni Vaishvanara  
 Agni, the initiator  
 Agni as a friend  
 Agni Jatavedas  
 Agni, the illumined will  
  
Agni, brief view   
Devas  in the Veda form a hierarchy with Surya, the spiritual S un at the head. 
However the number of hymns in RV dedicated to Surya is small. But Agni has 
about 200 hymns and Indra , 250 out of about one thousand. The reason for the 
prominence of Agni and Indra is that human beings in their quest towards the 
all-sided perfection need the help of Agni and Indra much more and hence pray 
for them more often. The analogy is that of a student who spends more years at 
the pre -university level than in the university level itself.  
The contribution of every rishi in the Rigveda begins with several hymns to Agni , 
then to Indra and then to the other devas . The RV begins with a hymn to Agni . 
According to tradition, the japa or conscious repetition of this hymn reveals the 
knowledge this deity stands for.  
Agni in the Veda is not mere ly the fire on the vedic altar or even the deity behind 
this physical fire. The ordinary fire is a source of heat and light which prompted 
the vedic sages to symbolise the deity of spiritual Light and spiritual Force by the 
word Agni . The physical flame gi ves light all through the night amidst darkness 
and it impels human beings to study or work otherwise. Similarly the Divine 
Power of Agni is residing in every human being who is full of ignorance and in 
conscience pushing him or her towards progress. Agni is the Divine Power of will 
united with wisdom, denoted by the word kratu.  It is not desire; but it embraces 
desire and surpasses it. In the Veda Agni  is essentially Knowledge or Light taking 
the form of force. Agni is the mental force, will power, necessa ry for all action. It 
is Agni who makes the Divine knowledge of the Supreme Sun accessible to 
human beings.  

SAKSIVC   Page 4 of 167 commonly called as austerity or mistranslated as penance. He is the forc e of 
combustion in the cosmos and also the fire in the stomach jataragni who digests 
the food in man . 
In the RV Agni  is said to reside hidden in the cave of the heart , guha . The 
ordinary human being in his outward activities is unaware of the presence of 
Agni. Still Agni prompts him/her on the journey.  
After a long time, Agni , makes the outer being become aware of the Divine force 
Agni within. This important event is described as the birth of Agni. He is said to 
be born in man, jajnana, janayan in hundreds of verses.  
Many translators mistake this phrase, ‘birth of Agni’ as the birth of Agni in the 
cosmos during the process of Creation. RV refers to the birth of Agni in every 
human. Agni and other devas  are called twice born dvijanma , the first birth being 
in cosmos, the second in human. Depending on the response of the outer being 
of the human, the force of Agni , the divine will -force becomes stronger and 
stronger. Agni is pictured repeatedly as residing within and giving his direction. 
The worshipper develop s a close relationship to Agni like that of son to father, 
friend, spouse etc. Agni  reciprocates with the corresponding feeling.  
In the RV, the devas  perform not only the cosmic actions of maintaining all life, 
but also the individual actions, the credit for which performance is claimed by the 
humans. It is the devas  who make the crops grow, trees blossom, digest food in 
humans and so on. But, hum an beings take the entire credit. RV views every 
action as a collaborative effort between the devas  and the humans, the human 
role being nominal or subsidiary. This collaborative action is called as yajna , 
which is not a mere rite. Bhagavad Gita  in Chapter  4 reaffirms the vedic view of 
yajna.  
The first hymn in RV states that Agni is the master of yajna.  He is repeatedly 
referred to as the performer of yajna . Often the rishis request Agni to perform 
the yajna  and worship the other devas  on their behalf. In t he Vedic  ritual, there 
are three types of priests, adhwaryu,  the controller of path, hotr caller and the 
udgathr,  singer. These three names denote distinct functions which Agni himself 
does. Agni guides our path to perfection at every step, hence he is the  director 
of the yajna.  Agni calls all the other devas  to manifest in the human being, each 
deva developing a particular aspect of force in the human. Hence, Agni is the 
caller of the devas.  He is also called the duta, the messenger of the humans to 
the devas, to request the latter to vitalize the human. Thirdly he is called the 
singer because he empowers the human being to express his aspiration to the 
Divine and devas  by singing the hymns. Thus Agni the caller himself becomes 
the speech to be sung. In RV,  the chief method of spiritual practice is the 
chanting of the hymns. This idea is repeated in the Aitareya Upanishad (1.2.4)

SAKSIVC   Page 5 of 167 by the statement, “Agni becoming speech, vak”. This phrase makes no sense at 
all if we have not studied the Rig vedic concept of A gni. Agni propels the human 
aspirant towards perfection and hence is said to create the perfected being, the 
rishi. 
  
Agni, the mystic fire   
Even a perusal of the 253 titles of the mantras in this book will convince the 
readers that whatever Agni is, it c annot be described as a simple fire in the fire -
altar or even a forest fire.  
The ninth verse in the first hymn is a prayer to Agni ‘cling to us like a father a 
son’. We know the effect of the physical fire clinging to us! Again the same 
hymn, in verse seve n, states that obeisance or salutation to Agni is done by 
thought. In the first verse, Agni performs the yajna;  there is no mention of a 
human priest performing the yajna.  
The phrase, ‘kindling of Agni’, does occur as the title for the verse RV (1.26.5), 
verse 5 of hymn 26. Before we jump to the conclusion that this verse implies the 
kindling of the physical fire by a human, we have to read the qualifying phrases 
in the same verse, "The Gods Mitra and Varuna kindle Agni.'' Mitra is the Divine 
Force associated with friendship and harmony, Varuna with all vastness, 
including the vastness of the physical ocean.  
Again in RV (1.12.5), there is the Sanskrit word ghrta,  one of its meanings being 
melted butter, commonly poured into fire. The reader can read the discussion on 
this verse and convince himself/herself that to preserve the consistency of all the 
phrases in that verse, the alternative meaning of clarity of thought to ghrta is 
more appropriate.  
The general impression conveyed by the titles of the verse and later by the 
translations is that Agni is a Divine Force endowed with consciousness. The 
epithet Kavi or seer, or one who has supraphysical visions, is commonly used for 
Agni. 
Agni manifests his power in human beings as the commonly used epithet, ‘born 
in man’, implies. He summons the other divine powers also to manifest in man, 
hence the name summoner for Ag ni. Agni can be approached by thought as well 
by the recitation of the mantra. The rishi prays to the conscious power Agni , not 
merely for physical wealth like cows, but, all -round felicities, opulence and 
ultimately for the supreme knowledge and bliss. It is possible for a human being 
to enter into a conscious relationship with Agni lik e a friend, spouse, father, son,

SAKSIVC   Page 6 of 167 etc. We see in Rigveda the beginnings of the yoga of devotion, bhakti  yoga,  
described in later scriptures like Srimad  Bhagavatam, Bhagavad Gita,  the works 
of the ancient South Indian poets, alwars and nayanmars  etc. The las t hymn in 
this collection (1.99) is a prayer to Agni to carry us over all obstacles as in a boat 
to the shores of Supreme Bliss and Knowledge.  
Some of the most poetic and lyrical hymns in the Rigveda are the nine hymns RV 
(1.65 -1.73) by Sage Parashara.  They have a wealth of similes for Agni which are 
easily understandable only if Agni is understood as a benevolent cosmic divine 
personality. In RV (1.65.5), we find the simile, ‘Agni sits amidst waters and 
breathes like a Swan'. Because of the mantra ‘I am He ', aham sa hwhich in 
repetition or japa becomes hamsa,  there is an intense association between 
persons in deep mediation and the bird hamsa  or swan. These epithets to Agni 
remind us very much of the epithets used in the litanies to describe the 
Goddesses, as i n Lalita Sahasra Nama  (thousand names of Lalita).  Obviously 
these epithets make no sense to translators like Griffith, who insist on regarding 
Agni as a physical fire. No wonder, these verses are declared as unintelligible by 
these writers.  
  
Agni Vaishva nara - The Universal Person   
Nara in vedic Sanskrit means the hero or the leader whereas in classical Sanskrit 
it refers to the ordinary person. Vishva means the universe. Here Vaishvanara 
means the "Universal person, the one who is actively present in the  universe, in 
all things and beings, Gods and men; it also means the leader within of Gods and 
men, of the Universe and within the Universe" [Kapali Sastry, Vol. 1]. There are 
about twenty suktas  in the Rigveda where Agni is adored as the Vaishvanara, the 
Universal Person, or Leader within.  
It has been mentioned earlier that whereas the Gods of the Rigveda form a 
hierarchy with the supreme God being simply mentioned by the phrase "That 
ONE" (tad ekam),  the Seer experienced the ONE through individual Gods, 
primarily Agni. Agni is not only a distinct power and personality of the ONE, 
namely the illumined will, the knower of births of all creatures, the youngest 
God, the God who brings all other Gods into their habitation in the individual 
human being, etc. He  is also seen and experienced as the Universal person or 
being by several rishis.  We clearly see here how the strength of the spiritual 
experience or sight prevents them from forming groups, each of whom claim 
superiority for one particular God. For instan ce, the Seer Nodha Gotama hymns 
Agni as the Universal person in the sukta  (RV I.59) and in the sukta  (RV 1.61) he 
adores the deity Indra as the Ancient Person "whose greatness exceeds beyond 
heaven, earth, and mid region" (RV 1.61.9). The Rigveda is a happy compilation

SAKSIVC   Page 7 of 167 of the distinct and individual experiences of more tha n one hundred seers with 
no note of discordance or disharmony. Seer hymns a God with some epithets 
used by others and some not used by others. If we compile the hymns of 
different seers to the same God (as Sri Aurobindo did regarding the deity Agni), 
we ca n easily see the special powers and personality associated with each deity. 
For instance, take the word "adhbhuta"  or wonderful. It is used more than 
twenty times in the Rigveda , almost always as an appellation of the God Agni 
(except once when it is used for Indra). Again the word kumara  or jatavedas  is 
used only in connection with Agni. Even though the Gods are described in 
superlative epithets, the set of phrases describing each God is clearly distinct, 
indicating that the different Seers who hymn Indra really had the vision of that 
deity doing the divine tasks attributed to that deity.  
It is also important to study the hymns dedicated to the Vaishvanara Agni 
because they form the basis for the experience of the Upanishadic seers named 
as "vaishvanara vi dya" appearing in the Chandogya upanishad . There are several 
such bridges between the Rigveda and the upanishads like the doctrine of mystic 
honey, which will be considered elsewhere.  
The glories of Agni Vaishvanara are extolled in about twenty suktas  of the 
Rigveda . Translations of three of them will be given here with appropriate 
comments. All other fires are only thy branches. In thee, rejoice all the Gods. 
Thou, Vaishvanara, art the navel of men and supports them like a pillar (RV 
1.59.1).  
Agni has se veral forms depending on his functions. Primarily, Agni is the Divine 
and Will ( kratu) who is eager to take birth in every person to lead him/her to the 
higher realm. This is the spiritual function. Agni is also the cosmic fire which 
maintains the universe . He is also the fire in the individual living being, jatara 
Agni, who coordinates all the forces of digestion and makes life possible. Thus 
the rishi, Nodasa Gotama, says that all other fires, representative of their 
different functions, are only your bra nches. The ritualistic interpretation of the 
phrase "all other fires" as different sacrificial fires in different houses is too 
narrow an interpretation.  
All the Gods rejoice in Agni because he begins the task in which all of them are 
involved, namely the  divinization of man here on earth. Agni, the Divine force 
and will, supports every creature just as pillars support a house. Head of heaven, 
centre of earth, Agni became the messenger of heaven and earth. O 
Vaishvanara, the Gods manifested thee as Light for the pilgrim sacrificer 
(1.59.2).  
Even though Agni is stationed in the higher realms of heaven, his center of 
activity is on earth. In the veda,  human life is viewed as a pilgrimage fro m our

SAKSIVC   Page 8 of 167 imperfect state to a perfected condition, envisioned as the heaven. The individual 
progresses in this journey by means of offering all he has, all he is, all he does to 
the supreme. Agni provides the Light for this journey. Like the rays are firmly s et 
in the Sun, All treasures are vested in Vaishvanara . Thou art the monarch of all 
the treasures in the mountains, in the herbs, waters, in men RV (1.59.3). Heaven 
and Earth got wide extended as it were for their Son. He, the priest, sings our 
words even  as a man. Several are the flame powers of Vaishvanara , superb 
leader, luminous, with truth -sustaining light RV (1.59.4).  
Heaven denotes the pure domain of Mind and earth, the wakeful domain of 
matter. Agni who is born in the human sacrificer ( yajamana ) to manifest the 
power is called as the Son. Both heaven and earth widen themselves in the 
sacrificer to facilitate the birth of the Son. Agni Vaishvanara performed all the 
functions of the yajamana,  such as chanting the hymns. Agni Vaishvanara , 
knower of all existences, thy glory exceeds the great heavens. Thou art the 
sovereign of the striving peoples. Thou has brought the supreme good to the 
Gods by battle RV (1.59.5). I extol the greatness of the showerer, whom men 
celebrate as slayer of Vritra. He, the  Vaishvanara Agni, slew the Dasyu, Thrust 
the waters down, cleaving the Shambara RV (1.59.6).  
The epithet "knower of all existences" ( jatavedas ) is used exclusively for Agni in 
many places, clearly indicating the inadequacy of translating Agni as a mere 
physical fire. The last line refers to the battle between Gods, the powers of Light 
and Dasyus, the power of darkness. Even though Indra, the God of Divine Mind, 
is the leader in this battle, in this rik, he is identified with Agni since Agni is being 
extolled as the universal Godhead here. Thus the vedic conception of Gods is 
always subtle and never rigid. This is the Universal Godhead. The lustrous 
master of sacrifice, the flame with his hundred treasures, who, by his greatness, 
labours in all the peoples.  This is he who has the Word of Truth RV (1.59.7).  
The last line is very significant. Agni has the word of truth (Sunratawan) which 
has the power of fulfillment.  
Next we will take another hymn RV (1.98) dedicated to the Agni Vaishvanara . 
May we be in th e grace of Vaishvanara, for he is the foremost to be served, 
Sovereign of all beings. Spring hence, He beholds the universe and unites with 
the Sun RV (1.98.1). Set in Heaven, set in Earth Agni pervades all the plants. 
May Agni Vaishvanara , set in vigour,  guard us from the foe day and night. O 
Vaishvanara, may this truth be attainable to us. May wealth laden with high 
riches wait upon us. May it be preserved for us by Mitra, Varuna, Aditi, Ocean, 
Earth and Heaven. (1.98.3). Agni pervades the entire univers e, manifests 
individually in each person and grows in him/her, and connects each person to 
the Light above, the Sun (in the first rik). A common feature of the vedic hymns 
is a prayer to guard us from the foes, the forces of darkness who are opposed to

SAKSIVC   Page 9 of 167 the growth of the force of Light in man. Even though some moderns may scoff at 
such a conception, the activity of the forces of darkness and falsehood is tangible 
for all persons who have done some spiritual practice. Only the forces of divine 
and not any pur ely human agency can protect us from these forces of falsehood.  
The hymn closes with the recognition of the roles played by the various Gods in 
our divinization and journey to the higher realms of Light.  
Some other references to Vaishvanara Agni will be referred here. (Kapali and 
Aurobindo translations modified). The messenger between Earth and heaven; 
with his Light he envelops the Vast Home RV (3.3.2). He is the measure for the 
seers and hymnists RV (3.3.4). At thy birth, thou has filled the worlds and earth 
and heaven Thou are there enveloping them with all thyself RV (3.3.10). I am 
from my birth the knower of all things I am measurer of the world RV (3.26.7). 
The heights of heaven were measured by this universal force, They were shaped 
by the intuition  of the Immortal (6.7.6). Vaishvanara at his birth in the Supreme 
Heaven measured out the vast space (6.8.2). Born in the Supreme Heaven Thou 
like wind reaches at once the place of Gods (7.5.7). At thy birth, thou fillest the 
earth and heaven (7.13.2). Tho u art the head of the world (10.88.5).  
This vedic tradition of the universal Godhead has been preserved in the sadhana  
of the upanishads named as the vaishvanara vidya.  The particular passage 
occurs in the chandogya upanishad (V. 11 -18). The passage is "I n all worlds, in 
all beings, in all selves, he eats the food." "sa sarveshu lokeshu sarveshu 
bhuteshu sarveshu atmasu annam atti."   
In this passage the seer Ashvapathi, who also happens to be the king, instructs 
his pupils Aruni and others in the art of li ving in accord with the truths of the 
Vaishvanara, the universal Person. "As the sustenance of the material body is 
indispensable for living, he enjoins upon them not to eat the food and live as if 
the vaishvanara atman  (the self of Vaishvanara) were somet hing separate, but to 
live - and eat for living - with the knowledge of Him as the ONE FIRE who lives 
aglow in all the creatures. Anyone who so lives, lives also for other souls, for 
other beings around, for the rest of the whole universe. He lives in cons cious 
union with Him, lives a conscious life aware of the fact that what we call 
creatures are formations for the housing of the Great Presence of the Universal 
Fire, the Vaishvanara Agni. When he eats, he knows and feels that it is the 
awakened Fire of th e Universal Person in him that eats. His living is a source of 
joy and power to the living of others, to the general progress of the world, of all 
beings and of the human kind in particular that is closer to his/her level." [Kapali, 
Vol. 1, p. 215].  
The vedic tradition of a deity, who is not only a separate power and personality 
of the Divine, but who also is viewed as the universal Godhead, has come down

SAKSIVC   Page 10 of 167 into our times as the chosen deity ( ishta devata ) associated with each person 
who guides him/her to th e highest. We have to remember that the practice of 
adoring Agni both as a separate power and as the universal Godhead is based on 
the intuitions and spiritual experiences of the vedic seers and not on any 
intellectual arguments. When the role of the intel lect became stronger and when 
it was not followed by strong spiritual experiences, we see the development of 
different cults, each one having with a fixed a rigid hierarchy of Gods, the 
hierarchy justified by intellectual arguments. Naturally the highest G od in one 
system is not the same in the other leading naturally to the quarrel between the 
cults. All these quarrels occur because the powers of intellect which insist on the 
differentiation and distinction, and the power of the heart which leads to unity 
have not been harmonized. This power of harmony, labeled Vijnara by Sri 
Aurobindo, is still latent in most of us. We can clearly hope for a time when these 
diverse and often divisive forces can be harmonized.  
  
Agni, the initiator of Divine Life in Man   
More than three thousand riks out of eleven thousand in the Rigveda  samhita  are 
dedicated to the God Agni. This feature does not indicate that Agni occupies the 
highest place in the hierarchy of vedic Gods - that role is assigned to Surya 
Savitri or Vish nu. Agni's preeminence comes from the fact that he initiates 
everyone to spiritual life and lays its foundation, which obviously takes a long 
time and effort. Thus every seer acknowledges his/her great debt to the deity by 
chanting several hymns to him adorin g him and describing his glories.  
A rough analogy to the role played by Agni in the spiritual life of a person is the 
primary education given to a child. Even though in the educational hierarchy, the 
graduate or post graduate education is considered highe r than that of the 
primary school, the important role played by primary school education, clearly 
signified by its name, is crucial to a person.  
Persons of the vedic age pondered on the question of how they can be free of 
the limitations posed by the mate rial life so that they can behold again the 
infinite divine mother and become conscious of the infinity surrounding us. This 
searching attitude can be seen in the famous hymn of the Seer Shunahshepa in 
the RV (1.24.1). Which auspicious Name of God among Im mortals Shall we call? 
Who is he that will restore us to the mighty Aditi that I may behold the Father 
and the Mother? kasyu nunam katamasya amritanam manamahe caru devasya 
nama...  (1.24.1).  
Father represents the consciousness that is of the pure Mind; th e consciousness 
that extends and is awake in the physical world is Earth, the Mother. The

SAKSIVC   Page 11 of 167 persons of the vedic age had the intuitive perception that a God can be invoked 
by uttering (manamahe)  his auspicious (charu)  name (nama).  The word 
manamahe  comes fro m the root "man" which indicates the act of worship, 
contemplation, meditation, etc. The vedic persons had immense faith in the 
power of the name. The rik quoted above begins with the word "nunam"  
(doubt). The person does not know yet the name that can be called which will 
give the appropriate response.  
The answer comes to the praying person.  
agneh vayam prathamasya amrtanam manamahe karu devasya nama ... The 
auspicious name of Agni, first among the immortals, (we) utter... (1.24.2).  
We have seen earlier that every word carries a force of realization with it. There 
are many other places in the Rigveda when the aspirant asks "what word is 
uttered to Agni?" Note that Agni itself is a potent word. In addition, the seer is 
looking for the correct word which af firms the God and leads to his realization. 
This word must be illuminative of the power of Agni.  
The answer comes in the rik quoted above (1.24.2). The auspicious word for 
Agni is "prathamasya amrtanam,"  the "first among the immortals." Agni is born 
first in man and then helps in the manifestation of other gods in us later.  
As Sri Kapali Sastry says, "Agni's function begins as the voice in man, agnir vag  
bhutah.  It is this aspect of Agni that the vedic sages were initially impressed with 
and used prayers to evoke him so that he may awake and take up the function 
of being first among immortals and of calling the higher powers. Vak as hymns, 
prayers addressed to Agni first and other Gods later, was the main instrument of 
their spiritual effort." The rishis were clearly not unaware of the spiritual 
methods used in later times like meditation and concentration on sacred 
syllables.  
The self offering and self giving the rishis was done through Vak, of which the 
prayer was the motor force. "The inspired nature of  the vedic Vak tended to 
attach greater importance to and enhance the value of the sacred utterance and 
the result was tangible, and comparatively speaking, unfailing as can be seen 
from a close study of most of the hymns addressed to the Gods in the Rigve da... 
Vak was the chief means used to awaken the Great God of the Earth, Agni, 
seated in the heart of man. Agni, then, is Vak, the power of expression, the voice 
of call, on the physical plane; in his subtler aspect at the back of the voice, he is 
the psyc hic fire whose flame throws up the force of Aspiration in the march 
toward the Godhead; radically he is the Godhead himself, his will secret in the 
heart of things." (Kapali, Vol. 1, pp. 355 -356).

SAKSIVC   Page 12 of 167 The word or laud as the unifying force between Agni and th e seer is again 
brought out in 1.26.9. O immortal, may intimate words be mutual to both, to you 
and us mortals (1.26.9). In this rik, "prasastayah"  means praises, secret words in 
confidence.  
In 1.26.10, the seer calls upon Agni to accept the laud (vachah)  and establish 
happiness in him. Agni is addressed as vision of immortality in 1.13.5 [ amrtasya  
chakshanam ].  
The hymn 1.77 starts with a similar question. How shall we give to Agni? For him 
what word accepted by the Gods is spoken?" The answer is heard by  the seer. 
That name is "martyeshu amrita rta barvah" . i.e., Agni who is "immortal in 
mortals and possessed of the Truth."  
The hymn RV 1.31 is particularly revealing of the problems encountered by the 
beginner. This hymn is addressed by the Seer Hiranyast upa Angirasa. The first 
three riks begin with the phrase "tvam agne praithamo,"  "You are important or 
first in the birth of the various Gods like Vayu." The beginner laments much 
about the difficulties in the path. The beginner is labeled "pururavase,"  "one who 
cries or laments to reach the high station." For such a person, Agni is sukrltarah,  
the superb doer of Gods.  
Another reference for the help given by Agni to the beginner is 1.31.14. 
"Superbly knowing, thou instructs the immature in all directions." The word used 
for immature is "pakam,"  that which is to be cooked.  
The God Agni helps and leads a devotee even when the devotee or sacrificer is 
not helpful. The seer prays in (1.31.16). "O Agni, as we have gone far from thee 
in the path, forgive this off ense. Thou art our relative... Thou art the maker of 
seers of mortals."  
The last line, "martyanam rsikrt," making seers out of mortals, is the special 
characteristic of Agni.  
Similarly in 1.31.6, the Seer addresses Agni as one who takes the devotee away 
from the crooked path and leads the person to the divine place that has to be 
known, vidatha.  Agni establishes the mortal man in high immortality for daily 
inspiration. "amrtatva uttame martam dadhasi divedive."  It is clear that Agni is 
establishing immort ality in man on this earth, not after the physical death of 
man. The same rik says that Agni creates for the devotee both happiness 
(mayah)  and pleasure (prayah)  [1.31.7]. The vedic seers believed in a rich and 
harmonious life where pleasures were not shun ned. They were accepted and 
enjoyed as gifts from the great God. In 1.31.9, Agni is called upon to fashion a 
new body for the devotee, ( tanu barkrt ), a body fit for the divine birth. Similarly

SAKSIVC   Page 13 of 167 in 1.71.4, yoga. Agni is stirred into action by the prana.  This is the basis for the 
statement in svetashvatara upanishad where the devotee calls for a body which 
has been purified by the Agni yoga (yogagni mayam sariram).  Mortals kindle 
thee O Agni with words of invocation (1.36.7). We pray to Agni, the great, with 
auspicious words for you all (1.36.1). Youthful Agni, auspicious, in thee alone all 
oblations are offered, convey it to the Gods (1.36.6).  
  
Agni as a friend and Purifier - Hymns of Seer Kusta   
All the hymns of the Seers of Rigveda share a common language.  Most of them 
use the symbolism of fire -ritual. For instance, Kutsa says "may we be able to 
kindle thee, may we collect the fuel" (1.94). In the same rik, the seer makes 
clear that he is not referring to the physical fire: "Perfect our thoughts...." Still 
each rishi approaches the gods in a different way. Rig vedic  hymns are records 
of spiritual experiences of the rishis.  Just as we do not find any two human 
beings identical (or for that matter, any two trees or stones), similarly spiritual 
realizations of two rishis are distinct from one another. Different rishis deal with 
different aspects of spiritual realization and there is no end to it. Still just as each 
poet has his/her own style of writing, each rishi has his/her own unique 
realizations and unique style for expressing them. In addition, the compiler of 
Rigveda has made sure that contributions of the different seers are 
complimentary and that each seer makes some unique spiritual observations not 
made by others.  
The Seer Kutsa's relationship to the Gods l ike Indra and Agni is that of a friend. 
Kutsa's hymns to Indra are reminiscent of  the pleadings and prayers of Arjuna to 
his friend, the great God Krishna in the epic Mahabharata.  
Kutsa dwells on an important aspect of Agni, namely that of purifier. Several 
commentators say that " veda desires all sins to be atoned for immediately 
expatriated through fire ritual" (Bose, p. 219) and the basis is the hymn RV. 
1.97. Before we go into the role of Agni as purifier, we have to inquire into the 
ideas of Rigveda on sin itself. The word in veda for sin or evil is "papma"  or 
"Agha."  veda does not  divide all actions into two rigid classes, the so -called good 
and evil. Rather, evil or sin is "basically a dark and opposing block of forces that 
prevents the release of the juice of delight, the flow of Soma (Kapali, p. 1.121). 
The evil forces enter the se persons who offer a welcome as it were to them and 
the evil forces express themselves through humans in various forms. Rigveda 
mentions, for example, the person who would bring evil by voice or speech 
(aghashamsah,  4.4.3, 10.87.20, 6.8.5, 8.60.8), one w ho expresses evil through 
actions ( aghayatah, aghayan,  4.2.6, 4.2.9). For example, in the much later book, 
the bhagavad  gita, Arjuna asks his friend Krishna "Why does a man commit sin

SAKSIVC   Page 14 of 167 forced as it were." Sri Krishna answers that the great forces of evil ( maha 
papma ) characterizing force of desire and anger ( kama esha krodha esha... 
maha papma... ).  
We will consider the Rigveda 1.97 for detailed study. Its seer is Kutsa and it has 
8 mantras.  Each mantra ends with the refrain "May our sin wither in lament." O  
Agni, may our sin wither in lament, shine thy wealth on us. May our sin wither in 
lament (1.97.1). For happy fields, for safe paths, for wealth, we worship thee. 
May our sin wither in lament (1.97.2). Most auspicious among the lauders be 
Kutsa. Most auspi cious be our wise ones. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.3). 
As thy worshippers become wise ones, May we, thine, O Agni, become likewise. 
May our sin wither in lament (1.97.4). As the conquering lustres of Agni go to 
every side may our sin wither in lame nt. To every side thy face is turned; Thou 
art our guardian everywhere. May our sin wither in lament (1.97.6). O thou who 
facest all sides, Take us beyond the foes as over the river May our sin wither in 
lament. Do thou convey us beyond, As in a ship for o ur welfare May our sin 
wither in lament (1.97.8).  
In the entire hymn, there is not even a hint of the idea that the performance of a 
fire ritual is an atonement for a sin. The refrain "may our sin wither in lament" 
makes it clear that the Seer prays for A gni to destroy the forces of evil lodged in 
him so that they may wither. Note the use of the words "wither in lament." 
These forces are not abstract things. Rather they are personifications and they 
resist and lament being dislodged from a habitation in th e particular human 
being.  
Each one of the eight mantras indicates a different step or process in the 
eradication of the sin.  
The first mantra  says that only if Agni shines his wealth, namely the force of 
unshakable will, can these forces of evil be dislo dged.  
The second mantra  says safe paths or happy fields are not possible if these 
forces persist. So the Seer calls upon Agni to destroy these forces.  
The fourth mantra  is the key. Only as wisdom dawns in the worshipper can these 
forces be thrown out.  
The fifth mantra  says that the forces of evil are lodged in every part of our 
personality. So the conquering lustres of Agni should pierce every side and 
dislodge these forces.  
The seventh and eighty mantras  clearly state that even when the environment 
may be permeated by these evil forces, Agni takes the worshipper safely across

SAKSIVC   Page 15 of 167 these waters just like a good boat takes a traveler through stormy waters to the 
destination.  
It is also instructive to see how the same Sanskrit mantra  may suffer a grotesque 
translation. Take the example of the first half of 1.97.4. The translation of 
Griffiths is: So that thy worshippers and we thine, Agni, in our sons may live. The 
first two lines of the translation due to Kapali Sastry are: As thy worshippers 
become wise ones May we, thine, O Agni, become likewise. Note the vast 
difference in the meaning. The translation of Griffiths is incoherent. The 
difference between the two translations lies in the different meanings given to 
the word pra-jayemahi.  Griffiths translates praja as son as in classical Sanskrit 
and translates prajayemahi  as "to live in our sons." But the use of the word 
"surayaha"  wise ones is redundant because both wise ones and stupid have 
children. All through the Rigveda Sri Kapali Sastry assigns for prajayemahi  the 
meaning of "to become wise." [Also consider Sri Aurobindo's translation in which 
he uses praja in two different w ays.]  
Let us now consider the Kutsa's hymn to Agni emphasizing his friendship (1.94). 
Kutsa uses the words associated with the physical ritual like fire, but quickly adds 
phrases like "perfect our thoughts," etc., to emphasize the fact that he is using 
the physical ritual only as a symbol of the spiritual transformation occurring in his 
inner worlds. In Kutsa's hymns, it is clear that Agni himself is the sacrificer and 
not any human. Agni accomplishes everything for the human worshipper. He 
accomplishes un obstructed, He gains heroic might for whom, O Agni, thou 
sacrifices, Evil does not touch him. May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy 
friendship (1.94.2). May we, O Agni, collect the fuel, prepare the oblations 
reminding ourselves of the successive st eps. Perfect our thoughts to prolong our 
life. May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.4). Graceful of 
form, O Agni, thou art alike on every side. When we see him from afar, yet he 
seems near to us, So brilliantly he shines across the  gulfs. He sees beyond the 
darkness of our night May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship 
(1.94.7). God among Gods, O Agni, thou are a great friend. Handsome, thou 
confirms the riches in the sacrifice. Under thy most wide protection, may we 
dwell, May we not, O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship (1.94.13).  
Each mantra  in this hymn of fifteen mantras,  ends with the refrain "May we not, 
O Agni, suffer separation in thy friendship." As mentioned earlier, Kutsa uses 
some aspect of the esot eric or physical ritual as a symbol of the inner sacrifice. 
For instance, in (1.94.7), the phrase "thou art alike on every side" means that 
Agni is equally effective in illuminating all the different (inner) aspect of the Seer 
Kutsa, which may be illumined  or in a state of obscurity. The phrase "darkness of 
the night" refers to the state of consciousness which is completely dark and has 
not been penetrated by the light.

SAKSIVC   Page 16 of 167   
Agni Jatavedas - Knower of the Birth   
The epithet jatavedas  for Agni is found in many hymns. We will consider one 
such hymn, 1.99, for discussion It is the shortest sukta  in the Rigveda , having 
exactly one mantra.  It is repeated in later upanishad literature such as 
Mahanarayana upanishad ( anuvaka  two) as  part of durga sukta,  the sukta 
dedicated to durga.  It is used extensively in the tantric  literature and is part of 
the Prapanchasara tantra.  It is recited to purify the environment in all vedic 
rituals.  
The rishi of this hymn (I -99) is Kashyapa of, the s on of Maricha. The metre is 
trishtubh. Agni is called knower of the births or knower of the worlds because he 
knows entirely the five worlds, the worlds in which, respectively, Matter, Life -
energy, Mind, Truth and Beatitude are the essential energies. They  are 
respectively bhur, bhuvar, svar, mahas, and jana or mayas  (Sri Aurobindo). This 
is also the classification of worlds in the taittireya upanishad . Even though veda 
speaks of seven worlds, there is no conflict here because the world jana 
mentioned here represents the higher triple world of sat, chit, ananda  or 
Existence, knowledge and bliss, in the other classification involving seven worlds.  
jatavedase sunavama somam aratiyato nidahati vedah sa nah parshadati durgani 
vishva naveva sindhum durita ati ag nih (1.99.1). To jatavedas,  we offer the 
Soma, May he burn up the knowledge of our enemies. May Agni carry us through 
all difficulties, through grief as in a boat across a river.  
What is the Soma mentioned here? If it is the herb, what connection could th ere 
be between an herb and the knower of all births? Western translators are fond of 
repeating that Soma is an intoxicating herb. However, all the Indian medicinal 
texts on herbs, both ancient and medieval, mention several plants belonging to 
the Soma fami ly, but none of them possess any intoxicating properties. We have 
to look into Rigveda itself to understand the nature of Soma. The entire ninth 
book of Rigveda is dedicated to Soma. For instance, consider the following 
instances: Soma with thy natural pow ers thou pervades the all and flows Thou 
art the king and Lord of all the whole world (9.85.6). When they crush the herb, 
one thinks he has drunk the Soma, But no one ever tastes him whom brahmanas  
know to be Soma (10.85.3). These two quotations dismiss al l notions of Soma as 
a creeper or Soma. The real meaning of Soma is "sarva  anubhuti rasam,"  the 
distilled essence and delight of all experiences. Everything in this universe from 
the smallest particle to man exists only because it has in it the "rasa"  or delight 
of existence. When we perform any work without expecting any return, the work 
releases its hidden Soma which brings us a touch of delight, the basis of the later 
karma yoga.  Soma, the essence of all of our actions and experiences, is purified

SAKSIVC   Page 17 of 167 and of fered to the knower of all births.  
We have mentioned earlier that Agni represents both Light and force. The rishi 
prays to Agni to protect his pilgrimage to the higher worlds from the onslaughts 
of the non -human evil powers who do not want the humans to p rogress and thus 
go beyond their grasp. Agni is called upon to destroy the wealth and knowledge 
of these non -human enemies. An interesting feature of this mantra  is the 
analogy of the spiritual journey of the aspirant to one on a boat in a rough river 
or sea. Just as the sea has unfriendly creatures like crocodiles, the spiritual 
journey has also unfriendly powers. Just as a boat protects us from direct 
contact with the unfriendly creatures in the sea, Agni creates a protective 
environment around the aspira nt so that he is free from unfriendly attacks. 
Recall the mantra (1.1.4) in which Agni is called upon to offer a protective 
enclosure to the onward path of the aspirant. The English word navy is derived 
from the Sanskrit word nava and this is one of the ea rliest references in history 
to travel by a boat.  
  
Agni, the illumined will (RV 1.77)   
1. How shall we give to Agni? For him what Word accepted by the Gods is 
spoken, for the lord of the brilliant flame? for him who in mortals, immortal, 
possessed of the  Truth, priest of the oblation strongest for sacrifice, creates the 
gods ?  
2. He who in the sacrifices is the priest of the offering, full of peace, full of the 
Truth, him verily form in you by your surrenderings; when Agni manifests for the 
mortals the go ds, he also has perception of them and by the mind offers to them 
the sacrifice.  
3. For he is the will, he is the strength, he is the effecter of perfection, even as 
Mitra he becomes the charioteer of the Supreme. To him, the first, in the rich -
offerings t he people seeking the godhead utter the word, the Aryan people to 
the fulfiller.  
4. May this strongest of the Powers and devourer of the destroyers manifest by 
his presence the words and their understanding, and may they who in their 
extension are lords of  plenitude, brightest in energy, pour forth their plenty and 
give their impulsion to the thought.  
5.  Thus has Agni, possessed of the Truth, been affirmed by the masters of light, 
the knower of the worlds by clarified minds. He shall foster in them the for ce of 
illumination, he too the plenty; he shall attain to increase and to harmony by his

SAKSIVC   Page 18 of 167 perceptions.  
   
COMMENTARY  
Gotama Rahugana is the seer of this Hymn, which is a stoma  in praise of Agni, 
the divine Will at work in the universe.    
Agni is the most im portant, the most universal of the Vedic gods. In the physical 
world he is the general devourer and enjoyer. He is also the purifier; when he 
devours and enjoys, then also he purifies. He is the fire that prepares and 
perfects; he is also the fire that ass imilates and the heat of energy that forms. 
He is the heat of life and creates the sap, the rasa in things, the essence of their 
substantial being and the essence of their delight.  
He is equally the Will in Prana, the dynamic Life -energy, and in that energ y 
performs the same functions. Devouring and enjoying, purifying, preparing, 
assimilating, forming, he rises upwards always and transfigures his powers into 
the Maruts, the energies of Mind. Our passions and obscure emotions are the 
smoke of Agni's burning . All our nervous forces are assured of their action only 
by his support.  
If he is the Will in our nervous being and purifies it by action, he is also the Will 
in the mind and clarifies it by aspiration. When he enters into the intellect, he is 
drawing nea r to his divine birth -place and home. He leads the thoughts towards 
effective power; he leads the active energies towards light.  
His divine birth -place and home, - though he is born everywhere and dwells in all 
things, - is the Truth, the Infinity, the vas t cosmic Intelligence in which 
Knowledge and Force are unified. For there all Will is in harmony with the truth 
of things and therefore effective; all thought part of Wisdom, which is the divine 
Law, and therefore perfectly regulative of a divine action. A gni fulfilled becomes 
mighty in his own home - in the Truth, the Right, the Vast. It is thither that he is 
leading upward the aspiration in humanity, the soul of the Aryan, the head of the 
cosmic sacrifice.  
It is at the point where there is the first   poss ibility of the great passage, the 
transition from mind to supermind, the transfiguration of the intelligence, till now 
the crowned leader of the mental being, into a divine Light, - it is at this supreme 
and crucial point in the Vedic Yoga that the Rishi, Gotama Rahugana, seeks in 
himself for the inspired Word. The Word shall help him to realise for himself and 
others the Power that must effect the transition and the state of luminous

SAKSIVC   Page 19 of 167 plenitude from which the transfiguration must commence.  
The Vedic sacrifi ce is, psychologically, a symbol of cosmic and individual activity 
become self -conscious, enlightened and aware of its goal. The whole process of 
the universe is in its very nature a sacrifice, voluntary or involuntary. Self -
fulfillment by self -immolation,  to grow by giving is the universal law. That which 
refuses to give itself, is still the food of the cosmic Powers. "The eater eating is 
eaten" is the formula, pregnant and terrible, in which the Upanishad sums up 
this aspect of the universe, and in anothe r passage men are described as the 
cattle of the gods. It is only when the law is recognized and voluntarily accepted 
that this kingdom of death can be over passed and by the works of sacrifice 
Immortality made possible and attained. All the powers and pot entialities of the 
human life are offered up, in the symbol of a sacrifice, to the divine Life in the 
Cosmos.  
Knowledge, Force and Delight are the three powers of the divine Life; thought 
and its formations, will and its works, love and its harmonisings ar e the 
corresponding human activities which have to be exalted to the divine level. The 
dualities of truth and falsehood, light and darkness, conceptional right and wrong 
are the confusions of knowledge born of egoistic division; the dualities of egoistic 
love and hatred, joy and grief, pleasure and pain are the confusions of Love, 
perversities of Ananda; the dualities of strength and weakness, sin and virtue, 
action and inaction are the confusions of will, dissipaters of the divine Force. And 
all these conf usions arise and even become necessary modes of our action 
because the triune powers of the divine Life are divorced from each other, 
Knowledge from Strength, Love from both, by the Ignorance which divides. It is 
the Ignorance, the dominant cosmic Falsehoo d that has to be removed. Through 
the Truth, then, lies the road to the true harmony, the consummated felicity, the 
ultimate fulfillment of love in the divine Delight. Therefore, only when the Will in 
man becomes divine and possessed of the Truth, amrtah r tava, can the 
perfection towards which we move be realized in humanity.  
Agni, then, is the god who has to become conscient in the mortal. Him the 
inspired Word has to express, to confirm in this gated mansion and on the altar -
seat of this sacrifice.  
"How m ust we give to Agni?" asks the Rishi. The word for the sacrificial giving, 
dasema , means literally distribution; it has a covert connection with the root das 
in the sense of discernment. The sacrifice is essentially an arrangement, a 
distribution of the hu man activities and enjoyments among the different cosmic 
Powers to whose province they by right belong. Therefore the hymns repeatedly 
speak of the portions of the gods. It is the problem of the right arrangement and 
distribution of his works that presents  itself to the sacrificer; for the sacrifice

SAKSIVC   Page 20 of 167 must be always according to the Law and the divine ordainment ( rtu, the later 
vidhi). The will to right arrangement is an all -important preparation for the reign 
of the supreme Law and Truth in the mortal.  
The s olution of the problem depends on right realization, and right realization 
starts from the right illuminative Word, expression of the inspired Thought which 
is sent to the seer out of the Vast. Therefore the Rishi asks farther, "What word 
is uttered to Agn i?" What word of affirmation, what word of realization? Two 
conditions have to be satisfied. The Word must be accepted by other divine 
Powers, that is, it must bring out some potentiality in the nature or bring into it 
some light of realization by which th e divine Workers may be induced to manifest 
in the superficial consciousness of humanity and embrace openly their respective 
functions. And it must be illuminative of the double nature of Agni, this Lord of 
the lustrous flame. Bhama  means both a light of k nowledge and a flame of 
action. Agni is a Light as well as a Force.  
The Word arrives. yo martyeshu amrta h rtava . Agni is, pre -eminently, the 
Immortal in mortals. It is this Agni by whom the other bright sons of Infinity are 
able to work out the manifestation and self -extension of the Divine ( devaviti,  
devatati ) which is at once aim and proc ess of the cosmic and of the human 
sacrifice. For he is the divine Will which in all things is always present, is always 
destroying and constructing, always building and perfecting, supporting always 
the complex progression of the universe. It is this whic h persists through all 
death and change. It is eternally and inalienably possessed of the Truth. In the 
last obscuration of Nature, in the lowest unintelligence of Matter, it is this Will 
that is a concealed knowledge and compels all these darkened movemen ts to 
obey, as if mechanically, the divine Law and adhere to the truth of their Nature. 
It is this which makes the tree grow according to its seed and each action bear 
its appropriate fruit. In the obscurity of man's ignorance, - less than material 
Nature' s, yet greater, - it is this divine Will that governs and guides, knows the 
sense of his blindness and the goal of his aberration and out of the crooked 
workings of the cosmic Falsehood in him evolves the progressive manifestation 
of the cosmic Truth. Alon e of the brilliant Gods, he burns bright and has full 
vision in the darkness of Night no less than in the splendours of day. The other 
gods are usarbudhah,  wakers with the Dawn.  
Therefore is he the priest of the offering, strongest or most apt for sacrific e, he 
who, all -powerful, follows always the law of the Truth. We must remember that 
the oblation ( havya ) signifies always action ( karma ) and each action of mind or 
body is regarded as a giving of our plenty into the cosmic being and the cosmic 
intention. A gni, the divine Will, is that which stands behind the human will in its 
works. In the conscient offering, he comes in front; he is the priest set in front

SAKSIVC   Page 21 of 167 (purah -hita), guides the oblation and determines its effectiveness.  
By this self -guided Truth, by thi s knowledge that works out as an unerring Will in 
the Cosmos, he fashions the gods in mortals. Agni manifests divine potentialities 
in a death -besieged body; Agni brings them to effective actuality and perfection. 
He creates in us the luminous forms of the  Immortals.  
This work he does as a cosmic Power labouring upon the rebellious human 
material even when in our ignorance we resist the heavenward impulse and, 
accustomed to offer our actions to the egoistic life, cannot yet or as yet will not 
make the divin e surrender. But it is in proportion as we learn to subjugate the 
ego and compel it to bow down in every act to the universal Being and to serve 
consciously in its least movements the supreme Will, that Agni himself takes 
form in us. The Divine Will become s present and conscient in a human mind and 
enlightens it with the divine Knowledge. Thus it is that man can be said to form 
by his toil the great Gods.  
The Sanskrit expression is here a krnudhvam . The preposition gives the idea of a 
drawing upon oneself o f something outside and the working or shaping it out in 
our own consciousness. A kr corresponds to the converse expression, a bhu , 
used of the gods when they approach the mortal with the contact of Immortality 
and, divine form of godhead falling on form o f humanity, "become", take shape, 
as it were, in him. The cosmic Powers act and exist in the universe; man takes 
them upon himself, makes an image of them in his own consciousness and 
endows that image with the life and power that the Supreme Being has bre athed 
into His own divine forms and world -energies.  
It is when thus present and conscient in the mortal, like a "house -lord", master 
in his mansion, that Agni appears in the true nature of his divinity. When we are 
obscure and revolt against the Truth and the Law, our progress seems to be a 
stumbling from ignorance to ignorance and is full of pain and disturbance. By 
constant submission to the Truth, surrenderings, namobhih , we create in 
ourselves that image of the divine Will which is on the contrary full of peace, 
because it is assured of the Truth and the Law. Equality of soul created by the 
surrender to the universal Wisdom gives us a supreme peace and calm. And 
since that Wisdom guides all our steps in the straight paths of the Truth we are 
carried by i t beyond all stumblings ( duritani ). 
Moreover, with Agni conscious in our humanity, the creation of the gods in us 
becomes a veritable manifestation and no longer a veiled growth. The will within 
grows conscious of the increasing godhead, awakens to the pro cess, perceives 
the lines of the growth. Human action intelligently directed and devoted to the 
universal Powers, ceases to be a mechanical, involuntary or imperfect offering;

SAKSIVC   Page 22 of 167 the thinking and observing mind participates and becomes the instrument of the 
sacrificial will.  
Agni is the power of conscious Being, called by us will, effective behind the 
workings of mind and body. Agni is the strong God within ( maryah , the strong, 
the masculine) who puts out his strength against all assailing powers, who 
forbids inertia, who repels every failing of heart and of force, who spurns out all 
lack of manhood. Agni actualizes what might otherwise remain as an ineffectual 
thought or aspiration. He is the doer of the Yoga ( sadhu ); divine smith labouring 
at his forge, he ha mmers out our perfection. Here he is said to become the 
charioteer of the Supreme. The Supreme and Wonderful that moves and fulfils 
Itself "in the consciousness of another", (we have the same word, adbhuta , as in 
the colloquy of Indra and Agastya), effects  that motion with this Power as 
charioteer holding the reins of the activity. Mitra also, the lord of Love and Light 
is even such a charioteer. Love illuminated fulfils the harmony which is the goal 
of the divine movement. But the power of this lord of Wil l and Light is also 
needed. Force and Love united and both illumined by Knowledge fulfil God in the 
world.  
Will is the first necessity, the chief actualizing force. When therefore the race of 
mortals turn consciously towards the great aim and, offering the ir enriched 
capacities to the Sons of Heaven, seek to form the divine in themselves, it is to 
Agni, first and chief, that they lift the realizing thought, frame the creative Word. 
For they are the Aryans who do the work and accept the effort, - the vastest  of 
all works, the most grandiose of all efforts, - and he is the power that embraces 
Action and by Action fulfils the work. What is the Aryan without the divine Will 
that accepts the labour and the battle, works and wins, suffers and triumphs?  
Therefore i t is this Will which annihilates all forces commissioned to destroy the 
effort, this strongest of all the divine Puissances in which the supreme Purusha 
has imaged Himself, that must bestow its presence on these human vessels. 
There it will use the mind as  instrument of the sacrifice and by its very presence 
manifest those inspired and realizing Words which are as a chariot framed for 
the movement of the gods, giving to the Thought that meditates the illuminative 
comprehension which allows the forms of the divine Powers to outline 
themselves in our waking consciousness.  
Then may those other mighty Ones who bring with them the plenitudes of the 
higher life, Indra and the Ashwins, Usha and Surya, Varuna and Mitra and 
Aryaman, assume with that formative extensi on of themselves in the human 
being their most brilliant energies. Let them create their plenty in us, pouring it 
forth from the secret places of our being so as to be utilizable in its daylight 
tracts and let their impulsions urge upward the divinising th ought in Mind, till it

SAKSIVC   Page 23 of 167 transfigures itself in the supreme lustres.  
 The hymn closes. Thus, in inspired words, has the divine Will, Agni, been 
affirmed by the sacred chant of the Gotamas. The Rishi uses his name and that 
of his house as a symbol -word; we ha ve in it the Vedic go in the sense 
"luminous", and Gotama means "entirely possessed of light". For it is only those 
that have the plenitude of the luminous intelligence by whom the master of 
divine Truth can be wholly received and affirmed in this world of  an inferior Ray, 
-gotamebhir rtava . And it is upon those whose minds are pure, clear and open, 
vipra, that there can dawn the right knowledge of the great Births which are 
behind the physical world and from which it derives and supports its energies, - 
viprebhir jatavedah.  
Agni is Jatavedas, knower of the births, the worlds. He knows entirely the five 
worlds and is not confined in his consciousness to this limited and dependent 
physical harmony. He has access even to the three highest states of all, to the  
udder of the mystic Cow, the abundance of the Bull with the four horns. From 
that abundance he will foster the illumination in these Aryan seekers, swell the 
plenty of their divine faculties. By that fullness and plenty of his illumined 
perceptions he wil l unite thought with thought, word with word, till the human 
Intelligence is rich and harmonious enough to support and become the divine 
idea. 
 
SAKSIVC   Page 24 of 167 Indra  
 
 Indra, Introduction  
 Indra and Soma  
 Vritra, Vala  
 Battle of Indra and Vritra  
 Indra, giver of light  
 Indra, though t forces  
 Mind in Indian thought  
  
Nature of Indra, the Lord of Divine Mind   
He comes  down into our world as the Hero with his shining horses  
And slays darkness and division with his lightnings,  
Pours down the life -giving heavenly waters,  
Finds in the trace of the hound, intuition, the lost or hidden illumination and  
Makes the Sun of truth  mount high in the heaven of our mental plane.  
(Sri Aurobindo)  
The role of Indra , the lord of the Divine Mind, is to help man develop the abilities 
for mental formation and associated action. Indra is, primarily, the deity who 
gives the appropriate knowled ge to human beings so that they can perform all 
the actions. Actions are not limited to those on the physical plane, i.e., those we 
do with our hands, legs, mouth etc. They include actions done at the inner levels 
also, the inner vital, inner physical, etc . 
The actions of the Divine Mind, Indra, can be broadly divided into at least three 
categories. The first task is to manifest knowledge in all the humans who have 
aspired for it. Of course, this is not done in a single step. This task is imaged as 
the birt h of the god Indra in man.  
The second task is the preparation and building up of bodies which can absorb or 
sustain this knowledge. The physical body is made of material, vital and mental 
energies. In its ordinary condition, it is like an unbaked pot, whic h will break if 
knowledge of great intensity enters it. Hence, Indra has to create new forms or 
subtle bodies in the modern parlance which can receive the knowledge given and 
allow for its growth.

SAKSIVC   Page 25 of 167 The third task of Indra is to offer protection for the indi viduals from the hostile 
forces. The existence of these non -human forces operated by the non -human 
typical beings is not a surprise for any one who has developed an inner life of 
sufficient depth. These hostile forces are the forces of falsehood which conc eal 
Truth or divide the Truth into mutually opposite chunks, the forces which tend to 
stop the flow of consciousness, etc. Hence Indra battles these demonic forces 
led by Vrtra, the concealer or tearer. Vrtra and his followers operate not only at a 
cosmic level, but also in the inner life of every individual. Hence, Indra has to 
secure victory against Vrtra, the demon, in each individual.  
The divine knowledge given by Indra is not meant to come in one step or at any 
one moment like the experience of samadhi  in the later vedantic  thought. The 
seers get this knowledge, one step at a time. Two mantras (1.10.1) and (1.10.2) 
describe this procedure graphically.  
The seers of the mantra rise and attain thee as they climb a ladder, (1.10.1).  
When a human being star ts any spiritual discipline, his/her progress is slow in 
the beginning, like climbing a ladder. At each step, s/he sees the several steps 
which s/he has yet to climb, many of them hidden from his/her sight. There is no 
need for discouragement for at some s tage Indra  himself comes to the devotee 
and takes upon himself the task of guiding and helping the seer on his upward 
journey. In the language of the Rigveda, a god taking birth in a person means 
that the effort of the person has reached a culmination and hereafter the god 
himself will lead the person, pointing out to the devotee the new, untrodden 
paths. Hence, in the later mantra  of the same hymn (1.10.11), Indra is described 
as one “who makes a seer'' and “gives a new life to the seer''.  
In (1.6.3), ketu means knowledge born of inner understanding. A person who 
has no such knowledge is aketu. Indra aims to manifest in man the higher 
knowledge, the knowledge of the different planes, the knowledge of gods, 
methods of obtaining their grace, the methods of no t exposing oneself to hostile 
forces, etc. The process of the birth of knowledge is imaged by the Rig Vedic  
poets as the birth of a son to human being, the person who does the yajna . The 
yajamana prays to the gods for them to be born as his sons.  
However, there is a deeper reason for imaging the dawn of knowledge in man as 
the birth of a god. A first step in spiritual life of many persons is the vision of a 
deity or a divine hearing or an appropriate suprasensual experience. But such an 
experience, by itsel f, is not sufficient to sustain spiritual life. The memory of such 
a vision often fades with time, subject to natural forces. But, if we want to have 
a continuous vision of the Godhead and continuously feel its/his presence, then 
we need a subtle body in a ddition to a gross body to support the inner vision and 
other experiences. The power of gods like Indra manifesting in a human has a

SAKSIVC   Page 26 of 167 subtle body which is as concrete as the physical body, but operates on a 
different plane. Thus the first line of (1.6.3) st ates, “giving knowledge to one 
who does not have it” and the second line says, “Indra gives an appropriate form 
pesho which can sustain this knowledge.” Just as the physical dawn denotes the 
advent of physical sun in the sky, the divine goddess Usha by her presence 
indicates the advent of the Spiritual Sun.  
The quotation given above is not an isolated one, but one of a hundred or more 
such images in the Rigveda. In (1.4.1) Indra, is hymned as “ surupa kratnu, 
fashioner of perfect forms.” Indra’s f orms are perfect because he has access to 
complete knowledge. This idea of Indra as the author of forms and maker of 
seers (1.10.11) is not limited to the seer Madhuchchhandas. We give here the 
famous mantra of the seer Bharadwaja (6.47.18).  
This mantra (6 .47.18) is repeated in the Brhadaranyaka  Upanishad (2.5) as a 
part of the madhu,  “universal delight”, doctrine. It is sufficient to note that the 
Supreme Brahman of the vedantic thought, is also a Supreme Person, atman  and 
every form is himself, his creati on, a mould of the substance, a shape of his 
being. Indra is the divine counterpart of every form in existence; whatever we 
see is only a form of Indra through which Indra is pleased to reveal himself. The 
maya  powers, in fact, have nothing to do with magi c or illusion. They are his 
creative conscious powers, through which, he has set in motion, the countless 
life powers, which we behold. These life forces are imaged as his thousand 
horses, a fairly common image for life forces. The Sanskrit word for the fo ur-
footed animal horse, ashwa,  is derived from the word ash, which denotes 
strength. Indra's steeds are not the animals needed for his transportation; but 
are his life powers, and ratha,  the chariot, indicates movement.  
The seer Nema in the eighth book, gi ves a reply to the question of a skeptic who 
asks “There is no Indra; who has ever seen him?” (8.100.3). The reply is in 
(8.100.4) and has been given earlier.  
We will give below several descriptive epithets in the hymns of 
Madhuchchhandas to delineate Indr a’s role as the Divine Mind;  
Of varied lustre (1.3.4); Impelled by thought (1.3.5);  
Driven forward by the illumined thinker (1.3.5);  
Of clear seeing intelligence, (1.4.4)  
These epithets cannot be explained if we regard Indra as the rainmaker or as a 
warring chieftain.

SAKSIVC   Page 27 of 167 Indra is the intelligence that discriminates and counters the forces which are 
adverse to the yoga journey of the seer and offers the appropriate help, even if 
the beginner cannot have any intimation of the help received. Some epithets are: 
Indra of thousand activities (1.4.8), Doer of happy deeds (1.5.6), (giver of) 
manifold knowledge, abundant intelligence (1.5.3), brightens the word of praise, 
makes the word accomplished (1.6.9), Indra is the great harmoniser (1.7.8).  
Indra himself creates the subtle body in man (1.10.11) and prepares the 
yajamana  for the vision of Indra and other deities. The yajamana,  human 
sacrificer, should be in a mood of inward surrender and outward activity.  
Indra , impel towards us thy varied and superb wealth  
Which i s very pervasive and intense. (1.9.6)  
In the Rigveda, Soma and Indra are hymned as great friends (1.4.10). When 
Indra manifests in a person, there is a profusion of Light and Delight which is 
clearly felt by the seer and expressed in hymns.  
The rapture of thee grown indeed gives Light. (1.4.2)  
(Indra) who, in his vastness, is a continent of bliss. (1.4.10).  
Note here the association between bliss and vastness. The descriptions of the 
Truth plane are “satyam -rtam-brhat,”  “the Truth, the Right and the Vast.'' Bliss 
cannot manifest in a constricted environment. In (1.8.8), Indra is associated with 
Mahi, the goddess of vastness, who is sunrta, one with agreeable and auspicious 
speech, virapsi,  flaming in exuberance, gomati,  full of luminous knowledge, who 
comes to the performer of yajna  like a ripe fruit.  
The overall role of Indra is well described in the first four mantras  of the hymn of 
the Seer Madhuchchhandas (1.4.1 -1.4.4). surupakrtnum utaye sudughami va 
goduhe juhumasi dyavi dyavi.  (1.4.1) upa nah savana gahi somasya somapah 
piba goda  idrevato madah.  (1.4.2 ). atha te antamanam vidyama sumatinam ma 
no ati kya gahi.  (1.4.3). The fashioner of perfect forms like a good yielder for the 
milker of herds we ca ll for increase from day to day.  
(1) Come to our Soma offerings, O Soma -drinker, drink the Soma wine; the 
intoxication of thy rapture gives Light.  
(2) Then may be know of thy innermost right thinkings. Show not beyond us, 
come.

SAKSIVC   Page 28 of 167 (3) Notes:  
The pure brigh t knowledge coming from Indra is capable of effecting good 
mental movements and good actions which increase every day (1).  
Nourished and joyous by partaking the Soma that is pressed out, Indra, the Lord 
of the knowledge of divine mind showers his own rays  of illumination (2).  
Even though we would be able to know the intimate movements of the divine 
knowledge by reason of the attainment of the special luminous consciousness, 
still may not Lord Indra go beyond our sense perception; may he show us the 
knowle dge understandable to us at our level of attainment (3).  
Indra is hymned as the king or protector of the heaven dyu "brhatah patih bhuh  
(1.52.13)." Indra is said to celebrate his self -dominion "archan anu  swarajam  
(1.80.)," the latter phrase being the ref rain of all the sixteen mantras  of that 
hymn. However, Indra is not the only deity hymned as a king. The usual phrase 
for a king "rajan"  is invoked for the deity Varuna frequently " raja Varunah 
(1.24.6)." It is also interesting to note that the phrase daksham or putadaksham  
which stands throughout the veda for skill in intelligence, "an intelligence of 
discriminating between good and bad, true and untrue, and deciding upon the 
truth of things" (Kapali, Vol. 4, p. 30T) is used exclusively for Varuna as in 
(1.2.7), (1.2.9), (1.24.7), etc. We will delineate between Varuna and Indra in a 
later essay on Varuna. It is sufficient to point out here that the rishis in the veda 
used words of everyday usage so that an inspection and meditation of the 
outward meanings o f these words would indicate their inner symbolism. A king of 
an earthly country has not only overall sovereignty in that country but also has 
several specific functions like protecting the people from external forces, 
upholding the laws of the land, estab lishment of beauty and harmony in all walks 
of life in the country, etc. Indra is hymned as the "svarat,"  self-ruler, and 
"samrat,"  emperor. He represents the royalty of thought and action (Sri A., p. 
454). Varuna is the king who is a fountainhead of discr imination, and omnipotent 
wisdom and he upholds the eternal law "rtam."  We may recall that if satya is the 
absolute Truth, rtam is the projection of that Truth in manifestation, in this world 
characterized by time and space. So rtam is often translated as the "Right," but it 
also stands for the cosmic Law which cannot be violated. The deity Vrtra is also 
hailed as a king who upholds the harmony and beauty in all of the 
manifestations. Here the word king should not be interpreted in a very rigid way. 
The vedic poets were both deep and subtle, and a certain plasticity of the 
thought is necessary to understand their transcription of their spiritual 
experiences.

SAKSIVC   Page 29 of 167 Indra and Soma   
A common statement repeated in different variations is that Indra drinks the 
Soma  juice offered by the rishis obtained by crushing the Soma, becomes 
intoxicated and with his strength increased, kills the demon Vrtra and releases 
the cows, horses, waters, Sun, etc. We need to study the symbolism in these 
statements. Skeptics may say "Wh y not take these statements at their face 
value?" The Rigveda itself says that Soma is a symbol. The entire ninth book 
(mandala ) of Rigveda is dedicated to Soma. One cannot make any sense of all 
these mantras  if Soma were merely a creeper.  
For instance, c onsider the following mantra  9.86.5. "O thou, all -seeing, O Lord, 
Thy illumining rays encompass all abodes; Soma with thy natural powers 
pervades the all and flows, You are the King and lord of the whole world." How 
can a creeper be all -seeing? How can it have illumining rays? How can a creeper 
pervade the All?  
Another quotation (10.85.3) from the tenth mandala sets all doubts to rest. The 
seer of this mantra  is a lady, Savitri Surya. "When they crush the herb one thinks 
that he has drunk the Soma; but no one ever tastes him whom brahmanas  know 
to be Soma." somam manyate papivan yat sampishantyoshidhim, somam yam 
brahmano viduh na tasyashnati kahchana.  In addition, Kapali Sastry adds 
"Twenty four varieties of Soma plant are mentioned in the section on chikitsa 
sthana  of the sushruta samhita  (Ch. 29) (a compendium of the Indian herbal 
medicines and their application and their uses). But nowhere is the me ntion of its 
intoxicating property." (Vol.4, p.169).  
So it is clear that the creeper is only the outer symbol of Soma. As before, its 
name gives a clue to its real nature. Just as the physical Sun is the outer symbol 
of the spiritual Sun, the physical fir e a symbol of the mystic fire of aspiration, the 
physical dawn a symbol of the dawn of spiritual light, Usha, similarly Soma, the 
moon whose soothing light is praised by poets the world over, is the outer 
symbol of ananda,  the delight of existence which up holds the Universe.  
As Sri Aurobindo says in Savitri: A hidden bliss is at the root of things. A mute 
delight regards Time's countless works: To house God's joy in things space gave 
wide room, To house God's joy in self our souls were born. There is a joy  in all 
that meets the sense, A joy in all the experience of the soul. A joy in evil and a 
joy in good, A joy in virtue, a joy in sin: It grows toward the Titan and the God. 
(Book 10, Canto 3, pp. 630 -631). The delight is being sought after by both Gods 
and the titans like Vrtra whose role will be explained later.  
This idea is already there in Rigveda . The fathers who have divine vision set Him 
within as a child that is to be born. (9.83.3) The ananda,  Bliss, is everywhere in

SAKSIVC   Page 30 of 167 seed form waiting to be manife sted. The bliss is released in every activity and 
especially in activities involving intense self -offering like yajna.  The joy a person 
feels in doing any work is an indication of this bliss. However, the effects of this 
bliss are not perceived because our  minds are preoccupied with the supposed 
benefits to be obtained from the action. Even when we do the work for the sake 
of duty of do work for work's sake, still the egoistic feeling that "I am the doer, I 
am the cause of the success of the work," etc. dil utes the effects of this bliss 
since nature is the principal doer of all actions using individuals as instruments. 
Hence the seers of the Rigveda insist that the Soma or the bliss released in every 
activity of life like yajna  be purified by divesting them of any individual claims 
and other gross elements and be offered to the Gods, principally Indra. The 
delight of existence offered to the Gods energizes them and promotes the 
manifestation of the powers of Gods in the person performing the self -offering 
activities and also in the humanity at large. This idea is present in numerous 
places in the Rigveda and we will quote here the mantra  of the Seer 
Madhuchchhandas (1.5.5). Purified are these Soma juices, pure, they are spent 
for thy manifestation able then to  bear their own intensity.  
In 1.5.4, Indra, the God of the Divine Mind, is said to take the Soma purified by 
the subtle power of thought "anvibhih"  and by extension in the outer physical 
consciousness (1.3.4).  
A unique feature of the rig vedic  Gods is th eir camaraderie with humans. The 
different vedic Gods do not support different human beings and cause them to 
fight one another as the Greek Gods do in Iliad. The vedic Gods are eater to help 
a person and manifest their power in him provided the person exp resses his 
aspiration by recognizing the delight of existence present everywhere and 
released by the activities s/he is involved and offering them to the Gods. The 
Gods like Indra manifest in the human, remove the effects of hostile forces like 
Vrtra in th e inner life of the person and promote the all around growth and 
happiness of the person.  
In the Rigveda Soma and Indra are hymned as great friends (1.4.10). When 
Indra manifests in a person, there is a profusion of light and delight which is 
clearly felt  by the seer and expressed in hymns. "godah idrevato madah"  (1.4.2) 
The rapture of thee grown indeed gives Light. (1.4.2) "(Indra) who in his 
vastness is a continent of bliss." (1.4.10) "yah rajah avanih mahan."  (1.4.10) 
Note here the association between b liss and vastness. The descriptions of the 
Truth plane are "satyam -rtam-brhat,"  "the Truth, the Right and the Vast." Bliss 
Mahi, the goddess of vastness, who is sunrta  under , one with agreeable and 
auspicious speech, virapsi under, flaming in exuberance, gomati  under, full of 
luminous knowledge, who comes to the performer of yajna  like a ripe fruit. "sam 
te santu pracetase"  (1.5.7) "Peace to thee in thy forward looking awaren ess."

SAKSIVC   Page 31 of 167 Here "prachetase"  means forward looking awareness. Indra has to put his 
consciousness forward in thought and action, yet preserve the peace of the 
liberated soul. Thus Soma increases both power RV (1.5.6) and knowledge RV 
(1.5.7).  
  
Vritra, Vala and  Hostile forces   
We will briefly discuss the meaning of the hostile forces led by Vrtra. We should 
resist the temptation of regarding the Gods and demons as two different clans or 
tribes with different ideals. The followers of Vrtra have no ideals at all. The aim 
of the hostile forces, also called as demons, in the Rigveda is to bring down and 
smash all the different ideals which motivate human beings. In contrast, the only 
aim of the Gods is to foster a harmonious development of wisdom and force in 
all hum an beings so that the whole environment is suffused with harmony and 
beauty. There is no need for warfare between individuals. Agni, the great God, 
works in the inner life of all persons, making them strive toward light, whether 
they worship Agni or not. I t is not correct to say that Gods help only those who 
worship them. The act of worship makes a human in tune with the harmonious 
cosmic forces so that these forces get a firm hold in him and propel him or her 
toward higher vistas. The demonic forces want t o capture all the spiritual wealth 
and light, hoard them, as it were, and they do not want to share them with 
anyone, human or otherwise.  
Since the role of the Vrtra and other demons in the macro -cosmic worlds has 
been discussed in another essay, we will focus on their role at a microcosmic 
level, i.e., in the inner and outer life of a human individual. The names of the 
different demons give a clue to their power and personality. Vrtra is the coverer 
and tearer, having the same root as vrka, the wolf. Vrtr a enforces the separation 
of each individual from one another. Since the bodies of two persons are 
different, two persons cannot have anything common. Vrtra, like the cloud, 
covers the universal Sun, the nourisher of all from us and Vrtra, like the wolf, 
tears apart the bonds that unify humans. Vrtra represents the physical 
consciousness of man, the consciousness of matter in its dominating mode, 
suppressing all other forces. Another name for Vrtra in the veda is Ahi, the 
serpent. In Indian thought, serpent s are symbols of vital forces. Since serpents 
assume any shape and exude varieties of vital forces, they are good symbols of 
vital forces. Vrtra stands for the lower vital forces, the so -called five enemies: 
desire for possession for everything, anger, gre ed, arrogance and jealousy.  
Vala is another demon whose name signifies a cave, the cave of unawakened 
consciousness, substratum of all impressions which is hidden in us without any 
knowledge to our outer or waking consciousness. Vala also denotes the tend ency

SAKSIVC   Page 32 of 167 to hoard all things, whether physical or vital. Vala does not enjoy the things he 
hoards, but takes pleasure in hoarding. Panis are the sense traffickers, derived 
from pana or transaction. For them every object is tradable and has no innate 
value. Sus hna is another domain who sucks up the vital forces and renders the 
place like a desert. He is the cause of all depressions, etc. It is important to 
understand that the attitude of the vedic seers toward sense enjoyments is quite 
different from that found in the later vedantic  thought (not the upanishads). The 
vedic seers recognized the divinity in every aspect of life and perceived that the 
delight that the object conveys via the senses is only an expression of the 
universal delight and hence must be enjoy ed only after sharing with Gods and 
other human beings. The vedic seers were not ascetics who looked down upon 
the sense delights conveyed by objects around them. The human beings who, 
becoming selfish, insist that only they can enjoy the sense -delights an d who do 
not want to share their delights and possessions with Gods or fellow humans, 
these are the followers of Vala and Vrtras, the titans. So, figuratively, it is said 
that these persons do not press the Soma or chant the mantras.  These persons 
like Pan is behave like sense traffickers. They steal the delight, as it were, from 
the common pool and try to hoard it in the cave. It should be noted that these 
demonic forces have found a place in each human being by invitation. If every 
part of the being declin ed to have any dealing with these forces, the power of 
these forces would decay at once. The God Agni works in this hostile atmosphere 
in each individual and tries to kindle the psychic fire and bring in the other Gods 
like Indra, who is the principle of u niversal mind with its numerous layers. Indra 
is endowed both with luminous knowledge and with luminous power. Thanks to 
the God Agni, we recognize the benefit of extracting the delight in all things and 
offer it to the Gods like Indra. Indra, by accepting  the Soma, pours in the 
luminous forces of the universal mind and destroys the Vrtras in the body of 
worshipper. Indra, having access to the perfect knowledge, can give perfect 
guidance about the actions to be done so that these actions to not encourage 
the forces of falsehood. Thus the mind deformed due to the pursuit of sense -
objects only and deluded by false knowledge is offered release from bondage 
and constriction by Indra by exposing the worshipper to the vast knowledge. 
Indra by his rays burst the hi ll (1.7.3) The hill is the obscure insensate world of 
our subconscience. Indra we call for affluence, great and little, the thunderer 
assailing the Vrtras (1.7.5) i.e., we resort to Indra not merely in prosperity but 
even in adversity. O thou, by whose str ong action, we shall completely deter the 
foes, guarded by thee and well powered with the steed (of life forces) (1.8.2). O 
Indra, guarded by thee, may we wield the vajra,  May we conquer the jealous 
foes in battle. (1.8.3) O Indra, thy glory is manifest we ll. Unobstructed in its 
movement, it has been cleansed by Thee. O Master of the hill, open the gate of 
the home of the cows and release the rays of divine consciousness. (1.10.7) O 
Indra, thou wins the Waters of svar, the luminous world. Impel us towards t he 
rays of knowledge. (1.10.8) O Indra, thou thrust open the cave of Vala (hoarder) 
with the cows. (1.11.5) O Indra, thou has slain with thy skill the cunning

SAKSIVC   Page 33 of 167 Shushna. (1.11.7) As the name indicates, Shushna is the titan who robs the 
environment of its sap  and converts it into a desert.  
One of the roles played by the hostile forces is to oppose to the maintenance of 
harmony and to encourage the forces of disintegration in a human being. Indra 
alone has the knowledge and power to separate the forces of dest ruction from 
effecting the body. The human body is the abode of both immortality and 
mortality. Indra in his role of disseminating the divine knowledge, can give the 
force which opposes destruction . "tanunam ma abhidruhan" "isanah yavaya 
vadham"  (1.5.10). May not our bodies be harmed. Separate all destruction from 
us. 
  
Battle of Indra and Vritra   
The battle has numerous references in the Rigveda. To understand its 
significance, we have to control our tendency to interpret the rig vedic words in 
terms of t heir meanings in medieval or classical Sanskrit. It is not our intention 
here to claim that the people of rig vedic times where peaceful and did not 
indulge in wars. From what little evidence we have, we can say that they were 
organized into clans which fo ught with each other for the recovery of stolen 
cows and horses. Our claim is that the battles appearing in the Rigveda are 
symbolic. The seers of the Rigveda used the images of scenes around them like 
the battles, milking of cows, the dawn, the oceans, et c., to convey their spiritual 
experiences in the form of poetry. Since they were not intellectuals, they used 
the imagery associated with the words to convey their ideas. Hence the words 
occurring in the Rigveda cannot be assigned the meanings of words ava ilable in 
modern day dictionaries. Rigveda itself describes the meaning of the various 
words in various places.  
For instance, take the vajra.  It is translated as the bolt or the weapon with which 
Indra killed the demon Vrtra. It is translated by those who  interpret rig vedic 
gods as nature powers as the bolt of lightening with which the cloud signified 
demon Vrtra is struck by Indra, releasing the rain. But Rigveda clearly gives the 
meaning of the word "vajra."  In 1.32.2, the vajra is said to be formulated  by the 
divine sculptor tvasta belonging to the luminous world "svar."  "tvasta asmai 
vajram svaryam tataksha."  Note the use of the word "svar."  It is a world full of 
opulence which have nothing to do with the rigid materialism of earth. The 
architect tvasta like the Ribhus fashion for man and gods the things of 
immortality. To emphasize that the vajra is formed by the mantra, the poet says 
in RV (1.121.12) "vajra,  which Ushanas, son of kavya,  gave thee (to Indra)." 
Ushanas is one of the preeminent seer -poets of Rigveda and it is hard to think of 
a great poet fashioning a material weapon. In RV (1.51.10), addressed to Indra

SAKSIVC   Page 34 of 167 the seer -poet Angirasa Savya says "When Ushanas sharpens thy strength with 
his own."  
It is not with physical weapons that Indra fights P anis, but with words. "panin  
vacobhir abhi yodad Indra ." (6.39.2). It is the force of truth alone. "By Truth, the 
cows (illumined thoughts) enter into the Truth; The aggressive force of the Truth 
seeks the cows breaking through (the enemy)..." (4.23.9). Co nsider the phrase 
(1.7.3). "(He) burst open the hill with the rays." "gobhih adrim airayat."  Here 
there is no mention of a physical weapon at all. We have translated "go" as 
"rays." To translate "go" as "cows" is ridiculous because how can cows burst 
open the hill?  
Similarly, neither the horses of Indra are earthly animals nor the chariot made of 
matter. For instance, the seer Gotama says (1.82.6). "I yoke thy lustre -maned 
steeds with the mantra." "te hari brahmana yunajmi."  Again in 1.20.2, the steeds 
of Indra are yoked by speech (vacoyujah).  
Again in the battle when the Indra kills the demon Vrtra and releases the waters, 
the poet says that the released waters as "ascending the mind" ( mano ruhanah,  
1.32.8). Elsewhere the waters have knowledge "apo vichet asah" (1.83.1).  
Further, the veda often describes in various places six distinct benefits occurring 
from the battle, namely killing of Vrtra (ii) release of the waters (iii) release of 
the Sun and the Dawn (iv) release of the Soma (v) release of cows (vi)  release of 
the horses. All of these are interconnected and occur simultaneously as stated in 
the Rigveda in many places. For instance, take the Seer Bharadwaja's mantra in 
RV (6.30.5). "O Indra, thou opened the waters wide, Broke the hardness of the 
mount ain. Thou became the king of the world of the men that see, together 
gave birth to Sun, heaven and Dawn."  
The release of the cows and horses cannot be separated from the release of the 
Dawn or Sun. For instance, in RV (1.62.5). O Reducer of foes, praised by Angiras 
with the dawn, Sun and rays (cows) then destroyest the blind darkness.  
The exponents of the nature power theory explain Vrtra as the rain bearing cloud 
which covers the Sun. Indra, by breaking the cloud, causes rain and the release 
of the Sun. But they cannot account for the cows and horses. So they way that 
the release of the cows and the horses is a separate incident involving a battle 
between clans. They have to ignore most of the key phrases like "yoked to the 
mind" or "ascending to the mind ," saying that the passage is vague.  
Indra is not the only player among the Gods in this battle. In different hymns, 
Agni, the Angirasa seers, Brihaspati, Ashwins, Maruts, Pushan, the All -Gods and 
even Saraswati are also credited with the victory against the demons. Elsewhere

SAKSIVC   Page 35 of 167 the connections between the roles of the various Gods and seers will be 
discussed.  
For rig vedic seers, life is simultaneously a journey, a sacrifice and a battle. Since 
any poetry has to be written sequentially, one of these three a spects takes 
prominence in a particular hymn.  
Life is for the Seers of Rigveda a spiritual journey in which we go from a plateau 
to a higher plateau (1.10.2). We can see what is to be done next only after 
reaching a plateau, not before. In this journey, t hey meet resistance of the 
hostile forces resulting in a battle. The means used in the battle are not physical 
weapons, but the mantra and the yajna , translated as sacrifice.  
The Seer Hiranyastupa Angirasa describes the battle between Indra and Vritra in 
two hymns (RV 1.32 and 1.33), emphasizing the symbolism. We will explain 
these presently. The symbolism in the veda is like the special notation used in 
the classic grammar of Panini. Just as ignorance of the notation will not allow us 
to appreciate the be auty of grammar, the ignorance of the symbolism of Rigveda 
makes one regard it as gibberish. The battle takes place both at a macrocosmic 
level and at a microcosmic level in the spiritual life of an individual life. We will 
first focus on the macrocosmos.  
 The words Adri, Parvata (hill, mountain) signify the universe with its three lower 
worlds of earth ( prithvi ), the mid world ( antariksha ) and the lower heaven ( dyu). 
These three worlds are said to be the worlds subjected to ignorance, i.e., the 
forces and  influences of the titans and demons like Vritras, Vala, etc. Above this 
triple world is the world of svar or brihat dyu  or uru loka,  the wide world. Beyond 
this is the higher triple worlds of bliss, the worlds of sat-chit-ananda  (existence -
knowledge -bliss) of the later vedantas.  Each of the seven worlds embody and 
manifest a separate principle. For instance, the lowest world, our earth, 
manifests the principle matter; the antariksha  or mid world manifests the 
principle of prana  or life energies; the lower heavens or dyu manifests the lower 
mind; svar manifests the higher mind, etc.  
Below the worlds is the ocean below of the inconscient, aprekatam salilam,  
hymned by the Seer paramestin  in 10.129. From this inconscient base rises (or is 
created) the hill of the laws three worlds. The higher triple world above is also 
identified with the superconscient ocean above, the supraketam  (4.50.2). The 
triple world and svar is between these two oceans. Similarly the Light (Jyoti), 
Truth (satyam, ritam)  is above and is perpetual. It signifies the eternal day. The 
tamas  (darkness) and falsehood is the Night. The triple world is said to lie 
between Light and Darkness.  

SAKSIVC   Page 36 of 167 children of Aditi and the  demons, the children of Diti. Human beings are different 
from both these groups since they are evolving. The humans come under the 
influence of both these two kinds of typal beings.  
The gods like Indra are also called Adityas, since they are all sons of Aditi, the 
infinite Nature, the unslayable cow, signifying the forces of cohesion and unity. 
The gods are always pure and are not tainted by the lower human qualities like 
jealousy, hatred, etc. The gods are fosterers and sharers with man; they help 
man in  his yajna , the process of the ascension of the consciousness toward 
Light. They help him at every step, or plateau ( sanau ), pointing out what 
remains to be done at each step (1.10.2) in his ultimate goal of immortality. The 
gods take birth in man, manifes t their powers in him and accomplish the yajna  or 
sacrifice through him. These are the dwellers of svar, the luminous world and 
dyu, the lower heaven.  
The Dasyus, the Danavas, the Vrtras, Panis are the children of Diti, the divided 
Nature which signifies multiplicity and which has become quite separate from the 
principle of unity or harmony. These are children of darkness, forces of anarchy, 
beings that cover the light (Vrtra), the hoarders (Vala), the misers and sense -
traffickers (Panis), etc. Instead of fostering harmony, sharing, the light, self 
offering yajna , they originate and encourage the forces of clash, hoarding, the 
darkness, robbing and grabbing. These Dasyus take control of human beings 
who incline themselves to such behavior and offer a welcom e, albeit 
unconsciously, to these forces. The residence of the Dasyus is the cave or hole 
(bila) at the bottom of the hill. But their activities extend to all the three worlds. 
There is continuous battle between the forces of Light, the Gods, the Adityas 
headed by Indra and the Dasyus headed by Vrtra. The battle between them 
occurs in the antariksha,  the mid world and even the lower heavens (Dyu).  
However, the regions of Truth and that of Falsehood are not distinctly 
demarcated; they are mixed, leading to confusion. As the substance of Truth 
increases with each ascent, the substance of Falsehood increases downward, 
culminating in the Inconscience of the Earth -matter.  
The daityas  or asuras  not only distort Truth, "but even simulate Truth by 
Falsehood" (Sri Kapali, vol. 10, p. 165). As the vedantins  insist, ignorance is not 
the total absence of knowledge; it is deformed knowledge. One of the principle 
asuras  is Kuyava (RV. 1.104.3) whose purpose is adulterate Truth with 
Falsehood. Truth has several layers and  one level of truth covers another. ( rtena 
rtam apihitam;  isha upanishad?). Each layer has its own level of truth. A 
statement valid at one level need not be valid at another. What proponents of 
falsehood do is to use a statement of truth valid at one leve l to negate another 
statement at another level. As an illustration, it is well known that there exist 
realms of truth which are beyond the realm of speech or other modes of human

SAKSIVC   Page 37 of 167 activity (yatha vacho nivarthanthe  - taittireya upanishad). The proponents of  
Falsehood use this truth and say "what is the use of acts like prayer, chanting, 
giving gifts, etc., in reading the highest truth? The scripture itself documents 
their futility." This statement is a falsehood masquerading as truth because there 
are realms  of Truth which are completely accessible to spiritual practices like 
prayer and an artificial opposition is set up between spiritual practices like prayer 
and meditation.  
In an earlier battle between the gods and daityas,  the Gods were vanquished. 
This b attle does not get any description, but its results are mentioned at many 
places. They are (i) the blocking of the seven celestial rivers, (ii) the covering of 
Sun and Dawn, (iii) the covering of Soma, (iv) the concealing of the cows and 
horses in the neth er cave, the Cave of Hill. In the battle hymned by Hiranyastupa 
Angirasa (1.32, 1.33), these effects are undone.  
Let us dwell briefly on the symbolism of the above events.  
Let us take the Sun. In the veda, Surya is the master of truth, the illuminator, 
the creator and increaser. The solar energy which energizes the whole solar 
system and enables life on this earth is the physical form of the spiritual Sun, 
Surya, Lord of Light and Truth. The Seers of the veda intuitively felt that the 
forces and processes  of physical world repeat the truths of supraphysical worlds 
which produce it. The rishis imaged the functioning of their inner life using the 
symbols of the outward life. The rays of the spiritual Sun enter the three worlds 
including the earth via the fou rth world of Svar, the luminous wide world, ura 
loka, the vast heaven, brihat dyu  (1.36.8). What the daityas  like Vritra did was to 
cover the luminous world of svar so that it is invisible to the denizens of the 
earth. At an individual level, the Seer expe rienced an intense darkness where the 
influence of the Sun was shut out, as it were. This phenomena is, of course, 
temporary and similar experiences have been recorded by mystics of other parts 
of the world. For instance, one European mystic complains of t he darkness of the 
night of the soul. Thus the Sun and along with it the Dawn are termed as lost. 
Similarly there are the seven rivers of consciousness flowing out of the ocean of 
superconscient situated above, supraketum salilam. Each river signifies one of 
the principles of existence like matter, vital or pranas,  lower mind, etc. Vrtra also 
blocked these rivers and prevented them from reaching the earth. Next let us 
come to the cows and horses. In the veda, consciousness is described using two 
different s ets of images. One description is that of a stream or a movement of 
consciousness, described earlier. Consciousness is also described as embodied in 
distinct packets, the so -called cows, often translated as rays of consciousness. 
Just as each ray of the ph ysical Sun is distinct, yet contains in it the properties of 
sunlight, similarly each cow, the luminous cow, symbolizes a distinct 
manifestation of the supreme consciousness. The four -footed animal cow was 
used as the symbol of the seers because of the uti lity and reverence associated

SAKSIVC   Page 38 of 167 with that animal among the people at that time. Similarly, horses shared for the 
vital energy.  
Now consider Soma, the delight of existence. Every human activity, ordinary or 
special, high or low, commonplace or creative, gene rates a certain rasa or 
essence which is the delight of existence. This rasa may have some psychological 
impurities in it such as the notion of doer and possessor, viz. "this activity 
becomes successful because of my efforts, my abilities," etc. Recognizin g that all 
activities involve the dominating role of cosmic forces for which we as separate 
human beings cannot take credit, we can purify this rasa by removing our 
personal claims and offer the purified rasa or Soma to the Gods. The Gods Indra 
are pleased  to accept the Soma offering and nourish the humans. It should be 
understood that the high Gods like Indra are not traffickers. They offer their help 
to all persons, both to those who adore him in their yajna  and those who do not. 
As the later mystics expl ain, their grace is like the breeze in the lake. Anyone can 
use it to sail their boat, provided they take the trouble of unfurling the sail and 
pointing it in the proper direction. The daityas  cover the Soma also. In all 
persons who perform yajna , the daityas place the idea that their activities are 
the result of their own strength and abilities and there is not need to be thankful 
to the higher powers. Hence these individuals are deprived of the experience of 
the delight of existence which is Soma. Hence S oma is said to be covered by the 
daityas.   
Indra kills the Vrtra, the coverer, and releases the waters, the Sun, Dawn and 
Soma. Indra, helped by the Angirasa rishis with their hymns, breaks open the 
cellars of the nether world, releases the cows and drives  them upward so that 
they are accessible. The divine power of intuition, the goddess Sarama, often 
imaged as a divine hound, shows Indra the cave where the cows are imprisoned. 
"This is the constant work of Indra in which he is Supreme. Though he has 
originally achieved and established for the benefit of mankind this victory of the 
recovery of the cave with the ancient Angirasa rishis,  even today, this king of the 
Gods, engaged in ceaseless search of the cow -treasurer, repeats his feat for the 
benefit of ma n" (Kapali, vol. 10, p. 6).  
Seer Hiranyastupa hymn to Indra. I just relate the valorous deeds performed 
mainly by Indra He killed the demon Ahi, struck the hill and released the waters. 
(1) He struck the demon hidden in the hill. The divine sculptor fashi oned for him 
a bolt of the luminous worlds ( svar). The flowing waters reached the ocean by a 
straight path like lowing cows the calves. (2) Acting like a bull, he drank the 
Soma in three infusions, Opulent, he wielded the weapon vajra and struck this 
first born of demons. (3) O Indra, thou struck the first born of demons, and 
destroyed the deceptive knowledge of the fraudulent. Illuminating the Sun 
(Surya), the dawn (Ushas) and the heaven ( dyau) thou had not got at the 
enemy. (4) Indra, with a mighty blow o f vajra,  cut off the shoulders of the

SAKSIVC   Page 39 of 167 superb coverer Vritra. The vile one lay dormant close to the earth like tree trunks 
specially cut with an axe. (5) The haughty and intoxicated Vritra challenged the 
great warrior Indra, the remover of foes. He (Vritra)  ground to a halt the rivers. 
He could not parry the impact of blows. (6) Bereft of hands and feet, he fought 
Indra, who struck him at the crown. Like a eunuch desiring to act virile, Vritra fell 
down with his limbs shattered. (7) Like a river breaking the  bank The waters 
which mount the minds of men flow over Vritra lying on the floor. The Vritra lay 
at the very feet of those whom he besieged with his might. (8) Vritra's mother 
lowered her arms; Indra flung the striking weapon below her; The Mother was 
above, the son below; She lay like a cow with the calf. (9) Vritra's body lay 
concealed at the bottom amidst the changing currents of waters. Vritra lay in 
prolonged sleep. (10) The waters constrained by Vritra stood fettered like the 
cows confined by the Pan i. The striker of Vritra uncovered the closed aperture of 
the waters. (11) O Indra, when he struck thee back thou chased him away. O 
the supreme God, thou was the Soma, and released the seven rivers to flow. 
(12) When Indra and Vrtra fought each other, nei ther the lightening, the roar, 
nor the rains nor the thunderclap got at Indra. And Indra surmounted other 
deceitful tricks as well. (13) In thy mind a doubt arose, who else is the slayer of 
Vritra; Doubting, thou traversed the ninety -nine rivers and worlds  like a hawk. 
(14) vajra-armed Indra is the king of the mobile and the immobile; the quiescent 
and the forceful. He, as a king rules over men is around them all like the rim 
encircling the spokes. (15) Notes on the hymn 1.32.  
In hymn 1, Vritra is called by  the name Ahi, the serpent, to indicate that he is a 
man of energy without any fixed shape.  
In hymn 2, it is stated that the Indra's weapon vajra,  translated here as bolt, 
was made by the divine sculptor tvasta  from the luminous world of svar, the 
world b eyond the reaches of the lower mind. Clearly in the world of svar all the 
objects are fashioned out of light, not out of any matter as in our earth.  
Note that the poet says "the flowing waters, released by Indra, reach the ocean 
by a straight path." The r ain water or rivers do not reach the ocean by a straight 
path. Hence these waters are not the physical rivers of northern India, but the 
streams of consciousness held up by Vritra.  
In mantra 3, the three infusions of Soma taken by Indra are nothing but th e 
essence of the three worlds of matter, life and mind.  
In mantra 4, poet states that the demon Vritra is not an ordinary cloud. By the 
killing of Vritra, the deceptions of the fraudulent are also destroyed. In mantra 5, 
for Vritra, the poet adds the adje ctive Vritranam, clearly indicating that among 
the coverer, he is the most coverer.

SAKSIVC   Page 40 of 167 In mantras 7 and 8, Indra has cut off the limbs of Vritra and the demon's body is 
lying on the floor of the ocean over which the waters flow. Again the poet 
describes the waters as "mounting the minds of men."  
In mantra 9, the mother of Vritra, Diti, is mentioned. She is said to protect her 
son by placing herself above her son, Vritra.  
In mantra 11, the poet says that the Indra removed the closed aperture in the 
hill and allowed the waters to flow. In the inner yoga of tantriks,  these closed 
apertures are the closed knots (or granthas ) which have to be cut before the 
psychic energy can flow freely.  
In mantra  12, the seven rivers are the seven streams of consciousness. Man tra 
13 says that when the battle was going on, the whole of nature was in a turmoil, 
indicated by the roaring winds, pouring rains, the thunderclaps, etc. This turmoil 
was caused by the tricks of Vritra, but had no effect on the outcome.  
Since Vritra's bo dy was hidden under his mother's body, the rik 14 indicates that 
Indra could not see the Vritra's body; hence Indra had a fear that Vritra was not 
slain and looked for him in many places.  
Seer Hiranyastupa Angirasa Hymn to Indra (1.33). Come, let us go se eking the 
cows to Indra; For it is he that increases the thought in us; Invincible, he 
releases for us (from darkness) in plenty the supreme knowledge of the luminous 
cows. (1) I fly to the unassailable giver of the riches like a falcon to its beloved 
nest, bowing down to Indra with the supreme words of light, who is invoked by 
his affirms in their journey. (2) Along with all his armies, he has fastened the 
quivers; He is the fighter who brings the luminous cows to him whom he favours 
O Indra, who has incre ased (by our word) hold not back for thy self much delight 
Become not in us the Pani. (3) Thou slayest with thy weapon the wealthy Dasyu, 
ranging alone with thy powers that serve thee, O Indra; The ungiving foes, the 
Shanakas, came from all sides to thy bo w, And met their end. (4) O Lord of the 
shining steeds, firm of poise Thou cast out from heaven and earth those who 
observe not the workings of thy law. They who do not sacrifice, but strove with 
sacrificers, turned their heads away and ran. (5) They (demo ns) fought against 
the blameless Indra, the Navagwa men set him (Indra) on his march; Dispersed 
by him, they fled from Indra by steep paths like emasculates before the potent 
hero. (6) O Indra, thou hast fought them who laughed and wept, on the borders 
of the heaven. From the high heavens, thou has burnt down the Dasyu Thou has 
superbly protected the sacrificers who pour Soma and affirm thee with hymns. 
(7) Encircling the earth, shining gold -jeweled, rushing (to fight) they could not 
pass beyond Indra for h e set spies all around by the Sun. (8) O Indra, 
possessing the earth and heaven all around by thy vastness, Attacking those who 
think not the truth by those who think, Thou did cast out the Dasyu by the

SAKSIVC   Page 41 of 167 speakers of the word. (9) Stalled by Vritra, they (th e waters) from heaven did 
not reach the earth. Under his spell, they could not attain to Indra. Indra, the 
bull, made lightening his helper and he milked the shining cows out of darkness.  
(10) The last line of rik 3 is often translated as "Become not a mi ser" decreasing 
the power of the original line. Indra is a beneficent god, whose as the Panis, are 
hoarders. The seer asks Indra not to hold back his delight like a Pani.  
The rik 6 indicates that even though Virtra was dead, his followers had not 
stopped fighting. Moreover, the mother of the Danavas, Diti is still active. Hence 
Indra has still to fight repeated battles to vanquish the forces of darkness. In this 
fight Angirasa seers labeled here as Navagvas, "those with nine cows," help 
Indra with their ma ntra-powers.  
The rik 7 indicates that the battle between Indra and Vritra was fought in the 
borders of heaven.  
In rik 10, Indra, the lord of divine mind, is seen milking the cows and releasing 
the light from them. Note that in Indian thought, mind is not  the source of 
knowledge. It is an instrument of action which can help knowledge enter our 
system and suffuse it with light. This process is imaged as the milking of cows.  
  
Indra, giver of light (RV 1.4)   
1. The fashioner of perfect forms, like a good yi elder for the milker of the Herds, 
we call for increase from day to day.  
2. Come to our Soma -offerings. O Soma -drinker, drink of the Soma -wine; the   
intoxication of thy rapture gives indeed the Light.  
3. Then may we know somewhat of thy uttermost right thi nkings. Show not 
beyond us, come.  
4. Come over, question Indra of the clear -seeing mind, the vigorous the un 
overthrown, who to thy comrades has brought the highest good.  
5. And may the Restrainers say to us, " Nay, forth and strive on even in other 
fields, reposing on Indra your activity."  
6. And may the fighters doers of the work, declare us entirely blessed, O 
achiever; may we abide in Indra's peace

SAKSIVC   Page 42 of 167 7. Intense for the intense bring though this glory of the sacrifice that intoxicates 
the man, carrying f orward on the way Indra who gives joy to his friends.  
8. When though hadst drunk of this, O thou of the hundred activities, thou 
becamest a slayer of the coverers and protectedst the rich mind in its riches.  
9. Thee thus rich in thy riches we enrich again,  O Indra, O thou of the hundred 
activities, for the safe enjoyment of our havings.  
10. He who in his vastness is a continent of bliss, --the friend of the soma -giver 
and he carries him safely through, - to that Indra raise the chant.  
  
Sayana's Interpretati on 
 1. The doer of ( works that have) a good shape, Indra, we call daily for 
protection as (one calls) for the cow -milker a good milch -cow. 
 2. Come to our (three) libations, drink the soma, O soma drinker; the 
intoxication of thee, the wealthy one, is ind eed cow -giver.  
 3. Then (standing) among the intelligent people who are nearest to the, may we 
know thee. Do not (go) beyond us (and) manifest (thyself to others, but) come 
to us.  
 4. Come to him and question about me, the intelligent one, (whether I have 
praised him rightly or not), -- to the intelligent and unhurt Indra who gives to thy 
friends (the priests) the best wealth.  
 5. Let of us (i.e. our priests) speak (i.e. praise Indra), -and also, O you who 
censure, go out from here and from elsewhere too, - (our priests) doing service 
all about Indra.  
6. O destroyer [of foes], may even our enemies speak of us as having good 
wealth, --men (i.e. our friends will say it of course) may we be in the peace 
(bestowed) by Indra.  
7. Bring this Some, that wealth of the  sacrifice, the cause of exhilaration to men, 
(the Soma) that pervades (the three oblations) for Indra who pervades (the 
Soma -offering), that attains the rites and is friendly to (Indra) who gives joy (to 
the sacrificer).  
8. Drinking of this, o thou of man y actions, thou becamest a slayer of Vrtras (i.e.

SAKSIVC   Page 43 of 167 enemies led by Vrtra) and didst protect entirely the fighter in the fights.  
9. O Indra of many actions, for enjoyment of riches we make thee abundant in 
food who art strong in the tattles.  
10. Sing to that Indra who is a protector of wealth, great, a good fulfiller (of 
works) and a friend of the sacrificer.  
  
Madhuchchhandas, son of Vishvamitra, invokes in the Soma - offering lndra, the 
Master of luminous Mind, for increase in the Light. The symbol s of the hymn are 
those of a collective sacrifice. Its subject is the growth of power and delight in 
Indra by the drinking of the Soma, the wine of immortality, and the consequent 
illumination of the human being so that the obstructions of his inner knowle dge 
are removed and he attains to the utmost splendours of the liberated mind.  
But what is this Soma, called sometimes amrta , the Greek ambrosia, as if it were 
itself the substance of immortality? It is a figure for the divine Ananda, the 
principle of Blis s, from which, in the Vedic conception, the existence of Man, this 
mental being, is drawn. A secret Delight is the base of existence, its sustaining 
atmosphere and almost its substance. This Ananda is spoken of in the Taittireya 
Upanishad as the ethereal a tmosphere of bliss without which nothing could 
remain in being. In the Aitareya Upanishad Soma, as the lunar deity, is born 
from the sense -mind in the universal Purusha and, when man is produced, 
expresses himself again as sense -mentality in the human bein g. For delight is the 
raison  detre of sensation, or, we may say, sensation is an attempt to translate 
the secret delight of existence into the terms of physical consciousness. But in 
that consciousness, - often figured as adri, the hill, stone, or dense su bstance, - 
divine light and divine delight are both of them concealed and confined, and 
have to be released or extracted. Ananda is retained as rasa, the sap, the 
essence, in sense -objects and sense -experiences, in the plants and growths of 
the earth - natu re, and among these growths the mystic Soma -plant symbolises 
that element behind all sense -activities and their enjoyments which yields the 
divine essence. It has to be distilled and, once distilled, purified and intensified 
until it has grown luminous, fu ll of radiance, full of swiftness, full of energy, 
gomat,  asu, yuvaku.  It becomes the chief food of the gods who, called to the 
Soma -oblation, take their share of the enjoyment and in the strength of that 
ecstasy increase in man, exalt him to his highest p ossibilities, make him capable 
of the supreme experiences. Those who do not give the delight in them as an 
offering to the divine Powers, preferring to reserve themselves for the sense and 
the lower life, are adorers not of the gods, but of the Panis, lord s of the sense -

SAKSIVC   Page 44 of 167 consciousness, traffickers in its limited activities, they who press not the mystic 
wine, give not the purified offering, raise not the sacred chant. It is the Panis 
who steal from us the Rays of the illumined consciousness, those brilliant herds 
of the sun, and pen them up in the cavern of the subconscient, in the dense hill 
of matter, corrupting even Sarama, the hound of heaven, the luminous intuition, 
when she comes on their track to the cave of the Panis.  
But the conception of this hymn b elongs to a stage in our inner progress when 
the Panis have been exceeded and even the Vrtras or Coverers who seclude from 
us our full powers and activities and Vala who holds back the Light, are already 
over- passed. But there are even then powers that st and in the way of our 
perfection. They are the powers of limitation, the Confiners or Censurers, who, 
without altogether obscuring the rays or damming up the energies, yet seek by 
constantly affirming the deficiencies of our self -expression to limit its fi eld and 
set up the progress realised as an obstacle to the progress to come. 
Madhuchchhandas calls upon Indra to remove the defect and affirm in its place 
an increasing illumination.  
The principle which Indra represents is Mind -Power released from the limi ts and 
obscurations of the nervous consciousness. It is this enlightened Intelligence 
which fashions right or perfect Forms of thought or of action not deformed by 
the nervous impulses, not hampered by the falsehoods of sense. The image 
presented is that o f a cow giving abundantly its yield to the milker of the herds. 
The word go means in Sanskrit both a cow and a ray of light. This double sense 
is used by the Vedic symbolists to suggest a double figure which was to them 
more than a figure; for light, in th eir view, is not merely an apt poetic image of 
thought, but is actually its physical form. Thus, the herds that are milked re the 
Herds of the Sun, - Surya, God of the revelatory and intuitive mind, or else of 
Dawn, the goddess who manifests the solar glor y. The Rishi desires from Indra a 
daily increase of this light of Truth by his fuller activity pouring rays in a rich yield 
Upon the receptive mind.  
The activity of the pure illuminated Intelligence is sustained and increased by the 
conscious expression in  us of the delight in divine existence and divine activity 
typified by the Soma -wine. As the Intelligence feeds upon it, its action becomes 
an intoxicated ecstasy of inspiration by which the rays come pouring abundantly 
and joyously in. "Light -giving indee d is the intoxication of thee in thy rapture.”    
For then it is possible, breaking beyond the limitations still insisted upon by the 
Confiners, to arrive at something of the finalities of knowledge possible to the 
illuminated intelligence. Right thoughts, right sensibilities, - this is the full sense 
of the word sumati;  for the Vedic mati includes not only the thinking, but also 
the emotional parts of mentality. Sumati is a light in the thoughts; it is also a 
bright gladness and kindness in the soul. But in  this passage the stress of the

SAKSIVC   Page 45 of 167 sense is upon right thought and not on the emotions. It is necessary, however, 
that the progress in right thinking should commence in the field of consciousness 
already attained; there must not be flashes and dazzling manife stations which by 
going beyond Our Powers elude expression in right form and confuse the 
receptive mind. Indra must be not only illuminer, but a fashioner of right 
thought - formations, surupakrtnu.  
The Rishi, next, turning to a comrade in the collective Yo ga, or, perhaps, 
addressing his Own mind, encourages him or it to pass beyond the Obstruction 
of the adverse suggestions opposed to him and by questioning the divine 
Intelligence progress to the highest good which it has already given to others. 
For it is that Intelligence which clearly discerns and can solve or remove all still -
existing confusion and obscuration. Swift of movement, intense, energetic, it 
does not by its energy stumble in its paths like the impulses of the nervous 
consciousness. Or perhaps it is rather meant that owing to its invincible energy it 
does not succumb to the attacks whether of the Coverers or of the powers that 
limit. 
Next are described the results towards which the seer aspires. With this fuller 
light opening on to the finalitie s of mental knowledge the powers of Limitation 
will be satisfied and of them - selves will withdraw, consenting to the farther 
advance and to the new luminous activities. They will say, in effect, "Yes, now 
you have the right which we were hitherto justifie d in denying. Not only in the 
fields won already, but in other and untrod provinces pursue then your 
conquering march. Repose this action wholly on the divine Intelligence', not upon 
your lower capacities. For it is the greater surrender which gives you th e greater 
right."  
The word arata,  move or strive, like its congeners ari, arya, arya, arata,  arani,  
expresses the central idea of the Veda. The root ar indicates always a movement 
of effort or of struggle or a state of surpassing height or excellence; it i s applied 
to rowing, ploughing, fighting, lifting, climbing. The Aryan then is the man who 
seeks to fulfil himself by the Vedic action, the internal and external karma or 
apas, which is of the nature of a sacrifice to the gods. But it is also imaged as a 
journey, a march, a battle, a climbing upwards. The Aryan man labours towards 
heights, fights his way on in a march which is at once a progress forward and an 
ascent. That is his Aryahood, his arete,  virtue, to use a Greek word derived from 
the same root Arata, with the rest of the phrase, might be translated, "Out and 
push forward in other fields".  
The idea is taken up again, in the subtle Vedic fashion of thought -connections by 
word-echoes, with the arih krstayah  of the next verse. These are, I think, not the 
Aryan nations on earth, although that sense too is possible when the idea is that 
of a collective or national Yoga, but the powers that help man in his ascent, his

SAKSIVC   Page 46 of 167 spiritual kindred bound to him as comrades, allies, brothers, yoke -fellows 
(sakhayah, yu jah, jamayah ), for his aspiration is their aspiration and by his 
completeness they are fulfilled. As the Restrainers are satisfied and give way, so 
they too, satisfied, must affirm finally their task accomplished by the fullness of 
human bliss, when the so ul shall rest in the peace of lndra that comes with the 
Light, the peace of a perfected mentality standing as upon heights of 
consummated consciousness and Beatitude.  
Therefore is the divine Ananda poured out to be made swift and intense in the 
system and offered to Indra for the support of his intensities. For it is this 
profound joy manifest in the inner sensations that gives the ecstasy by which the 
man or the God grows strong. The divine Intelligence will be able to move 
forward in the journey yet incom pleted and will return the gift by fresh powers of 
the Beatitude descending upon the friend of God.  
For it was in this strength that the Divine Mind in man destroyed all that 
opposed, as coverers or besiegers, its hundred fold activities of will and of 
thought; in this strength is protected afterwards the rich and various possessions 
already won in past battles from the atris and dasyus, devourers and plunderers 
of our gains.  
Although, continues. For it is this profound joy manifest in the inner sensations 
that gives the ecstasy by which the man or the God grows strong. The divine 
Intelligence will be able to move forward in the journey yet incompleted and will 
return the gift by fresh powers of the Beatitude descending upon the friend of 
God. 
already won in past battles from t he atris and dasyus,  devourers and plunderers 
Although, continues Madhuchchhandas, that Intelligence is already thus rich and 
variously stored we seek to increase yet more its force of abundance, removing 
the Restrainers as well as the Vrtras , so that we may have the full and assured 
possession of our riches.  
For this Light is, in its entire greatness free from limitation, a continent of felicity; 
this Power is that which befriends the human soul and carries it safe through the 
battle, to the end of its march, to the summit of its aspiration.

SAKSIVC   Page 47 of 167 Indra, thought forces (RV 1.171)   
1.      To you I come with this obeisance, by the perfect word I seek right 
mentality from the swift in the passage. Take delight, O Maruts, in the things of 
knowledge,  lay aside your wrath, unyoke your steeds.  
2.      Lo, the hymn of your affirmation, O Maruts; it is fraught with my 
obeisance, it was framed by the heart, it was established by the mind, O ye 
gods. Approach these my words and embrace them with the mind; f or of 
submission are you the increasers.  
3.      Affirmed let the Maruts be benign to us, affirmed the lord of plenitude has 
become wholly creative of felicity. Upward may our desirable delights be uplifted, 
O Maruts, upward all our days by the will toward s victory.  
4.      I, mastered by this mighty one, trembling with the fear of Indra, O Maruts, 
put far away the offerings that for you had been made intense. Let your grace 
be upon us.  
5.      Thou by whom the movements of the mind grow conscient and brill iant in 
our mornings through the bright power of the continuous Dawns, O Bull of the 
herd establish by the Maruts inspired knowledge in us —by them in their energy 
thou energetic, steadfast, a giver of might.  
6.      Do thou, O Indra, protect the Powers in their increased might; put away 
thy wrath against the Maruts, by them in thy forcefulness upheld, who have right 
perceptions. May we find the strong impulsion that shall break swiftly through.  
  
COMMNETARY  
A Sequel to the colloquy of lndra and Agastya, thi s sukta is Agastya's hymn of 
propitiation to the Maruts whose sacrifice he had interrupted at the bidding of 
the mightier deity. Less directly, it is connected in thought with the 165th hymn 
of the (First) Mandala, the colloquy of Indra and the Maruts, in which the 
supremacy of the Lord of Heaven is declared and these lesser shining hosts are 
admitted as subordinate powers who impart to men their impulsion towards the 
high truths which belong to lndra. "Giving the energy of your breath to their 
thoughts of varied light, become in them impellers to the knowledge of my 
truths. Whensoever the doer becomes active for the work and, the intelligence of 
the thinker creates us in him, O Maruts, move surely towards that illumined 
seer", - such is the closing word of the colloquy, the final injunction of Indra to

SAKSIVC   Page 48 of 167 the inferior deities.  
  These verses fix clearly enough the psychological function of the Maruts. They 
are not properly gods of thought, rather gods of energy; still, it is in the mind 
that their energies beco me effective. To the uninstructed Aryan worshipper, the 
Maruts were powers of wind, storm and rain; it is the images of the tempest that 
are most commonly applied to them and they are spoken of as the Rudras, the 
fierce, impetuous ones, - a name that they share with the god of Force, Agni. 
Although Indra is described sometimes as the eldest of the Maruts, - 
indrajyestho  marudganah , - yet they would seem at first to belong rather to the 
domain of Vayu, the Wind -God, who in the Vedic system is the Master of L ife, 
inspirer of that Breath or dynamic energy, called the Prana, which is represented 
in man by the vital and nervous activities. But this is only a part of their 
physiognomy. Brilliance, no less than impetuosity, is their characteristic. 
Everything about  them is lustrous, themselves, their shining weapons, their 
golden ornaments, their resplendent cars. Not only do they send down the rain, 
the waters, the abundance of heaven, and break down the things best 
established to make way for new movements and new  formations, - functions 
which, for the rest, they share with other gods, Indra, Mitra, Varuna, -but, like 
them, they also are friends of Truth, creators of Light. It is so that the Rishi, 
Gotama Rahugana, prays to them, "O ye who have the flashing strengt h of the 
Truth, manifest that by your might; pierce with your lightning the Rakshasa. 
Conceal the concealing darkness, repel every devourer, create the Light for 
which we long" (1.86.9,10). And in another hymn, Agastya says to them, "They 
carry with them t he sweetness (of the Ananda) as their eternal offspring and 
play out their play, brilliant in the activities of knowledge" (1.166.2). The Maruts, 
therefore, are energies of the mentality, energies which make for knowledge. 
Theirs is not the settled truth, the diffused light, but the movement, the search, 
the lightning -flash, and, when Truth is found, the many -sided play of its separate 
illuminations.  
We have seen that Agastya in his colloquy with Indra speaks more than once of 
the Maruts. They are Indra's b rothers, and therefore the god should not strike at 
Agastya in his struggle towards perfection. They are his instruments for that 
perfection, and as such Indra should use them. And in the closing formula of 
submission and reconciliation, he prays to the go d to parley again with the 
Maruts and to agree with them so that the sacrifice may proceed in the order 
and movement of the divine Truth towards which it is directed. The crisis, then, 
that left so powerful an impression on the mind of the seer, was in the  nature of 
a violent struggle in which the higher divine Power confronted Agastya and the 
Maruts and opposed their impetuous advance. There has been wrath and strife 
between the divine Intelligence that governs the world and the vehement 
aspiring powers of  Agastya's mind. Both would have the human being reach his 
goal; but not as the inferior divine powers choose must that march be directed, -

SAKSIVC   Page 49 of 167 rather as it has been firmly willed and settled above by the secret Intelligence 
that always possesses for the manif ested intelligence that still seeks. Therefore 
the mind of the human being has been turned into a battlefield for greater 
Powers and is still quivering with the awe and alarm of that experience.  
The submission to Indra has been made; Agastya now appeals to  the Maruts to 
accept the terms of the reconciliation, so that the full harmony of his inner being 
may be restored. He approaches them with the submission he has rendered to 
the greater god and extends it to their brilliant legions. The perfection of the 
mental state and its powers which he desires, their clearness, rectitude, truth -
observing energy, is not possible with - out the swift coursing of the Thought -
Forces in their movement towards the higher knowledge. But that movement, 
mistakenly directed, not rightly illumined, has been checked by the formidable 
opposition of Indra and has departed for a time out of Agastya's mentality. Thus 
repelled, the Maruts have left him for other sacrificers; elsewhere shine their 
resplendent chariots, in other fields thu nder the hooves of their wind -footed 
steeds. The Seer prays to them to put aside their wrath, to take pleasure once 
more in the pursuit of knowledge and in its activities; not passing him by any 
more, let them unyoke their steeds, descend and take their pl ace on the seat of 
the sacrifice, assume their share of the offerings.  
For he would confirm again in himself these splendid energies, and it is a hymn 
of affirmation that he offers them, the stoma  of the Vedic sages. In the system 
of the Mystics, which has  partially survived in the schools of Indian Yoga, the 
Word is a power, the Word creates. For all creation is expression, everything 
exists already in the secret abode of the Infinite, guha hitam , and has only to be 
brought out here in apparent form by the  active consciousness. Certain schools 
of Vedic thought even suppose the worlds to have been created by the goddess 
Word and sound as first etheric vibration to have preceded formation. In the 
Veda itself there are passages which treat the poetic measures of the sacred 
mantras, - anustuph, tristuph, jagati, gayatri,  - as symbolic of the rhythms in 
which the universal movement of things is cast.  
By expression then we create and men are even said to create the gods in 
themselves by the mantra. Again, that whi ch we have created in our 
consciousness by the Word, we can fix there by the Word to become part of 
ourselves and effective not only in our inner life but upon the outer physical 
world. By expression we form, by affirmation we establish. As a power of 
expression the word is termed gih or vacas ; as a power of affirmation, stoma . 
In either aspect it is named manma  or mantra , expression of thought in mind, 
and brahman , expression of the heart or the soul, - for this seems to have been 
the earlier sense of the word brahman , afterwards applied to the Supreme Soul 
or Universal Being.      The process of formation of the mantra is described in the

SAKSIVC   Page 50 of 167 second verse along with the conditions of its effectivity. Agastya presents the 
stoma , hymn at once of affirmation and o f submission, to the Maruts. Fashioned 
by the heart, it receives its just place in the mentality through confirmation by 
the mind. The mantra, though it expresses thought in mind, is not in its essential 
part a creation of the intellect. To be the sacred a nd effective word, it must have 
come as an inspiration, from the supramental plane, termed in Veda, rtam, the 
Truth, and have been received into the superficial consciousness either through 
the heart or by the luminous intelligence, manisa.  The heart in Ve dic psychology 
is not restricted to the seat of the emotions; it includes all that large tract of 
spontaneous mentality, nearest to the subconscient in us, out of which rise the 
sensations, emotions, instincts, impulses and all those intuitions and inspira tions 
that travel through these agencies before, they arrive at form in the intelligence. 
This is the "heart" of Veda and Vedanta, hrdaya , hrd, or brahman . There in the 
present state of mankind the Purusha is supposed to be seated centrally. Nearer 
to the vastness of the subconscient, it is there that, in ordinary mankind, - man 
not yet exalted to a higher plane where the contact with the Infinite is luminous, 
intimate and direct, - the inspirations of the Universal Soul can most easily enter 
in and most sw iftly take possession of the individual soul. It is therefore by the 
power of the heart that the mantra takes form. But it has to be received and 
held in the thought of the intelligence as well as in the perceptions of the heart; 
for not till the intellige nce has accepted and even brooded upon it, can that truth 
of thought which the truth of the Word expresses be firmly possessed or 
normally effective. Fashioned by the heart, it is confirmed by the mind.  
But another approval is also needed. The individual m ind has accepted; the 
effective powers of the Cosmos must also accept. The words of the hymn 
retained by the mind form a basis for the new mental posture from which the 
future thought - energies have to proceed. The Maruts must approach them and 
take their stand upon them, the mind of these universal Powers approve and 
unite itself with the formations in the mind of the individual. So only can our 
inner or our outer action have its supreme effectivity.  
Nor have the Maruts any reason to refuse their assent or  to persist in the 
prolongation of discord. Divine powers who themselves obey a higher law than 
the personal impulse, it should be their function, as it is their essential nature, to 
assist the mortal in his surrender to the Immortal and increase obedience  to the 
Truth, the Vast towards which his human faculties aspire.  
Indra, affirmed and accepted, is no longer in his contact with the mortal a cause 
of suffering; the divine touch is now utterly creative of peace and felicity. The 
Maruts too, affirmed and a ccepted, must put aside their violence. Assuming their 
gentler forms, benignant in their action, not leading the soul through strife and 
disturbance, they too must become purely beneficent as well as puissant

SAKSIVC   Page 51 of 167 agencies.  
This complete harmony established, Ag astya's Yoga will proceed triumphantly on 
the new and straight path prescribed to it. It is always the elevation to a higher 
plane that is the end, - higher than the ordinary life of divided and egoistic 
sensation, emotion, thought and action. And it is to  be pursued always with the 
same, puissant will towards victory over all that resists and hampers. But it must 
be an integral exaltation. All the joys that the human being seeks with his desire, 
all the active energies of his waking consciousness, - his da ys, as it is expressed 
in the brief symbolic language of the Veda, - must be uplifted to that higher 
plane. By vanani  are meant the receptive sensations seeking in all objectivities 
the Ananda whose quest is their reason for existence. These, too, are not 
excluded. Nothing has to be rejected, all has to be raised to the pure levels of 
the divine consciousness.  
Formerly Agastya had prepared the sacrifice for the Maruts under other 
conditions. He had put their full potentiality of force into all in him that h e sought 
to place in the hands of the Thought -Powers; but because of the defect in his 
sacrifice he had been met midway by the Mighty One as by an enemy and only 
after fear and strong suffering had his eyes been opened and his soul 
surrendered. Still vibra ting with the emotions of that experience, he has been 
compelled to renounce the activities which he had so puissantly prepared. Now 
he offers the sacrifice again to the Maruts, but couples with that brilliant Name 
the more puissant godhead of Indra. Let t he Maruts then bear no wrath for the 
interrupted sacrifice but accept this new and more justly guided 
action.                    
Agastya turns, in the two closing verses, from the Maruts to Indra. The Maruts 
represent the progressive illumination of human m entality, until from the first 
obscure movements of mind which only just emerge out of the darkness of the 
subconscient, they are transformed into an image of the luminous consciousness 
of which Indra is the Purusha, the representative Being. Obscure, they  become 
conscient; twilit, half -lit or turned into misleading reflections, they surmount 
these deficiencies and put on the divine brilliance. This great evolution is effected 
in Time gradually, in the mornings of the human spirit, by the unbroken 
successio n of the Dawns. For Dawn in the Veda is the goddess symbolic of new 
openings of divine illumination on man's physical consciousness. She alternates 
with her sister Night; but that darkness itself is a mother of light and always 
Dawn comes to reveal what th e black -browed Mother has prepared. Here, 
however, the seer seems to speak of continuous dawns, not broken by these 
intervals of apparent rest and obscurity. By the brilliant force of that continuity of 
successive illuminations the mentality of man ascends  swiftly into fullest light. 
But always the force which has governed and made possible the transformation, 
is the puissance of Indra. It is that supreme Intelligence which through the

SAKSIVC   Page 52 of 167 Dawns, through the Maruts, has been pouring itself into the human being.  Indra 
is the Bull of the radiant herd, the Master of the thought -energies, the Lord of 
the luminous dawns.    
Now also let Indra use the Maruts as his instruments for the illumination. By 
them let him establish the supramental knowledge of the seer. By the ir energy 
his energy will be supported in the human nature and he will give that nature his 
divine firmness, his divine force, so that it may not stumble under the shock or 
fail to contain the vaster play of puissant activities too great for our ordinary 
capacity.  
The Maruts, thus reinforced in strength, will always need the guidance and 
protection of the superior Power. They are the Purushas of the separate thought -
energies, Indra the one Purusha of all thought -energy. In him they find their 
fullness and t heir harmony. Let there then be no longer strife and disagreement 
between this whole and these parts. The Maruts, accepting Indra, will receive 
from him the right perception of the things that have to be known. They will not 
be misled by the brilliance of a partial light or carried too far by the absorption of 
a limited energy. They will be able to sustain the action of lndra as he puts forth 
his force against all that may yet stand between the soul and its consummation.  
      So in the harmony of these div ine Powers and their aspirations may 
humanity find that impulsion which shall be strong enough to break through the 
myriad oppositions of this world and, in the individual with his composite 
personality or in the race, pass rapidly on towards the goal so c onstantly 
glimpsed but so distant even to him who seems to himself almost to have 
attained.  
  
Mind - its nature and function in Indian thought   
Before explaining the characteristics of the deity of the Divine Mind, we will have 
a brief discussion of the c oncept of human mind in Indian thought. Even though 
there are numerous systems of Indian spiritual thought, and metaphysics, all of 
them, more or less, share the same concept. "The (human) mind is not an 
instrument of knowledge, it is incapable of finding knowledge, but it must be 
moved by knowledge. Knowledge belongs to a much higher domain than that of 
the human mind, far above the domain of pure ideas. The mind has to be silent 
and attentive to receive knowledge from above and manifest it. For it is an 
instrument of formation, of organization and action and it is in these functions 
that in attains its full value and real usefulness." [Mother, CW, Vol. 12, pp. 3]  

SAKSIVC   Page 53 of 167 focus on its first task, the organization. The mind with the power of reasoning 
takes any topic, divides it into different aspects, and contrasts them, looks for 
consistency among them, rearranges them, etc. The key idea behind all major 
discoveries in science, metaphy sics, philosophy, comes from levels of intuition 
and higher mind which are all very much above the human mind. But there is 
nothing definitive about the details of the metaphysical systems or philosophies. 
They are all "turbaned with doubt." As Sri Aurobin do says, "What men call 
knowledge is the reasoned acceptance of false appearance. Wisdom looks behind 
the veil and sees." "Either do not give the name of knowledge to your beliefs 
only and of error, ignorance or charlatanism to the beliefs of others; or do  not 
rail at the dogmas of the sects and their intolerance." [Sri Aurobindo; Thoughts 
and Aphorisms, 1982 edition, p. 4]. One person receives a key idea and develops 
an entire system based on this idea. He and his followers think that all persons 
who do no t believe are ideological, stupid, etc. Then another creative person 
comes and he begins with an idea which completely contradicts the earlier idea 
and builds another "complete" system. This sort of situation happens fairly often 
in all branches of modern thought, metaphysics, philosophy, science and 
mathematics. Let us take an example from mathematics which is the subject 
often perceived to be based on pure reason. One of the key ideas behind the 
geometry of Euclid is that no more than one straight line ca n be drawn going 
through two given points. The truth behind the idea is often considered self -
evident, especially because of the widespread use of the results of Euclidean 
geometry in everyday life. Hence, Euclid's geometry reigned supreme for about 
eighte en centuries until the great mathematician Riemann developed another 
geometry which begins with the negation of the key idea of Euclid, i.e., Riemann 
assumed that there exist pairs of points through which numerous lines could be 
drawn. This is the Riemann Geometry which has numerous applications of its 
own. Hence systems of thought based on mutually contradictory first principles 
can be developed and no one can say that one is more "truthful" than the other. 
But in a particular situation or application one system may be better than the 
other. The distinction between the absolute truth and the relative truth is needed 
in different circumstances. They used the word satyam  for the absolute truth; 
the Seers perceived that at any point of space and time and circu mstance, one 
particular type of action is better than another and they called this action as 
"rtam",  often translated as the "Right." rtam embodies the truth of action valid at 
different places and time.  
 Investigation is only one of the functions of the mind. Its other two functions 
are formation and action. There are several widespread misconceptions about 
the role of reason in action. It is said that every rational person evaluates the 
given situation objectively and comes to a course of action needed o n that 
occasion based on reason. In Indian thought, such a view is considered as 
simplistic. Each one of us is made up of different personalities, as it were. One

SAKSIVC   Page 54 of 167 part may want one to be a respectable member of the community, another may 
want to enjoy the pleasures, still another may want to involve in creative 
endeavors. In most of us there is no peace between these warring factions. 
When a situation for action arises, the appropriate action is decided upon 
whichever personality in us is dominating at that  time. Once the decision for 
action is done, reason is called upon to come up with justifications for this 
action. Later we convince ourselves that the course of action was "best" under 
the circumstances. "Our blind or erring government of life, a loose re public of 
wants and needs, ...bowed to the uncertain sovereign mind." (Savitri, Bk. 7, Ch. 
5)  
A similar misconception is there about the so -called "objective evaluation of 
situation" which precedes action. The close connection between mental 
formations an d action is well recognized in Indian thought. We commonly label 
the daydreams, imagination, the thought formations in our subconscious mind 
which suddenly bubbles up, nightmares, dreams, etc. as mental formations and 
think of them as irrelevant to the "re al world" dealing with action. But the Indian 
psychologists claim that these mental formations which are never formally 
expressed which may often be not recognized, dictate the course of action. For 
instance, consider a person having some health problems. There are two 
dominant views regarding health and disease. According to the first view, 
propounded by the ancient Indian science of ayurveda (the science of longevity), 
every human being is designed to enjoy adequate health, provided s/he has a 
minimal kno wledge of the functioning of the overall personality made up of 
several layers and s/he takes sufficient care. There is a condition of perfect 
health which anyone can enter and attain. It is not that every person of this age 
did not suffer headache or feve r. The idea is that the overall system is robust 
and it will come back to the normal (good) state of health, provided there are no 
adverse movements in the way of life of the individual. The second view, 
proposed by the modern Western doctors, is that a hu man being is a very fragile 
machine which is invaded by millions and billions of harmful entities like virus 
and bacteria. They attack by each family of virus or bacteria needs a different 
chemical preparation to cure it. The disease is caused by external agents and 
hence external agents like drugs are needed to cure it. The way of life of the 
person does not come into the picture at all. These ideas are never stated in 
such clear -cut terms, but one or the other dominates us. The Indian 
psychologists say th at the people who have a strong belief in the idea of perfect 
health also have access to helpful psychic forces which can counteract and 
withstand any jolts to the health caused by external agents like bacteria whose 
presence is not denied. According to th ese scientists, the disease is not caused 
by the virus; rather the protective armour provided by your mental formation of 
"perfect health" has had chinks in it so that the bacterial attacks caused by fever. 
Restoring the faith in the condition of perfect h ealth is the first step in the

SAKSIVC   Page 55 of 167 curative property.  
The power of mental formations is recognized by the Western authors who 
publish their books in the alternative press, i.e., the press not controlled by the 
academics of the current medical establishment. E ven the powers of mental 
formation have been recognized and used successfully in several instances. For 
instance, the use of "mental visualization" in training for athletic events are well 
known. A swimmer, instead of practicing in a swimming pool, may sit  in a chair 
and mentally visualize in great detail every step of the swimming activity and this 
visualization is often more effective than the actual physical activity.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 56 of 167 Soma  
 
 Nature of Soma  
 Lord of Delight  
  
Nature of Soma   
Soma is an enigmatic  deva . The Occidentals have treated Soma as nothing but a 
plant whose creepers, on being squeezed, yield a juice which is intoxicating. 
There are numerous passages where Soma occu rs with the word suta meaning 
pressed or squeezed. It is said that Indra drinking this juice becomes intoxicated 
and in his intoxication kills the adversary Vrtra. There are some references to 
Indra killing Vrtra after drinking Soma . The verses on Soma num ber more than 
1,200, including all the verses in the entire ninth mandala consisting of 114 
suktas  or 1,108 verses. Reading carefully all the epithets to Soma in these verses 
gives a completely different picture. Let us begin with what RV has to say about 
whether the Soma is a herb or not, by quoting the famous verse (10.85.3) in the 
hymn titled "marriage of Surya '' 
"Laymen or those addicted to rituals may regard Soma as a creeper which is 
crushed for getting its juice for use in the ritual. But to the wise  poets Soma is 
not something to be drunk.''  
The clue to its deeper meaning is indicated by the common epithet for Soma , 
vanaspati , the lord of vana;  vana means in Sanskrit both herb and delight. Kena 
Upanishad (4.6) uses vana in the sense of delight. Soma in the deeper sense is 
the Lord of Delight, the Delight of Existence. In RV, every aspect of existence 
has an inherent delight, the idea popularised later in the Taittiriya Upanishad. 
Every action exerts a pressure on existence; this squeezing, suta, releases the 
Soma  or bliss contained in that aspect of creation. We feel joy in work because 
of this released delight, Soma.  
Here we recognise that action is done prim arily by the devas  and the humans are 
only subsidiary players; we should free the released Soma from our claim. This 
declaration, "this is not mine'', is the way of purifying the Soma , purifying it of 
our attachment. This purified Soma is offered to the deva, especially Indra, the 
Lord of Divine Mind. This delight exhilarates  Indra who takes steps to destroy the 
forces of ignorance, like Vrtra and Vala, the kill -joys or misers who do not want 
the supreme knowledge go and the energies apah (waters) to reach all human 
beings.  

SAKSIVC   Page 57 of 167 speaks of Soma in (9.96) in the vibhutiyoga  style as in Bhagawad Gita : 
"Brahman among devas , leader among the seer -poets,  
Sage among the wise, the bull among the a nimals,  
The falcon among vultures, the axe in the woods,  
Soma sings over the purifier. (9.96.3)''  
"By Soma are ¡dityas  strong and by Soma the earth is mighty;  
This Soma is placed in the midst of all these Constellations, (Nakshatra).  
(10.85.2)''  
"Soma adva nces heroic with his swift chariots by the force of subtle thought to 
the perfected activity of Indra.  (9.15.1)''  
"You are the ocean, you reveal everything; Under thy law are the five places;  
Thou transcends heaven and earth;  
Purifier, there are the Lights , there the Sun. (9.86.29)''  
"Giving birth to the luminous world of heaven.  
Giving birth to the Sun in the Waters.  
The Brilliant one Hari clothes himself with the Waters and the Rays. (9.42.1)''  
"Giving birth'' means manifesting these energies in the hum an being.  
Soma is connected to moon; ""cool moon -rays which cause delight among 
lovers'' is a common phrase.  
"Those who are utterly perfected in Works taste the enjoyment of his honey -
sweetness. (9.83.4)''  
"His swift ecstasies foster the soul that purifie s him;  
He ascends to the high level of Heaven by the conscious heart.  

SAKSIVC   Page 58 of 167 We can combine all the different quotes and understand why persons who 
merely squeeze the Soma herb cannot know this delight. Only the person who 
has done tapas can release the delight. Delight encompasses everything. Delight 
makes the Sun shine as the Taittiriya Upanishad declares. Delight is the basis of 
everything. Soma denotes the delight released from actions or works, Ananda 
refers to Delight in its entirety.  
Soma 's connection with Knowledge and Light is contained in many hymns.  
"Soma, we know the e pre-eminently with our understanding.  
You lead us along the straight path. (1.91.1)''  
"You are the master of all -existence satpati.  You are the slayer of Vrtra and the 
auspicious will in action. (1.91.5)''  
"Soma , thou hast generated all the delights Vana, the energies apah and the 
Light go; 
You have dispelled the darkness with thy Light;  
You have extended the vast Mid -world (in man). (1.91.22)''  
  
Soma, Lord of Delight and Immortality (RV 9.83)   
1.      Wide spread out for thee is the sieve of thy puri fying, O Master of the soul; 
becoming in the creature thou pervadest his members all through. He tastes 
not that delight who is unripe and whose body has not suffered in the heat of 
the fire; they alone are able to bear that and enjoy it who have been 
prepared by the flame.  
2.      The strainer through which the heat of him is purified is spread out in the 
seat of Heaven; its threads shine out and stand extended. His swift ecstasies 
foster the soul that purifies him; he ascend to the high level of Heaven by  the 
conscious heart.  
3.      This is the supreme dappled Bull that makes the Dawns to shine out, the 
Male that bears the worlds of the becoming and seeks the plenitude; the Fathers 
who had the forming knowledge made a form of him by that power of 
knowledg e which is his; strong in vision they set him within as a child to be born.  
4.      As the Gandharva he guards his true seat; as the supreme and wonderful 
One he keeps the births of the gods; Lord of the inner setting, by the inner

SAKSIVC   Page 59 of 167 setting he seizes the en emy. Those who are utterly perfected in works taste the 
enjoyment of his honey -sweetness.    
5.      Thou in whom is the food, thou art that divine food, thou art the vast, the 
divine home; wearing heaven as a robe thou encompassest the march of the 
sacrifi ce. King with the sieve of thy purifying for thy chariot thou ascendest to 
the plenitude; with thy thousand burning brilliances thou conquerest the vast 
knowledge.  
  
It is a marked, an essential feature of the Vedic hymns that, although the Vedi c 
cult was not monotheistic in the modern sense of the word, yet they continually 
recognise, sometimes quite openly and simply, sometimes in a complex and 
difficult fashion, always as an underlying thought, that the many godheads 
whom they invoke are reall y one Godhead, - One with many names, revealed in 
many aspects, approaching man in the mask of many divine personalities. 
Western scholars, puzzled by this religious attitude which presents no difficulty 
whatever to the Indian mind, have invented, in order  to explain it, a theory of 
Vedic henotheism. The Rishis, they thought, were polytheists, but to each God at 
the time of worshipping him they gave pre -eminence and even regarded him as 
in a way the sole deity. This invention of henotheism is the attempt of  an alien 
mentality to understand and account for the Indian idea of one Divine Existence 
who manifests Himself in many names and forms, each of which is for the 
worshipper of that name and form the one and supreme Deity. That idea of the 
Divine, fundament al to the Puranic religions, was already possessed by our Vedic 
forefathers.  
The Veda already contains in the seed the Vedantic conception of the Brahman. 
It recognises an Unknowable, a timeless Existence, the Supreme which is neither 
today nor tomorrow, m oving in the movement of the Gods, but itself vanishing 
from the attempt of the mind to seize it (1.170.1). It is spoken of in the neuter 
as That and often identified with the Immortality, the supreme triple Principle, 
the vast Bliss to which the human bei ng aspires. The Brahman is the Unmoving, 
the Oneness of the Gods. "The Unmoving is born as the Vast in the seat of the 
Cow (Aditi), ... the vast, the mightiness of the Gods, the One" (3 -55.1). "It is the 
one Existent to whom the seers give different names,  Indra, Matarishwan, Agni" 
(1.164.46).  
This Brahman, the one Existence, thus spoken of impersonally in the neuter, is 
also conceived as the Deva, the supreme Godhead, the Father of things who 
appears here as the Son in the human soul. He is the Blissful On e to whom the

SAKSIVC   Page 60 of 167 movement of the Gods ascends, manifest as at once the Male and the Female, 
vrsan, dhenu . Each of the Gods is a manifestation, an aspect, a personality of 
the one Deva. He can be realised through any of his names and aspects, through 
Indra, th rough Agni, through Soma; for each of them being in himself all the 
Deva and only in his front or aspect to us different from the others contains all 
the gods in himself.                       
Thus Agni is hymned as the supreme and universal Deva. "Thou O A gni, art 
Varuna when thou art born, thou becomest Mitra when thou art perfectly 
kindled, in thee are all the Gods, O Son of Force, thou art Indra to the mortal 
who gives the sacrifice. Thou becomest Aryaman when thou bearest the secret 
name of the Virgins.  They make thee to shine with the radiances (the cows, 
gobhih ) as Mitra well -established when thou makest of one mind the Lord of the 
house and his consort. For the glory of thee, O Rudra, the Maruts brighten by 
their pressure that which is the brilliant a nd varied birth of thee. That which is 
the highest seat of Vish nu, by that thou protectest the secret Name of the 
radiances (the cows, gonam ). By thy glory, O Deva, the gods attain to right 
vision and holding in themselves all the multiplicity (of the vast  manifestation) 
taste Immortality. Men set Agni in them as the priest of the sacrifice when 
desiring (the Immortality) they distribute (to the Gods) the self -expression of the 
being.... Do thou in thy knowledge extricate the Father and drive away (sin and 
darkness), he who is borne in us as thy Son, O Child of Force" (5.3). Indra is 
similarly hymned by Vamadeva and in this eighty -third Sukta of the ninth 
Mandala, as in several others, Soma too emerges from his special functions as 
the supreme Deity.  
Soma is  the Lord of the wine of delight, the wine of immortality. Like Agni he is 
found in the plants, the growths of earth, and in the waters. The Soma -wine 
used in the external sacrifice is the symbol of this wine of delight. It is pressed 
out by the pressing -stone ( adri, gravan ) which has a close symbolic connection 
with the thunderbolt, the formed electric force of Indra also called adri. The 
Vedic hymns speak of the luminous thunders of this stone as they speak of the 
light and sound of Indra's weapon. Once p ressed out as the delight of existence 
Soma has to be purified through a strainer ( pavitra ) and through the strainer he 
streams in his purity into the wine bowl ( camu ) in which he is brought to the 
sacrifice, or he is kept in jars ( kalasa ) for Indra's drin king. Or, sometimes, the 
symbol of the bowl or the jar is neglected and Soma is simply described as 
flowing in a river of delight to the seat of the Gods, to the home of Immortality. 
That these things are symbols is very clear in most of that hymns of the ninth 
Mandala which are all devoted to the God Soma. Here, for instance, the physical 
system of the humar being is imaged as the jar of the Soma -wine and the 
strainer through which it is purified is said to be spread out in the seat of

SAKSIVC   Page 61 of 167 Heaven, divaspade . 
The hymn begins with an imagery which closely follows the physical facts of the 
purifying of the wine and its pouring into the jar. The strainer or purifying 
instrument spread out in the seat of Heaven seems to be the mind enlightened 
by knowledge ( cetas); the human system is the jar. Pavitram te vitatam 
brahmanaspate , the strainer is spread wide for thee, O Master of the soul; 
prabhur gatrani paryesi visvatah , becoming manifest thou pervadest or goest 
about the limbs everywhere. Soma is addressed here as Br ahmanaspati, a word 
sometimes applied to other gods, but usually reserved for Brihaspati, Master of 
the creative Word. Brahman  in the Veda is the soul or soul -consciousness 
emerging from the secret heart of things, but more often the thought, inspired, 
creative, full of the secret truth, which emerges from that consciousness and 
becomes thought of the mind, manma . Here, however, it seems to mean the 
soul itself. Soma, Lord of the Ananda, is the true creator who possesses the soul 
and brings out of it a divi ne creation. For him the mind and heart, enlightened, 
have been formed into a purifying instrument; freed from all narrowness and 
duality the consciousness in it has been extended widely to receive the full flow 
of the sense -life and mind -life and turn it into pure delight of the true existence, 
the divine, the immortal Ananda.  
So received, sifted, strained, the Soma -wine of life turned into Ananda comes 
pouring into all the members of the human system as into a wine -jar and flows 
through all of them comple tely in their every part. As the body of a man 
becomes full of the touch and exultation of strong wine, so all the physical 
system becomes full of the touch and exultation of this divine Ananda. The 
words prabhu and vibhu  in the Veda are used not in the la ter sense, "lord", but 
in a fixed psychological significance like pracetas  and vicetas  or like prajnana  and 
vijnana  in the later language. "Vibhu" means becoming, or coming into existence 
pervasively, "Prabhu" becoming, coming into existence in front of th e 
consciousness, at a particular point as a particular object or experience. Soma 
comes out like the wine dropping from the strainer and then pervading the jar; it 
emerges into the consciousness concentrated at some particular point, prabhu , 
or as some par ticular experience and then pervades the whole being as Ananda, 
vibhu .  
But it is not every human system that can hold, sustain and enjoy the potent and 
often violent ecstasy of that divine delight. Ataptatanur na tad amo asnute , he 
who is raw and his body  not heated does not taste or enjoy that; srtasa id 
vahantas tat samasata , only those who have been baked in the fire bear and 
entirely enjoy that. The wine of the divine Life poured into the system is a 
strong, overflooding and violent ecstasy; it cannot be held in the system 
unprepared for it by strong endurance of the utmost fires of life and suffering

SAKSIVC   Page 62 of 167 and experience. The raw earthen vessel not baked to consistency in the fire of 
the kiln cannot hold the Soma -wine; it breaks and spills the precious liqui d. So 
the physical system of the man who drinks this strong wine of Ananda must by 
suffering and conquering all the torturing heats of life have been prepared for 
the secret and fiery heats of the Soma; otherwise his conscious being will not be 
able to hol d it; it will spill and lose it as soon as or even before it is tasted or it 
will break down mentally and physically under the touch.  
  This strong and fiery wine has to be purified and the strainer for its purifying 
has been spread out wide to receive it in the seat of heaven, tapospavitram 
vitatam divaspade ; its threads or fibres are all of pure light and stand out like 
rays, Socanto asya tantavo vyasthiran . Through these fibres the wine has to 
come streaming. The image evidently refers to the purified me ntal and emotional 
consciousness, the conscious heart, cetas, whose thoughts and emotions are the 
threads or fibres. Dyau or Heaven is the pure mental principle not subjected to 
the reactions of the nerves and the body. In the seat of Heaven, - the pure 
mental being as distinguished from the vital and physical consciousness, - the 
thoughts and emotions become pure rays of true perception and happy psychical 
vibration instead of the troubled and obscured mental, emotional and sensational 
reactions that we no w possess. Instead of being contracted and quivering things 
defending themselves from pain and excess of the shocks of experience they 
stand out free, strong and bright, happily extended to receive and turn into 
divine ecstasy all possible contacts of univ ersal existence. Therefore it is 
divaspade , in the seat of Heaven, that the Soma -strainer is spread out to receive 
the Soma.  
Thus received and purified these keen and violent juices, these swift and 
intoxicating powers of the Wine no longer disturb the min d or hurt the body, are 
no longer spilled and lost but foster and increase, avanti , mind and body of their 
purifier, avantyasya pavitaram asavah . So increasing him in all delight of his 
mental, emotional, sensational and physical being they rise with him t hrough the 
purified and blissful heart to the highest level or surface of heaven, that is, to the 
luminous world of Swar where the mind capable of intuition, inspiration, 
revelation is bathed in the splendours of the Truth ( rtam), liberated into the 
infinity of the Vast (brhat). Divasprstham adhi tisthanti cetasa . 
So far the Rishi has spoken of Soma in his impersonal manifestation, as the 
Ananda or delight of divine existence in the human being's conscious experience. 
He now turns, as is the habit of the Ve dic Rishis, from the divine manifestation to 
the divine Person and at once Soma appears as the supreme Personality, the 
high and universal Deva. Arurucad usasah prsnir agriyah , the supreme dappled 
One, he makes the dawns to shine: uksa bibharti bhuvanani v ajayuh , he, the 
Bull, bears the worlds, seeking the plenitude. The word prsnih , dappled, is used

SAKSIVC   Page 63 of 167 both of the Bull, the supreme Male, and of the Cow, the female Energy; like all 
words of colour, sveta, sukra, hari, harit, krsna, hiranyaya,  in the Veda it is  
symbolic; colour, varna , has always denoted quality, temperament, etc., in the 
language of the Mystics. The dappled Bull is the Deva in the variety of his 
manifestation, many -hued. Soma is that first supreme dappled Bull, generator of 
the world of the bec oming, for from the Ananda, from the all -blissful One they all 
proceed; delight is the parent of the variety of existences. He is the Bull, uksan , 
a word which like its synonym vrsan , means diffusing, generating, impregnating, 
the father of abundance, the Bull, the Male; it is he who fertilizes Force of 
consciousness, Nature, the Cow, and produces and bears in his stream of 
abundance the worlds. He makes the Dawns shine out, - the dawns of 
illumination, mothers of the radiant herds of the Sun; and he seeks the 
plenitude, that is to say the fullness of being, force, consciousness, the plenty of 
the godhead which is the condition of the divine delight. In other words it is the 
Lord of the Ananda who gives us the splendours of the Truth and the plenitudes 
of the Vast by which we attain to Immortality.  
The fathers who discovered the Truth, received his creative knowledge, his 
Maya, and by that ideal and ideative consciousness of the supreme Divinity they 
formed an image of Him in man, they established Him in the race as a child 
unborn, a seed of the godhead in man, a Birth that has to be delivered out of the 
envelope of the human consciousness. mayavino mamire asya, mayaya, 
nrcaksasah pitaro garbham a dadhuh.  The fathers are the ancient rishis who 
discovered the W ay of the Vedic mystics and are supposed to be still spiritually 
present presiding over the destinies of the race and, like the gods, working in 
man for his attainment to Immortality. They are the sages who received the 
strong divine vision, nrcaksasah , the Truth -vision by which they were able to find 
the Cows hidden by the Panis and to pass beyond the bounds of the rodasi , the 
mental and physical consciousness, to the Superconscient, the Vast Truth and 
the Bliss (I.36.7; TV.I.13 -18; IV.2.15 -18 etc.).  
Soma is the Gandharva, the Lord of the hosts of delight, and guards the true 
seat of the Deva, the level or plane of the Ananda; gandharva ittha padam asya 
raksati . He is the Supreme, standing out from all other beings and over them, 
other than they and wonderf ul, adbhutah,  and as the supreme and transcendent, 
present in the worlds but exceeding them, he protects in those worlds the births 
of the gods , pati devanam janimani adbhutah.  The "births of the gods" is a 
common phrase in the Veda by which is meant the m anifestation of the divine 
principles in the cosmos and especially the formation of the godhead in its 
manifold forms in the human being. In the last verse the Rishi spoke of the Deva 
as the divine child preparing for birth, involved in the world, in the h uman 
consciousness. Here he speaks of Him as the transcendent guarding the world of 
the Ananda formed in man and the forms of the godhead born in him by the

SAKSIVC   Page 64 of 167 divine knowledge against the attacks of the enemies, the powers of division, the 
powers of undeligh t (dvisah, aratih ), against the undivine hosts with their 
formations of a dark and false creative knowledge, Avidya, illusion, ( adevir 
mayah ). 
For he seizes these invading enemies in the net of the inner consciousness; he is 
the master of a profounder and truer setting of world -truth and world -experience 
than that which is formed by the senses and the superficial mind. It is by this 
inner setting that he seizes the powers of falsehood, obscurity and division and 
subjects them to the law of truth, light and unity; grbhnati ripum nidhaya 
nidhapatih . Men therefore protected by the lord of the Ananda governing this 
inner nature are able to accord their thoughts and, actions with the inner truth 
and light and are no longer made to stumble by the forces of the out er 
crookedness; they walk straight, they become entirely perfect in their works and 
by this truth of inner working and outer action are able to taste the entire 
sweetness of existence, the honey, the delight that is the food of the soul. 
sukrttama madhuno bhaksam asata.  
Soma manifests here as the offering, the divine food, the wine of delight and 
immortality, havih , and as the Deva, lord of that divine offering ( havismah ), 
above as the vast and divine seat, the superconscient bliss and truth, brhat, from 
which the wine descends to us. As the wine of delight he flows about and enters 
into this great march of the sacrifice which is the progress of man from the 
physical to the superconscient. He enters into it and encompasses it wearing the 
cloud of the heavenl y ether, nabhas , the mental principle, as his robe and veil. 
havir havismo mahi sadma daivyam, nabho vasanah pari yasi adhvaram . The 
divine delight comes to us wearing the luminous -cloudy veil of the forms of 
mental experience.  
In that march or sacrificial  ascent the all -blissful Deva becomes the King of all 
our activities, master of our divinised nature and its energies and with the 
enlightened conscious heart as his chariot ascends into the plenitude of the 
infinite and immortal state. Like a Sun or a fir e, as Surya, as Agni, engirt with a 
thousand blazing energies he conquers the vast regions of the inspired truth, the 
superconscient knowledge; raja pavitraratho vajam aruhah, sahasrabhrstir jayasi 
sravo brhat . The image is that of a victorious king, sunli ke in force and glory, 
conquering a wide territory. It is the immortality that he wins for man in the vast 
Truth -Consciousness, sravas , upon which is founded the immortal state. It is his 
own true seat, ittha padam asya , that the God concealed in man conqu ers 
ascending out of the darkness and the twilight through the glories of the Dawn 
into the solar plenitudes.  
     With this hymn I close this series of selected hymns from the Rigveda. My

SAKSIVC   Page 65 of 167 object has been to show in as brief a compass as possible the real functions of 
the Vedic gods, the sense of the symbols in which their cult is expressed, the 
nature of the sacrifice and its goal, explaining by actual examples the secret of 
the Veda. I have purposely selected a few brief and easy hymns, and avoided 
those which have a more striking depth, subtlety and complexity of thought and 
image, - alike those which bear the psychological sense plainly and fully on their 
surface and those which by their very strangeness and profundity reveal their 
true character of myst ic and sacred poems. It is hoped that these examples will 
be sufficient to show the reader who cares to study them with an open mind the 
real sense of this, our earliest and greatest poetry. By other translations of a 
more general character it will be show n that these ideas are not merely the 
highest thought of a few rishis, but the pervading sense and teaching of the 
Rigveda.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 66 of 167 Sarasvati  
 
 Introduction  
 Nature of In spiration  
 Developing Inspiration  
 Understanding Veda  
 Sarasvati is not a mere river  
 Sarasvati mantras  
 Tantra and Sarasvati  
  
Introduction   
Sarasvati or Sarasv ati is described in 72 mantra -verses of Rig Veda Samhita, 
some of which are repeated in Yajur Veda. Even though there was a river of that 
name flowing in North India in Rig Vedic times which is now dry, the mantras 
deal primarily with the goddess of inspir ation and this was recognised by the 
rishis even though the commoners of that age, like the moderns, believe that 
Sarasvati described in Veda is a mere river or atmost a river -goddess, whatever 
it may mean.  
We will pose here some popular questions and give  our answers in the next 
several sections. The first question is, “what is inspiration, why is it needed?'' 
The more aggressive ones declare, “inspiration is needed only by poets and 
writers; it is irrelevant for others''. It is this attitude of judging an  issue without 
even bothering to get its essentials that is preventing many persons from 
deriving the benefit of Veda mantras. The attitude of these persons is similar to 
those who have no interest in the topic of well -ness or health till sickness hits 
them.  
Questions of the second group state, “we have read in the translations of Rig 
Veda by eminent Western Indologists like Wilson (or even the famous Sayana) 
that Sarasvati is a physical river which rises in the Himalayas; here and there she 
may be described as  dealing with prose and poetry (described as gadya padya,  
commentary of Sayana on RV (3.54.13)). You state that she represents the 
power of inspiration. What is your basis? Why should we believe you instead of 
the earlier mentioned eminent scholars''. We g ive a glimpse of the foundations of 
the Vedic interpretation according to Sri Aurobindo. The first principle is that we 
should focus only on the mantras of Rig Veda Samhita and not introduce 
passages from Purana, Ramayana, Brahmana books like Taittiriya Br ahmana etc.,

SAKSIVC   Page 67 of 167 which are thousands of years later than the Veda mantras. Secondly fix one 
meaning for each word and not give ten or twenty meanings to the same word 
as Sayanacharya does to force ritualists meaning he wants. In the fifth section 
we detail man y epithets for Sarasvati from the Veda such as awakening the 
consciousness ( chetanti ), the thoughts ( dhiya ), etc. All these epithets are 
consistent with the labeling of Sarasvati as the goddess of inspiration, only a few 
epithets are consistent with Sarasv ati as a physical river.  
The questions of the third group state, “There are many stotras of Sarasvati in 
Purana and Ramayana. There is also the Mahasarasvati stotra in the Durga 
Saptashati. What is the difference between them and Veda mantra? Why are 
Veda mantras regarded as more powerful?  
We give the annotated translation of most of the mantras, divided into 3 
categories. In the first group, we consider the sukta and mantras specifically 
dedicated to Sarasvati such as the complete sukta (6.61), (7.95) and (7.96) the 
subhymns each  having 3 mantras in RV (1.3), RV (2.41) and others. We give the 
detailed translation of all these mantras.  
In the Rig Veda there are 10 suktas called Apri suktas in which there is one 
mantra (in each sukta) dealing with the three goddesses Sarasvati (insp iration), 
Ila and Mahi or Bharati.  
There are 25 mantras dedicated to other gods like Agni or Vishvedevas, in which 
the word Sarasvati occurs.  
  
Nature of Inspiration   
Inspiration is a power of Truth ( satyam ). Truth is intimately connected with 
beauty and  harmony, sundaram  and shivam,  not only at the individual level but 
at the community level. In a sense Truth is the path and all -round bliss is the 
goal. Sin or falsehood is merely wrongly inspired emotion, wrongly directed will 
and action. We tell a lie b ecause our ego tells us that the actual telling of the 
limited truth on the occasion is not palatable to the emotion. Similarly a person 
indulges in an illegal or immoral action because the ego directs the will for its 
own reasons of security. For most of us the central idea of our everyday life is 
permeated by falsehood. The wrongly directed emotion, will and action leads to 
a completely distorted results.  
Inspiration is that power which leads to a perfect action (perfect with respect to 
time and space) by  means of steps which are not perceivable to our mind. The 
perfection is all -round; beneficial to the individual and the community,

SAKSIVC   Page 68 of 167 harmonious. The result of the action directed by inspiration leads to a result 
pervaded by beauty and harmony.  
The action m ay occur in any field, poetry, carpentry, science, technology, music.  
But we cannot order the inspiration to come; it comes to us when it likes; we 
have to understand its operation for its manifestation.  
“Truth comes to us as a light, a voice, compelling a change of thought, imposing 
a new discernment of ourselves and all around us. Truth of thought creates truth 
of vision and truth of vision forms in us the truth of being, and out of the truth of 
being ( satyam ) flows naturally truth of emotion, will and a ction. This is the 
central idea of the Veda.''   (Sri Aurobindo)    
  
Developing Inspiration   
Inspiration cannot be developed by any mechanical procedure. The three mantra 
verses RV (1.3.10) - RV (1.3.12) give us some hints only to develop the 
inspiration, that too in stages. The full text and translation of the three verses is 
in section 8, along with others.  
The first step is to become conscious of the work to be done in all its details, i.e., 
we become aware of the details noting both the things we claim to know and 
those which we do not know. We must establish some measure of mental 
tranquillity in us. Then the person has to become conscious that he is an 
instrument and the real doer is the supreme energy. Even though the supreme 
spirit or shakti is pouri ng in the energies, the person is blocking its flow by his 
feelings of egoism, petty emotion etc. He/she must try to counter the 
psychological foes like greed, delusion etc., systematically. Then we have to 
regard the work on hand, in which the inspiration  is needed, as a self -offering 
(yajna ) to the divine. Next recognize that Sarasvati can give plenty of everything 
in all possible forms. The Sanskrit word is vaja, the plenitude, plenty of 
everything or all -forms. Hence there is no reason for us to indulge  in the inimical 
acts like hoarding or being greedy, jealous, arrogant etc. We always get our 
turn, there is no need to be jealous etc. She is also rich in thought or rich in the 
substance of thought ( dhiyavasu ). First she uses her powers to purify ( pavaka ) 
us, i.e., remove the layers of falsehood embedded in our emotions, will and 
action. These are all negative thoughts and they can be neutralized by positive 
thoughts. The falsehood should go. She can do it because she is rich in the 
substance of thought.  

SAKSIVC   Page 69 of 167 the impeller ( chodayitri ) of happy truths ( sunrtanam ) and the awakener in 
consciousness ( chetanti ) of right mentalising. Sarasvati's power makes us 
became more and more conscious so that our emotions do not jump to the path 
of falsehood. She creates in us the right states of emotion and right movement 
of thought which are in accordance with the supreme Truth. She pours her 
illumination; she impels the truth to manifest in our emoti on, will and action. She 
thus liberates our life and being (the so called individuality) from falsehood, 
weakness and limitation. Then only are the un -opened doors of supreme felicity 
become open.  
By this constant awakening and impulsion represented by the  word ketu, 
Sarasvati brings down the great flood of Truth into the active consciousness in 
the human being. She illumines all the aspects with this consciousness. Thus our 
emotion, will and action become coordinated with this divine truth; and action 
naturally leads to a stage of perfection consistent with the time and space. 
Complete perfection cannot come in a single step.  
Action is very much necessary even if we have ample inspiration. Completely 
false is the idea that chanting of the mantra will yield  the required physical 
results without any physical action.  
  
Anecdote 1  
We will give here an anecdote of an eminent yogi and engineer (MKG) regarding 
the play of inspiration. MKG has a bachelor's degree in biology and he has no 
degree in engineering. Stil l he became a senior engineer in a company which had 
collaboration with the famous Japanese company Mitsubishi. Different metals like 
steel, aluminium, silicon have different properties of strength. The properties of 
many metals are complimentary, i.e., th e properties which are weak in one will 
be strong in other and vice versa. So combining two or more metals into a single 
one is called a composite so that the composite has all the good properties of its 
constituents. But the constituents have to be bonded , a procedure which is a 
secret of the supplier to the Japanese Company. MKG was faced with developing 
a composite. He could easily fix the types of the constituents with his intuition. 
However he had no clue to the bonding. He focussed all his thought to 
apparently no avail. The next day was Sunday; in the afternoon nap, he distinctly 
heard the sound ‘four' repeatedly. It was around 5 pm. MKG got the clue that, 
“for bonding, the requisite metals should be dipped in the liquid aluminium -
silicon bonding mate rial for about 4 minutes''. He went to the workshop and did 
the experiment. The new composite had properties which even the Japanese 
material did not have. MKG promptly sent a sample to the head office of the 
Mitsubishi in Japan. Reply by cable came 2 days  later, “we are amazed at your

SAKSIVC   Page 70 of 167 achievement, we have not been able to develop a composite with such 
properties. Your product has one hundred and fifty percent strength of our 
product.''  
Other anecdotes:  The biography of the famous fighter for freedom, poet and 
savant entitled, The glory of Vasishtha Ganapati Muni (published by SAKSIVC, 
1999) has numerous anecdotes dealing with the inflow of inspiration in a variety 
of circumstances including the harassment by police, composition of poetry, 
accidents etc. Man y persons who have done some spiritual practice can relate 
incidents involving inspiration in their lives. The disciples of Sri Aurobindo have 
written many books detailing their own experiences.  
  
Understanding Veda - Sri Aurobindo's Approach   
The Rig Ved a is dated much prior to 4000 B.C.E. Still Sri Aurobindo (1872 -1950) 
was the first person to write in detail defending the Rig Veda mantras as dealing 
with knowledge, specifically the philosophical and psychological wisdom. In 
addition to writing essays of about 1500 pages, he translated roughly 3000 
mantras out of 10,512 in Rig Veda, often giv ing a detailed explanation for the 
assignment of the meanings of words.  
There are 4 key steps in his unraveling the secret in the Veda:  
1. Fundamentally Veda is a spiritual document, Veda is book of knowledge, not 
of rituals.  
2. In the Indian tradition, the rishis to whom the mantr as were revealed are 
regarded as yogins or men of wisdom. However in the current translations of Rig 
Veda Samhita by Griffith or Wilson who follow closely the Sanskrit commentary 
of Sayana, many mantra -verses do not have any coh erent meaning; there is no 
coherence between the several mantras in the same sukta. Then there are only 
two alternatives:  
a) Accept the validity of ritualist commentary of Sayana in which there is no 
coherence in many verses in the same sukta and thus acce pt that rishis are not 
men and women of wisdom.  
b) Accept the rishis as men and women of wisdom, accept that mantr as are 
coherent, then automatically reject the supreme authority of the Sayana 
commentary; the commentary is still very useful even though it is not accepted 
as the final authority.

SAKSIVC   Page 71 of 167 Sri Aurobindo clearly prefers the alternative (b). As he would say, the 
obscurantist tendency in the decadent era is so strong that the mutual 
exclusiveness of the two alternatives is not even acknowledged; the peop le want 
to venerate both the rishis and the commentary of S, but refuse to acknowledge 
the incoherence in the meanings of the mantras in the commentary.  
3) Assignment of meaning for words in the Veda: collect all the verses having a 
given Samskrt word and assign the most appropriate meaning to it valid in all 
these verses. Each word should have one meaning. To force his ritualist 
interpretation, Sayana gives ten to twenty meanings for the same word. For 
instance he assigns 30 meanings for the word gau, cow in popular parlance. In 
Veda gau means a ray of knowledge. Hence Sri Aurobindo translated gau as Ray -
Cow. Similarly dhi in Veda is thought or intellect; S would accept this meaning in 
some places, but also translate dhi as anna (food) in many places.  
4) Ve da reveals its own secret. Trying to understand Veda through the legends 
in Purana or Ramayana or the Brahmana books leads to incoherent results. The 
symbolism and aims of these books are different. Brahmana books emphasise 
rituals only and scarcely acknow ledge any wisdom in the mantras. Purana and 
Ramayana emphasise the strife between ri shis or gods. Veda simply states that 
the Gods overcome the demon of falsehood and help the human beings.  
  
Sarasvati is not a mere river - epithets of Sarasvati dealing with 
consciousness   
River Sarasvati:  Sarasvati was undoubtedly a mighty river in the Rig Vedic age 
which flowed from the mountain heights to the sea as declared in RV (7.95.2). 
The Sarasvati verses were revealed or composed more than eight thousand 
years b efore the present era. According to geologists, “this time synchronizes 
with the first interglacial period in the Holocene age marking the break up of the 
glaciers and release of the pent up waters which was the source for the rivers 
Sarasvati and Sindhu. The next three thousand years did not witness major 
changes in climate as revealed by the lake sediments. At the end of this period, 
tectonic disturbances caused major changes in drainage. As a consequence the 
upper course of Sarasvati in the mountain - bound Himalaya was diverted South 
Eastward to Yamuna; Sutlej, which earlier had joined Sarasvati, changed its 
course, migrated westward and became a tributary of Indus... The consequence 
of these changes was the drying up of the river Sarasvati which was cut  off from 
the perennial source of water from the snowy Himalaya. It became an ephemeral 
stream, and finally lost itself in the sandy desert of Thar.'' [B.P. Radhakrishna, 
Jour. Geological Soc. of India, Vol. 51, June 1998]. The drying up of Sarasvati 
made its inhabitants move westwards resulting in the new civilization - the Indus

SAKSIVC   Page 72 of 167 Valley Civilisation (3100 -1900 BCE). In January 1997, the scientists at the 
Bhabha Atomic Energy Research Center have reconfirmed the existence of the 
Sarasvati river and its assoc iated ground water sanctuaries and aquifers by using 
water samples collected from the deep wells in the Jaisalmer regions and North 
Eastern Rajasthan to conduct tritium (hydrogen isotope) analysis to establish the 
quality of water, flow and the age of wate r [ranging from 4000 to 8000 years 
before the present era]. More information is available in the monographs, “Vedic 
Sarasvati River'', by Kalyanaraman and “Vedic Sarasvati'', by B.P. Radhakrishna 
and S.S. Merh (ed), published by the Geological Society of I ndia, 1999.  
Epithets  
chodayatri sunrtanam:  impelling happy truths, (1.3.11)  
chetanti sumatinam:  awakening right thinkings, (1.3.11)  
prachetayati ketuna: makes (us) conscious by constant awakening and 
impulsion, (1.3.12)  
yaste stana shashayo:  O Sarasvati, the word of yours that is asleep in you, 
(1.164.49)  
yo ratnadha vasuvid:  the word that holds the ecstasy and knows the substance, 
divyam suparnam vayasam:  the bird divine of beautiful wings, (addressed to 
Sarasvati) (1.164.52)  
sarasvatim sadhaya ntim dhiyam:  perfecting our understanding,   (2.3.8)  
prashastim naskridhi:  make us well known, (2.41.16)  
rtavari:  possessed of the truth, (2.41.18)  
sarasvati virapatni dhiyam dhat:  may she, the mate of hero -power, hold our 
thought, (6.49.7)  
shushmebhi hbisakha ivarujat sanum girinam:  by her forces she broke the peaks 
of mountains (ignorance) like weak fibres,   (6.61.2)  
sarasvati devanido ni barhaya:  Sarasvati destroys the censurers of the gods and 
the creator of illusory forms, (6.61.3)

SAKSIVC   Page 73 of 167 dhinam avatryavatu:  May the guardian of thoughts protect us,   (6.61.4)  
vrtraghni:  slayer of the demonic covering force Vrtra, (6.61.7)  
atannaheva surya:  she has extended us like the Sun the   day,   (6.61.9)  
trishadhastha saptadhatu:  abiding in triple session, with seven elem ents, 
(6.61.12)  
mahinasu chekite dyumnebhi h: becomes fully conscious by the thoughts, 
(6.61.13)  
payasa mana a dhak:  do not burn us with knowledge ( payasa ),   (6.61.14)  
eka chetat:  she alone became conscious, (7.95.2)  
  
Sarasvati mantras in the Veda and th e prayers in Puranas   
There are several prayers or stotras addressed to Sarasvati in the Puranas. 
Whereas the prayers in the Puranas are composed by some spiritual persons, the 
Rig Veda mantra directly   comes from the supreme ether and are revealed to the 
rishi. RV (1.164.39) of Rishi D irghatamas states, “The riks abide in the 
unchangeable supreme Ether ( parame vyoman ) where are seated all the gods; 
what can he do with the rik who knows not that?''  
There is another mantra RV (1.164.45): “The voice, vak, is  measured out in four 
steps; the wise persons ( brahmana ) know them. Three of them concealed in the 
profound secrecy cause no movements; the fourth step is what men call the 
human speech''.  
Thus the mantras of Rig Veda were not composed but were seen by the  seer 
(kavi), the hearer of the Truth ( satyashrut ). Because the paramevyoman  the 
abode of the Gods and the original source of the Veda mantras is not a creation 
of anyone, the Veda mantras are also eternal and all -powerful. Hence the 
common belief that the  mantra is an extraordinary means of achieving all the 
ends of life.  
All these powers associated with the Veda mantras are not associated with any 
puranic prayer, even the Vi shnu Sahasranama or popular verses in praise of 
Sarasvati.

SAKSIVC   Page 74 of 167 Sarasvati in the Tan tra Books   
The goddess Sarasvati appears in the Tantra as the, ‘secret channel or river' 
(guptagamini ). Recall the three channels connecting the bottom centre 
Mooladhara to the centre between the eye -brows Ajna chakra, namely Ida, 
Pingala and Sushumna. The  first two are identified with the subtle currents of 
the names Ganga and Jamuna. The subtle current flowing in the Sushumna, the 
middle channel, is Sarasvati. She is asleep normally. When she is activated by 
spiritual practises, she rises up indicating he r manifestation (see RV (1.164.49)). 
She reaches the aj na chakra and starts to descend. Her descent indicates the 
manifested inspirational power is being directed to the performance of actions. 
The importance of the tantrik  experience and explanation is th at it acknowledges 
that the power of inspiration or Sarasvati is not only in cosmos ( brahmanda ) but 
also in our subtle body ( pindanda ). 
 
SAKSIVC   Page 75 of 167 The Three Goddesses, Ila, Sarasvati,  Bharati  
 
These three Goddesses are celebrated together in all the apri hymn s namely: 
1.13.9; 1.142.9; 1.188.8; 2.3.8; 3.4.8; 5.5.8; 7.2.8; 9.5.8; 10.70.8; 10.110.8; 
Note that Mahi and Bharati  are same. We reproduce below the comments of Sri 
Kapali Sastry.  
The puranas  speak of no difference between Bharati  and Sarasvati.  Accordin g to 
the puranic  story, Ila, male head of the lunar dynasty, son of Manu,  attained 
womanhood and became Ila. But in the Veda, it is to be noted, these three 
associated together, conferring Sight, Hearing Vastness on the sacrificer, the 
rishi, have their dw elling in Svar. Of these, Bharati  signified by the term Mahi,  
the divine Power connected with the Vast Light, issuing from the House of svar, 
brings first the consciousness of the vast, brhat,  to the Seer -Poet; Ila favours 
him with the consciousness -sight,  commensurate with this vastness. But 
Sarasvati,  the carrier of inspiration makes the seer capable of hearing the divine 
inspiration, the hearer of Truth.  
The truth of Bharati  or Mahi is described in (1.8.8) with the three adjectives 
sunrta,  one with true speech, virapshi,  flowing abundantly, and  gomati,  full of 
the rays of Light. The entire hymn (1.8) entitled "Indra and Mahi''  will be 
discussed in the second volume. Even though sunrta is used for Sarasvati  also in 
(1.3.11), we have to grasp the distinctio n between the deities.  
Ila, Sarasvati  and Bharati,  conferring Sight, Hearing and Vastness respectively, 
are divine, born of the Truth -Light, powers of the Sun of the Light of Truth 
impeller supreme of the Universe. The adjective vishvaturti h (who carries a ll) 
used for Her of the Vastness, establishes the relation of Bharati  to the very 
Impeller who is sought to impel our thoughts. All these three create supreme 
happiness -mayobhuva h. They are not to be taken as some indistinct or formless 
divine powers; thou gh they are mutually associated, the seers see their form as 
distinct, beautiful, supeshasa h, of good form.  
We give below translations of some of the apri mantras.  
May Ila, Sarasvati, Mahi,  the three Goddesses of delight come to the seat, 
unharmed (1.13.9) . 
May Sarasvati  affecting our thought dhiyam  and Goddesses Ila and Bharati  who 
carry all to their goal sit on our altar seat and guard our house of refuge by the 
self-law of things svadhaya.  (2.3.8)

SAKSIVC   Page 76 of 167 In unison may Bharati  with her muses of invocation bharat ibhih, Ila with gods, 
men and Agni , Sarasvati  with her powers of inspiration sarasvatebhirvak,  come 
down to us; may the three goddesses be seated, (7.2.8) and (3.4.8).  
May Ila, Sarasvatii  and Mahi, the three Goddesses who create the bliss sit on the 
sacred  seat, they who never err (5.5.8).  
May Bharati  come swiftly to our sacrifice, Ila awakening to knowledge like a 
human thinker and Sarasvati,  the three Goddesses, --may they sit, perfect in 
works, on this sacred seat of happy ease (10.110.8).  
O ye three Go ddesses, sit on the superior seat which we have made delightful 
for you; may the mother of revelation, Ila, and the two goddesses with the 
luminous feet, ghrtapadi,  accept our firmly placed offerings and our human 
worship of sacrifice (10.70.8).  
The transl ations are all due to Sri Aurobindo (HMF). Note in (10.70.8), the usual 
translation of ghrtapadi  as having feet of ghee does not make sense.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 77 of 167 Vish nu 
 
 Nature of Vish nu 
 All pervading godhead  
  
Nature of Vish nu  
In the Rigveda there are forty five mantras to the deity Vi shnu spread over seven 
suktas.  We will be discussing only the six mantras in the 22nd hymn in the first 
mandala, (1.22.16) -(1.22.21), popularly known as shad vaish navam.  
We will give a brief picture of the functions of Vish nu. Vishnu creates or 
manifests the universe of seven planes, unveils its laws and maintains the 
universe under these laws. This happens not only in the macrocosm, but also in 
the microco sm, the subtle body of man. "Vish nu paces out the vast framework of 
the inner -worlds in which our soul -action takes place. It is by him and with him 
that we rise into his highest seats where we find waiting for us the Friend, the 
Beloved and the Beatific G odhead.'' [Sri Aurobindo]  
The puranic  triad of Vish nu-Brahmanaspati -Rudra is intimately related to the 
Vedic triad of Vish nu-Brahmanaspati -Rudra. We give a brief description of the 
connection. Brahma in the Veda means mantra and Brahmanaspati is the Lord o f 
mantras. In the Veda Brahmanaspati creates all by speech. He brings out all 
things from the darkness of Inconscience and gives them life -forms and mental -
forms.  
Rudra  forcibly leads this creation upwards. He puts down all those who 
arrogantly obstruct hi s courses and kills the evil opponents. Though thus terrible, 
he is beneficent, and compassionate to the distressed.  
Vishnu pervades the entire manifestation and organizes it into several planes or 
worlds, each plane, based on a particular principle. For i nstance this world, 
earth, is dominated by matter. The midworld, antariksha,  is dominated by life -
energies, emotional energies etc. The world of heaven, dyu, is dominated by the 
mental energies. The highest station is said to be Vish nu's supreme step. He 
creates the path by which the mortals can reach the supreme station after 
traversing the intermediate worlds.  
  
Symbolism of Vish nu

SAKSIVC   Page 78 of 167 "When Vish nu is said to sleep on the folds of the snake ananta  upon the ocean 
of sweet milk, ananta  is clearly seen to be no t the common serpent, nor the milk 
the material sweet milk, nor the ocean an expanse of milky liquid. The symbolic 
meaning is that the All -pervading Vish nu rests on the coils of the Infinite in the 
blissful ocean of Eternal Existence. It may be said that t he authors of the 
puranas  were priests, gross minds who knew not even the truth of the solar and 
lunar eclipses; how could they be in the know of profound varieties? They mean 
only the usual physical serpent and the material ocean of real milk and it is we  
who read into them the symbolic meaning we could point out that there is no 
necessity for us to imagine so. These poets themselves have imprinted the 
symbolic thought by means of figures and words and made known impenetrable 
truths for the benefit of all.  Note, those words a re: Vish nu means all -pervading, 
the serpent Shesha is ananta,  the infinite; sweet milk is a symbol of bliss; the 
ocean is a symbol of the Eternal Existence.''  
  
All pervading godhead (RV 1.154)   
1.      Of Vish nu now I declare the mighty works, who has me asured out the 
earthly worlds and that higher seat of our self -accomplishing he supports, he the 
wide-moving, in the threefold steps of his universal movement.  
2.      That Vish nu affirms on high by his mightiness and he is like a terrible lion 
that range s in the difficult places, yea, his lair is on the mountain -tops, he in 
whose three wide movements all the worlds find their dwelling -place.  
3.      Let our strength and our thought go forward to Vish nu the all -pervading, 
the wide -moving Bull whose dwellin g- place is on the mountain, he who being 
One has measured all this long and far -extending seat of our self -accomplishing 
by only three of his strides.  
4.      He whose three steps are full of the honey - wine and they perish not but 
have ecstasy by the sel f-harmony of their nature; yea, he being One holds the 
triple principle and earth and heaven also, even all the worlds.  
5.      May I attain to and enjoy that goal of his movement, the Delight, where 
souls that seek the godhead have the rapture; for there  in that highest step of 
the wide -moving Vish nu is that Friend of men who is the fount of the sweetness.  
6.      Those are the dwellings -places of ye twain which we desire as the goal of 
our journey, where the many -horned herds of Light go travelling; the  highest

SAKSIVC   Page 79 of 167 step of wide -moving Vish nu shines down on us here in its manifold vastness.  
  
The deity of this hymn is Vish nu the all -pervading, who in the Rig -veda has a 
close but covert connection and almost an identity with the other deity exalted  in 
the later religion, Rudra. Rudra is a fierce and violent godhead with a beneficent 
aspect which approaches the supreme blissful reality of Vish nu; Vi shnu's 
constant friendliness to man and his helping gods is shadowed by an aspect of 
formidable violenc e, - "like a terrible lion ranging in evil and difficult places", - 
which is spoken of in terms more ordinarily appropriate to Rudra. Rudra is the 
father of the vehemently -battling Maruts; Vish nu is hymned in the last Sukta of 
the fifth Mandala under the na me of Evaya Marut as the source from which they 
sprang, that which they become, and himself identical with the unity and totality 
of their embattled forces. Rudra is the Deva or Deity ascending in the cosmos, 
Vishnu the same Deva or Deity helping and evoki ng the powers of the ascent.  
It was a view long popularised by European scholars that the greatness of 
Vishnu and Shiva in the -Puranic theogonies was a later development and that in 
the Veda these gods have a quite minor position and are inferior to lndra  and 
Agni. It has even become a current opinion among many scholars that Shiva was 
a later conception borrowed from the Dravidians and represents a partial 
conquest of the Vedic religion by the indigenous culture it had invaded. These 
errors arise inevitab ly as part of the total misunderstanding of Vedic thought for 
which the old Brahmanic ritualism is responsible and to which European 
scholarship by the exaggeration of a minor and external element in the Vedic 
mythology has only given a new and yet more mi sleading form.  
The importance of the Vedic gods has not to be measured by the number of 
hymns devoted to them or by the extent to which they are invoked in the 
thoughts of the Rishis, but by the functions which they perform. Agni and Indra 
to whom the majo rity of the Vedic hymns are addressed, are not greater than 
Vishnu and Rudra, but the functions which they fulfill in the internal and external 
world were the most active, dominant and directly effective for the psychological 
discipline of the ancient Myst ics; this alone is the reason of their predominance. 
The Maruts, children of Rudra, are not divinities superior to their fierce and 
mighty Father; but they have many hymns addressed to them and are far more 
constantly mentioned in connection with other god s, because the function they 
fulfilled was of a constant and immediate importance in the Vedic discipline. On 
the other hand, Vish nu, Rudra, Brahmanaspati, the Vedic originals of the later 
Puranic Triad, Vish nu-Shiva-Brahma provide the conditions of the Ve dic work and

SAKSIVC   Page 80 of 167 assist it from behind the more present and active gods, but are less close to it 
and in appearance less continually concerned in its daily movements.  
Brahmanaspati is the creator by the Word; he calls light and visible cosmos out 
of the darkne ss of the inconscient ocean and speeds the formations of conscious 
being upward to their supreme goal. It is from this creative aspect of 
Brahmanaspati that the later conception of Brahma the Creator arose.  
For the upward movement of Brahmanaspati’s format ions Rudra supplies the 
force. He is named in the Veda the Mighty One of Heaven, but he begins his 
work upon the earth and gives effect to the sacrifice on the five planes of our 
ascent. He is the Violent One who leads the upward evolution of the conscious  
being; his force battles against all evil, smites the sinner and the enemy; 
intolerant of defect and stumbling he is the most terrible of the gods, the one of 
whom alone the Vedic Rishis have any real fear. Agni, the Kumara, prototype of 
the Puranic Skand a, is on earth the child of this force of Rudra. The Maruts, vital 
powers which make fight for themselves by violence, are Rudra's children. Agni 
and the Maruts are the leaders of the fierce struggle upward from Rudra's first 
earthly, obscure creation to t he heavens of thought, the luminous worlds. But 
this violent and mighty Rudra who breaks down all defective formations and 
groupings of outward and inward life, has also a beginner aspect. He is the 
supreme healer. Opposed, he destroys; called on for aid a nd propitiated he heals 
all wounds and all evil and all sufferings. Tile force that battles is his gift, but 
also the final peace and joy. In these aspects of the Vedic god are all the 
primitive materials necessary for the evolution of the Puranic Shiva -Rudra, the 
destroyer and healer, the auspicious and terrible, the Master of the force that 
acts in the worlds and the Yogin who enjoys the supreme liberty and peace.  
For the formations of Brahmanaspati's word, for the actions of Rudra's force 
Vishnu supplies the necessary static elements, - Space, the ordered movements 
of the worlds, the ascending levels, the highest goal. He has taken three strides 
and in the space cr eated by the three strides has established all the worlds. In 
these worlds he the all -pervading dwells and gives less or greater room to the 
action and movements of the gods. When Indra would slay Vrtra, he first prays 
to Vish nu, his friend and comrade in the great struggle (1.22.19), "O Vish nu, 
pace out in thy movement with an utter wideness", (IV.18.11), and in that 
wideness he destroys Vrtra who limits, Vrtra who covers. The supreme step of 
Vishnu, his highest seat, is the triple world of bliss and light , paramam padam , 
which the wise ones see extended in heaven like a shining eye of vision 
(1.22.20); it is this highest seat of Vish nu that is the goal of the Vedic journey. 
Here again the Vedic Vish nu is the natural precursor and sufficient origin of the 
Puranic Narayana, Preserver and Lord of Love.

SAKSIVC   Page 81 of 167 In the Veda indeed its fundamental conception forbids the Puranic arrangement 
of the supreme Trinity and the lesser gods. To the Vedic rishis there was only 
one universal Deva of whom Vish nu, Rudra, Brahmanaspat i, Agni, Indra, Vayu, 
Mitra, Varuna are all alike forms and cosmic aspects. Each of them is in himself 
the whole Deva and contains all the other gods. It was the full emergence in the 
upanishads of the idea of this supreme and only Deva, left in the riks vague and 
undefined and some - times even spoken of in the neuter as That or the one sole 
existence, the ritualistic limitation of the other gods and the progressive precision 
of their human or personal aspects under the stress of a growing mythology that 
led to their degradation and the enthronement of the less used and more general 
names and form s, Brahma, Vish nu and Rudra, in the final Puranic formulation of 
the Hindu theogony.  
In this hymn of Dirghatamas Auchathya to the all -pervading Vish nu it is his 
significant activity, it is the greatness of Vish nu's three strides that is celebrated. 
We must  dismiss from our minds the ideas proper to the later mythology. We 
have nothing to do here with the dwarf Vish nu, the Titan Bali and the three 
divine strides which took possession of Earth, Heaven and the sunless 
subterrestrial worlds of Patala. The three  strides of Vish nu in the Veda are clearly 
defined by Dirghatamas as earth, heaven and the triple principle, tridhatu . It is 
this triple principle beyond Heaven or superimposed upon it as its highest level, 
nakasya prsthe  (I. 125.5), which is the supreme s tride or supreme seat of the 
all-pervading deity.  
Vishnu is the wide -moving one. He is that which has gone abroad, - as it is put in 
the language of the Isha Upanishad, sa paryagat , - triply extending himself as 
Seer, Thinker and Former, in the superconsci ent Bliss, in the heaven of mind, in 
the earth of the physical consciousness, tredha vicakramanah . In those three 
strides he has measured out, he has formed in all their extension the earthly 
worlds; for in the Vedic idea the material world which we inhabi t is only one of 
several steps leading to and supporting the vital and mental worlds beyond. In 
those strides he supports upon the earth and mid -world, -the earth the material, 
the mid -world the vital realms of Vayu, Lord of the dynamic Life -principle, - the 
triple heaven and its three luminous summits, trini rocana . These heavens the 
rishi describes as the higher seat of the fulfilling. Earth, the mid -world and 
heaven are the triple place of the conscious being's progressive self -fulfilling, 
trisadhastha  (1.56.5), earth the lower seat, the vital world the middle, heaven 
the higher. All these are contained in the threefold movement of Vish nu. 
But there is more; there is also the world where the self - fulfilment is 
accomplished, Vish nu's highest stride. In th e second verse the seer speaks of it 
simply as "that". "That" Vish nu, moving yet forward in his third pace affirms or 
firmly establishes, pra stavate , by his divine might. Vish nu is then described in a

SAKSIVC   Page 82 of 167 language which hints at his essential identity with th e terrible Rudra, the fierce 
and dangerous Lion of the worlds who begins in the evolution as the Master of 
the animal, Pashupati, and moves upward on the mountain of being on which he 
dwells, ranging through more and more difficult and inaccessible places,  till he 
stands upon the summits. Thus in three wide movements of Vish nu all the five 
worlds and their creatures have their habitation. Earth, heaven and "that" world 
of bliss are the three strides. Between earth and heaven is the     Antariksha, the 
vital worlds, literally "the intervening habitation". Between heaven and the world 
of bliss is another vast Antariksha or intervening habitation, Maharloka, the world 
of the superconscient Truth of things.  
The force and the thought of man, the force that proceed s from Rudra the 
Mighty and the thought that proceeds from Brahmanaspati, the creative Master 
of the Word, have to go forward in the great journey for or towards this Vish nu 
who stands at the goal, on the summit, on the peak of the mountain. His is this 
wide universal movement; he is the Bull of the world who enjoys and fertilizes all 
the energies of force and all the trooping herds of the thought. This far -flung 
extended space which appears to us as the world of our self -fulfilment, as the 
triple altar of the great sacrifice has been so measured out, so formed by only 
three strides of that almighty Infinite.  
All the three are full of the honey -wine of the delight of existence. All of them 
this Vish nu fills with his divine joy of being. By that they are eternally maintained 
and they do not waste or perish, but in the self -harmony of their natural 
movement have always the unfailing ecstasy, the imperishable intoxication of 
their wide and limitless existence. Vish nu maintains them unfailingly, preserves 
them imperishably. He is the One, he alone is, the sole -existing Godhead, and he 
holds in his being the triple d ivine principle to which we attain in the world of 
bliss, earth where we have our foundation and heaven also which we touch by 
the mental person within us. All the five worlds he upholds." The tridhatu , the 
triple principle or triple material of existence,  is the Sachchidananda of the 
Vedanta; in the ordinary language of the Veda it is vasu, substance, urj, 
abounding force of our being, priyam  or mayas , delight and love in the very 
essence of our existence. Of these three things all that exists is constitut ed and 
we attain to their fullness when we arrive at the goal of our journey.  
That goal is Delight, the last of Vish nu's three strides. The ri shi takes up the 
indefinite word " tat" by which he first vaguely indicated it; it signified the delight 
that is th e goal of Vish nu's movement. It is the Ananda which for man in his 
ascent is a world in which he tastes divine delight, possesses the full energy of 
infinite consciousness, realises his infinite existence. There is that high -placed 
source of the honey -wine of existence of which the three strides of Vish nu are 
full. There the souls that seek the godhead live in the utter ecstasy of that wine

SAKSIVC   Page 83 of 167 of sweetness. There in the supreme stride, in the highest seat of wide - moving 
Vishnu is the fountain of the honey -wine, the source of the divine sweetness, - 
for that which dwells there is the God - head, the Deva, the perfect Friend and 
Lover of the souls that aspire to him, the unmoving and utter reality of Vish nu to 
which the wide -moving God in the cosmos ascends.  
These are the two, Vish nu of the movement here, the eternally stable, bliss -
enjoying Deva there, and it is those supreme dwelling places of the Twain, it is 
the triple world of Sachchidananda which we desire as the goal of this long 
journey, this great upward movement. It is thither that the many -horned herds 
of the conscious Thought, the conscious Force are moving - that is the goal, that 
is their resting -place. There in those worlds, gleaming down on us here, is the 
vast, full, illimitable shining of the supr eme stride, the highest seat of the wide - 
moving Bull, master and leader of all those many -horned herds, - Vishnu the all -
pervading, the cosmic Deity, the Lover and Friend of our souls, the Lord of the 
transcendent existence and the transcendent delight.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 84 of 167 Surya, Savitr  
 
 Nature of Surya and Savitr  
 Creator and increase  
  
Nature of Surya  and Savitr  
We will first consider Surya  and Savitr  or Savitri.  Since their names appear 
together in many hymns, we consider them together with the name Surya 
Savitri,  translated as the Divine Sun; later we will point out the distinction 
between Surya  and Savitri  in the Veda.  
Surya Savitri  is the Godhead of the Supreme Truth and knowledge hymned as 
ekam sat,  One Truth. He represents the truth of being, truth of knowledge, truth 
of process and act and movement and functioning. He is therefore the creato r or 
rather the manifester of all things for creation is releasing srj or expressing what 
is present in the Truth -will; He is the father, fosterer and enlightener of our 
souls. Thus the luminous vision and luminous creation are the two functions of 
Surya  Savitri.  
He is present both in the microcosm and the macrocosm. He is the light of the 
Truth rising in the human consciousness. We may recall that the devi u sha, 
Dawn, represents the onset of the first rays of Light in our night -ridden 
consciousness, the co nsciousness covered by the forces of darkness, ignorance 
and inconscience. So the Surya Savitri  comes after the Dawn, and follows and 
expands the path traced for him by her. Hence it is said that Surya  pursues the 
Dawn as a lover follows after his beloved (1.115.2).  
All the Gods follow in the march of Surya,  i.e., all other Divine faculties or 
potentialities in man expand with the expansion of Truth and Light. This is the 
reason for the wide spread use of the mantra for Surya -Savitri  known as Gayatri  
of Vishvamitra  (3.62.10).  
The name Surya  is rarely used when there is a question of creation. Surya  is 
reserved for his passive aspects as the body of infinite Light and the revelation. 
In his active power he is addressed by various names like Savitri,  Tvasht r etc. 
Savitri  is used whenever the rishi is concerned with the idea of creation i.e., the 
manifestation of the powers both in humans and cosmos; Savitr  and Surya  come 
from the same root. Savitri  again manifests himself especially in the formation of 
the Trut h in man through the four great and active deities, Mitra, Varuna, Bhaga  
and Aryaman,  representing the Lords of pure wideness, luminous Harmony,

SAKSIVC   Page 85 of 167 divine enjoyment and exalted power respectively.  
Surya  and Savitr  appellations are used sometimes as if identic al and as if distinct 
at others. In the Veda, there is only one deity, ekam sat,  one existence of which 
all other powers are aspects connected to one another by an intricate web. We 
cannot partition this web into several separate rigid parts so that each p art is a 
separate deity.  
  
Surya Savitri, Creator and Increaser (RV 5.81)  
1.      Men illumined yoke their mind and they yoke their thoughts to him who is 
illumination and largeness and clear perceiving. Knowing all phenomena he 
orders, sole the Energies of the sacrifice. Vast is th e affirmation in all things of 
Savitri, the divine Creator.  
2.      All forms he takes unto himself, the Seer, and he creates from them good 
for the twofold existence and the fourfold. The Creator, the supreme Good, 
manifests Heaven wholly and his light pe rvades all as he follows the march of the 
Dawn.  
3.      In the wake of his march the other gods also reach by his force to the 
greatness of the Divinity. He has mapped out the realms of earthly light by his 
mightiness, -the brilliant one, the divine Creator . 
4.      And thou reachest, O Savitri, to the three luminous heavens; and thou art 
utterly expressed by the rays of the Sun; and thou encompassest the Night upon 
either side; and thou becomest by the law of thy law of thy actions the lord of 
Love, O God.  
5.      And thou art powerful for every creation; and thou becomest the Increase, 
O God, by thy movings; and thou illuminest utterly all this world of becomings. 
Shyavashwa has attained to the affirmation of thee, O Savitri.  
  
Indra with his shini ng hosts, the Maruts, Agni, the divine force, fulfiller of the 
Aryan sacrifice, are the most important deities of the Vedic system. Agni is the 
beginning and the end. This Will that is knowledge is the initiator of the upward 
effort of the mortal towards I mmortality; to this divine consciousness that is one 
with divine power we arrive as the foundation of immortal existence. Indra, lord

SAKSIVC   Page 86 of 167 of Swar, the luminous intelligence into which we have to convert our obscure 
material mentality in order to become capable  of the divine consciousness, is our 
chief helper. It is by the aid of Indra and the Maruts that the conversion is 
effected. The Maruts take our animal consciousness made up of the impulses of 
the nervous mentality, possess these impulses with their illumi nations and drive 
them up the hill of being towards the world of Swar and the truths of Indra. Our 
mental evolution begins with these animal troops, these pasus ; they become, as 
we progress in the ascension, the brilliant herds of the Sun, gavah , rays, the  
divine cows of the Veda. Such is the psychological sense of the Vedic symbol.  
But who, then, is Surya, the Sun, from whom these rays proceed? He is the 
Master of Truth, Surya the Illuminator, Savitri the Creator, Pushan the Increaser. 
His rays in their ow n nature are supramental activities of revelation, inspiration, 
intuition, luminous discernment, and they constitute the action of that 
transcendent principle which the Vedanta calls Vijnana, the perfect knowledge, 
the Veda Ritam, the Truth. But these rays  descend also into the human mentality 
and form at its summit the world of luminous intelligence, Swar, of which Indra 
is the lord.  
For this Vijnana is a divine and not a human faculty. Man's mind is not 
constituted of the self -luminous truth, like the div ine mind; it is a sense -
mentality, Manas, which can receive and understand Truth, but is not one with it. 
The light of knowledge has to present itself in this human understanding 
tempered so as to suit its forms to the capacities and limitations of the phy sical 
consciousness. And it has to lead up progressively to its own true nature, to 
manifest successive evolutionary stages for our mental development. Therefore 
the rays of Surya, as they labour to form our mental existence, create three 
successive worlds  of mentality one superimposed on the other, - the sensational, 
aesthetic and emotional mind, the pure intellect and the divine intelligence. The 
fullness and perfection of these triple worlds of mind exists only in the pure 
mental plane of being, where th ey shine above the three heavens, tisro divah , as 
their three luminosities, trini rocanani . But their light descends upon the physical 
consciousness and effects the corresponding formations in its realms, the Vedic 
parthivani rajamsi , earthly realms of lig ht. They also are triple, tisrah prthivih , the 
three earths. And of all these worlds Surya Savitri is the creator.  
We have in this figure of various psychological levels, each considered as a world 
in itself, a key to the conceptions of the Vedic rishis. T he human individual is an 
organised unit of existence which reflects the constitution of the universe. It 
repeats in itself the same arrangement of states and play of forces. Man, 
subjectively, contains in himself all the worlds in which, objectively, he i s 
contained. Preferring ordinarily a concrete to an abstract language, the rishis 
speak of the physical consciousness as the physical world, earth, Bhu, Prithivi.

SAKSIVC   Page 87 of 167 They describe the pure mental consciousness as heaven, Dyau, of which Swar, 
the luminous mind , is the summit. To the intermediate dynamic, vital or nervous 
consciousness they give the name either of Antariksha, the intermediate vision, 
or of Bhuvar, - multiple dynamic worlds formative of the Earth.  
For in the idea of the rishis a world is primaril y a formation of consciousness and 
only secondarily a physical formation of things. A world is a loka, a way in which 
conscious being images itself. And it is the causal Truth, represented in the 
person of Surya Savitri, that is the creator of all its form s. For it is the causal 
Idea in the infinite being, - the idea, not abstract, but real and dynamic, - that 
originates the law, the energies, the formations of things and the working out of 
their potentialities in determined forms by determined processes. B ecause the 
causal Idea is a real force of existence, it is called satyam , the True in being; 
because it is the determining truth of all activity and formation, it is called rtam, 
the True in movement; because it is broad and infinite in its self -view, in i ts 
scope and in its operation, it is called brhat, the Large or Vast.  
Savitri by the Truth is the Creator, but not in the sense of a fabrication or 
mechanical forming of things. The root of the word means an impulsion, a 
loosing forth or sending out, - the sense also of the ordinary word for creation, 
srsti, - and so a production. The action of the causal Idea does not fabricate, but 
brings out by Tapas, by the pressure of consciousness on its own being, that 
which is concealed in it, latent in potentiality  and in truth already existent in the 
Beyond.  
Now the forces and processes of the physical world repeat, as in a symbol, the 
truths of the supraphysical action which produced it. And since it is by the same 
forces and the same processes, one in the physica l worlds and the supraphysical, 
that our inner life and its development are governed, the rishis adopted the 
phenomena of physical Nature as just symbols for those functionings of the inner 
life which it was their difficult task to indicate in the concrete  language of a 
sacred poetry that must at the same time serve for the external worship of the 
Gods as powers of the visible universe. The solar energy is the physical form of 
Surya, Lord of Light and Truth; it is through the Truth that we arrive at 
Immorta lity, final aim of the Vedic discipline. It is therefore under the images of 
the Sun and its rays, of Dawn and day and night and the life of man between the 
two poles of light and darkness that the Aryan seers represent the progressive 
illumination of the human soul. It is so that Shyavashwa of the house of Atri 
hymns Savitri, Creator, Increaser, Revealer.  
Surya enlightens the mind and the thoughts with the illuminations of the Truth. 
He is vipra, the illumined. It is he who delivers the individual human mi nd from 
the circumscribed consciousness of self and environment and enlarges the

SAKSIVC   Page 88 of 167 limited movement which is imposed on it by its preoccupation with its own 
individuality. Therefore he is brhat, the Large. But his illumination is not a vague 
light, nor does his largeness come by a confused and dissolved view of self and 
object; it holds in itself a clear discernment of things in their totality, their parts 
and their relations. Therefore he is vipascit , the clear in perception. Men, as soon 
as they begin to re ceive something of this solar illumination, strive to yoke their 
whole mentality and its thought -contents to the conscious existence of the divine 
Surya within them. That is to say, they apply, as it were, all their obscure mental 
state and all their errin g thoughts to this Light manifested in them so that it may 
turn the obscurity of the mind into clearness and convert the errors of thought 
into those truths which they distortedly represent. This yoking ( yunjate ) becomes 
their Yoga. "They yoke the mind, an d they yoke their thoughts, the enlightened, 
of (i.e. to, or so that they may be part of or belong to) the Enlightened, the 
Large, the Clear -perceptioned."  
Then the Lord of Truth orders all the human energies offered up to him in the 
terms of the Truth; fo r he becomes in man a sole and sovereign Power 
governing all knowledge and action. Not interfered with by conflicting agencies, 
he governs perfectly; for he knows all manifestations, comprehends their Causes, 
contains their law and process, compels their r ight result. There are seven of 
these sacrificial energies (Hotras) in the human being, one corresponding to each 
of the seven constituents of his psychological existence, - body, life, mind, 
supermind, bliss, will and essential being. Their irregular acti on or wrong 
relation, caused and maintained by the obscuration of knowledge in Mind, is the 
source of all stumbling and unhappiness, of all evil act and evil state. Surya, Lord 
of Knowledge, puts each of them to its right place in the Sacrifice. "Knower of  
phenomena sole he arranges the sacrificial energies."  
 Man thus arrives at a vast and all -embracing affirmation in himself of this divine 
Creator. It is implied in this passage and indicated more clearly in the next. verse 
that the result is a right and h appy creation - for all our existence is a constant 
creation . -of the universe of man's whole being. "Vast is the comprehensive 
affirmation of the god Savitri."  
 Surya is the seer, the revealer. Ms Truth takes into its illumination all forms of 
things, all  the phenomenal objects and experiences which constitute our world, 
all the figures of the universal Consciousness within and without us. It reveals 
the truth in them, their sense, their purpose, their justification and right use. 
Ordering rightly the ener gies of the sacrifice it creates or produces good as the 
law of our whole existence. For all things have their justifiable cause of being, 
their good use and their right enjoyment. When this truth in them is found and 
utilized, all things produce good for the soul, increase its welfare, enlarge its 
felicity. And this divine revolution is effected both in the lower physical existence

SAKSIVC   Page 89 of 167 and in the more complete inner life which uses the physical for its manifestation. 
"The Seer takes to himself all forms, he br ings out (creates or manifests) good 
for the twofold (two -footed), for the fourfold (four -footed)."  
The process of this new creation is described in the rest of the hymn. Surya, as 
the creator, as the supreme good, manifests in our human consciousness its 
concealed heavenly summit on the levels of the pure mind, and we are able to 
look up above from the earth of our physical existence and are delivered from 
the obscurities of the night of Ignorance. He follows, sunlike, the march of the 
Dawn, illuminating all the regions of our being on which falls its light; for there is 
always needed the precursory ment al illumination before the Truth itself, the 
supramental principle, can take possession of this lower existence. "The creator, 
the supremely desirable, manifests all heaven and shines pervadingly following 
(after or according to) the movement forward of th e Dawn."  
All the other gods follow in this march of Surya and they attain to his vastness by 
the force of his illumination. That is to say, all the other divine faculties or 
potentialities in man expand with the expansion of the Truth and Light in him; in 
the strength of the ideal supermind they attain to the same infinite amplitude of 
right becoming, right action and right knowledge. The Truth in its largeness 
moulds all into the terms of the infinite and universal Life, replaces with it the 
limited indivi dual existence, maps out in the terms of their real being the realms 
of the physical consciousness which, as Savitri, it has created. This also is in us a 
creation, although in reality it only manifests what already exists but was 
concealed by the darkness  of our ignorance, - just as the realms of the physical 
earth are concealed from our eyes by the darkness, but reveal themselves as the 
sun in his march follows the Dawn and measures them out one by one to the 
vision. "Following whose march the other gods too reach the vastness of the 
divinity by his strength, he who maps out entirely - that brilliant one - the earthly 
realms of light, the god Savitri, by his greatness."  
But it is not only the full capacity of our physical or earthly consciousness that 
this divine Truth illuminates and forms for a perfect action. It pervades the three 
luminous realms of the pure mind ( trini rocana ); it puts us in contact with all the 
divine possibilities of the sensations and emotions, of the intellect, of the intuitive 
reason and liberating the superior faculties from their limitation and constant 
reference to the material world fulfils our entire mental being. Its activities 
receive their completest manifestation; they are gathered up into the life of the 
complete Truth by the rays of the sun, that is to say, by the full splendour of the 
divine Super mind manifested in us. "And thou goest, O Savitri, to the three 
luminousnesses, and thou art perfectly expressed by the rays of the Sun (or, art 
gathered together by means of th e rays)."

SAKSIVC   Page 90 of 167 Then it is that the higher kingdom of the Immortality, Sachchidananda revealed, 
shines out perfectly in this world. The higher and lower are reconciled in the light 
of the supramental revelation. The Ignorance, the Night, is illumined upon both 
sides of our complete being, not only as in our present state upon one. This 
higher kingdom stands confessed in the principle of Beatitude which is for us the 
principle of Love and Light, represented by the god Mitra. The Lord of Truth, 
when he reveals hims elf in the full godhead, becomes the Lord of Bliss. The law 
of his being, the principle regulating his activities is seen to be Love; for in the 
right arrangement of knowledge and action everything here comes to be 
translated into terms of good, felicity, bliss. "And thou encompassest Night upon 
both sides, and thou becomest, O God, Mitra by the laws of thy action."  
     The Truth of the divine existence becomes eventually the sole Lord of all 
creation in ourselves; and by his constant visitations or by his  continual 
progressions the Creator becomes the Increaser, Savitri becomes Pushan. He 
aggrandizes us by a constantly progressive creation until he has illumined the 
whole world of our becoming. We grow into the complete, the universal, the 
infinite. So has  Shyavashwa, of the sons of Atri, succeeded in affirming Savitri in 
his own being as the illuminative Truth, the creative, the progressive, the 
increaser of man - he who brings him out of egoistic limitation into universality, 
out of the finite into the in finite. "And thou hast power alone for creation; and 
thou becomest the Increaser, O God, by the goings; and thou illuminest entirely 
all this world (literally, becoming). Shyavashwa has attained to the affirmation of 
thee, O Savitri."  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 91 of 167 Bhaga, Savitr - The Enjoyer (RV 5.82)  
 
1. Of Savitri divine we embrace that enjoying, that which is the best, rightly 
disposes all, reaches the goal, even Bhaga’s, we hold by the thought.  
2. For of him no pleasure in things can they diminish, for too self -victorious 
is it, n or the self -empire of this Enjoyer.  
3. This he that sends forth the delights on the giver, the god who is the 
bringer forth of things; that varied richness of his enjoyment we seek.  
4. Today, O divine producer, send forth o us fruitful felicity, dismiss what 
belongs to the evil dream.  
5. All evils, O divine producer, dismiss; what is good, that send forth on us  
6. Blameless for infinite being in the outpouring of the divine Producer, we 
hold by the thought all things of delight.    
7. The universal godhead and master o f being we accept into ourselves by 
perfect words today, the producer whose production is of the truth -  
8. He who goes in front of both this day and night never faltering, placing 
rightly his thought, the divine Producer.  
9. He who by the rhythm makes heard of  the knowledge all births and 
produces the, the divine producer.  
  
Four great deities constantly appear in the Veda as closely allied in their nature 
and in their action, Varuna, Mitra, Bhaga, Aryaman. Varuna and Mitra are 
continually coupled together in the thoughts of the Rishis; sometimes a trio 
appears together, Varun a, Mitra and Bhaga or Varuna, Mitra and Aryaman. 
Separate Suktas addressed to any of these godheads are compartively rare, 
although there are some important hymns of which Varuna is the deity. But the 
Riks in which their names occur, whether in hymns to ot her gods or in 
invocations to the All -gods, the visve devah , are by no means inconsiderable in 
number.  
These four deities are, according to Sayana, solar powers, Varuna negatively as 
lord of the night, Mitra positively as lord of the day, Bhaga and Aryaman  as 
names of the Sun. We need not attach much importance to these particular 
identifications, but it is certain that a solar character attaches to all the four. In 
them that peculiar feature of the Vedic gods, their essential oneness even in the 
play of th eir different personalities and functions, comes prominently to light. Not 
only are the four closely associated among themselves, but they seem to partake 
of each other's nature and attributes, and all are evidently emanations of Surya 
Savitri, the divine being in his creative and illuminative solar form.

SAKSIVC   Page 92 of 167 Surya Savitri is the Creator. According to the Truth of things, in the terms of the 
rtam, the worlds are brought forth from the divine consciousness, from Aditi, 
goddess of infinite being, mother of the go ds, the indivisible consciousness, the 
Light that cannot be impaired imaged by the mystic Cow that cannot be slain. In 
that creation, Varuna and Mitra, Aryaman and Bhaga are four effective 
Puissances. Varuna represents the principle of pure and wide being,  Sat in 
Sachchidananda; Aryarman represents the light of the divine consciousness 
working as Force; Mitra representing light and knowledge, using the principle of 
Ananda for creation, is Love maintaining the law of harmony; Bhaga represents 
Ananda as the c reative enjoyment; he takes the delight of the creation, takes the 
delight of all that is created. It is the Maya, the formative wisdom of Varuna, of 
Mitra that disposes multitudinously the light of Aditi brought by the Dawn to 
manifest the worlds.  
In the ir psychological function these four gods represent the same principles 
working in the human mind, in the human temperament. They build up in man 
the different planes of his being and mould them ultimately into the terms and 
the forms of the divine Truth. Especially Mitra and Varuna are continually 
described as holding firm the law of their action, increasing the Truth, touching 
the Truth and by the Truth enjoying its vastness of divine will or its great and 
uncontracted sacrificial action. Varuna represent s largeness, right and purity; 
everything that deviates from the right, from the purity recoils from his being 
and strikes the offender as the punishment of sin. So long as man does not 
attain to the largeness of Varuna's Truth, he is bound to the posts of  the world -
sacrifice by the triple bonds of mind, life and body as a victim and is not free as 
a possessor and enjoyer. Therefore we have frequently the prayer to be 
delivered from the noose of Varuna, from the wrath of his offended purity. Mitra 
is on the  other hand the most beloved of the gods; he binds all together by the 
fixities of his harmony, by the successive lustrous seats of Love fulfilling itself in 
the order of things , mitrasya dhamabhi h. His name, Mitra, which means also 
friend, is constantly u sed with a play upon the double sense; it is as Mitra, 
because Mitra dwells in all, that the other gods become the friends of man. 
Aryaman appears in the Veda with but little distinctness of personality, for the 
references to him are brief. The functions o f Bhaga are outlined more clearly and 
are the same in the cosmos and in man.  
In this hymn of Shyavashwa to Savitri we see both the functions of Bhaga and 
his oneness with Surya Savitri; for it is to the creative Lord of Truth that the 
hymn is addressed, to  Surya, but to Surya specifically in his form as Bhaga, as 
the Lord of Enjoyment. The word bhaga  means enjoyment or the enjoyer and 
that this sense is the one held especially appropriate to the divine name, Bhaga, 
is emphasised by the use of bhojanam, bhag a, saubhagam  in the verses of the 
hymn. Savitri, we have seen, means Creator, but especially in the sense of 
producing emitting from the unmanifest and bringing out into the manifest.

SAKSIVC   Page 93 of 167 Throughout the hymn there is a constant dwelling upon this root sense of  the 
word which it is impossible to render adequately in a translation. In the very first 
verse there is a covert play of the kind; for bhojanam  means both enjoyment 
and food and it is intended to be conveyed that the "enjoyment of Savitri" is 
Soma from th e same root su, to produce, press out, distil, Soma, the food of 
divine beings, the supreme distilling, highest production of the great Producer. 
What the rishi seeks is the enjoyment in all created things of the immortal and 
immortalising Ananda.  
It is this Ananda which is that enjoyment of the divine Producer, of Surya Savitri, 
the supreme result of the Truth: for Truth is followed as the path to the divine 
beatitude. This Ananda is the highest, the best enjoyment. It disposes all aright:, 
for once the A nanda, the divine delight in all things is attained, it sets right all 
the distortions, all the evil of the world. It carries man through to the goal. If by 
the truth and right of things we arrive at the Ananda, by the Ananda also we can 
arrive at the righ t and truth of things. It is to the divine Creator in the name and 
form of Bhaga that this human capacity for the divine and right enjoyment of all 
things belongs. When he is embraced by the human mind and heart and vital 
forces and physical being, when th is divine form is received into himself by man, 
then the Ananda of the world manifests itself.  
Nothing can limit, nothing can diminish, neither god nor demon, friend nor 
enemy, event nor sensation, whatever pleasure this divine Enjoyer takes in 
things, in whatever vessel or object of his enjoyment. For nothing can diminish 
or hedge in or hurt his luminous self -empire, svarajyam , his perfect possession of 
himself in infinite being, infinite delight and the vastnesses of the order of the 
Truth.  
Therefore it i s he that brings the seven delights, sapta ratna , to the giver of the 
sacrifice. He looses them forth on us; for they are all there in the world as in the 
divine being, in ourselves also, and have only to be loosed forth on our outer 
consciousness. The ric h and varied amplitude of this sevenfold delight, perfect on 
all the planes of our being, is the bhaga , enjoyment or portion of Bhaga Savitri in 
the completed sacrifice, and it is that varied wealth which the rishi seeks for 
himself and his fellows in the sacrifice by the acceptance of the divine Enjoyer.  
Shyavashwa then calls on Bhaga Savitri to vouchsaf e to him even today a felicity 
not barren, but full of the fruits of activity, rich in the offspring of the soul, 
prajavat saubhagam.  Ananda is creative, it is jana, the delight that gives birth to 
life and world; only let the things loosed forth on us be of the creation conceived 
in the terms of the truth and let all that belongs to the falsehood, to the evil 
dream created by the ignorance of the divine Truth, duhsvapnyam , be dismissed, 
dispelled away from our conscious being.

SAKSIVC   Page 94 of 167 In the next verse he makes c learer the sense of duhsvapnyam . What he desires 
to be dispelled is all evil, vivani duritani. Suvitam and duritam  in the Veda mean 
literally right going and wrong going. Suvitam  is truth of thought and action, 
duritam  error or stumbling, sin and perversio n. Suvitam  is happy going, felicity, 
the path of Ananda; duritam  is calamity, suffering, all ill result of error and ill 
doing. All that is evil, visvani duritani , belongs to the evil dream that has to be 
turned away from us. Bhaga sends to us instead all that is good, - bhadram , 
good in the sense of felicity, the auspicious things of the divine enjoying, the 
happiness of the right activity, the right creation.  
For, in the creation of Bhaga Savitri, in his perfect and faultless sacrifice, - there 
is a doubl e sense in the word sava, "loosing forth”, used of the creation, and the 
sacrifice, the libation of the Soma, - men stand absolved from sin and blame by 
the Ananda, anagasah , blameless in the sight of Aditi, fit for the undivided and 
infinite consciousness  of the liberated soul. The Ananda owing to that freedom is 
capable of being in them universal. They are able to hold by their thought all 
things of the delight, visva vamani;  for in the dhi, the understanding that holds 
and arranges, there is right arrang ement of the world, perception of right 
relation, right purpose, right use, right fulfilment, the divine and blissful intention 
in all things.  
It is the universal Divine, the master of the Sat, from whom all things are created 
in the terms of the truth, satyam, that the sacrificers today by means of the 
sacred mantras  seek to accept into themselves under the name of Bhaga Savitri. 
It is the creator whose creation is the Truth, whose sacrifice is the outpouring of 
the truth through the outpouring of his own Ananda, his divine and unerring joy 
of being, into the human so ul. He as Surya Savitri, master of the Truth, goes in 
front of both this Night and this Dawn, of the manifest consciousness and the 
unmanifest, the waking being and the subconscient and superconscient whose 
interaction creates all our experiences; and in h is motion neglects nothing, is 
never unheeding, never falters. He goes in front of both bringing out of the night 
of the subconscient the divine Light, turning into the beams of that Light the 
uncertain or distorted reflections of the conscient, and always  the thought is 
rightly placed. The source of all error is misapplication, wrong placing of truth, 
wrong arrangement, wrong relation, wrong positing in time and place, object 
and order. But in the Master of Truth there is no such error, no such stumbling, 
no such wrong placing.  
Surya Savitri, who is Bhaga, stands between the Infinite and the created worlds 
within us and without. All things that have to be born in the creative 
consciousness he receives into the Vijnana; there he puts it into its right place in 
the divine rhythm by the knowledge that listens and receives the Word as it 
descends and so he looses it forth into the movement of things, asravayati 
slokena pra ca suvati.  When in us each creation of the active Ananda, the

SAKSIVC   Page 95 of 167 prajavat saubhagam , comes th us out of the unmanifest, received and heard 
rightly of the knowledge in the faultless rhythm of things, then is our creation 
that of Bhaga Savitri, and all the births of that creation, our children, our 
offspring, praja, apatyam,  are things of the delight , visva vamani . This is the 
accomplishment of Bhaga in man, his full portion of the world - sacrifice.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 96 of 167 Vayu - The Master of the Life Energies (RV 4.48)  
 
1. Do thou manifest the sacrificial energies that are unmanifested, even as a 
revealer of felicity an d doer of the work; O Vayu, come in thy car of happy 
light to the drinking of the soma -wine.  
2. Put away from thee all denials of expression and with thy steeds of the 
yoking, with Indra for thy charioteer come, O Vayu, in thy car of happy 
light to the drink ing of the Soma -wine.  
3. The two that, dark, yet hold all substances, shall observe thee in their 
labour, they in whom are all forms. O Vayu, come in thy car of happy light 
to the drinking of the Soma -wine.  
4. Yoked let the ninety and nine bear thee, they who are yoked by the mind. 
O Vayu, come in thy car of Happy light to the drinking of the Soma -wine.  
5. Yoke, O Vayu, thy hundred brilliant steeds that shall increase, or else with 
thy thousand let thy chariot arrive in the mass of its force.    
  
The p sychological conceptions of the Vedic rishis have often a. marvelous 
profundity and nowhere more than when they deal with the phenomenon of the 
conscious activities of mind and life emerging out of the subconscient. It may be 
said, even, that this idea is the whole basis of the rich and subtle philosophy 
evolved in that early dawn of knowledge by these inspired Mystics. Nor has any 
other expressed it with a greater subtlety and felicity than the rishi V amadeva, at 
once one of the most profound seers and one  of the sweetest singers of the 
Vedic age. One of his hymns, the last of the fourth Mandala, is indeed the most 
important key we possess to the symbolism which hid behind the figures of the 
sacrifice those realities of psychological experience and percepti on deemed so 
sacred by the Aryan forefathers.  
In that hymn Vamadeva speaks of the ocean of the subconscient which underlies 
all our life and activities. Out of that ocean rises "the honeyed wave" of 
sensational existence with its undelivered burden of unre alised delight climbing 
full of the ghrta and the Soma, the clarified mental consciousness and the 
illumined Ananda that descends from above, to the heaven of Immortality. The 
"secret Name" of the mental consciousness, the tongue with which the gods 
taste the world, the nexus of Immortality, is the Ananda which the Soma 
symbolises. For all this creation has been, as it were, ejected into the 
subconscient by the four -horned Bull, the divine Purusha whose horns are infinite 
Existence, Consciousness, Bliss and  Truth. In images of an energetic incongruity 
reminding us of the sublime grotesques and stran ge figures that have survived

SAKSIVC   Page 97 of 167 from the old mystic and symbolic art of the prehistoric world, Vamadeva 
describes the Purusha in the figure of a man -bull, whose four horns are the four 
divine principles, his three feet or three legs the three human principle s, 
mentality, vital dynamism and material substance, his two heads the double 
consciousness of Soul and Nature, Purusha and Prakriti, his seven hands the 
seven natural activities corresponding to the seven principles. "Triply bound" - 
bound in the mind, bo und in the life -energies, bound in the body - "the Bull roars 
aloud; great is the Divinity that has entered into mortals".  
For the ghrtam , the clear light of the mentality reflecting the Truth, has been 
hidden by the Panis, the lords of the lower sense -activity, and shut up in the 
subconscient; in our thoughts, in our desires, in our physical consciousness the 
Light and the Ananda have been triply established, but they are concealed from 
us. It i s in the cow, symbol of the Light from above, that the gods find the 
clarified streams of the ghrtam . These streams, says the ri shi, rise from the heart 
of things, from the ocean of the sub - conscient, hrdyat samudrat , but they are 
confined in a hundred pe ns by the enemy, Vrtra, so that they may be kept from 
the eye of discernment, from the knowledge that labours in us to enlighten that 
which is concealed and deliver that which is imprisoned. They move in the path 
on the borders of the subconscient, dense i f impetuous in their movements, 
limited by the nervous action, in small formations of the life -energy Vayu, 
vatapramiya h. Purified progressively by the experiences of the conscious heart 
and mind, these energies of Nature become finally capable of the marr iage with 
Agni, the divine Will -force, which breaks down their boundaries and is himself 
nourished by their now abundant waves. That is the crisis of the being by which 
the mortal nature prepares its conversion to immortality.  
In the last verse of the hym n Vamadeva describes the whole of existence as 
established above in the seat of the divine Purusha, below in the ocean of the 
subconscient and in the Life, antah samudre h rdi antar ayusi . The conscious 
mind is, then, the channel through which there is comm unication between the 
upper ocean and the lower, between superconscient and subconscient, the light 
divine and the original darkness of Nature.  
Vayu is the Lord of Life. By the ancient Mystics life was considered to be a great 
force pervading all material existence and the condition of all its activities. It is 
this idea that was formulated later on in the conception of the Prana, the 
universal breath of life. All the vital and nervous activities of the human being fall 
within the definition of Prana, and b elong to the domain of Vayu. Yet this great 
deity has comparatively few hymns to his share in the Rigveda and even in those 
suktas in which he is prominently invoked, does not usually figure alone but in 
company with others and as if dependent on them. He is especially coupled with 
Indra and it would almost seem as if for the functionings demanded from him by 
the vedic rishis he needed the aid of the superior deity. When there is question

SAKSIVC   Page 98 of 167 of the divine - action of the Life -forces in man, Agni in the form of the vedic 
Horse, Ashwa, Dadhikravan, takes usually the place of Vayu.  
If we consider the fundamental ideas of the rishis, this position of V ayu becomes 
intelligible. The illumination of the lower being by the higher, the mortal by the 
divine, was their pri ncipal concept. Light and Force, go and ashva , the Cow and 
the Horse, were the object of the sacrifice. Force was the condition, Light the 
liberating agency; and Indra and Surya were the chief bringers of Light. 
Moreover the Force required was the divine W ill taking possession of all the 
human energies and revealing itself in them; and of this Will, this force of 
conscious energy, taking possession of the nervous vitality and revealing itself in 
it, Agni more than Vayu and especially Agni Dadhi - kravan was the symbol. For it 
is Agni who is master of Tapas, the divine Consciousness formulating itself in 
universal energy, of which the Prana is only a representative in the lower being. 
Therefore in Vamadeva's hymn, the fifty -eighth of the fourth Mandala, it is Indra 
and Surya and Agni who effect the great manifestation of the conscious divinity 
out of the subconscient. Vata or Vayu, the nervous activity, is only a first 
condition of the emergent Mind. And for man it is the meeting of Life with Mind 
and the suppo rt given by the former to the evolution of the latter which is the 
important aspect of Vayu. Therefore we find Indra, Master of Mind, and Vayu, 
Master of Life, coupled together and the latter always somewhat dependent on 
the former; the Maruts, the thought -forces, although in their origin they seem to 
be as much powers of Vayu as of Indra, are more important to the Rishis than 
Vayu himself and even in their dynamic aspect are more closely associated with 
Agni Rudra than with the natural chief of the legions  of the Air.  
The present hymn, the forty -eighth of the Mandala is the last of three in which 
Vamadeva invokes Indra and Vayu for the drinking of the Soma -wine. They are 
called in conjointly as the two lords of brilliant force, Savasaspati , as in another 
hymn, in a former Mandala (1.23.3), they are invoked as lords of thought, 
dhiyaspati . Indra is the master of mental force, Vayu of nervous or vital force 
and their union is necessary for thought and for action. They are invited to come 
in one common chariot  and drink together of the wine of the Ananda which 
brings with it the divinising energies. Vayu, it is said, has the right of the first 
draught; for it is the supporting vital forces that must first become capable of the 
ecstasy of the divine action.  
In the third hymn, in which the result of the sacrifice is defined, Vayu is alone 
invoked, but even so his companionship with Indra is clearly indicated. He is to 
come in a chariot of happy brightness, like Usha in another hymn, to drink of the 
immortalizing w ine. The chariot symbolises movement of energy and it is a glad 
movement of already illuminated vital energies that is invoked in the form of 
Vayu. The divine utility of this brightly happy movement is indicated in the first 
three verses.

SAKSIVC   Page 99 of 167 The god is to man ifest - he is to bring into the light of the conscious activity 
sacrificial energies which are not yet manifested, are yet hidden in the darkness 
of the subconscient. In the ritualistic interpretation the phrase may be translated, 
"Eat of offerings that ha ve not been eaten" or, in another sense of the verb vi, it 
may be rendered, "Arrive at sacrificial energies which have never been 
approached"; but all these renderings amount, symbolically, to the same 
psychological sense. Powers and activities that have n ot yet been called up out 
of the subconscient, have to be liberated from its secret cave by the combined 
action of Indra and Vayu and devoted to the work.  
For it is not towards an ordinary action of the nervous mentality that they are 
called. Vayu is to m anifest these energies as would "a revealer of the felicity, a 
doer of the Aryan work", vipo na rayo arya h. These words sufficiently indicate 
the nature of the energies that are to be evoked. It is possible, however, that the 
phrase may have a covert refer ence to Indra and thus indicate what is 
afterwards clearly expressed, the necessity that Vayu's action should be 
governed by the illumined and aspiring force of the more brilliant god. For it is 
Indra's enlightenment that leads to the secret of beatitude b eing revealed and he 
is the first labourer in the Work. To Indra, Agni and Surya among the gods is 
especially applied the term arya, which describes with an untranslatable 
compactness those who rise to the noble aspiration and who do the great labour 
as an offering in order to arrive at the good and the bliss.  
In the second verse the necessity of Indra's guidance is affirmed expressly. Vayu 
is to come putting away all denials that may be opposed to the manifestation of 
the unmanifested, niryuvano asastih . The word asastih  means literally "not -
expressings" and describes the detention by obscuring powers like Vrtra of the 
light and power that are waiting to be revealed, ready to be called out into 
expression through the influence of the gods and by the instru mentality of the 
Word. The Word is the power that expresses, sastram, gih, vacas . But it has to 
be protected and given its right effect by the divine Powers. Vayu is to do this 
office; he has to expel all powers of denial, of obscuration, of non -manifestat ion. 
To do this work he must arrive "with his steeds of her yoking and Indra for 
charioteer", niyutvan Indra  sarathih . The steeds of Indra, of Vayu, of Surya have 
each their appropriate name. Indra's horses are hari or babhru , red gold or 
tawny yellow; Sur ya's harit, indicating a more deep, full and intense 
luminousness; Vayu's are niyut, steeds of the yoking, for they represent those 
dynamic movements which yoke the energy to its action. But although they are 
the horses of Vayu, they have to be driven by I ndra, the movements of the 
Master of nervous and vital energy guided by the Master of mind.  
The third verse would seem at first to bring in an unconnected idea; it speaks of 
a dark Heaven and Earth with all their forms obeying or following in their labour  
the movements of Vayu in his lndra -driven car. They are not mentioned by name

SAKSIVC   Page 100 of 167 but described as the two black or dark holders of substance or holders of wealth, 
vasudhiti ; but the latter word sufficiently indicates earth and by implication of the 
dual form  Heaven also, its companion. We must note that it is not Heaven the 
father and Earth the mother that are indicated, but the two sisters, rodasi , 
feminine forms of heaven and earth, who symbolise the general energies of the 
mental and physical consciousness . It is their dark states - the obscured 
consciousness between its two limits of the mental and the physical, - which by 
the happy movement of the nervous dynamism begin to labour in accordance 
with the movement or under the control of Vayu and to yield up their hidden 
forms; for all forms are concealed in them and they must be compelled to reveal 
them. Thus we discover that this verse completes the sense of the two that 
precede. For always when the Veda is properly understood, its verses are seen to 
unroll the thought with a profound logical coherence and pregnant succession.  
The two remaining Riks indicate the result produced by this action of Heaven and 
Earth and by their yielding up of hidden forms and unmanifeste d energies on the 
movement of Vayu as his car gallops towards the Ananda. First of all his horses 
are to attain their normally complete general number. "Let the ninety -nine be 
yoked and bear thee, those that are yoked by the mind". The constantly 
recurring  numbers ninety -nine, a hundred and a thousand have a symbolic 
significance in the Veda which it is very difficult to disengage with any precision. 
The secret is perhaps to be found in the multiplication of the mystic number 
seven by itself and its double repetition with a unit added before and at the end, 
making altogether 1+49+49+1=100. Seven is the number of essential principles 
in manifested Nature, the seven forms of divine consciousness at play in the 
world. Each, formulated severally, contains the ot her six in itself; thus the full 
number is forty -nine, and to this is added the unit above out of which all 
develops, giving us altogether a scale of fifty and forming the complete gamut of 
active consciousness. But there is also its duplication by an asce nding and 
descending series, the descent of the gods, the ascent of man. This gives us 
ninety -nine, the number variously applied in the Veda to horses, cities, rivers, in 
each case with a separate but kindred symbolism. If we add an obscure unit 
below into  which all descends to the luminous unit above towards which all 
ascends we have the full scale of one hundred.  
It is therefore a complex energy of consciousness which is to be the result of 
Vayu's movement; it is the emergence of the fullest movement of t he mental 
activity now only latent and potential in man, - the ninety and nine steeds that 
are yoked by the mind. And in the next verse the culminating unit is added. We 
have a hundred horses, and because the action is now that of complete luminous 
mentali ty, these steeds, though they still carry Vayu and Indra, are no longer 
merely niyut, but hari, the colour of Indra's brilliant bays. "Yoke, O Vayu, a 
hundred of the brilliant ones, that are to be increased."

SAKSIVC   Page 101 of 167      But why to be increased? Because a hundred  represents the general fullness 
of the variously combined movements, but not their utter complexity. Each of the 
hundred can be multiplied by ten; all can be increased in their own kind: for that 
is the nature of the increase indicated by the word posyana m. Therefore, says 
the rishi, either come with the general fullness of the hundred to be afterwards 
nourished into their full complexity of a hundred tens or, if thou wilt, come at 
once with thy thousand and let thy movement arrive in the utter mass of its 
entire potential energy. It is the completely varied all -ensphering, all -energizing 
mental illumination with its full perfection of being, power, bliss, knowledge, 
mentality, vital force, physical activity that he desires. For, this attained, the 
subconsci ent is compelled to yield up all its hidden possibilities at the will of the 
perfected mind for the rich and abundant movement of the perfected life.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 102 of 167 Indra and Agastya (RV 1.170)  
 
Indra  
1.            It is not now, nor is It tomorrow; who knoweth tha t which is Supreme 
and Wonderful? It has motion and action in the consciousness of another, but 
when It is approached by the thought, It vanishes.  
  
Agastya  
2.            Why dost thou seek to smite us, O Indra? The Maruts are thy 
brothers. By them accompl ish perfection; slay us not in our struggle.  
  
Indra  
3.            Why, O my brother Agastya, art thou my friend, yet settest thy 
thought beyond me? For well do I know how to us thou willest not to give thy 
mind.  
4.            Let them make ready the altar , let them set Agni in blaze in front. It is 
there, the awakening of the consciousness to Immortality. Let us two extend for 
thee thy effective sacrifice.  
  
Agastya  
5.            O Lord of substance over all substances of being, thou art the master 
in forc e! O Lord of Love over the powers of love, thou art the strongest to hold in 
status! Do thou, O lndra, agree with the Maruts, then enjoy the offerings in the 
ordered method of the Truth.  
  
The governing idea of the hymn belongs to a stage of spi ritual progress when 
the human soul wishes by the sheer force of Thought to hasten forward beyond 
in order to reach prematurely the source of all things without full development of 
the being in all its progressive stages of conscious activity. The effort i s opposed

SAKSIVC   Page 103 of 167 by the gods who preside over the universe of man and of the world and a violent 
struggle takes place in the human consciousness between the individual soul in 
its egoistic eagerness and the universal Powers which seek to fulfil the divine 
purpose  of the Cosmos.  
The seer Agastya at such a moment confronts in his inner experience Indra, Lord 
of Swar, the realm of pure intelligence, through which the ascending soul passes 
into the divine Truth.  
Indra speaks first of that unknowable Source of things t owards which Agastya is 
too impatiently striving. That is not to be found in Time. It does not exist in the 
actualities of the present, nor in the eventualities of the future. It neither is now 
nor becomes hereafter. Its being is beyond Space and Time and therefore in 
itself cannot be known by that which is in Space and Time. It manifests itself by 
its forms and activities in the consciousness of that which is not Itself and 
through those activities it is meant that It should be realised. But if one tries t o 
approach it and study it in Itself, It disappears from the thought that would seize 
It and is as if It were not.  
Agastya still does not understand why he is so violently opposed in a pursuit 
which is the eventual aim of all being and which all his though ts and feelings 
demand. The Maruts are the powers of thought which by the strong and 
apparently destructive motion of their progress break down that which is 
established and help to the attainment of new formations. Indra, the Power of 
pure Intelligence, i s their brother, kin to them in his nature although elder in 
being. He should by their means effect the perfection towards which Agastya is 
striving and not turn enemy nor slay his friend in this terrible struggle towards 
the goal.  
Indra replies that Agast ya is his friend and brother, -- brother in the soul as 
children of one Supreme Being, friends as comrades in a common effort and one 
in the divine love that unites God and man, - and by this friendship and alliance 
has attained to the present stage in his  progressive perfection; but now he treats 
Indra as an inferior Power and wishes to go beyond without fulfilling himself in 
the domain of the God. He seeks to divert his increased thought -powers towards 
his own object instead of delivering them up to the u niversal Intelligence so that 
it may enrich its realisations in humanity through Agastya and lead him forward 
by the way of the Truth. Let the egoistic endeavour cease, the great sacrifice be 
resumed, the flame of the divine Force, Agni, be kindled in fron t as head of the 
sacrifice and leader of the march. Indra and Agastya together, the universal 
Power and the human soul, will extend in harmony the effective inner action on 
the plane of the pure Intelligence so that it may enrich itself there and attain 
beyond. For it is precisely by the progressive surrender of the lower being to the

SAKSIVC   Page 104 of 167 divine activities that the limited and egoistic consciousness of the mortal 
awakens to the infinite and immortal state which is its goal.  
Agastya accepts the will of the God a nd submits. He agrees to perceive and fulfill 
the Supreme in the activities of lndra. From his own realm Indra is supreme lord 
over the substances of being as manifested through the triple world of mind, life 
and body and has therefore power to dispose of its formations towards the 
fulfillment, in the movement of Nature, of the divine Truth that expresses itself in 
the universe, - supreme lord over love and delight manifested in the same triple 
world and has therefore power to fix those formations harmoniou sly in the status 
of Nature. Agastya gives up all that is realised in him into the hands of Indra, as 
offerings of the sacrifice, to be held by him in the fixed parts of Agastya's 
consciousness and directed in the motional towards fresh formations. Indra i s 
once more to enter into friendly parley with the upward aspiring powers of 
Agastya's being and to establish agreement between the seer's thoughts and the 
illumination that comes to us through the pure Intelligence. That power will then 
enjoy in Agastya t he offerings of the sacrifice according to the right order of 
things as formulated and governed by the Truth which is beyond.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 105 of 167 Rudra or Shiva  
 
Both in the puranas  and the Agamas, Rudra is lauded as Shiva the benevolent 
and the destroyer. Though Gods like Agni have specific features in the front 
according to their several functions, yet each is only a front of the All -Gods 
supporting from within, one light of  the original Godhead. Hence though specific 
features of each deity are denoted, yet mention of those of other deities 
alongside makes it difficult to determine the sole specialty of each. Thus in 
certain hymns (e.g. 4.3.1) there is hardly any distinction between Agni and 
Rudra ; similarly between Indra and Rudra elsewhere. Still inspite of the fact that 
the features of Agni , Indra, the supreme Godhead, are ascribed to Rudra , it is 
possible to sift certain specific characteristics of Rudra . Though the qualit ies of 
Rudra are described in the Yajur and Atharva vedas, here we take into account 
only the hymns in the Rigveda. Let us note, in passing, that the number of 
hymns devoted to each God do not measure his importance. Gods like Surya, 
Vishnu, Rudra  may have  fewer hymns, but that does not lessen their eminence. 
Why then are such a large number of hymns devoted to Indra  or Agni ? The 
hymns stress the role of the deities whose favour is indispensable in the upward 
path of the ancient rishis engaged in the inner sacrifice. Neither Vish nu nor 
Rudra are as relevant in these states of the ascent as Agni or Indra . 
To come to the description of Brahma,  Rudra  and Vishnu: Brahma  creates all by 
Speech. The creation is a manifestation. Things lost in darkness are brought o ut 
into light. He who thus effects the manifestation is Brahma,  Brahmanaspati,  the 
creator. He brings out all things from the darkness of Inconscience and gives 
them life -forms and mental forms.  
Rudra forcibly leads this creation upwards. He as Shiva , puts down all those who 
arrogantly obstruct his course, punishes them as with a whip, kills the evil 
opponents with his weapons. Though thus terrible, he is beneficent, 
compassionate to the distressed, effects the auspicious with his healing balm.  
Upholding th e Universe with his three steps, Vishnu creates for Indra wide 
station amongst us mortals by which we can reach the supreme station above.  
Even derivatively, the word Rudra denotes the fierce or terrible one. The hymns 
speak of him as the source of life -strengths, father of Rudras, parent  of Maruts, 
as Shiva the benevolent. They speak of his greatness, plentiful progeny, 
parentage of Maruts  and giver of the universe, who spreads felicity among all. 
The profound Mantra, trayambakam yajamahe  (7.59.12) [discussed at the end of 
this chapter] c elebrates his power to liberate all persons from death. The half of 
the Mantra illustrating the release from bondage contains a truth of direct 
experience in yoga relevant even today. It reads, urvarukamiva bandhanat

SAKSIVC   Page 106 of 167 mrtyor muk shiya mamrtat;  even as the fr uit as it ripens gets loosened from the 
hard shell covering it, the soul within gets separated from the external body 
subject to death. So, the rishi says: release from bondage to death, but not from 
immortality. This is the basis of the passage in the Katha upanishad (6.17) which 
speaks of extracting the soul from the body as the fiber from a blade of grass.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 107 of 167 Nature of  Varuna , the King and the Releaser of Bonds  
 
Viewed on the surface, Varuna is an omniscient and omnipotent Lord or Creator, 
Master of t he oceans and the sky, whose strength and speed cannot be matched 
by anyone else. He maintains all the laws in the Earth, mid -region and the 
heavens, punishing the transgressors. But a closer look reveals the esoteric 
meaning of the hymns just as with the other hymns of Rigveda . Varuna is the 
Godhead who creates pathways for the Sun in our being which is full of darkness 
so that the Sun can pour his knowledge into all the dark corners of the being. 
The oceans, of which Varuna is the master, symbolize the waters of the Truth 
and V aruna pours these Waters on our three bodies, viz. physical, vital and 
mental, and removes all sin, evil and falsehood from our lives. The seer 
Shunahshepa explicitly requests Varuna to release or loosen the three knots or 
bonds which represent the bonds o f the three planes, namely physical, vital and 
mental. These knots restrict the flow of the universal psychic energies in our 
body. Varuna is prayed to release these knots. These knots are the celebrated 
knots associated with the names Brahma,  Vish nu and Rudra in the tantric 
literature of a later date.  
A common descriptor used for Varuna is uru, which means always ‘wide’ in the 
Rigveda . Varuna is the lord of all infinities, master of all the oceans and ether. 
Varuna 's dwelling is in the vast, urukshaya  (1.2.9), Varuna has wide vision uru 
chakshasam (1.25.16). He is hymned as urushamsa  in (1.24.11) and (2.28.3). 
shamsa in the Veda always stands for the perfect expression or speech. Recall 
that different formations are brought out by the power of speech or vak in the 
Veda.  uru shamsa  means ""wide expression'' the bringing out of our being (or 
sat) that which is latent in it and manifesting it in our action. Thus Varuna grants 
us a broader vision, removes the narrowness of our outlook so that we can 
express our aspiration for the attainment of infinities.    
Consequently, he is also hymned as swara t (2.28.1), the self -ruler and samra t 
the emperor (8.25.3, 8.42.1). samra t means one who has complete kingship or 
control over both subjective and objective existence. Among the people of the 
vedic age, the emperor is also a sage; he is both a thinker and a hero. He has a 
plenitude of both wisdom and will, thought and action. Varuna is the king of all 
the dominions (8.42.1 and 8.42.2.). Hence Varuna is pictured as self -knowing, 
self-mastering, moving freely with the laws because he is perfectly aware of the 
laws. Recall that satya  is the Truth -Absolute in the Veda. rta  is the Truth in 
manifestation everywhere and at any time. It is the Truth of Divine Being 
regulating the  right activity of both body and mind. Varuna is said to be touching 
with the Truth rtasparsha  (1.2.8). Varuna is also called rtavrdha, increaser of 
Truth, because he along with Mitra increase the Truth in the human being, the 
yajamana who performs the yajna, the harmonious arrangement of actions.

SAKSIVC   Page 108 of 167 Varuna is endowed with a vast will -power, brahantam kratum (1.2.8). He 
increases the will -power in man so that the human can perform all actions 
consistent with the Truth in manifestation (rta). He is hymned as ‘s uperbly 
laudable among the laudable' (1.17.5). Laud or praise in the veda is not simply a 
casual utterance, but has the power to bring out the intentions expressed in 
speech.  
We will give here the description of Varuna given by seer Nabhaka  of the family 
Kanva . "Luminous Varuna has embraced the nights; He holds the Dawns within 
him by his creative knowledge; Visioned, he is around every object.'' (8.41.3) 
"He who supports the worlds of life, he who well knows the hidden names of the 
rays of the dawns, He c herishes much wisdom (8.41.5).'' "In whom all wisdom 
centers as the nave is set within the wheel (8.41.6).'' "He wraps these regions as 
a robe; He contemplates the hosts of Gods and all the works of mortals; In the 
home of Varuna all the Gods follow his de cree (8.41.7).'' "He is the hidden ocean 
and he climbs passing beyond heaven; when he has placed the sacrificial word in 
these dawns, then with his luminous feet he tramples illusions and ascends to 
the Heavens (8.41.8).'' [Sri Aurobindo, SV].  
  
The three oceans  
In the Rigveda , three different oceans are mentioned. The vedic mystics saw 
below them "an unfathomable night and surging obscurity, darkness hidden 
within darkness...''; Above them, they beheld "a remote ocean of light and 
sweetness, a highest eit her, the supreme step of Vishnu to which their being 
should ascend''; between these two oceans they saw "a third sea of ever -
developing conscious being, a sort of boundless wave...'' (Sri Aurobindo). We 
have to navigate through this ocean to reach the supe rconscient blissful ocean 
above.  
"Three delightful dawns increase according to the law of his workings. He of the 
all- seeing wisdom dwells in three white -shining earths; Three are the higher 
worlds of Varuna whence he rules over the harmonies of seven and  seven 
(8.41.9).''  
The three dawns mentioned here are the illuminations of the three bodies in 
man, the physical, the vital and the mental. He harmonizes all the activities both 
in the macrocosm and in the microcosm, in every individual human being.  
  
Sin and Shortcomings

SAKSIVC   Page 109 of 167 Varuna prepares the great pathways in the human being so that the illumination 
of the Sun, Surya,  can enter all the unlit regions of the human. The heart is the 
dwelling place of the inner self of man. Afflictions of the heart are indicat ive of 
the effects of the forces of ignorance on our inner being. The vedic seers did not 
compartmentalize the physical and psychological ailments as the moderns do. 
Only the Light brought in by the Sun can dislodge the forces of ignorance which 
cause the afflictions as declared in (1.25.7).  
In the hymns of the Seer Shunahshepa  there is repeated mention of the words 
sin, enah, disregard, hela, etc., which need special attention. Recall that Varuna 
is the upholder of the Laws, vratani , upholder of rtam which is the Truth of 
Divine being regulating the right activity in both mind and body. The Rig Vedic  
seers were very much aware of the human fra ilties. They saw around them 
persons steeped in selfishness and prayed that they may not be in the same 
boat. "May I not live, O Varuna , to witness my wealthy, liberal dear friend's 
destitution (3.28.10).''  
There is no listing of the set of actions which c onstitute sins and otherwise, 
because such a mechanical classification is not possible. The attempts at 
codifying these highly plastic modes of life and conduct are found in the several 
ancient books of Hindus called as dharma shastras . The period of these  books is 
several millennia after the age of Rigveda . Every religion like Christianity, 
Judaism, Islam, etc. has its own books of conduct, often represented as the 
word of God. Among all these books, the special feature of the Hindu dharma 
shastras  is that  they alone recognize that these books have some eternal 
elements and some other elements which are appropriate to a particular time, 
place and society. The seers of each generation are expected to reframe the 
variable parts of the rules appropriate to tha t time and place.  
We summarize the observations of Sri M.P. Pandit: "The movement against the 
law of being may be with full knowledge of what one is doing or in ignorance of 
the wrong nature of the movement. In each case Karma is forged and the results 
suffered. Yet where one acts contrary to the law of Truth consciously, the results 
are particularly detrimental to the growth of Soul within. A thick crust of 
darkness gathers round the soul and prevents its Light from coming through (to 
the other parts of o ur body). But in the action in ignorance, the reactions are 
mostly on the surface and do not go deep.  
Both typ es of sin are held up before God Varuna , the Lord of Purity, so that he 
may first loosen these impurities from the being of the seeker and then cut them 
asunder, as the following quotation from the Seer Atri indicates. ‘Our sin against 
Truth and our sin by  ignorance, All these clear away like loosened things. 
(5.85.8)'

SAKSIVC   Page 110 of 167 Note that premature death itself is a transgression of the Law. Sacred is the life 
consecrated to the God. If it is not robbed, but well -protected, it fulfils itself. For 
Varuna, the master of infinities, the establishment of the forces of harmony in 
human bodies is not difficult as declared in (1.24.14).  
  
Three Methods  
In (1.25.3), the seer prays "O Varuna , we bind your mind excellently with our 
praises like the charioteer the ready horse. '' There are three ingredients in the 
attempt of the seer to bind Varuna namely namas (homage), yajna  and havis 
(offerings). The first step is to have faith and express it by the homage or 
adoration. The next step is to try to perform all actions in a spir it of harmony. 
We may recall that yajna  is not merely a ritual. It is an orderly arrangement of all 
actions and their offerings to the cosmic powers to whom they rightly belong. 
The ritual of yajna  is one such orderly arrangement. The next is the offering to 
the Gods of the delight or rasa released from our actions. This is the threefold 
way. Then the bonds of sins will be loosened as will be explained below.  
  
The three bonds  
The force of ignorance or the falsehood in our being signified by the deity, nirriti, 
causes in us the triple cord or bond of obscure physical animality, inefficient life 
often dominated by the lower vital impulses and limited mind which revels in 
doubts. These are the three bonds or ropes which bind every one of us. The 
result is an inert poverty of being; it is the origin of the sheer inability of the 
mortal to come in touch with the universal Bliss or Delight which pervades this 
universe. It makes him march towards decay and death at every step. When the 
mighty Varuna comes and cuts  this threefold bondage we are freed to move 
towards Delight and Riches. "Uplifted, the real man arises to his true kingship in 
his undivided being. The upper cord which is limiting the mental movements flies 
upward releasing the wings of the soul into sup erconscient heights; the middle 
cord which is limiting the movements of our life forces parts both ways and all 
ways, the constrained life breaking out into a happy breadth of existence; the 
lower cord which binds to the matter and our animal origins colla pses downward 
taking with it the alloy of our physical being to disappear and be dissolved in the 
stuff of the inconscient.'' (Sri Aurobindo) Thus we have a threefold liberation of 
being hymned by the Seer Shunahshepah  in the three mantras , (1.24.13 -
1.24.15).

SAKSIVC   Page 111 of 167 Relation to the Chakras  in the tantra  
As Sri Kapali Sastry states (CWKS, Vol. 6) "there is no doubt whatsoever that the 
triple bondage corresponds to the three knots famous in the tantra yoga  under 
the names of Brahma, Vish nu and Rudra . The triple b ondage obstructs the entry 
and spread of the Truth -light in the threefold being of mind, life and body. 
Release from it is possible by the grace of God Varuna.''  
We will give here the relevant passages from, lalita sahasra nama stotra,  a 
standard text of tantra yoga  giving all the main aspects of tantra  in the form of 
one thousand names addressed to the Divine Mother. The three bonds are 
mentioned in the names 99 through 104: Residing in the muladhara  (99), 
Severing the knot called Brahma  granthi  (100), App earing in the manipura  (101), 
Severing the knot called Vishnu granthi  (102), Residing in the centre of the 
ajnachakra  (103), Severing the knot called Rudra granthi  (104).  
We may recall that the subtle body has seven centers of psychic consciousness, 
arranged along the subtle counterpart of the physical spinal column. These 
centres are called as Lotuses or chakras.  The bottom one is the muladhara 
where the Supreme Energy Kundalini  resides. By cutting the knot here, the knot 
of brahma,  the knot of matter, th e energy Kundalini  raises to the next chakra the 
manipura . In the manipura  is the knot of Vishnu signifying the bonds which 
prevent the life -forces from contacting the Supreme Delight. By cutting this knot, 
the energy goes to the sixth center (via the four th and fifth), the ¡jna chakra . 
This chakra  has the knot of Rudra cutting which the energy attains union with 
the superconscient ocean above.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 112 of 167 Rbhus  
 
 Rbhus  
 Artisans of Imm ortality  
  
Rbhus   
The Rbhus are humans who have attained divinity by their askesis. There are 
about ten hymns in the RV addressed to the Rbhus . It is said that they are the 
sons of Sudhanvan Angirasa.  Some say that they are Solar Rays. To us both are 
acceptable. The Truth, the Supreme Light, is denoted in the Veda by the Sun. A 
human being is inert because of his material body. Rays of Sun, manifestations 
of the Consciousness, descending on this field of Matter, gross and inert, uplift 
man. And these ver y Rbhus become special powers of man by virtue of his 
development; and man becomes immortal by a Divine Birth, effected by that 
special power.  
How then are they spoken of as sons of Sudhanvan? Dhanva  is the arid land, a 
field with no water, denoting inert ness, sheer matter just as the Hill is the place 
where cows are hidden or denotes darkness that covers the Waters. The arid 
land acquires splendour by accepting the descending Divine Rays and absorbing 
the higher essence. Then it blooms forth the glory of the Rbhus as Sudhanvan  
(fair arid land).  
Having attained to divinity by virtue of their action and knowledge, these deities 
work to help man to attain to divinity. And whatever acts they do they become 
divine acts only. The actions of the Rbhus are mentio ned in symbolic language 
only. It is clear that without resort to the hidden symbolic meaning, it is not 
possible to explain in a straight manner these hymns that are like riddles. We will 
demonstrate further on.  
Rbhu, Vibhva, Vaja { these three are spoken of. The singular denotes their 
collectivity. And due to their association all are indicated by the word Rbhu, the 
eldest of them. The specialty of each of the three is celebrated by the name 
itself. By means of intellect and activity, Rbhu , the eldest, bui lds the forms 
conforming to the qualities of Immortality. Vibhava  brings about its extension. 
Vaja effects the plenitude of the Divine Light and Substance. They are called the 
carpenters, the artisans of immortality for man.  
  
Artisans of Immortality (RV 1.20)

SAKSIVC   Page 113 of 167 1.            Lo, the affirmation made for the divine Birth with the breath of the 
mouth by illumined minds, that gives perfectly the bliss;  
2.            Even they who fashioned by the mind for Indra his two bright steeds 
that are yoked by Speech, and they enjoy the sacrifice by their accomplishings of 
the work.  
3.            They fashioned for the twin lords of the voyage their happy car of the 
all-pervading movement, they fashioned the fostering cow that yields the sweet 
milk.  
4.            O Rbhus, in your pervasion you made young again the Parents, you 
who seek the straight path and have the Truth in your mentalisings.  
5.            The raptures of the wine come to you entirely, to you with Indra 
companioned by the Maruts and with the Kings, the sons of Aditi.  
6.            And this bowl of Twashtri new and perfected you made again into 
four.  
7.            So establish for us the thrice seven ecstasies, each separately by 
perfect expressings of them.  
8.            They sustain ed and held in them, they divided by perfection in their 
works the sacrificial share of the enjoyment among the Gods.  
  
The Rbhus, it has been suggested, are rays of the Sun. And it is true that like 
Varuna, Mitra, Bhaga and Aryaman they are powers of the solar Light, the Truth. 
But their special character in the Veda is that they are artisans of Immortality. 
They are repre sented as human beings who have attained to the condition of 
godhead by power of knowledge and perfection in their works. Their function is 
to aid Indra in raising man towards the same state of divine light and bliss which 
they themselves have earned as th eir own divine privilege. The hymns addressed 
to them in the Veda are few and to the first glance exceedingly enigmatical; for 
they are full of certain figures and symbols always repeated. But once the 
principal clues of the Veda are known, they become on the contrary exceedingly 
clear and simple and present a coherent and interesting idea which sheds a clear 
light on the Vedic gospel of immortality.

SAKSIVC   Page 114 of 167 The Rbhus are powers of the Light who have descended into Matter and are 
there born as human faculties aspir ing to become divine and immortal. In this 
character they are called children of Sudhanwan, a patronymic which is merely a 
parable of their birth from the full capacities of Matter touched by the luminous 
energy. But in their real nature they are descended  from this luminous Energy 
and are sometimes so addressed, "Offspring of Indra, grandsons of luminous 
Force" (4.37.4). For Indra, the divine mind in man, is born out of luminous Force 
as is Agni out of pure Force, and from Indra the divine Mind spring the human 
aspirations after Immortality.  
The names of the three Rbhus are, in the order of their birth , rbhu or rbhuksan , 
the skilful Knower or the Shaper in knowledge, vibhva  or vibhu , the Pervading, 
the self -diffusing, and vaja, the Plenitude. Their names in dicate their special 
nature and function, but they are really a trinity, and therefore, although usually 
termed the Rbhus, they are also called the Vibhus and Vajas. Rbhu, the eldest is 
the first in man who begins to shape by his thoughts and works the for ms of 
immortality; Vibhwa gives pervasiveness to this working; Vaja, the youngest, 
supplies the plenitude of the divine light and substance by which the complete 
work can be done. These works and formations of immortality they effect, it is 
continually rep eated, by the force of Thought, with the mind for field and 
material; they are done with power; they are attended by a perfection in the 
creative and effective act, svapasyaya, sukrtyaya , which is the condition of the 
working out of Immortality. These form ations of the artisans of Immortality are, 
as they are briefly summarised in the hymn before us, the horses of Indra, the 
car of the Ashvins, the Cow that gives the sweet milk, the youth of the universal 
Parents, the multiplication into four of the one dri nking -bowl of the gods 
originally fashioned by Twashtri, the Framer of things.  
The hymn opens with an indication of its objective. It is an affirmation of the 
power of the Rbhus made for the divine Birth, made by men whose minds have 
attained to illumination and possess that energy of the Light from which the 
Rbhus were born. It is m ade by the breath of the mouth, the life -power in the 
world. Its object is to confirm in the human soul the entire delight of the 
Beatitude, the thrice seven ecstasies of the divine Life. This divine Birth is 
represented by the Rbhus who, once human, have become immortal. By their 
accomplishings of the work, the great work of upward human evolution which is 
the summit of the world -sacrifice, - they have gained in that sacrifice their divine 
share and privilege along with the divine powers. They are the subl imated 
human energies of formation and upward progress who assist the gods in the 
divinising of man. And of all their accomplishings that which is central is the 
formation of the two brilliant horses of Indra, the horses yoked by speech to 
their movements,  yoked by the Word and fashioned by the mind. For the free 
movement of the luminous mind, the divine mind in man, is the condition of all

SAKSIVC   Page 115 of 167 other immortalising works.  
The second w ork of the Rbhus is to fashion the chariot of the Ashvins, lords of 
the human journey, - the happy movement of the Ananda in man which 
pervades with its action all his worlds or planes of being, bringing health, youth, 
strength, wholeness to the physical m an, capacity of enjoyment and action to 
the vital, glad energy of the light to the mental being, - in a word, the force of 
the pure delight of being in all his members.  
The third work of the Rbhus is to fashion the cow who gives the sweet milk. It is 
said elsewhere that this cow has been delivered out of its covering skin, - the veil 
of Nature's outward movement and action, - by the Rbhus. The fostering cow 
herself is she of the universal forms and universal impetus of movement, 
visvajuvam visvarupam , in ot her words she is the first Radiance, Aditi, the infinite 
Consciousness of the infinite conscious Being which is the mother of the worlds. 
That consciousness is brought out by the Rbhus from the veiling movement of 
nature and a figure of her is fashioned he re in us by them. She is, by the action 
of the powers of the duality, separated from her offspring, the soul in the lower 
world; the Rbhus restore it to constant companionship with its infinite mother.  
Another great work of the Rbhus is - in the strength o f their previous deeds, of 
the light of Indra, the movement of the Ashvins, the full yield of the fostering 
Cow - to restore youth to the aged Parents of the world, Heaven and Earth. 
Heaven is the mental consciousness, Earth the physical. These in their un ion are 
represented as lying long -old and prostrate like fallen sacrificial posts, worn -out 
and suffering. The Rbhus, it is said, ascend to the house of the Sun where he 
lives in the unconcealed splendour of his Truth and there slumbering for twelve 
days afterwards traverse the heaven and the earth, filling them with abundant 
rain of the streams of Truth, nourishing them, restoring them to youth and 
Vigour. They pervade heaven with their workings, they bring divine increase to 
the mentality, they give to i t and the physical being a fresh and young and 
immortal movements. For from the home of the Truth they bring with them the 
perfection of that which is the condition of their work, the movement in the 
straight path of the Truth and the Truth itself with its  absolute effectivity in all 
the thoughts and words of the mentality. Carrying this power with them in their 
pervading entry into the lower world, they pour into it the immortal essence.  
It is the wine of that immortal essence with its ecstasies which they  win by their 
works and bring with them to man in his sacrifice. And with them come and sit 
Indra and the Maruts, the divine Mind and its Thought -forces, and the four great 
Kings, sons of Aditi, children of the Infinite, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, Bhaga, the 
purity and vastness of the Truth -Consciousness, its law of love and light and

SAKSIVC   Page 116 of 167 harmony, i ts power and aspiration, its pure and happy enjoyment of things.  
And there at the sacrifice the gods drink in the fourfold bowl,  chamasam 
chaturvayam , the pourings of the nectar. For Twashtri, the Framer of things, has 
given man originally only a single bo wl, the physical consciousness, the physical 
body in which to offer the delight of existence to the gods. The Rbhus, powers of 
luminous knowledge, take it as renewed and perfected by Twashtri's latter 
workings and build up in him from the material of the f our planes three other 
bodies, vital, mental and the causal or ideal body.  
Because they have made this fourfold cup of bliss and enabled him thereby to 
live on the plane of the Truth -Consciousness they are able to establish in the 
perfected human being the  thrice seven ecstasies of the supreme existence 
poured into the mind, vitality and body. Each of these they can give perfectly by 
the full expression of its separate absolute ecstasy even in the combination of 
the whole.  
The Rbhus have power to support and contain all these floods of the delight of 
being in the human consciousness; and they are able to divide it in the 
perfection of their works among the manifested gods, to each god his sacrificial 
share. For such perfect division is the whole condition of the effective sacrifice, 
the perfect work.  
Such are the Rbhus and they are called to the human sacrifice to fashion for man 
the things of immortality even as they fashioned them for themselves. "He 
becomes full of plenitu de and strength for the labour, he becomes a rishi by 
power of self expression, he becomes a hero and a smiter hard to pierce in the 
battles, he holds in himself increase of bliss and entire energy whom Vaja and 
Vibhwa, the Rbhus foster.... For you are see rs and thinkers clear -discerning; as 
such with this thought of our soul we declare to you out knowledge. Do you in 
your knowledge moving about our thoughts fashion for us all human enjoyings, - 
luminous plenitude and fertilizing force and supreme felicity.  Here issue, here 
felicity, here a great energy of inspiration fashion for us in your delight. Give to 
us, O Rbhus, that richly -varied plenitude by which we shall awaken in our 
consciousness to things beyond ordinary men."  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 117 of 167 Vishvedeva h or All -Gods  
 
Some, like the ancient commentator Shakapuni,  believe that Vishvedeva h 
constitute a special class of Deities. In the opinion of Yaska,  the term Vishva  is in 
the sense of all; hence it refers to the collectivity of all the Gods including the 
Gods with speci fic names like Agni etc. and those not specifically mentioned. This 
view seems to be better since all the hymns addressed to them carry the implied 
sense of the assembly of all the Gods. These hymns especially stress the 
qualities common to all the Gods. Vishvedevah occurs in the Rigveda for the first 
time in Hymn 3, mantras   (3.7) to (3.9).  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 118 of 167 Aditi (RV 1.80.10)  
 
Aditi is Heaven,  
Aditi is mid -region,  
Aditi is the Mother (Earth),  
Father and Son;  
She is all the Gods; She is the five peoples;  
Aditi is all t hat is born and what is to be.  
She is the goddess of infinity as the verse (1.89.10) given below unambiguously 
declares.  
The five peoples are the beings of the five planes of matter (earth), praana (mid-
region), manas   (heaven), svar (world of light) and ananda  (the world of bliss). 
This verse is also the invocation to the Prashna upanishad.  
To understand Aditi , we have to understand the puranic  story of Kashyapa  and 
his two wives, Diti and Aditi  in a symbolic sense.  Diti in the RV denotes 
finiteness. All t he devas  are called as adityas  because they are descended from 
Aditi. RV makes several interesting references to Diti and Aditi together, as in 
(4.2.11).  
Mitra, Varuna, in the uprising of the Sun, you ascend;  
You behold the Infinite Aditi and the finite Di ti. (7.62.8).  
May we abide in the law of thy workings and be blameless before the Mother 
infinity aditaye . (1.24.15).  
Aditi is the Mother of all, Mother of all the Gods, Mother of all creation. She is the 
infinite consciousness. We can become blameless onl y by rejecting all things that 
are contrary to the Supreme Law.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 119 of 167 Ashvins  
 
 Ashvins  
 The Lord of Bliss  
  
Ashvins   
Ashvins are the twin divine powers whose primary func tion is to effect action and 
enjoyment. They are commonly referred to as "madhuman,"  (4.45.1), full of 
honey, the honey of delight of existence. "Of all the Gods, they are most ready 
to come to man and create for him ease or bliss." Hence they are called a s 
"subhaspati,"  the guardians of bliss (1.34.6). Their action is to guide the humans 
across the travails and obstacles in the physical, vital or mental aspects of 
everyday life to the supreme beatitude characterized by bliss or honey. Arising 
from the ocea n of infinite existence and endowed with Truth -Force, they are 
doers of action in superb thought. In the human mentality they acquire and hold 
the delight and treasures of the life supreme, by means of a special thought 
power. They effectuate in man the lu minous power of impulsion needed for great 
action.  
Recall that in veda,  the vital world ( prana ) and its counterpart in the individual is 
the source of all the energies put forth by the humans. The physical world is 
referred to as "anna,"  it is insentient; the mental world ( mana ) is the world of 
thought, the information gathering of sense organ s, the subjective judgments, 
intellectual analyses, etc. The vital activities in man cover a broad range. It 
includes the lower vital movement like small desires, creature comforts, petty 
ambitions, jealousy, etc. The higher vital deals with movements like  courage, 
nobility, self giving, capacity for self -sacrifice for the sake of others, the urge for 
beauty and harmony at all levels, etc. Ashvins energize and propel forward all 
the higher vital movements. They put forth also the energies which damp or 
reduce the effect of lower vital movements like desire and anger which lead to 
physiological and psychological illness, the fear of old age, death, etc. Two 
principle characteristics of Ashvins are lauded in all the hymns. They are swift of 
movement aided by s wift steeds and a fast chariot which has the freedom to go 
anywhere in the three planes of existence, namely matter, vital and mind with 
one of its wheels centered on the summit of heaven. Chariot in the veda always 
symbolizes movement and steeds character ize force. The name Ashvins is 
derived from Ashva, the physical horse or vital force indicating that they energize 
the vitality of the human being in its onward journey, but they also work in 
thought and lead them to truth.  
There are several mantras which  describe the Ashvins as helping the human

SAKSIVC   Page 120 of 167 aspirants to cross the ocean of ignorance by rowing them in a boat. We will 
describe some of these mantras later.  
Their second principle characteristic is their capacity for enjoyment and 
bestowing enjoyment on t he humans. We recall that in veda honey or Soma 
always symbolizes the delight of existence which pervades all manifestation. The 
reason d'etre for every action, every object, is the delight behind it which holds it 
together. All the Gods are lovers of hone y or Soma, the seers repeatedly pray for 
the Gods to come and accept the Soma that is being released in all their actions. 
The Ashvins not only seek honey everywhere but they also distribute the honey 
to all the human seekers. They carry three parts of sat isfying delights in their car 
- satisfactions for the physical body, satisfactions of vitality and satisfactions of 
mind and these are given to the human engaged in self -giving ( yajna ).  
These three forms of satisfaction are not all that their chariot hold s. There is 
always a fourth, turi barya  (4.45.1), a skin full of honey and out of this skin the 
honey breaks and overflows on every side (4.45.10). Just as the three 
satisfactions "trayo"  in the word preceding turiya  in (4.45.1) refers to the three 
satisfa ctions associated with the three planes of our consciousness, namely the 
body, life and mind, the fourth (turiya)  refers to the fourth plane of our 
consciousness, the mahas,  the svar, the ritam britam,  Truth -vast. drtisturiyo 
madhuno vi rapshate  (4.45.1). The fourth skin overflows with honey. drtim 
vahethe madhumantamasvina  (4.45.3). O Ashvin, full of honey is the skin you 
bear. The Ashvins bear with them the honey, the madhu  in a skin that is torn, 
drti. drti literally means something that is cut or torn. The Ashvins bring with 
them the skin, a partial formation out of the Truth consciousness to contain the 
honey of beatitude. The beatitude, always characterized by infinities, cannot be 
limited to any enclosure or s kin. Hence the skin is torn. The abundant and 
infinite sweetness of the honey overflows everywhere, drenching all the planes 
of our existence with delight.  
A corollary of their activity in distributing the honey to the seeker is their work as 
divine physi cians who render relief to the human aspirants in curing their 
diseases, both physical and psychological. The adverse forces in nature, 
especially in the vital, both individual and cosmic, are opposed to the human 
worshippers' attempts in rising to the hig her levels of consciousness and they 
introduce obstacles in his/her path in the form of physical or psychological 
ailments. Ashvins offer the required cures. Ashvins are also praised as giving the 
humans the relief for the ailments of old age so that old a ge does not hold out 
frightening prospects. Ashvins are prayed so that "we can enter old age 
comfortably with happiness just as we enter our own homes." We will discuss 
this aspect of Ashvins in some detail later.  
Ashvins first make their appearance very early in the Rigveda in the sukta  (1.3)

SAKSIVC   Page 121 of 167 of the Seer Madhuchchhandas. In this sukta the seer prays to the Ashvins prior 
to his prayer to Indra, the lord of the Divine mind. We will reproduce the three 
mantras and comment on them. ashvina  yajvaririsho dravatpanni subhaspati, 
purubhuja chanasyatam. (1.3.1). O Ashvins, swift -footed, guardians of bliss, 
abundant enjoyers, Take delight in the impelling energies of the yajna.  (1.3.1). 
ashvina purudamsasa  nara shaviraya dhiya, dhi shnya vanatam gira h. (1.3.2). A 
Ashvins, accomplished of varied  action, upholders in the intellect, Take joy in our 
words by a luminous energetic thought. (1.3.2).  
In (1.3.1), the Ashvins are described as swift -footed guardians of bliss and 
abundant enjoyers. Guardians of bliss implies that they both accept bliss and  
bestow bliss on the human aspirants. Ashvins are asked to accept the delight 
flowing out of the performance of the yajna  or sacrifice. yajna  is not simply a 
ritual. It is self -giving. It is a way of communing with the Gods and for the rishis,  
their entire life was yajna.  In the yajna,  Soma, which indicates the delight of 
existence, is released as a result of all the ac tions done by the aspirant. These 
are the impelling energies in the mantra (1.3.1). Ashvins are requested to accept 
these flowing energies impregnated with delight.  
In the second mantra (1.3.2), Ashvins are described as "upholders in the 
intellect." When the Soma is pressed and the honey is released, words capable of 
manifesting fresh forms of consciousness well up. The phrase "take joy in our 
words by a luminous energetic thought" means that the Ashvins have to 
establish the words in the thought, give the m a thought form and then accept 
them. Speech is to be made one in nature with thought abounding with the 
strength. The Ashvins are also called as accomplishes of varied action. The 
subhymn (1.3.1) through (1.3.3) comes prior to the subhymn of Indra, the l ord 
of divine mind. The rishi wants the help of Ashvins in strengthening the nervous 
mentality before praying for the power of Indra in strengthening his higher mind.  
We mentioned earlier that the Ashvins hold the delight of the honey in man by a 
special thought power which is m entioned in (1.3.2). There are several mantras 
which support this statement. Ashvins, diligent in their tasks, children of ocean, 
making felicities accessible thro' the mind, finding the substance with thought 
(1.46.2). The Ashvins obtain the divine riches  beyond the reach of mind. They 
have the thought that knows their source. Rapid as thought, strong, speeding to 
the joy, Lords of plenty, with many aids for our protection. (8.22.16). By the 
thought, the somas have been yoked. (1.46.8).  
  
Ashvins as divine  physicians  
Because of their association with madhu  or honey or delight of existence, they

SAKSIVC   Page 122 of 167 can cure all the ailments, both physical and psychological and grant longevity . 
trirno ashvina divyani bhe shaja, ...tridhatu sharma vahatam shubaspati  (1.34.6). 
Give us thrice, O Ashvins, the heavenly medicaments. ...O Guardians of 
auspicious, give us the well -being of three bodies (1.34.6).  
The medicaments remove illnesses of vario us kinds. The words "three bodies" 
stand for the physical, vital and mental bodies.  
In the suktas  (1.116) through (1.120) by the Seer Kakshiv an, there are 
numerous instances of the healing help given by Ashvins to various persons in 
various contexts. We w ill consider several mantras. paravatam nasatyanudetham 
 ucchabudhnam chakrathurjihmbaram, k sharann apo na payanaya raye sahasraya 
trshyate gotamasya.  (1.116.9). O Nasatyas, ye raised up the well and made the 
door curved so that abundant riches flowed like water for thirsty Gotama's drink 
(1.116.9).  
Ashvins are called nasatyas  because they are lords of movement, nas under. 
Well refers to the physical body which is hidden in the waters of the lower vital 
currents characterized by anger, greed, etc. Ashvins r aise up the physical body 
and open the doors which are blocking the flow of the spiritual current from 
above, the sahasrara center of the tantric  tradition. Once the door is opened, 
these spiritual riches automatically flow into the rishi. Clearly neither the thirst of 
Gotama nor the drink are physical, but psychological. In vedic yoga,  the energies 
of demons and other asuras harass the rishi engaged in the inner yajna.  One 
such rishi is Atri who is the recipient of the grace of Ashvi ns, as indicated in the 
following mantra . himena agnim grmsam ava barrayetha barm pitumati barm u 
barrjvam asmai adhattam, rbi barse atrim asvina avani bartam ut ninyathuh 
sarvaganam svasti (1.116.8). O Ashvins, ye quenched with cold the (inward) 
burning f ires, ye gave him nourishing stuff; Atri, cast downward in the dark 
cavern, Ye restored with his hosts (senses) to well being. (1.116.8).  
The burning fires do not refer to the external heat caused by the Sun, etc., but 
to the internal heat characterized b y physical ailments like fever or psychological 
ailments caused by the lower vital movements like anger, sex, tasty palate, etc. 
Ashvins cool down the heated senses. Similarly, the rishi finds himself in a 
psychological cavern devoid of light and Atri rest ore him back to light and also 
expose his sense organs ( gana or hosts) both internal and external to light and 
well being.  
The next mantra  also confirms the symbolic character of the Ashvins healing 
powers. O Ashvins, ye raised up Rebha (seer), like soma in a ladle who for ten 
nights and nine days had lain fettered in cruel bonds, distressed, immersed in 
waters (1.116.24). Ashvins, leaders, showerers, rescuing Rebha cast by 
unassailable enemies in waters ye made the (maimed) rishi whole with your

SAKSIVC   Page 123 of 167 healing s kills like a wounded steed. Your past deeds do not fade (1.117.4).  
Both the mantras refer to the same rishi Rebha. The waters as before refer to 
the lower vital currents. Ashvins raise up the seer immersed in these currents. 
They heal all his wounded part s just like healing a wounded steed. Again the 
wounds here are both physical and psychological. The characteristic of Ashvins 
to endow an integral perfection as the seer, i.e., making the maimed rishi whole, 
is also mentioned in (1.117.19).  
Ashvins also h ave the power of freeing persons from the limitations of old age. 
We will quote two mantras . na jujuruso na barsatyota vavrim pramuncatam 
drapimiva cyava bar n a bart, pra bartiratam jahitasya a baryuh dasra bar a 
barditpatin krnutam kani barna barm  11 (1. 116.10). O Nasatyas, ye stripped old 
age from aged yavana as it were mail (armour). Ye prolonged his life and made 
him husband of youthful maidens (1.116.10). "Maidens" symbolize the potential 
unmanifested powers within a person waiting to be manifested. " Becoming their 
husband" means manifesting these powers. The Ashvins are full of honey of the 
delight of existence. Bestowing this honey on a person rejuvenates all the parts 
of the being and the conditions and symptoms of old age are removed in one 
stroke like a dress or armour. The analogy of armour or mail also indicates that 
old age is not easy to break up . uta pasyan asnuvan di barrgam a bar yuh 
astamivet jarimanam jagamyam.  (1.116.25). May I, enjoying life with all senses 
active, enter old age as a mas ter his house (1.116.25).  
When a master enters his own home, all the persons obey and love him and all 
the objects are at his command. Similarly even in old age, the rishi prays that he 
may be in command of all his facilities including physical, mental an d spiritual. 
Another mantra  (1.119.7) says "ye restored Vandana worn out with old age; by 
his lauds he brought forth the sage (Vamadeva) from the womb." Here the poet 
is not referring to the physical delivery of a child from a mother's womb. In the 
veda,  birth of a child from a womb always symbolizes the manifestation of the 
power of godhead in man. To be in the womb means that the power is only 
potential and unmanifested. The Ashvins help in manifesting this power. In this 
sense they bring forth the seer f rom the womb. In the veda and upanishad 
"hiranya garba"  (golden womb) indicates the cosmic condition when all the 
things that have to be manifested are in a seed condition, ready to manifest. 
Since each power is divine and is shining, it is called golden.  
We will quote two mantras from the eigh th book to show that the powers of 
Ashvins are described in all books and not just the first book. And may the 
Ashvins, the divine physicians effect our weal (8.18.8). You both accomplishes, 
physicians, bringers of delight, you both won the praise of Daksh a (8.86.1).  

SAKSIVC   Page 124 of 167 of mystic honey elucidated in the brhadaranyaka upanishad . The Ashvins give 
the secret of mystic honey to Dadhyan, son of the seer Atharvan. This incident in 
mentioned in several mantras of Rigveda  (1.117.22, 1.116,12, 1.119.9). Ashvins 
as guides.  
There are several mantras which describe t he Ashvins as the leaders of the 
journey. They lead the human aspirants from the present state of confusion and 
unhappiness to the other shore of happiness. Ashvins are commonly called as 
nasatyas,  the leaders of movement (derived from the word "nas,"  to m ove). 
vartanim  madhuna bar jinvathas panthah.  (4.45.3)  
With the honey, you gladden the movements and its paths (4.45.3). "By the 
action of Ashvins, man's progress toward beatitude becomes itself beatific; all his 
travail and struggle and labour grows full  of divine delight... By the growing law 
of Truth in the mental and physical consciousness we finally arrive beyond the 
mind and body to the superconscient Truth" (Sri Aurobindo, Secret of Veda, p. 
320). yate vishva baram anu svadhya chetathaspathah.  (4.45 .6). By force of 
Nature's self -arranging, you move consciously along all paths. (4.45.6). du 
parametave pantha rtasya sadhuya.  (1.46.11). The fit path was ready to reach 
the shores of truth. The Ashvins follow the path of Truth, rtasya pantha  bar, and 
the force is "svadha," their innate force, Nature's self -arranging force. Give us, O 
Ashvins, the luminous impulsion that may carry us across darkness. (1.46.6). We 
call the Ashvins, of auspicious car, superbly charioted, the Gods who reach the 
heaven. (1.22.2 ). Ashvins, ye have created for man this adorable light from 
Heaven. Do ye bring into us powerful strengths (1.92.17).  
In several of the Agni hymns of Rigveda , Agni is described as helping the 
aspirant cross all the obstructions like a boat over the river . See for instance, 
(1.99). Since Ashvins are also described as helpers in the journey, what is the 
connection between their respective roles? This is given in (1.112.1). I laud 
heaven and earth to know them first, then Agni, kindled and bright shining for  
their coming for worship Come hither into us, O Ashvins with these aids with 
which you please the sacrificer for your share of the sacrifice. This mantra says 
that by the grace of shining Agni the path becomes clear and Ashvins help the 
aspirant across th e indicated path. They symbols of vehicles of the journey are 
the "ratha"  chariot or the boat. Recall that in veda,  "ratha"  commonly translated 
as car, always denotes a movement. As Sri Aurobindo says chariot or car if the 
Ashvins signify "the happy moveme nt of the Ananda in man which pervades with 
its action all his worlds or planes of being." tribandhurena trivrta  supesasa 
rathena yatam asvina.  (1.47.2). O Ashvins come ye in your beautiful car three 
columned, moving in the three worlds (1.47.2). trisadhas the barhisi vishvavedasa  
madhva yajnam mimiksatam.  (1.47.4). O Ashvins, omniscient, seated in the 
triple seat sprinkle our sacrifice with your honey. (1.47.4). "Your car born of 
truth" (3.58.8) "Come Ashvins in the car of solar skin" (8.8.2) "Gold -seated, gold -

SAKSIVC   Page 125 of 167 reined (car) touchin g the heaven" (8.5.28). "Your car by which you move at once 
over all the worlds towards the enjoyment rich in offerings that make thro' the 
goal.” (4.45.7). On the summit of the hill, you placed firm the wheel of car, The 
other wheel goes around. (1.30.19) . One wheel of the Ashvins car is placed on 
the summit of the plane of the physical consciousness, the peak of ripened 
consciousness of man. The other wheel (or the other two wheels) go in the other 
worlds.  
This Ashvins bring health, youth, strength and w holeness to the physical man, 
capacity of action and enjoyment to the vital man and the "glad energy of the 
light" to the mental man. They act on the three planes of bhur, bhuva h and svar, 
the planes of matter, life (or vital) and mental energy. Their char iot is often 
described as three wheeled or three seated or three columned. "Seat" in the 
veda is that which supports and is synonymous with the body. The three seats 
refers to the three bodies of man, namely physical, vital and mental. In the 
ritualistic i nterpretations, the three seated is interpreted as the three heaps of 
grass.  
The hymn (1.34) having twelve mantras makes repeated references to the 
number three, "three pillars of support" (1.34.2), journey thrice by night 
(1.34.2), journey thrice by day (1.34.2), render faultless yajna  thrice on the 
same day (1.34.3), sprinkle our  sacrifice thrice with the celestial honey or madhu 
(1.34.3), sprinkle thrice for us the opulent forceful impulsions, day and night.  
"Come thrice to our dwelling" (1.34.4) Thrice to the sacrifice deserving protection 
(1.34.4) Thrice reach us the wealth (1 .34.5) Thrice come to the assembly of 
gods (1.34.5) Bring us inspiration thrice (1.34.5) Give us the well being of the 
three substances (1.34.6) travel thrice around our earth (1.34.7) Come ye far to 
our threefold earth (1.34.7) .in -.5i  
We will consider three mantras in this hymn in some detail. O Ashvins, thrice is 
the Soma distilled by the seven mother streams; Three are the receptacles; in 
the three ways is the oblation done; Moving above the three earths, ye guard 
the Sun in the firmament of heaven, e stablished by day and by night. (1.34.8).  
The seven streams are the streams of consciousness, namely the three streams 
of the lower triple worlds, viz matter, life and mind, the three streams of the 
upper triple world, existence ( sat), consciousness -force (chit), delight ( ananda ) 
and the stream, mahas  or svar, linking the two triples. Soma, the essence of 
Delight of all existence, is prepared by the radiant powers of the sevenfold 
Being, associated with the seven streams. The receptacles of the Soma are th e 
three planes of matter, life and mind and they are ready. O Ashvins, accept the 
Soma, travel above the three worlds and guard the supreme Light. Working day 
and night, the Sun of truth has been established by the (inner) sacrifices, so that

SAKSIVC   Page 126 of 167 we can realiz e it. Guard it for us.  
It should be clear that interpreting seven streams as the seven rivers of Punjab 
as most Western indologists are wont to do even today, will make the mantra 
unintelligible. But when we take the hints of Sri Aurobindo and look for th e 
hidden secret, the mantra 's meaning shines luminously.  
The next mantra (1.34.9) of the same hymn, is again clear if we interpret it in 
the esoteric sense.  
Where, O Ashvins, are the three wheels of your triangular car? Where are the 
seat-supporting thre e pillars? When will the powerful ass be yoked to arrive at 
our sacrifice? (1.34.9).  
The seer of the mantra says "we are ready to receive you, the Soma is prepared, 
but your car is yet to be seen; be quick of grace, yoke the asses to the car and 
come quic kly to us."  
In several mantras , Ashvins are also hymned as carrying the seer to the other 
shore of truth with a boat. O Ashvins, come with the boat to reach the shore 
beyond the thoughts; harness your car. (1.46.7). Your boat is vaster than 
heaven, your c ar is on the shore of the heavens. (1.46.8).  
  
Dual nature of the Ashvins  
The twin powers, Ashvins, always appear together in all the mantras; they are 
never separated from each other. There are other twin powers in the Rigveda 
like Mitra and Varuna. Even though there are several mantras for the twin deities 
together, there are a large number of mantras for Varuna and Mitra separately. 
This is not the case with the Ashvins. It is not that they are identical rishi Paura 
Atreya notes that they are born "separ ately" (5.7.34). "They are co -existent and 
interdependent for their effective effectioning which they discharge in common." 
Gritsamada's hymn (2.39) likens them to a splendid named pair, to the two lips 
that speak sweet words, to the two nostrils, etc. "As hvins are two distinct 
formations of the same Godhead for the same purpose but representing 
severally Light and Power, or knowledge and will... Their mutual relation is that 
of a balance and harmony, neither of them can be explained by itself without the 
term of the other... their mutual dependence can be explained by that one secret 
the madhu,  the delight of being in all existence which affects, supports and holds 
them in close harmony."

SAKSIVC   Page 127 of 167 Lords of Bliss (RV 4.45)   
1.            Lo, that Light is rising u p and the all pervading car is being yoked on 
the high level of this Heaven; there are placed satisfying delights in their triple 
pairs and the fourth skin of honey overflows.  
2.            Full of honey upward rise the delight; upward horses and cars in the 
wide-shinings of the Dawn and they roll aside the veil of darkness that 
encompassed on every side and they extend the lower world into a shining form 
like that of the luminous heaven.  
3.            Drink of the honey with your honey -drinking mouths, fo r the honey 
yoke your car beloved. With the honey you gladden the movements and its 
paths; full of honey, O Ashvins, is the skin that you bear.  
4.            Full of the honey are the swans that bear you, golden winged, waking 
with the Dawn, and they come not to hurt, they rain forth the waters, they are 
full of rapture and touch that which holds the Rapture. Like bees to pouring of 
honey you come to the Soma -offerings.    
5.            Full of the honey the fires lead well the sacrifice and they woo your 
brightness, O Ashvins, day by day, when one with purified hands, with a perfect 
vision, with power to go through to the goal, has pressed out with the pressing -
stones the honeyed Soma -wine.  
6.            Drinking the wine near them, the fires ride and run a nd extend the 
lower world into a shining form like that of the luminous heaven. The Sun too 
goes yoking his steeds; by force of Nature’s self -arranging you move consciously 
along all paths.  
7.            I have declared, O Aahvins, holding the Thought in m e, your car that 
is undecaying and drawn by perfect steeds, -your car by which you move at once 
over all the worlds towards the enjoyment rich in offerings that makes through 
to the goal.  
  
The hymns of the Rig -veda addressed to the two shining Twins, like those 
addressed to the Ribhus, are full of symbolic expressions and unintelligible 
without a firm clue to their symbolism. The three leading features of these 
hymns to the Ashvins are the praise of their chariot, their horses and their rapid 
all- pervading movement; their seeking of honey and their joy in the honey,

SAKSIVC   Page 128 of 167 madhu , and the satisfying delights that they carry in their car; and their close 
association with the Sun, with Surya the daughter of the Sun and with the Dawn.  
  The Ashvins like th e other gods descend from the Truth - Consciousness, the 
rtam; they are born or manifested from Heaven, from Dyau, the pure Mind; their 
movement pervades all the worlds, - the effect of their action ranges from the 
body through the vital being and the thoug ht to the superconscient Truth. It 
commences indeed from the ocean, from the vague of the being as it emerges 
out of the subconscient and they conduct the soul over the flood of these waters 
and prevent its foundering on its voyage. They are therefore nasatya, lords of 
the movement, leaders of the journey or voyage.  
  They help man with the Truth which comes to them especially by association 
with the Dawn, with Surya, lord of the Truth, and with Surya, his daughter, but 
they help him more characteristically  with the delight of being. They are lords of 
bliss, Subhaspati ; their car or movement is loaded with the satisfactions of the 
delight of being in all its planes, they bear the skin full of the overflowing honey; 
they seek the honey, the sweetness, and fil l all things with it. They are therefore 
effective powers of the Ananda which proceeds out of the Truth -Consciousness 
and which manifesting itself variously in all the three worlds maintains man in his 
journey. Hence their action is in all the worlds. They  are especially riders or 
drivers of the Horse, Ashvins, as their name indicates, - they use the vitality of 
the human being as the motive -force of the journey: but also they work in the 
thought and lead it to the Truth. They give health, beauty, wholeness  to the 
body; they are the divine physicians. Of all the gods they are the most ready to 
come to man and to create for him ease and joy, agamistha, subhaspati . For this 
is their peculiar and perfect function. They are essentially lords of weal, of bliss, 
subhaspati .  
This character of the Ashvins is brought out with a continual emphasis by 
Vamadeva in the present hymn. In almost every verse occurs with a constant 
iteration the words madhu, madhuman , honey, honied. It is a hymn to the 
sweetness of existence; it is a cha nt of the delight of being. The great Light of 
lights, the Sun of Truth, the illumination of the Truth -Consciousness is rising up 
out of the movement of life to create the illumined Mind, Swar, which completes 
the evolution of the lower triple world. Esa sya bhanur udiyarti.  By this rising of 
Sun in man, the full movement of the Ashvins becomes possible; for by the Truth 
comes the realised Delight, the heavenly beatitude. Therefore, the chariot of the 
Ashvins is being yoked upon the height of this Dyau, the  high level or plane of 
the resplendent mind. That chariot is all -pervading; its motion goes everywhere; 
its speed runs freely on all planes of our consciousness. Yujyate rathah parijma 
divo asya sanavi .  
The full all -pervading movement of the Ashvins brin gs with it the fullness of all

SAKSIVC   Page 129 of 167 the possible satisfactions of the delight of being. This is expressed symbolically in 
the language of the Veda by saying that in their car are found the satisfactions, 
prksasah , in three pairs, prksaso asmin mithuna adhi tray ah. The word prksa , is 
rendered food in the ritual interpretation like the kindred word prayas . The root 
means pleasure, fullness, satisfaction, and may have the material sense of a 
"delicacy" or satisfying food and the psychological sense of a delight, pl easure or 
satisfaction. The satisfactions or delicacies which are carried in the car of the 
Ashvins are, then, in three pairs; or the phrase may simply mean, they are three 
but closely associated together. In any case, the reference is to the three kinds 
of satisfaction or pleasure which correspond to the three movements or worlds of 
our progressive consciousness, - satisfactions of the body, satisfactions of 
vitality, satisfactions of the mind. If they are in three pairs, then we must 
understand that on ea ch plane there is a double action of the delight 
corresponding to the double and united twinhood of the Ashvins. It is difficult in 
the Veda itself to distinguish between these brilliant and happy Twins or to 
discover what each severally represents. We hav e no such indication as is given 
us in the case of the three Ribhus. But perhaps the Greek names of these two 
Dioskouroi, divo napata , sons of Heaven, contain a clue. Kastor, the name of the 
elder, seems to be Kashitri, the Shining One; Poludeukes may poss ibly be 
Purudansas, a name which occurs in the Veda as an epithet of the Ashvins, the 
Manifold in activity. If so, the twin birth of the Ashvins recalls the constant Vedic 
dualism of Power and Light, Knowledge and Will, Consciousness and Energy, go, 
and ashva. In all the satisfactions brought to us by the Ashvins these two 
elements are inseparably united; where the form is that of the Light or 
Consciousness, there Power and Energy are contained; where the form is that of 
the Power or Energy, there Light and  Consciousness are contained.  
But these three forms of satisfaction are not all that their chariot holds for us; 
there is something else, a fourth, a skin full of honey and out of this skin the 
honey breaks and overflows on every side. drtis turiyo madhuno vi rapsate . 
Mind, life and body, these are three; turiya , the fourth plane of our 
consciousness, is the superconscient, the Truth -Consciousness. The Ashvins 
bring with them a skin, drti, literally a thing cut or torn, a partial formati on out of 
the Truth -Consciousness to contain the honey of the superconscient Beatitude; 
but it cannot contain it; that unconquerably abundant and infinite sweetness 
breaks out and overflows everywhere drenching with delight the whole of our 
existence.  
With that honey the three pairs of satisfactions, mental, vital, bodily, are 
impregnated by this all -pervasive overflowing plenty and they become full of its 
sweetness, madhumanta h. And so becoming, at once they begin to move 
upward. Touched by the divine delight all our satisfactions in this lower world 
soar upward irresistibly attracted towards the superconscient, towards the Truth, 
towards the Beatitude. And with them,  for, secretly or openly, consciously or

SAKSIVC   Page 130 of 167 subconsciously it is the delight of being that is the leader of our activities, -all   
the chariots and horses of these gods take the same soaring upward movement. 
All the various movements of our being, all the for ms of Force that give them 
their impulsion, all follow the ascending light of Truth towards its home. ud vam 
prksaso madhumanta irate, ratha asvasa usaso vyustisu.  
 “In the wide -shinings of the Dawn” they rise; for Dawn is the illumination of the 
Truth ris ing upon the mentality to bring the day of full consciousness into the 
darkness or half -lit night of our being. She comes as Dakshina, the pure intuitive 
discernment on which Agni the God -force in us feeds when he aspires towards 
the Truth or as Sarama, th e discovering intuition, who penetrates into the cave 
of the subconscient where the niggard lords of sense -action have hidden the 
radiant herds of the Sun and gives information to Indra. Then comes the lord of 
luminous Mind and breaks open the cave and dri ves upward the herds, udajat , 
upwards towards the vast Truth -Consciousness, the own home of the gods. Our 
conscious existence is a hill ( adri) with many successive levels and elevations, 
sanuni , the cave of the subconscient is below; we climb upwards towar ds the 
godhead of the Truth and Bliss where are the seats of Immortality, yatramrtasa 
asate. 
By this upward movement of the chariot of the Ashvins with its burden of 
uplifted and transformed satisfactions the veil of Night that encompasses the 
worlds of be ing in us is rolled away. All these worlds, mind, life, body, are 
opened to the rays of the Sun of Truth. This lower world in us, rajas, is extended 
and shaped by this ascending movement of all its powers and satisfactions into 
the very brightness of the l uminous intuitive mind, Swar, which receives directly 
the higher Light. The mind, the act, the vital, emotional, substantial existence, all 
becomes full of the glory and the intuition, the power and the light of the divine 
Sun, - tat savitur varenyam bharg o devasya . The lower mental existence is 
transformed into an image and reflection of the higher Divine. apornuvantas 
tama a parivrtam, svar na sukram tanvanta a rajah.  
This verse closes the general description of the perfect and final movement of 
the Ashvi ns. In the third the Rishi Vamadeva turns to his own ascension, his own 
offering of the Soma, his voyage and sacrifice; he claims for it their beatific and 
glorifying action. The mouths of the Ashvins are made to drink of the sweetness; 
in his sacrifice, t hen, let them drink of it. madhvah pibatam madhupebhir 
dsabhih . Let them yoke their chariot for the honey, their chariot beloved of men; 
uta priyam madhune yunjathamh ratham . For man's movement, his progressive 
activity, is made by them glad in all its pat hs with that very honey and sweetness 
of the Ananda. A vartanim madhuna jinvathas pathah . For they bear the skin full 
and overflowing with its honey . drtim vahethe madbumantam asvina. By the 
action of the Ashvins man's progress towards the beatitude become s itself 
beatific; all his travail and struggle and labour grows full of a divine delight. As it

SAKSIVC   Page 131 of 167 is said in the Veda that by Truth is the progress towards the Truth, that is to say, 
by the growing law of the Truth in the mental and physical consciousness w e 
arrive finally beyond mind and body to the superconscient Truth, so here it is 
indicated that by Ananda is the progress towards the Ananda, -by a divine 
delight growing in all our members, in all our activities we arrive at the 
superconscious beatitude.  
In the upward movement the horses that draw the chariot of the Ashvins change 
into birds, into swans,  hamsasah . The Bird in the Veda is the symbol, very 
frequently, of the soul liberated and upsoaring, at other times of energies so 
liberated and upsoaring,  winging upwards towards the heights of our being, 
winging widely with a free flight, no longer involved in the ordinary limited 
movement or labouring gallop of the Life -energy, the Horse, asva. Such are the 
energies that draw the free car of the Lords of Delight, when there dawns on us 
the Sun of the Truth. These winged movements are full of the honey showered 
from the overflowing skin, madhumanta h. They are unassailable, asridhah , they 
come to no hurt in their flight; or, the sense may be, they make no fa lse or 
hurtful movement. And they are golden -winged, hiranyaparna h. Gold is the 
symbolic colour of the light of Surya. The wings of these energies are the full, 
satisfied, attaining movement, parna , of his luminous knowledge.  
For these are the birds that a wake with Dawn; these are the winged energies 
that come forth from their nests when the feet of the daughter of Heaven press 
the levels of our human mentality, divo asya sanavi . Such are the swans that 
bear the swift -riding Twins. hamsaso ye vam madbumanto  asridho hiranyaparna 
uhuva usarbudhah.   
Full of the honey these winged energies shower on us as they rise the 
abundance of the waters of heaven, the full outpouring of the high mental 
consciousness; they are instinct with ecstasy, with rapture, with the i ntoxication 
of the immortal wine; and they touch, they come into conscious contact with that 
superconscient being which is eternally in possession of the ecstasy, rapturous 
for ever with its divine intoxication. udapruto mandino mandinisprsa h. Drawn by 
them the Lords of delight come to the rishi's Soma -offering like bees to tricklings 
of honey; madhvo na maksah savanani gacchathah . Makers themselves of the 
sweetness, they like the bees seek whatever sweetness can serve them as their 
material for more deligh t. 
In the sacrifice the same movement of general illumination already described as 
the result of the ascending flight of the Ashvins is now described as being 
effected by the aid of the fires of Agni. For the flames of the Will, the divine 
Force burning up  in the soul, are also drenched with the overflowing sweetness 
and therefore they perform perfectly from day to day their great office of leading 
the sacrifice progressively to its goal. For that progress they woo with their

SAKSIVC   Page 132 of 167 flaming tongues the daily visit ation of the brilliant Ashvins who are bright with 
the light of the intuitive illuminations and uphold them with their thought of 
flashing energy. svadhvarso madhumanto agnaya usra jarante prati vastor 
asvina.  
This aspiration of Agni happens when the Sacri ficer with pure hands, with a 
perfectly discerning vision, with power in his soul to travel to the end of its 
pilgrimage, to the goal of the sacrifice through all obstacles, breaking all 
opposers, has pressed out the immortalising wine with the pressing -stones and 
that too becomes full of the honey of the Ashvins . yan niktahastas taranir 
vicaksanah, somam susava madhumantam adribhi h. For the individual's delight 
in things is met by the Ashvins' triple satisfactions and by the fourth, the delight 
pouring fro m the Truth. The cleansed hands of the Sacrificer, niktahasta h, are 
possibly symbolic of the purified physical being; the power comes from a fulfilled 
life-energy; the force of clear mental vision, vicaksana , is the sign of the truth -
illumined mind. These are the conditions in mind, life and body for the 
overflowing of the honey over the triple satisfactions of the Ashvins.  
When the sacrificer has thus pressed out the honey -filled delight of things in his 
sacrifice, the flames of the Will are able to drink  them from near, they are not 
compelled to bring them meagrely or with pain from a distant and hardly 
accessible plane of consciousness. Therefore, drinking immediately and freely, 
they become full of an exultant force and swiftness and run and race about over 
the whole field of our being to extend and build up the lower consciousness into 
the shining image of the world of free and luminous Mind. akenipaso ahabhir 
davidhvatah, svar na sukram tanvanta a rajah . The formula used is repeated 
without variations from the second Rik; but here it is the flames of the Will full of 
the fourfold satisfaction that do the work. There the free upsoaring of the gods 
by the mere touch of the Light and without effort; here the firm labour and 
aspiration of man in his sacrifi ce. For then it is by Time, by the day, that the 
work is perfected, ahabhih , by successive dawns of the Truth each with its 
victory over the night, by the unbroken succession of the sisters of which we 
have had mention in the hymn to the divine Dawn. Man c annot seize or hold at 
once all that the illumination brings to him; it has to be repeated constantly so 
that he may grow in the light.  
But not only the fires of the Will are at work to transform the lower 
consciousness. The Sun of Truth yokes also his lu strous coursers and is in 
movement; surascid asvan yuyujana iyate . The Ashvins too take knowledge for 
the human consciousness of all the paths of its progress so that it may effect a 
complete, harmonious and many -sided movement. This movement advancing in 
many paths is combined in the light of the divine knowledge by the spontaneous 
self-arranging action of Nature which she assumes when the will and the 
knowledge are wedded in the perfect harmony of a fully self -conscious,

SAKSIVC   Page 133 of 167 intuitively guided action. Visvan anu svadhaya cetathas pathah.  
Vamadeva closes his hymn. He has been able to hold firmly the shining Thought 
with its high illumination and has expressed in himself by the shaping and fixing 
power of the Word the chariot, that is to say, the immortal moveme nt of the 
delight of the Ashvins; the movement of a bliss that does not fade or grow old or 
exhaust itself, - it is ageless and undecaying, ajarah, - because it is drawn by 
perfect and liberated energies and not by the limited and soon exhausted, soon 
recalcitrant horses of the human vitality. pra vam avocam asvina dhiyamhdhah, 
rathah svasvo ajaro yo  asti. In this movement they traverse in a moment all the 
worlds of the lower consciousness, covering it with their speeding delight, and so 
arrive to that univ ersal enjoyment in man full of his offering of the Soma -wine by 
which they can lead him, puissantly entering into it, through all opposers and to 
the great goal. yena sadyah pari rajamsi yatho havismantam taranim bhojam 
accha . 
  
SAKSIVC   Page 134 of 167 Ganapati  
 
 Ganapati  
 Brhaspati  
  
Gods of the mantra   
The two deities are closely connected to each other. The Rigveda contains fourteen hymns ded
to Brhaspati and Brahmanaspati. Each is mentioned in the hymn to the other. They are mentioned in 
other riks also. In all there are over one hundred riks dealing with these two deities. These riks
clear picture of their powers and personaliti es without resorting to puranas  or other books.  
The name Brahmanaspati literally means the lord of brahmanas.  What are these brahmanas
word brahman  or brahmana  occurs more than a hundred times in the Rigveda . In only one place, the 
purusha sukta  occurring in the tenth mandala,  a relatively late composition, does brahmana  signify the 
ideal caste. In all other places, brahmana  has nothing to do with caste. Again brahman  of the Rigveda 
has nothing to do with the brahman parabrahman  of the upanishads , the highest principle of 
Existence. Rigveda uses the word "tad ekam" , "That one," to signify the parabrahman  or "The one 
without a second" of the upanishads .  
Again, the word brahma  or brahman should not be confused with the puranic  God Brahma, the 
creator, p art of the puranic trinity of Brahma, Vish nu and Shiva. Brhaspati of the Rigveda has no 
connection either to the Brhaspati of puranas  where he is the teacher of the Gods or to the plant 
Jupiter whose Sanskrit name is Brhaspati.  
A word about the connection between th e vedic Gods and puranic  Gods is appropriate here. In the 
veda, all the Gods are pure and harmonious with no qualities like competition and others of the vital 
human nature. Each vedic God has a distinct power and personality, but he or she carries also th
presence of the Supreme, "That one." All the vedic Gods harmoniously work together in divinizing the 
individual person by being born in him. When the age of the vedic  samhita  came to an end, several 
centuries later the upanishad ic period started to captu re the truths of the vedic  period. At a much later 
period, the puranas  started to state the esoteric truths of the veda  a language accessible to the so
called common man or woman. However, in this attempt the qualities of the vedic Gods were mixed 
up with the qualities of some other lower vital Gods. Thus in the puran as, the various Gods work 
together sometimes, but also quarrel with one another. The concept of Brahma as the creator in the 
purana  is clearly derived from the Brahmanaspati/Brhaspati of the veda where they are the creators 
through the power of the Word. T he elephant -faced tantrik  God Ganapatii clearly captures some 
aspects of the vedic God Brahmanaspati. Ganapati is invoked by a vedic  rik associated with the 
Brahmanaspati. The elephant -face appears like the written letter om, the primal word, the source of
all creation. The word Ganapati means the lord of ganas or hosts. In the purana,  the hosts ( ganas
the beings of the vital world. But in the Rigveda , the ganas  or hosts of Brhaspati/Brahmanaspati are 
stated to be the chants, the riks and the stomas,  the words of praise (RV. 4.50). In the Rigveda

SAKSIVC   Page 135 of 167 Brahmanaspati/Brhaspati is a God of a very high plane and has little to do with the lower vital levels. 
According to Sri Aurobindo, " brahman  in the veda  signifies the vedic Word or mantra in its profound 
aspect as the expression of the intuition arising out of the depths of the soul or being. It is a voice of 
the rhythm which has created the worlds and creates perpetually. To give a simplified picture, we can 
speak of creation at two levels, namely the cosmic level and the individual level. Although the infinite 
consciousness designated in the Rigveda by the phrase ekam sat  - That one (1.164.46) (or 
Satchidananda in the upanishads) upholds the universe from the superconscious levels (signified in the 
R.V. by th e phrase "parama paravat"  in RV. 4.50), it enters the inconscient and works to release the 
concealed truths of existence from the inconscient waters (signified by the phrase " apraketam salilam,
RV. 10.129) and lead them upwards in manifestation. brahman in the Rigveda also signifies the 
propelling consciousness which creates the different planes and worlds at the cosmic level. Next 
creation is perpetually happening in every one of us, humans and the different planes are being born 
in us, signified by the bi rth of the corresponding Gods in each person and this creation is also the 
office of the Supreme Word. Of this supreme word, fashioning the worlds in the individual beings, 
Brhaspati or Brahmanaspati is the master. Brahmanaspati means the master of the wor d. The word 
Brhaspati, according to grammarians, is formed from the "brhat"  the vast and "pati,"  the Master. 
"brhat"  the vast, part of the trinity of satyam, rtam  and brhat (the Truth, the Right and the Vast) is 
the home of the mantras. Hence Brhaspati als o means the master of the Word or mantra . There is a 
slight distinction between the two deities into which we will not dwell here. The two deities are 
intimately connected to each other, the name of one comes often in the hymn dedicated to the other. 
We w ill begin our description of the powers, glories and deeds of the great God Brahmanaspati with 
the rik of the Seer Grithsamada. This rik is widely used even today in worship and it also occurs in 
shiva purana  and other puranas.  gananam tva ganapatim havama he kavim kavinam 
upamashravastamam, jyeshta r ajam brahmanam Brahmanaspatim na shrnvantu uthibihi
sadanam.  We call thee, Brahmanaspati Lord and leader of heavenly hosts Seer among seers, leads to 
inspired knowledge King Supreme of mantras  Hear us with  guidance; may you take your seat in the 
home. ''RV(2.23.1)". kavi in vedic Sanskrit means a seer, one endowed with the vision of higher levels 
of existence. In classical Sanskrit kavi means a poet. As Sri Aurobindo says elsewhere, poetry raised to 
its hig hest pitch is mantra to which the seer gives utterance.  
This deity is addressed as Ganapati, the leader of the heavenly hosts. In later puranas  and in present 
times, the deity Ganapati is the elephant -headed one, son of Shiva and Parvati, patron of studies and 
art, scribe of the epic mahabharata,  etc. Who are t hese hosts? In shiva purana,  these hosts or 
are gnomes and other beings of the lower vital worlds. However, there is no need to bring in such 
descriptions in the veda  because puranas came several millennium after the Rigveda and the puranas 
express t he truths of Rigveda , diluted as it were so that they are easily accessible to the common 
person.  
But the Rigveda itself describes the gana or hosts in RV(4.50.5) They are the mantras .  
sa sushtubha sa rikvata ganena.  "He with his cohort of rhythm that af firms, of the chant that 
illumines...". The hosts or ganas  are the riks and stubhs.  As Sri Aurobindo says, "rik, connected with

SAKSIVC   Page 136 of 167 the work arka which means light or illumination, is the Word considered as a power of realization in 
the illuminating consciousn ess; stubh  is the Word considered as a power which affirms and confirms in 
the settled rhythm of things. It is by the powers of the Word, by the rhythmic army of soul -forces that 
Brhaspati brings all into expression and dispels all the darknesses that enco mpass us makes an end of 
the Night" (p. 310). The deity gives us guidance ( uthibi h) continuously.  
Brahmanaspati's role as a creator, alluded earlier, is brought out vividly in the following 
10.72.2). The Seer sees the deity as a blacksmith who, u sing the fire and the forge, shapes the metal 
into desired objects. Brahmanaspatireta sam karmara evadhamat devanam purve yuge asata 
sadajayata  (10.72.2) Brahmanaspati like a smith fashioned them into a perfect shape, And in the 
primal age of devas  from no nexistence existence sprang translation from Bose, p. 267. Brahmanaspati 
is stationed within many as if asleep. In the hymn RV. 1.40, there is a prayer for this deity to awake 
and lead. By the power of his Word, the happy speech of Truth, the Maruts, Indra , Mitra, Varuna and 
other gods take their position within the man. uttishta brahma naspate devayantastvemahe, upa pra 
yantu maruta h sud anava Indra  prashurbhava sacha  RV(1.40.1). Rise up, Brahmanaspati; Aspiring for 
Gods, we beseech thee, May Maruts with aus picious gifts arrive O Indra, come swiftly with him. There 
are several riks attesting to the power of Brahmanaspati in leading the aspirant on the divine path and 
removing all the obstacles in the path. It is this aspect which was later expanded in the rol e of the 
tantric  God, the elephant -faced Ganapati as Vijnaraja,  king and remover of obstacles. The obstacles 
are the forces and beings of the vital planes and worlds who do not want the progress of man toward 
Light. We will quote one such rik here tvam no gopah pathik rt vichakshanastava vrataya 
mathibhirjaramahe brhaspate yo no abhi hvaro dadhe sva tam marmartu duchhuna harasvati
2.23.6 Thou are our keeper, wise, prepare of our paths, We pray to thee with the hymn of praise. 
Brhaspati, whoever lays a sn are for us, Him may his evil fate, destroy (Griffith's translation).  
The obstacles in the path of each one of us is caused by the forces and beings of darkness which are 
housed in the inconscient regions of each one of us. Their presence becomes evident on ly when some 
of their effects, like intense anger, sickness, depression, etc., bubble up, as it were, from the 
inconscient regions and make their appearance to the surface consciousness. We should clearly 
understand that these forces are not abstract conce ptions, but concrete beings with distance powers 
and personalities visible to persons with occult vision. These individual evil forces residing in us are 
only projections of the broader and more powerful cosmic forces and powers of evil and darkness, 
called as Asuras or Dasyus or demons. The name asura  is derived from the root as, denoting might. 
These bings, as their name indicates, are full of might. The vedic seers looked upon life as a 
continuous battle between the forces of light represented by the devas or Gods and the forces of 
darkness, represented by the Asuras or Dasyus or demons. The prize in this battle is the souls of 
human being on earth. In the Rigveda several Dasyus such as Vala, Vrtra, Panis, etc., are specifically 
mentioned and their names clearly indicate their function. The chief of Dasyus is Vala, whose name 
signifies circumscriber or "encloser." Vila means a cave. Vala, along with his followers, confines the 
cows, the horses and waters in the cave. The cave is nothing but the universal i nconscient. The cows 
(or go in Sanskrit) are not the four -footed animals but stand for the rays of knowledge. The word go

(or go in Sanskrit) are not the four -footed animals but stand for the rays of knowledge. The word go 
(or cow) occurs in the Rigveda in numerous places (more than a thousand) and its interpretation as a 
four-footed animal can be sustain ed only in a minority of cases, probably less than a quarter. Cows in 
the veda stand for the rays of Light, knowledge and wisdom. Similarly the horse (or ashva ) stands for

SAKSIVC   Page 137 of 167 the vital forces open to the light and knowledge. Waters always stand for the powers
consciousness. Vala confines these powers into the cave. Another prominent Dasyu is Vrtra which 
means obstructer or enfolding coverer. The Dasyus who steal the cows and horses are called as Panis 
which means dealers, traffickers, misers or hoarders. Th ey want to hoard the knowledge and strength 
and not allow for their circulation. The veda  speaks of the battle between the Gods led by Indra and 
the Dasyus. Rigveda mentions that the Indra smashes the Adri, the hill of conscient (where the cave 
and horses have been hidden) by means of his vajra,  the thunderbolt and releases the cows and the 
currents of divine consciousness confined in the cave. The Rigveda mentions again and again that this 
vajra is not a physical weapon. It is fashioned by the mantra. We h ave to reiterate that devas
Indra or Agni are not physical persons, as the western orientalists are wont to do. The battle is not a 
physical one, but psychological and psychical. The victory over the Dasyus is the common victory of all 
the devas.  For instance, RV. 1.11.5 s ays "O Lord of the thunderbolt, thou didst uncover the hole of 
Vala of the cows; the devas,  unfearing, entered putting their face into thee." Consequently in different 
riks we find different devas  like Agni, Brhaspati, Maruts, being praised for the victory . For instance, in 
the hymn RV. 5.2, Agni is praised in the recovery of the cows.  
Brhaspati (Brahmanaspati) is more frequently the hero of this victory. The hymns clearly state that the 
Brhaspati slays the foe by the hymns of illumination, as quoted below . Brhaspati, Angirasa, the hill
breaker, first -born, possessed of the truth, the giver of oblation, pervader of the two -worlds, dweller in 
the heat and light of the sun, Roars aloud as the bull to the two firmaments. (RV 6.73.1) Brhaspati 
who for the man t he voyager has fashioned that other world in the calling of the Gods Slaying the 
Vrtra-forces breaks open the cities, Conquering foes in his battles (RV 6.73.2). Brhaspati conquers for 
him the treasures, great pens this god wins full of knie. Seeking the c onquest of the world of 
unassailable; Brhaspati slays the foe by the hymns of illumination ( arkaih ) (RV 6.73.3).  
This hymn clearly brings out the help given by Brhaspati both at the individual level and cosmic level. 
He is the hill -breaker, the break er of the hill of the inconscient where the cows have been imprisoned. 
He breaks the hill by his mantras . He gives the treasures to the devotee who recites the hymns. 
When Brhaspati breaks the hill with his cry, he releases the imprisoned streams of honey , the 
the Soma sweetness (RV 2.24.3). This secret well of honey is drunk by all those who are able to see 
the highest heaven svar (covered earlier) and they pour out its billowing fountain of sweetness in 
manifold streams together (RV. 2.24.4). Thes e many streams poured out together are the seven rivers 
poured down the hill by Indra after slaying of the Vrtra, the rivers or streams of truth. Thus the seven 
rivers are not the physical rivers of Punjab, but the seven headed though of veda .  
Sri Aurobin do says that this well of honey covered by the rock must be the ananda  or divine beatitude 
of the Supreme threefold world of bliss, the satya, tapas  and jana of the worlds of the puranic 
based upon the three supreme principles of sat, chit -tapas  and ananda . (RV 5.40) Brhaspati.  
We will give here Sri Aurobindo's translation of the 50th hymn from the first mandala  of Rigveda 
(4.50) since it gives not only all the dominant powers and characteristics of the deity Brhaspati 
(Brahmanaspati), but also the b enefits of adoring Brhaspati. Brhaspati, by his cry, has established in 
his might the extremities of the earth, in the triple world of our fulfillment. On him the pristine sages

SAKSIVC   Page 138 of 167 meditated, and illumined, 'set him in their front with his tongue of ecstasy. (1)' O Brhaspati, they 
vibrating with the impulse of their movement rejoicing in perfected consciousness, wove for us 
abundant, rapid, invincible, wide, the world from which this being was born. 'That do thou protect, O 
Brhaspati.(2)' O Brhaspati, that whi ch is the highest supreme of existence, Thither from this world 
they attain and take their seat who touch the truth. For thee are dug wells of honey which drains this 
hill 'And their sweetnesses stream out on every side and break into overflowing. (3)' Brh aspati first in 
his birth from the vast light in the highest place with his seven fronts, with his seven rays, with his 
many births, drives utterly away the darkness 'that encompasses us with his cry. (4)' He with his 
cohort of rhythm that affirms, of the chant that illumines, Has broken Vala into pieces with his cry. 
Brhaspati drives upward the Bright ones who speed our offerings, 'he shouts as he leads them, lowing 
they reply. (5)' Thus to the Father, the universal Godhead, the Bull of the herds, May we d ispose our 
sacrifices and submissions and oblations, O Brhaspati, full of energy and rich in offspring, 'may we 
become masters of the felicities. (6)' Verily is he King and conquers by his energy, by his heroic force 
all that is in the worlds that confront  him, who bears Brhaspati in him well contained and has the 
exultant dance and adores 'and gives him the first fruits of his enjoyment. (7)' Yea, he dwells firmly 
seated in his proper home and for him, Ila at all times grows in richness. To him all creatur
themselves submit, the King, he is whom the soul -power goes in front. Ila: seeing speech. None can 
assail him, he conquers utterly all the riches of the worlds which confront him and the world in which 
he dwells; he who for the Soul -Power that seeks it manifestation. 'creates in himself that highest 
good, cherished by the gods. (9)' Thou, O Brhaspati, and Indra, drink the Soma -wine rejoicing in this 
sacrifice, lavishing substance. Let the powers of its Delight enter into you 'And take perfect form, 
control in us a felicity full of energy. (10)' O Brhaspati, O Indra, increase in us together And may that 
your perfection be created in us; foster the thoughts, bring out the mind's multiple powers 'Destroy all 
poverties that they bring who seek to conquer t he Aryan.  (11)' In rik 1, it is clearly said Brhaspati has 
firmly established the limits of the earth, i.e., the material consciousness. This he does by his cry, 
ravena,  for the Word is the cry of the soul as it awakens to ever new perceptions and formatio
meditating on Brhaspati, the seven sages became illumined and became full of the joy of perfected 
consciousness. They have woven for the human race the truth -consciousness which is the womb of 
the birthplace of the conscious being. The nature of thi s truth -consciousness is its abundance in its out 
flowings; it is many colored in the variety of its harmonized qualities; it is rapid in its motion; it 
triumphs over all that seek to quell it; it is wide, infinite ( rik 2).  
In the hill of the physical bei ng there are dug for the soul these abounding wells of sweetness which 
draw out of its hard rigidity, the concealed ananda,  the associated rivers of the honey of immortality 
cover the whole extent of human consciousness ( rik 3).  
Thus Brhaspati becoming manifest in man presents himself in the full sevenfold aspect of our 
consciousness (seven rays) and with his triumphant cry dispels all powers of the inconscient, the Night 
(rik 4).  
Brhaspati breaks the cave of the demon Vala into fragments by the power of the Word, by the mantra 
powers, by his cry so that all imprisoned lustres are released. The demon Vala holds the light in 
himself (literally in his cave) and denies its manifestation. After breaking the cave, Brhaspati calls to

himself (literally in his cave) and denies its manifestation. After breaking the cave, Brhaspati calls to 
these hidden lights with the voice of superconscient knowledge, they follow him with the response of

SAKSIVC   Page 139 of 167 conscious intuition. We climb to the highest levels of consciousness by means of these lights which is 
established in us by Brhaspati ( rik 5).  
This self -expressive Soul, Brhaspati is the supreme Divinity, the father of all things; to this deity we 
offer all the materials of our being by sacrificial action. By the grace of this Godhead, we shall become 
full of heroic energy for the battle of life, masters of t he felicities which are attained by divine 
enlightenment and right action ( rik 6).  
The person who bears in himself and able to bear firmly this conscious soul -power of Brhaspati 
masters all that comes to him in all worlds in the progress of his being. He becomes the ruler of his 
environment. This person adores the Godhead Brhaspati always giving it the first fruits of enjoyments 
(rik 7).  
Ila, the seeing word, the goddess of the direct revealing vision in knowledge grow in him. All creatures 
submit to the Truth in him because they see in him the Truth of themselves ( rik 8).  
The creature Soul, the brahma,  seeks to manifest and increase himself in the royalty of the human 
nature. He who attains to that royalty of light and power finds himself cherished and f ostered by all 
the divine powers. Nothing can assail or affect his progress ( rik 9).  
Indra, the divine mental power and Brhaspati, the soul power, are the two divine powers whose 
fullness in us are the conditions of our perfection. May they create in us the perfection of the mind 
and bring out the mind's multiple powers. The powers that at tack the aspirant create in his 
weaknesses, the poverties of mind and the poverties of the emotive nature. Soul -force (Brhaspati) and 
mental -force (Indra) destroy all such forces of poverty and bring man to his perfect Kinghood (
and 11).  
  
Brhaspa ti (RV 4.50)   
1.    He who established in his might the extremities of the earth, Brhaspati, in the triple world of our 
fulfilment, by his cry, on him the pristine sages meditated and illumined, set him in their front with his 
tongue of ecstasy.  
2.    They , O Brhaspati, vibrating with the impulse of their movement, rejoicing in perfected 
consciousness wove for us abundant, rapid, invincible, wide the world from which this being was born. 
That do thou   protect, O Brhaspati.        
3.    O Brhaspati, that whic h is the highest supreme of existence, thither from this world they attain 
and take their seat who touch the Truth.   For thee are dug the wells of honey which drain this hill and 
their sweetnesses stream out on every side and break into overflowing.  
4.    Brhaspati first in his birth from the vast light, in the highest heavenly space, with his seven fronts,

SAKSIVC   Page 140 of 167 with his seven rays, with his many births, drives utterly away the darknesses that encompass us with 
his cry.  
5.    He with his cohort of the rhythm tha t affirms, of the chant that illumines, has broken Vala into 
pieces with his cry.   Brhaspati drives upward the Bright Ones who speed our offerings; he shouts 
aloud as he leads them, lowing they reply.  
6.    Thus to the Father, the universal Godhead, the Bu ll of the herds, may we dispose our sacrifices 
and submission and oblation; O Brhaspati, full of energy and rich in offspring, may we become 
masters of the felicities.  
7.    Verily is he King and conquers by his energy, by his heroic force all that is in h e worlds that 
confront him, who bears Brhaspati in him well -contained and has the exultant dance and adores and 
gives him the first fruits of his enjoyment.  
8.    Yea, he dwells firmly seated in his proper home and for him Ila at all times grows in richne
him all creatures of themselves submit, the King, he in whom the Soul -Power goes in front.  
9.    None can assail him, he conquers utterly all the riches of the worlds which confront him and the 
world in which he dwells; he who for the Soul -Power th at seeks its manifestation creates in himself 
that highest good, is cherished by the gods.  
10.  Thou, O Brhaspati, and Indra, drink the Soma -wine rejoicing in this sacrifice, lavishing substance.
Let the powers of its delight enter into you and take perfect form, control in us a felicity full of every 
energy.    
11.  O Brhaspati, O Indra, increa se in us together and may that your perfection of mind be created in 
us; foster the thoughts, bring out the mind’s multiple powers; destroy all poverties that they bring who 
seek to conquer the Aryan.      
  
Brhaspati, Brahmanaspati, Brahma are t he three names of the god to whom the rishi V amadeva 
addresses this mystic hymn of praise. In the later puranic theogonies Brhaspati and Brahma have long 
become separate deities. Brahma is the Creator, one of the Three who form the great puranic Trinity; 
Brhaspati is a figure of no great importance, spiritual teacher of the gods and incidentally guardian of 
the planet Jupiter; Brahmanaspati, the middle term which once linked the two, has disappeared. To 
restore the physiognomy of the Vedic deity we have to reunite what has been disjoined and correct 
the values of the two separated terms in the light of the original Vedic conceptions.  
Brahman  in the Veda signifies ordinarily the Vedic Word or Mantra in its profoundest aspect as the 
expression of the intuition  arising out of the depths of the soul or being. It is a voice of the rhythm

SAKSIVC   Page 141 of 167 which has created the worlds and creates perpetually. All world is expression or manifestation, 
creation by the Word. Conscious Being luminously manifesting its contents in itself , of itself, atman
the super -conscient; holding its contents obscurely in itself it is the subconscient. The higher, the self
luminous descends into the obscure, into the night, into darkness concealed in darkness, 
tamasa gulham , where all is hid den in formless being owing to fragmentation of consciousness, 
tucchyenabhvapihitam . It arises again out of the Night by the Word to reconstitute in the conscient its 
vast unity, tan mahinajayataikam . This vast Being, this all -containing and all -formulatin
consciousness is Brahman. It is the Soul that emerges out of the subconscient in Man and rises 
towards the superconscient. And the word of creative Power welling upward out of the soul is also 
brahman .  
      The Divine, the Deva, manifests itself as con scious Power of the soul, creates the worlds by the 
Word out of the waters of the subconscient, apraketam salilam sarvam , - the inconscient ocean that 
was this all, as it is plainly termed in the great Hymn of Creation (10.129). This power of the Deva is 
Brahma, the stress in the name falling more upon the conscious soul -power than upon the Word which 
expresses it. The manifestation of the different world -planes in the conscient human being culminates 
in the manifestation of the superconscient, the Truth an d the Bliss, and this is the office of the 
supreme Word or Veda. Of this supreme Word Brhaspati is the master, the stress in this name failing 
upon the potency of the Word rather than upon the thought of the general soul -power which is behind 
it. Brhaspati  gives the Word of knowledge, the rhythm of expression of the superconscient, to the 
gods and especially to Indra, the lord of Mind, when they work in man as "Aryan" powers for the great 
consummation. It is easy to see how these conceptions came to be spec ialised in the broader, but less 
subtle and profound puranic symbolism into Brahma, the Creator, and Brhaspati, the teacher of the 
gods. In the name, Brahmanaspati, the two varying stresses are unified and equalised. It is the link
name between the general  and the special aspects of the same deity.  
Brhaspati is he who has established firmly the limits and definitions of the Earth, that is to say of the 
material consciousness. The existence out of which all formations are made is an obscure, fluid and 
indeterminate movement, - salilam , Water. The first necessity is to create a sufficiently stable 
formation out of this flux and running so as to form a basis for the life of the conscient. This Brhaspati 
does in the formation of the physical consciousness and i ts world, sahasa , by force, by a sort of 
mighty constraint upon the resistance of the subconscient. This great creation he effects by 
establishing the triple principle of mind, life and body, always present together and involved in each 
other or evolved ou t of each other in the world of the cosmic labour and fulfilment. The three together 
form the triple seat of Agni and there he works out the gradual work of accomplishment or perfection 
which is the object o f the sacrifice. Brhaspati forms by sound, by his cry, ravena , for the Word is the 
cry of the soul as it awakens to ever -new perceptions and formations. "He who established firmly by 
force the ends of the earth, Brhaspati in the triple seat of the fulfilme nt, by his cry."  
On him, it is said, the ancient or pristine rishis meditated; meditating, they became illumined in mind; 
illumined, they set him in front as the god of the ecstatic tongue, mandra -jihvam , the tongue that 
takes joy of   the intoxicating win e of Soma, mada, madhu , of that which is the wave of sweetness, 
madhuman urmih  (9.20.2), hidden in the conscient existence and out of it progressively delivered. But

SAKSIVC   Page 142 of 167 of whom is there question? The seven divine rishis, rsayo divya h, who fulfilling conscious ness in each 
of its seven principles and harmonising them together superintend the evolution of the world, or the 
human fathers, pitaro manusya h, who first discovered the higher knowledge and formulated for man 
the infinity of the Truth -Consciousness? Eith er may be intended, but the reference seems to be rather 
to the conquest of the Truth by the human fathers, the Ancients. The word didhyana h in the Veda 
means both shining, becoming luminous, and thinking, meditating, fixing in the thought. It is 
constantl y being used with the peculiar Vedic figure of a double or complex sense. In the first sense it 
must be connected with viprah, and the suggestion is that the rishis became more and more luminous 
in thought by the triumphant force of Brhaspati until they gr ew into Illuminates, viprah. In the second 
it is connected with dadhire  and suggests. that the rishis, meditating on the intuitions that rise up from 
the soul with the cry of Brhaspati in the sacred and enlightening Word, holding them firmly in the 
thought , became illuminated in mind, open to the full inflow of the superconscient. They were thus 
able to bring into the front of the conscious being that activity of the soul -thoughts which works 
usually in the background, veiled, and to make it the leading act ivity of their nature. As a result 
Brhaspati in them became able to taste for them the bliss of existence, the wine of Immortality, the 
supreme Ananda. The formation of the definite physical consciousness is the first step, this awakening 
to the Ananda by the bringing. forward in mind of the intuitive soul as the leader of our conscious 
activities is the consummation or, at least, the condition of the consummation.  
The result is the formation of the Truth -Consciousness in man. The ancient rishis attained to  the most 
rapid vibration of the movement; the most full and swift streaming of the flux of consciousness which 
constitutes our active existence, no longer obscure as in the subconscient, but full of the joy of 
perfected consciousness, - not apraketam  like the Ocean described in the Hymn of Creation, but 
supraketam . Thus they are described, dhunetaya h supraketam madantah . With this attainment of the 
full rapidity of the activities of consciousness unified with its full light and bliss in the human mentality 
they have woven for the race by the web of these rapid, luminous and joyous perception s the Truth
Consciousness, rtam brhat , which is the womb or birth -place of this conscient being. For it is out of 
the superconscient that existence descends into the subconscient and carries with it that which 
emerges here as the individual human being, th e conscious soul. The nature of this Truth
Consciousness is in itself this that it is abundant in its outflowings, prsantam , or, it may be, many
coloured in the variety of its harmonised qualities; it is rapid in its motion, srpram ; by that luminous 
rapidi ty it triumphs over all that seeks to quell or break it, it is adabdham ; above all it is wide, vast, 
infinite, urvam . In all these respects it is the opposite of the first limited movement which emerges out 
of the subconscient; for that is stinted and grey , slow and hampered, easily overcome and broken by 
the opposition of hostile powers, scanty and bounded in its scope. But this Truth -Consciousness 
manifested in man is capable of being again veiled from him by the insurgence of the powers that 
deny, the Vr itras, Vala. The rishi therefore prays to Brhaspati to guard it against that obscuration by 
the fullness of his soul -force.  
The Truth -Consciousness is the foundation of the superconscient, the nature of which is the Bliss. It is 
the supreme of the supraco nscient, parama paravat , from which the being has descended, the

the supreme of the supraco nscient, parama paravat , from which the being has descended, the 
parardha  of the Upanishads, the existence of Sachchidananda. It is to that highest existence that 
those arise out of this physical consciousness, atah, who like the ancient rishis enter into contact with

SAKSIVC   Page 143 of 167 the Truth -Consciousness. They make it their seat and home, ksaya, okas . For in the hill of the physical 
being there are dug for the soul those abounding wells of sweetness which draw out of its hard rigidity 
the concealed Ananda; at the  touch of the Truth the rivers of honey, the quick pourings of the wine of 
Immortality trickle and stream and break out into a   flood of abundance over the whole extent of the 
human consciousness.    
Thus Brhaspati, becoming manifest   first of the gods out of the vastness of that Light of Truth
Consciousness, in that highest heavenly space of the supreme superconscient, maho jyotisa h parame 
vyoman , presents himself in the full sevenfold aspect of our c onscious being, multiply born in all the 
forms of the interplay of its seven principles ranging from the material to the purest spiritual, luminous 
with their sevenfold ray which lights all our surfaces and all our profundities, and with his triumphant 
cry dispels and scatters all powers of the Night, all encroachments of the inconscient, all possible 
darknesses.  
It is by the powers of the Word, by the rhythmic army of the soul -forces that Brhaspati brings all into 
expression and dispelling all the darknesses that encompass us makes an end of the Night. These are 
the Brahmas of the Veda, charged with the word, the brahman , the mantra ; it is they in the sacrifice 
who raise heavenward the divine Rik, the stubh  or Stoma. Rik, connected with the Word arka
means light or illumination, is the Word considered as a power of realisation in the illuminating 
consciousnes s; stubh  is the Word considered as a power which affirms and confirms in the settled 
rhythm of things. That which ha s to be expressed is realised in consciousness, affirmed, finally 
confirmed by the power of the Word. The Brahmas or Brahmana forces are the priests of the Word, 
the creators by the divine rhythm. It is by their cry that Brhaspati breaks Vala into fragment s. 
As Vritra is the enemy, the Dasyu, who holds back the flow of the sevenfold waters of conscient 
existence, - Vrtra, the personification of the inconscient,   so Vala is the enemy, the Dasyu, who holds 
back in his hole, his cave, bilam, guha , the herds of  the Light; he is the personification of the 
subconscient. Vala is not himself dark or inconscient, but a cause of darkness.  
Rather his substance is of the light, valasya gomata h, valasya govapusah , but he holds the light in 
himself and denies its consciou s manifestation. He has to be broken into fragments in order that the 
hidden lustres may be liberated. Their escape is expressed by the emergence of the Bright Ones, the 
herds of the Dawn, from the cavern below in the physical hill and their driving upward  by Brhaspati to 
the heights of our being whither with them and by them we climb. He calls to them with the voice of 
the superconscient knowledge; they follow him with the response of the conscious intuition. They give 
in their course the impulsion to the activities which form the material of the sacrifice and constitute 
the offerings given to the gods and these also are carried upward till they reach the same divine goal.
This self -expressive Soul, Brhaspati, is the Purusha, the Father of all things; it is  the universal Divinity; 
it is the Bull of the herds, the Master and fertilizer of all these luminous energies evolved or involved, 
active in the day or obscurely working in the night of things, which constitute the becoming or world
existence, bhuvanam . To the Purusha under the name of Brhaspati the ri shi would have us dispose in 
the order of a sacrifice all the materials of our being by sacrificial action in which they are given up to

SAKSIVC   Page 144 of 167 the All -Soul as acceptable ablations offered with adoration and surren der. By the sacrifice we shall 
become through the grace of this godhead full of heroic energy for the battle of life, rich in the 
offspring of the soul, masters of the felicities which are attained by divine enlightenment and right 
action.  
For the soul's e nergy and overcoming force are perfected in the human being who bears in himself 
and is able to bear firmly this conscious Soul -Power brought forward as the leading agency in the 
nature, who arrives by it at a rapid and joyous movement of the inner activit ies as did the pristine 
sages, compasses that harmonious bound and gallop of the steed of Life within and adores always this 
godhead giving it the first fruits of results and enjoyments. By that energy he throws himself upon and 
masters all that comes to h im in the births, the worlds, the planes of consciousness that open upon his 
perception in the progress of the being. He becomes the king, the samrat , ruler of his world
environment.                
                                                                                                                                             
such a soul attains to a firmly settled existence in its own proper home, the Truth -Consciousness, the 
infinite totality, and for it at all times Ila, the highest Word, premier energy of the Truth
Consciousness, she who is the direct revealing vision in knowledge and becomes in that knowledge 
the spontaneous self - attainment of the Truth of things in action, result and experience, - Ila grows 
perpetually in body and richn ess. To him all creatures of themselves incline, they submit to the Truth 
in him because it is one with the Truth in themselves. For the conscious Soul -Power that is the 
universal creator and realiser, leads in all his activities. It gives him the guidance  of the Truth in his 
relations with all creatures and therefore he acts upon them with an entire and spontaneous mastery. 
This is the ideal state of man that the soul -force should lead him, Brhaspati, Brahma, the spiritual light 
and counsellor, and he real ising himself as Indra, the royal divinity of action, should govern himself 
and all his environment in the right of their common Truth, brahma rajani purva eti . 
For this Brahma, this creative Soul seeks to manifest and increase himself in the royalty of th e human 
nature and he who attains to that royalty of light and power and creates in himself for Brahma that 
highest human good, finds himself always cherished, fostered, increased by all the divine cosmic 
powers who work for the supreme consummation. He wi ns all those possessions of the soul which are 
necessary for the royalty of the spirit, those that belong to his own plane of consciousness, and those 
that present themselves to him from other planes of consciousness. Nothing can assail or affect his 
trium phant progress.  
Indra and Brhaspati are thus the two divine powers whose fullness in us and conscious possession of 
the Truth are the conditions of our perfection. Vamadeva calls on them to drink in this great sacrifice 
the wine of immortal Ananda, rejoicing in the intoxi cation of its ecstasies, pouring out abundantly the 
substance and riches of the spirit. Those outpourings of the superconscient beatitude must enter into 
the soul -force and there take being perfectly. Thus a felicity will be formed, a governed harmony, 
replete with all the energies and, capacities of the perfected nature which is master of itself and its 
world.  

SAKSIVC   Page 145 of 167 will be manifested; for that is the final condition. Let them foster the growing thoughts and bring into 
expression those energies of the mental being whi ch by an enriched and multiple thought become 
capable of the illumination and rapidity of the Truth -Consciousness. The powers that attack the Aryan 
fighter, would create in him poverties of mind and poverties of the emotive nature, all infelicities. Soul
force and mental -force increasing together, destroy all such poverty and insufficiency. Together they 
bring man to his crowning and his perfect kinghood.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 146 of 167 Maruts - The Thought -Gods  
 
As their name indicates, the Maruts are gods associated both with in tense energy 
and mental movements. They are powers of both action and knowledge. In the 
esoteric interpretations Maruts are imaged as powers of wind, storm and rain, 
particularly of the tempest. They are always hymned in their collectivity, ganas  
the hosts , never individually. Next to Agni and Indra, the Maruts have the largest 
number of hymns dedicated to them in the Rigveda , clearly indicating their 
importance in the spiritual evolution of the individual aspirant and the humanity 
at large. Because of thei r impetuousness, they are called as the children of the 
fierce and terrible God Rudra [ rudraha,  RV. 1.39.7; rudrasah,  1.39.4]. Because 
they have more hymns dedicated to them than Rudra does not imply that in the 
vedic hierarchy they have a higher place tha n the great god Rudra. Their 
importance comes from the help offered by them to the beginning spiritual 
aspirant because of their proximity to the earth plane.  
The Maruts also give a divine motion to the activities of the intelligence illumined 
by the light  and strength of Indra, the Lord of the divine mind. Hence they are 
called as brothers of Indra (Indrajyestha, 1.23.8; Marutvantam Indra, 1.23.7]. 
This aspect of aiding the work of Indra, the divine mind, gives them the 
appellation, thought -Gods. We should  realize that their functions are not limited 
to the control and origination of thoughts.  
Since Maruts have been as thought -Gods, it is appropriate for us to delineate the 
distinction between thoughts and mind in the psychology of the sages of the 
vedic periods and the later periods. The viewpoint is best expressed in the 
following quotation: "Mind is an instrument of formation, of organization and 
action, and it is in these functions that it attains its full value and real 
usefulness." The mind collects t he information given by the five senses and the 
information stored in the memory about earlier sense contacts. Thoughts are 
mental entities formed and released by the mind. Each one of us forms these 
thoughts and releases them. Once they are released, thei r life is independent of 
the mind that formed them and they travel around according to their own laws. 
Each thought has an idea in it. When the thought travels, it is caught by the 
minds of all persons who offer a welcome to it and the thought spreads the idea 
it contains to the mind of the recipient. The power of thought depends on the 
power given to it by the originator. As Sri Aurobindo says elsewhere, the thought 
containing the ideas of equality, fraternity and liberty were originated by some 
sage on th e peak of Himalayas endowed with immense power, but they were 
welcomed, as it were, only in France, causing the great French Revolution which 
popularized the three words. These thoughts have a life of their own. A thought 
released by a person joins togethe r with similar thoughts released by others and 
they form a group or a flock like the flock of birds. A flock of birds in the Rigveda

SAKSIVC   Page 147 of 167 is a common symbol for Maruts [1.37.9]. They travel together, acquire more and 
more power, and finally return to the origin ators with their power augmented by 
the power of the kindred thoughts. Thus a person who radiates a thought of love 
and harmony receives in turn the thoughts of love and harmony and thus this 
tendency in him/her becomes stronger. Similarly, a person who is  always critical 
of others is radiating continuously thoughts of criticisms and recriminations and 
he/she continuously receives these kindred thoughts. Mind organizes the 
thoughts, analyses the situation and takes appropriate action. The action may be 
on the physical plane like travel from one place to another, or the action may be 
on the mental plane like preferring one intellectual viewpoint to another. When 
the mind makes up its decision, it gives the appropriate instruction to the organs 
of action to ca rry out the task and at the same time the mind releases the 
relevant thought when it has formed.  
The originators of thoughts, which are mental movements or carriers of ideas, 
need not be human beings on earth. In vedic psychology, we have the three 
lower worlds of matter ( anna), life -energy ( prana ) and the mind ( manas ). The 
beings on these worlds - who are called as typal beings since they are not 
subject to evolution as the beings on the earth - also radiate thoughts or mental 
movements which will impact on the minds of earthly beings. There are typal 
beings, called as Gods, who are the source of wisdom, harmony, beauty, 
strength, perfection in all aspects and who help the humans to develop these 
qualities. There are also the typal beings called as demons, rakshasas, who 
encourage and foster t he opposite qualities in man and retard the march of 
evolution. These demonic forces can be classified roughly into three categories - 
those which encourage the mind in its feeling of self sufficiency and in its 
doubting and disputing every influence at en lightenment and change; these 
which encourage the vital in man in its refractory and petty desires and its ill -will 
toward every divine influence, and these that encourage "the power of 
incapacity, inertia and tamas  in man's physical consciousness which ob structs 
and clings to its pleasure in smallness and darkness and cries out against every 
touch which disturbs its dull sloth or torpid slumber." These demonic forces go 
by the names of Vrtra, Vala, Panis and Dasyus in the Rigveda .  
Only the Divine mind sig nified by Indra can battle and vanquish these forces 
using the weapons of the powers of the potent word; the vajra.   
Maruts, the thought -Gods, are the helpers of Indra in his battle against the 
demonic forces. They are called as the younger brothers of Ind ra (Indrajyestha h, 
1.23.8). The Maruts begin the work of Indra in introducing the harmonious 
thoughts and mental movements in man.  

SAKSIVC   Page 148 of 167 "The Maruts are particular gods who set a divine  pace to the mental movements 
of fierce speed and brilliance." All the Gods have two births as it were. The first 
birth is in the collective creation for their own function. Their second birth is their 
birth in man when their faculties find expression in m an. The rebirth of Maruts in 
man follow the birth of Indra in man. The first step in the manifestation of the 
divine mind of Indra is the birth of mental movements of fierce speed and 
brilliance which are needed to counter the influences put forth by the d emonic 
forces.  
One entire sukta RV(1.19) is dedicated to Agni requesting him to come with the 
Maruts. The psychological meaning of this request is straightforward. Agni is the 
God of aspiration, the divine will manifesting in man. The work of this will ca n 
only be strengthened when there is an abundance of mental movements 
signified by Maruts who break down all petty impediments to the work of Agni. 
The adjectives to Maruts in this sukta  are revealing: "Maruts, who know the 
great mid world" (RV 1.19.3). "T he brave Maruts unassailed by the might of 
others" (RV 1.19.4). "Maruts, who are radiant, awful in form or mighty and 
devourers of foes" (RV 1.19.5). "Maruts, the gods who are in the luminous world 
above the Heavens" (RV 1.19.6). "Maruts, who move mountain s and scorn the 
ocean of waters" (RV 1.19.7).  
The last epithet needs some explanation. Maruts, who are the sons of Vayu, the 
life force, become powers of luminous intelligence. "They set in movement the 
inert body heaving with tamas  (or gross knowledge gone inert) symbolized by 
the term mountain in whose womb lies the being of knowledge, power, etc. Tha t 
brings about the blossoming of knowledge, power, etc. By the movement of the 
whole being, unmoving and difficult to cross, potent with all powers, the infinite 
substances symbolized by the term ocean, the manifestation of its parts, is 
effected."  
Mountai n in the veda specifies the heavy crust of materialism in whose womb 
lies the true knowledge symbolized by the cows. The Maruts along with Agni and 
Indra break down the tamas  and the mountain of ignorance in man and allow 
the beneficent streams of higher c onsciousness to purify all the parts of being 
and raise them to a higher level of consciousness. Borne by spotted deer, with 
revealing weapons of speech. The Maruts are self luminous (RV 1.37.2) . "ye 
prshatibhi rshtibiih sakam vashibhih anjibih ajayanta sv abhanavah"  (RV 1.37.2). 
The spotted deer are the vehicles of Maruts. Their triple hues indicate the 
physical, vital and mental. Often the deer are described as red (RV 1.39.6) which 
signifies the principle of life -force of action and enjoyment. As for all the other 
Gods, the word is their weapon. Words arising from their tempestuous 
movement bring out what is hidden.

SAKSIVC   Page 149 of 167 The benefits of the mantras  addressed to Maruts are described in the next 
mantra.  na eheva shrnva esham kasha hasthesu yadvadan ni yaman chit ram 
runjate.  (RV 1.37.3). Words are their whip in hand, I hear instantly the moment 
it is uttered. Their speech works wonders in my journey. (RV 1.37.3) Just as a 
charioteer guides the vehicle with his whip, the words of the Maruts guide the 
aspirant. Thei r help is immediately apparent to the aspirant. Note that when the 
God utters the mantra,  the Seer hears it and he repeats it himself. Word is the 
vehicle and force in all these transactions.  
A brief word on Rudra is appropriate since Maruts are described  as children of 
Rudra. The puranic  trinity of brahma,  Vish nu and Shiva has its root in the 
Rigveda where the rough correspondences are Brahmanaspati, Vi shnu and 
Rudra. Brahmanaspati is the creator who fashions the light and the visible 
cosmos out of the darkness of the inconscient ocean and he does it by the  Word. 
For the upward movement of Brahmanaspati's formaliars, Rudra supplies the 
force. Rudra begins his work on this earth and supplies his force on all the planes 
of existence for evolution. He is the "violent one who leads the upward evolution 
of the co nscious being; his force battles against all evil, smites the sinner and the 
enemy; intolerant of defect and stumbling, he is one God of whom alone the 
vedic rishis  have any fear." For the formation of Brahmanaspati's word and for 
the actions of Rudra's fo rce, Vish nu supplies the necessary static elements.  
The Maruts, the children of Rudra are not divinities superior to their mighty 
father; but there are more hymns addressed to them and they are more 
commonly mentioned because the function they fulfilled w as of constant and 
immediate importance in the vedic discipline. During the initial period of the 
spiritual ascent of the aspirant, the hostile forces strive to block or undo the 
spiritual progress by causing doubts in the mind of the aspirant such as "God s 
may not exist; even if they do, they are not relevant to man; even if they help, it 
may be very limited; their help may be useful in life after death, but they are 
irrelevant in this life." The rsshi repeatedly calls upon the Maruts to ward off such 
attacks. "The rakshasas who rush to the attack in the birth of the Godheads (in 
the aspirant), O Maruts, him assail in your wheeless cars." (RV 5.42.10) Such 
attacks by the asuric  forces are not produ cts of our lurid imagination, but daily 
happenings noted in the diaries of spiritual aspirants. For instance, Sri Aurobindo 
in his record of yoga of January 9, 1917, quoted this mantra  as indicative of his 
experience. There are many such prayers in the Rig veda. We will quote one 
more mantra : mo shu na h parapara nirriti dorhana vadheet padeeshta thrishnaya 
saha. (RV 1.38.6) May not the nirriti,  sin-spirit, highly powerful difficult to 
overcome, strike me down; May she be consumed by her (own) thirst. Again, "O 
ye, who have the flashing streng th of truth Manifest that by your might; Pierce 
with your lightening the rakshasa.  Conceal the concealing darkness, repel every 
devourer, Create the light for which we long (RV 1.86.9, 1.86.10).

SAKSIVC   Page 150 of 167 The powers of Maruts is so strong that they create the rasa of life even in the 
physical sapless, inert, physical body. This power is imaged in the Rigveda as 
"causing windless rain in the desert" (RV 1.3.87). Just as the desert is a piece of 
land where nothing grows, similarly the body of the beginner aspirant is i nert. 
Maruts pour the nectarous essence of on the desert like body of aspirant and in 
becomes supple and pliant. "Maruts represent the progressive illumination of 
human mentality, until from the first obscure movements of mind which only just 
emerge out of  the darkness of the subconscient, they are transformed into an 
image of luminous consciousness. Twilight, half -lit or turned into misleading 
reflections they surmount these deficiencies and put on divine brilliance." (Sri 
Aurobindo, Secret of the Veda, p.  261). The Maruts are energies of the 
mentality, energies which make for knowledge. "They carry with them the 
sweetness of the ananda  as their eternal offspring and play out their play, 
brilliant in the activities of knowledge." (RV 1.166.2). Maruts in lat er Indian 
literature.  
Maruts play a very important role in the shaping of the spiritual life of the 
beginning aspirant. Only after the birth of Agni and Maruts in man have been 
stabilized, the other Gods can take birth in man manifesting their correspondin g 
powers. When the age of the Rigveda in general and vedas  in particular come to 
an end, the knowledge and powers of the vedic Gods were lost to mankind as it 
were.  
The later puranas  have Gods by the name Maruts. They are also brothers of 
Indra. But there is a fundamental difference between the puranic  Gods  and vedic 
Gods. The vedic Gods are pure, completely harmonious with one another, friends 
for man and urge the aspirants to move speedily on the roads of evaluation. The 
vedic Gods do not have any of the petty human qualities like jealousy and 
discordance.  However, the Gods of puranas  appear to have many of the human 
qualities. Of course, there is a symbolism in the puranic  Gods. But it is difficult to 
unravel them.  
The power of Maruts of Rigveda is again unravelled under the name of Maruti, 
Hanuman, the leader of the monkeys a nd the assistant and c collaborator of Sri 
Ramachandra in the epic Ramayana  composed by Valmiki. Sri Ramachandra 
signifies the divine mind, Indra of the Rigveda and he is a personification of 
discrimination endowed with knowledge. In every situation, he al ways opts for 
the decision or action which upholds the high tenets of dharma,  the principle that 
upholds the universe. The great battle between Sri Rama and the demon king 
Ravana is reminiscent of the Indra -Vrtra battles of the Rigveda . It is also one of 
the perpetual battles fought in different periods of time, between the forces of 
good and the forces of evil. Ravana, the demon king, has ten heads. In the 
battle between Rama and Ravana, when Rama cuts off one head by an arrow, 
another head automatically a ppears. This incident clearly indicates the symbolism

SAKSIVC   Page 151 of 167 of Ravana as the storehouse of all evil mental movements. Destroying the evil 
mental movements one by one is not possible. They have to be destroyed 
together in one stroke. Sri Rama gets this intuition,  acts accordingly, and 
destroys the demon king.  
Just as the Maruts help Indra in the Rigveda , Maruti helps Sri Rama in the 
Ramayana. Maruti is the son of wind God Vayu. His mother is anjani, reminiscent 
of Prishni, the mother of Maruts of Rigveda . The adjectives of Maruti in 
Ramayana are self explanatory: "speedy like the mud, unmatched in speed, one 
with perfectly controlled sense organs, superior among the ones endowed with 
intelligence," etc. Thus he is both a God of action and God of knowledge.  In the 
tantrik works associated with Sri Rama, Maruti plays a role very akin to that of 
Ganesha in the tantrik  works associated with Shiva. All the children pray for 
Maruti to grow them both physical and mental godly strength which is brilliant, 
harmoniou s and forceful. Maruti provides the foundations of spiritual life for all 
the youngsters and prepares their bodies for the manifestation of the powers of 
the other Gods.  
 
SAKSIVC   Page 152 of 167 Usha  
 
 Usha  
 The Divine Dawn  
  
Usha   
Usha is the Goddess of spiritual consciousness whose outer or physical symbol is 
the physical Dawn. The symbol is so amenable for poetic metaphors at the hands 
of the inspired poets of Rigveda that one is apt to view Ush a simply as the 
physical dawn and miss the deeper meanings of these hymns. As Sri Aurobindo 
says, "In the veda,  there are no merely ornamental epithets. Each word is meant 
to tell, to add something to the sense and bear a strict relation to the thought of 
the sentence in which it occurs."  
The deity Usha is lauded in about twenty suktas  of the Rigveda . She is also 
prominently mentioned in the ten apri suktas  and other suktas.  A careful reading 
of all these suktas  indicates that many of the functions and cha racteristics 
attributed to the Goddess do not make sense if we simply interpret her as the 
physical dawn as many of the Western indologists and their Indian followers are 
wont to do. Usha signifies the dawn of divine consciousness in the individual 
aspiran t. The physical dawn which we see every morning is a physical symbol of 
this divinity. The onset of the divine consciousness indicates to us the existence 
of the higher worlds of bliss and perfection which are beyond the pale of our 
ordinary consciousness.  By divine consciousness we mean the consciousness of 
the various Gods like Indra, Varuna, etc., both individually and in toto. When the 
God Varuna's power manifests in man - symbolically referred to as the birth of 
Varuna in man - the consciousness of the  human aspirant is widened by Varuna's 
power since wideness is characteristic of Varuna. The narrowness of outlook 
characteristic of our ordinary human condition is washed away, as it were, like 
the tropical monsoon washes away all the dirt in the streets.  We are less prone 
to be critical of other people, less prone to magnify the limitations of people 
around us, have more faith in the ability of the divine to bring about greater 
harmony and progress among all of us, and in our collaboration with the divine . 
Similarly, when Indra is born in man, the person becomes fearless and mighty. 
The God Mitra's influence endows the aspirant's atmosphere with friendship, love 
and harmony among all the beings of the universe, both animate and inanimate. 
The Goddess Saram a endows us with the power of intuition and the Goddess Ila, 
the power of revelation of the divine happenings which are covered by our 
ordinary consciousness. Of course the manifestation of the full power of each 
God in man is not instantaneous. It takes t ime. There are periods of rapid 
advance and there are periods in which nothing changes. Again the light of Usha

SAKSIVC   Page 153 of 167 dawns prior to the complete realization of truth light.  
We will give here just one mantra  to show that the Usha cannot be limited to the 
physic al dawn. Lover of praises, O Usha, deathless one, which mortal is fit to 
enjoy thee? O luminous one, whom does thou attain? (1.30.20).  
To see and enjoy the ordinary physical dawn, no special capacity is required. 
Only the eyesight is enough. The exclamatio n "which mortal if fit to enjoy thee" 
clearly implies that only rare persons have the good fortune of having the 
experience of Usha. Thus Usha cannot be the ordinary dawn.  
How does the Dawn emerge? The answer is in several mantras,  one of which is 
given b elow. satyamantra ajanayan ushasam.  (7.76.4). By the truth in their 
thoughts, they brought to birth the Dawn. (7.76.4)  
The seeker has to open himself systematically to the reign of Truth, rejecting the 
rule of falsehood. His mind and its activity of think ing must be filled with the 
movements of truth. Truth in thought, truth in feeling, truth in speech, must 
become normal to his life. It is only then that the Dawn consents to manifest and 
open the gates of Heaven. Just as the physical dawn and day do not l ast long, 
alternating with the night, similarly the dawn of divine consciousness in man 
does not last long. It is followed by the condition of ordinary consciousness, 
appropriately termed "nakta"  or "night."  
The Goddess Usha is often with the deity "nakta " (night) and the combined 
phrase "nakta -ushas"  or "ushanakta"  occurs more than twenty times in the 
Rigveda . We need to understand the relationship between these two deities. 
nakta  is the same as the deity "ratri"  for whom there is a sukta  (RV 10.127). The  
first reference to Usha in the Rigveda is in (RV 1.13.7), one of the mantras  of an 
apri sukta,  where she is paired with the night. naktoshasa supeshasa sman yajna 
upahvaye idam no barhira sade.  (RV 1.13.7) I call in this sacrifice Night and 
Dawn, beautifu l of form, to arrive at our seat. (RV 1.13.7) Dawn and Night, we 
seek with desire Two mighty mothers of the Truth with their fair front to us, who 
increase our beings space. (RV 5.5.6) Common, unending is the path of the 
sisters; Guided by the Sun alternat ely, they travel; Well -lighted, different in hues, 
common -minded, Night and Dawn do not clash, neither to they tarry. (RV 
1.113.3)  
In all these mantras,  nakta  or naktas  stands for our ordinary consciousness 
which is open to all sorts of forces and influen ces, including that from the great 
darkness "tama h." Note that the rig vedic  seers make a clear distinction 
everywhere between "naktas"  and "tama h," the enveloping darkness which is the 
haunt of inertia and forces of darkness like the demons, rakshasas, pi sachas,  etc. 
When Usha, the divine consciousness arrives, so do all other Gods except Agni,

SAKSIVC   Page 154 of 167 the leader of our journey, the God of aspiration, who is always active and is 
putting the pressure on us and propels us toward the higher goals. When the 
human aspi ration reaches a certain level, Usha makes her appearance, signifying 
the onset of divine consciousness and she brings the other Gods or powers. Usha 
literally opens the doors in our inner being and allows the divine light to flood 
our inner beings. The op ening of the doors of inner being which are usually 
closed is a capital experience in spiritual life, popularized later in the tantrik 
literature. We find this experience mentioned repeatedly in the Rigveda as in (RV 
1.113.4) below and (RV 1.48.15), etc. T he opening of the inner doors is 
mentioned explicitly in all the ten apri suktas  to be mentioned later. bha svati 
netri sunrtanam acheti  chitra vi duro na ava h. prapyar jagadyu no rayo akhyat 
ushah aji ga bhuvan ani vishva.  (RV 1.113.4) Brilliant guide to h appy truths is 
Usha of many hues. She has opened our doors. Lighting up the entire world, she 
has illuminated wealth for us. She issues forth all the worlds. (1.113.4)  
When the divine consciousness dawns on us, it cannot last very long because the 
human v ital which clamours for excitement cannot appreciate the bliss of the 
divine consciousness which is suffused with calm and is untinged with sorrow. 
The ordinary human mental personality which loves to wallow in doubts is not 
comfortable with the certitude offered by the divine consciousness. Thus Usha, 
the divine consciousness, recedes from the human and in its place, naktas,  the 
night or the ordinary consciousness takes its place. During this period, the great 
God Agni keeps up the pressure on all the memb ers of the human personality 
and prepares it for another onrush of the divine consciousness, Usha. Thus dawn 
and night alternate, as indicated below. apasvasaram sanutarthuyoti  (RV 
1.92.11). In secret she separates her sister (RV 1.92.11). araik krishna sa dani 
asyah  (RV 1.113.2). The dark night has vacated dwellings.  
The two sisters do not clash nor do they tarry (RV 1.113.6). "There is a constant 
rhythm and alternation of night and dawn, illuminations of the Light and periods 
of exile from it, openings up  of our darkness and its settling upon us once more, 
till the Celestial Birth is accomplished and again it is fulfilled in its greatness, 
knowledge, love and power. These later nights are other than these of utter 
darkness which are dreaded as the occasion  of the enemy, the haunt of the 
demons of division who devour; these are rather the pleasant nights, the divine 
and blessed ones who equally labour for our growth. Night and Dawn are then of 
different forms but one mind and suckle alternately the luminous child". They are 
commonly referred to as "two sisters," beautiful of form (RV 1.13.7, 5.5.6). They 
are both called as "mighty mothers of the Truth" (RV 5.5.6). Usha is associated 
with Aditi, the mother of undivided consciousness, the mother of Gods, the 
supreme creatrix. nakta  is associated with "Diti," the mother of divided 
consciousness. Their path is said to be unending (RV 1.113.3) and they are said 
to increase our beings space (RV 5.5.6).

SAKSIVC   Page 155 of 167 The goddess Usha is termed as having many hues (RV 1.113.4) or variegated 
since she helps in the manifestation of (or brings in) the various other deities or 
powers. The wealth she gives us is not limited to the material. She allows all the 
latent powers to manifest and hence issues forth all the worlds (RV 1.113.4).  
Usha and nakta  are also referred to as "different in hue," "viuupe"  (RV 1.113.3). 
This phrase is often interpreted as its external meaning, namely night is 
characterized by darkness whereas the Dawn is associated with the rosy color of 
the rising Sun and other multifarious colors. Here the hue refers to the 
psychological character of the divine and ordinary consciousness.  
There is always the mention of the Usha who has dawned in the past. Phrases 
like these would not be used by the Seers who display extra ordinary abilities if 
they were merely referring to the regular recurring physical dawn and night. 
Before the full illumination of the solar glory of Truth Light, the sacrificer has 
several experiences of the consciousness of the dawns of knowledge. These are 
termed as the dawns of the past. The divine Ushas hat dawned and dawned 
again. (1.48.3) She follows the path of the Dawns that are past. parayati nam 
anveti sadhu.  (RV 1.113.8) First of eternal dawns to come.  
There are several verses in which Usha is lauded as dispelling the thick darkness. 
pratyarchi rushadasya adarshi vithishtate bhadhate krishnam  abhvam. (RV 
1.92.5) Her radiant lustre beheld again, spreads everywhere and dispels 
darkness. (RV 1.92.5) atarishma tamasah param asya ushah ucchanti vayun a 
krnoti.  (RV 1.92.6) We have crossed over to the other share of darkness, Leaving 
darkness, she prepares discoveries of knowledge. (RV 1.92.6)  
In the first line of 1.92.6, the rishi Gotama Rahugana praises the deity in joyous 
exultation after having her experience in his inner being. Some modern 
commentators think that this line only indicates that the seers were afraid of the 
darkness and all the beings associated with it like the goblins. The vedic seers do 
not know that dawn and night alternate and the y perform the vedic ritual. When 
the physical dawn arises, they feel the effectiveness of their ritual and this gives 
rise to the explanation in the first line of 1.92.6. A moment's reflection will reveal 
the hollowness of the argument. Morning vedic ritual - yajna  - is performed only 
after the onset of physical dawn. There is no need to pray for the dawn when it 
is already there. The vedic sages were very well aware of the alternations of the 
physical night and physical dawn as given by the riks "The actio ns of the Gods 
are undeviating" (RV 1.124.2), "It (dawn) follows well the path of Truth."  
Note also the next line of 1.92.6 which clearly says "Dawn prepares fresh 
discoveries of knowledge." Clearly what is meant here is not the physical dawn, 
but the God dess of Truth who brings fresh revelation of knowledge at each

SAKSIVC   Page 156 of 167 advent.  
Let us mention some other specific descriptions used for Usha which clearly 
indicate that Usha is not merely the physical Dawn, but is the goddess of solar 
radiance who manifests herse lf in advance before the rise of the Sun which 
symbolizes the rise or beginning of the Sun of Truth hymned on the Vedas  as the 
"Supernal Light."  
Words connected with rta (Truth)  
The word satya signifies that which is the eternal, the supreme, existence in  its 
own from sat. rtam signifies that which is evident or perceptible, manifested out 
of the satya,  what has come to be in accordance with satya or that which 
represents the satya.  rta is the Truth in manifestation. Usha is the guardian of 
this rta and sh e manifests it.  
rtapa:  guardian of Truth (1.113.12)  
rteja:  one who manifests the Truth (1.113.12) { rtasya~passtham } under anveti 
sadhu...  ...praja nativa na diso minati  (1.124.3). She moves according to the 
path of the Truth And, as one that knows, she l imits not the regions (1.124.3) 
dyutad -ya ma nam brhatam  rtena rtavarim svar a vahantim  (5.80.1) Of a 
luminous movement, vast with the Truth, Supreme in the Truth, bringing with 
her svar (5.80.1).  
Note the use of the word "svar,"  the fourth vyahriti,  the mahas,  the vast, the 
world of solar light. vyusa a vo divija rtena, aviskrnva na mahimanam a gat  
(7.75.1)  
Dawn born in heaven opens out things by the Truth, She comes manifesting the 
greatness. (7.75.1) bhadra rtaja tasatyah  (4.51.7). Happy and tru born fr om the 
Truth (4.51.7). rtasya devi hi sadaso bhudhana.  The Goddesses who awake from 
the seat of Truth. (4.51.8) Horses of Usha are yoked to Truth. (4.51.5) She is 
born from Truth. (4.51.5) Usha and night are mothers of Truth. (5.5.6) Usha 
follows the path of Truth. (1.124.3) satya satyebhir mahati mahadbhir devi 
devebhih.  (7.75.7) Dawn, true in her being with the Gods who are true Vast with 
Gods who are vast. (7.75.1)  
"sunrtanam netri":  impeller of happy truths (1.113.4)  
"sunrta i rayanti":  impeller of tr ue and happy words. Giver of wealth.  
rayah in veda always denotes spiritual wealth which does not exclude material 
wealth. saha vamena...uccha...dyumnena brhata,...raya.  (1.48.1) Dawn on us

SAKSIVC   Page 157 of 167 with great blissful prosperity, with the glory of the vast, with d ivine wealth. nah 
rayah vyakhyat.  She has illumined the spiritual wealth for us. (1.113.4) Other 
adjectives of Usha.  
yuvati: eternally youthful (1.113.7).  
shukravasah:  robed with light (1.113.7).  
subhage:  blissful one, rich in joy (10.70.6, 1.36.6).  
yavaya d-dvesha:  scatterer of foes (1.113.12).  
sumangali:  most auspicious (1.113.12).  
devavi bartim:  manifests the advents of Gods (1.113.12).  
shreshtatama:  most excellent (1.113.12).  
Usha, the goddess of illumination first activates the inner being or the soul ( jiva) 
to come forward and she prepares the path for all the Sun's powers to pervade 
all the parts of our being, physical, vital, mental, etc., and carry us to the 
supramental home of Truth which has an abundance of the powers of life and 
other powers. Note  the use of the word "jiva" which in the esoteric expression 
always means the "soul," the essence of man which participates in divine action. 
Usha propels the "soul" toward divine action and gives expression to the thought 
of the soul in the form of inspir ed speech or mantras.   
"jivam udarayanti"  impels the jiva to move upward and forward (1.113.8). 
"mritam  bodhayanti"  awakens someone who is like dead, devoid of the glow of 
immortality (1.113.8). praminati manusya yagani  (1.124.2, 1.92.11). devi 
martasya ay uh jarayanti  (1.92.10). She strikes at the mortal span, and replaces it 
with immortality.  
Each advent of the Goddess Usha gives fresh spiritual experiences for the seer 
which manifest in the form of speech or mantras.  vishvam jeevam charase 
bodhayanti  vishvasya vacham avidan mana yoho.  (1.92.9) Awakening every 
person ( jiva) she propels them towards divine actions. She creates expression for 
the thought of the soul. (1.92.9)  
In the translations where Usha is identified with physical dawn, this verse 
(1.92. 9) is translated to mean that the physical dawn activates all the living 
beings like birds, animals, etc., to movement and speech. This translation 
ignores the word "manayo h" ,which can only mean thought of humans. The use 
of the word "jiva" exclusively fo r the "soul" and not to an ordinary living being is

SAKSIVC   Page 158 of 167 clear in (1.113.16). udirdvam jivo asurna agadapa pragattama a jyotireti 
araikpantham yatave suryayaganma yatra pratiranta  ayuh (1.113.6). Arise! Our 
inner being ( jiva) has emerged; The darkness has depar ted; light approaches, It 
(soul) opens the way for the sun's rays (to permeate us). Let us repair to the 
home of truth where life increases. (1.113.16) mata devanam aditeh ani kam 
yajnasya ketuh brhati vibahi prashastikrt brahmane nah viuccha a nah jane 
janaya vishvavare. (1.113.19) Mother of the Gods, face of the infinite, the vast 
vision that awakes from the sacrifice, she creates expression ( mantra ) for the 
thought of the soul and gives us universal birth in all that is born. (1.113.19)  
The word "Aditi"  is translated here as "infinite." "brhti"  always stands for the 
plane of the vast, the plane of mahas,  the fourth vyahriti.  Usha's vision is vast. 
ketu can only mean ray or vision. Its translation as "ensign" is typical of the 
translations which emphasize  the outward ritual associated with the yajna. 
brahmana  always means mantra.  She creates the appropriate mantra  for 
expressing the thought of the soul. The seer prays to Usha to be born or 
manifest amidst us so that we can march to the higher worlds.  
In the earlier mantras,  we have spoken of the role played by Usha in helping the 
seers who have already taken to the spiritual path to go forward. But what about 
the persons who are beginners or who are not even aware of the existence of 
spiritual vistas? "Opu lent Usha sets the lazy on the right course - one for 
enjoyment, one for sacrifice, one for wealth. To those seeing little, she gives 
extended vision. Usha issues forth all the worlds." (1.113.5) One to hero -
strength, one to divine hearing, one to great sa crifice, one to pursue high gain - 
all to follow their different vocations, Usha issues forth the worlds. (1.113.6)  
Usha creates the appropriate conditions for each person to progress. One who 
has propensities toward heroism gets the appropriate opportuni ty. Persons who 
want enjoyment or physical wealth or occult powers obtain the desired ends 
without being aware of the help provided by the Goddess. Slowly she extends 
the vision of these persons and brings to their attention forces and powers of 
which huma ns are only instruments. Thus Usha creates a separate world, as it 
were, for each individual.  
Another common descriptor of Usha is "Ashvavati Gomati" (1.48.2, 7.80.3). It is 
often translated as "giver of horses, giver of cows" without making much sense. 
How does the physical dawn give horses or cows? Ashva in the Veda always 
stands for the life -powers or vital energies leading to the actions for the 
enjoyment of the all pervading bliss. "Go" in the veda stands for the rays of 
consciousness of knowledge. Th erefore, the rishi prays to Usha for the grant of 
the powers of life and powers of intelligence . sa asmasu dha gomad -ashvavat 
uktyah usho vajam suviryam. (1.48.12) Usha, do thou establish in us the 
plenitude of intelligences, life powers and hero might lau ded in the hymns.

SAKSIVC   Page 159 of 167 (1.48.12).  
"vajram"  denotes plenitude. The seer prays to Usha to establish in him all the 
powers so that he may progress onward in his quest toward perfection . praja 
vato nrvato ashvabudhyan usho govgrah upa ma si vajan.  (1.92.7) O Usha t hou 
gives the bounty of progeny, heroes known for steeds, fronted by cows. (1.92.7)  
Progeny always stands for the transmission of knowledge, not merely biological 
children. The seer prays that the divine knowledge may be preserved in his 
community aided b y a high level of vital and mental energies signified by horses 
and cows.  
Let us consider the mantras in which the words dvipada  (translated commonly as 
two-footed) and chatushpada (four-footed) are used which are interpreted as the 
humans and animals act ivated by Dawn. dvipade  used in (1.49.3) refers in the 
esoteric interpretation to the two states of consciousness of the human aspirant, 
the ordinary consciousness, the condition of obscurity and the divine 
consciousness, the condition of Light. Similarly the word chatushpade (1.49.3) 
refers to the four planes of earth ( bhuh), mid region ( bhuva h), the mind ( suvah) 
and the great vast ( mahas ) which have been attained by this seer. Again the 
phrases "patatrinah"  (1.49.3), "ut patayanti pakshinah"  (1.48.5) and 
"paptivamsah vayah"  are interpreted as "birds" which are activated by the onset 
of dawn in the external sense. However, "birds" in the Veda always stand for the 
upward movements and seeking for knowledge which soar upward to the 
heavenly regions. This poin t is made very specific in the 1.49.3. vayahchitte 
patatrino  dvipachhatushpadarjuni usha praran rtun anudivo antebhyaspari  
(1.49.3). Twin stationed, four stepped with high soaring energies Moving fast 
beyond the heavenly regions, the sacrificer follows thy  advents, O fair Usha. 
(1.49.3)  
We have interpreted "vayachitte patatrino"  as high soaring energies and not 
merely as birds because of the subsequent phrase "moving fat beyond the 
heavenly regions." Clearly this phrase has to be interpreted as a poetic 
exaggeration for birds. When the mantra is interpreted in its spiritual sense, the 
meaning flows smoothly.  
Similarly in 1.48.6, the phrase "Soaring birds rest not" "vayah nakirasate"  can 
only mean the seekings of knowledge of the inner sacrificer which soar  upward. 
The symbolism of birds for the powers of knowledge soaring upward to the 
higher planes is fairly common in Rigveda . See, for instance, the hymns to 
Varuna (1.25.4, 1.25.7). The mantra of Vamadeva (4.51.5) explicitly mentions 
that the phrases "dvipad" and "chatushpad"  refer to the movements of the jiva, 
the soul. "dvipachatushpada -charayayah jivam  (4.51.5). "jivam"  is used in the 
Rigveda only for the soul. Hence, "chatushpad"  cannot mean "four -footed." It

SAKSIVC   Page 160 of 167 can only mean the soul which can traverse th e four planes or vyahritus  
mentioned earlier. Again consider (1.164.41) dealing with speech which uses the 
words "one -footed," "two -footed," "four -footed," "eight -footed," etc. Clearly 
animals or insects are not referred to here, but the spiritual meanings  mentioned 
earlier. gauri mimaya salilani takshat akapadi dwipadi sa chatushpadi  ashtapadi 
navapadi bhabhu vushi sahasrakshara parame vyoman  (1.164.41). Fashioning 
the waters, the radiant cow of speech hath lowed, one -footed, two -footed, yea, 
four-footed.  She of the eight feet hath become nine -footed, the thousand 
immutable letters in the sky supernal. There is another complementary 
interpretation of the twin deities Night and Day suggested by Sri Kapali Sastry, 
while discussing a set of suktas  in Rigveda entitled apri hymns. apri means "to 
fill." During the inner worship or sacrifice, the human yajamana  implores Agni 
and the other higher powers of God, through Agni, to come down and fill him 
with their powers. The primary deity in these hymns in Agni even though these 
hymns mention and invoke other gods like Indra, Ila, Saraswati, Mahi, Usha, etc. 
A special feature of Agni is that in his heavenward activity he is endowed with 
attributes that distinguish severally the other gods of the vedic system while 
retaining his distinguishing feature of the Divine will that is initially born as the 
flame of human aspiration to the divine.  
There are about ten apri suktas,  viz 1.13, 1.142, 1.188, 2.3, 3.4, 5.5, 7.2, 9.5, 
10.70, 10.110. Each sukta has ten to thirteen mantras, the sixth or seventh 
mantra  is dedicated to the twin deities Night and Dawn.  
Day, in another way, represents the broad open light, the light of consciousness 
in which the different powers or the different deities are beheld severally. Usha is 
said t o bring in all the other Gods. Each God has a distinct power. Wideness 
characterizes Varuna. Mightiness characterizes Indra. Moon is full of charm. 
Rudra is fierce and terrible. Maruts are impetuous and swift. Mitra is tender, kind 
and loving. Brahmanaspat i is the great harmonizer, etc. "Night represents a 
concentration and self absorption in the consciousness, an intensity of self -
gathering in what we may call the immobile, static existence in which all is 
absorbed". All the powers are latent in the condit ion. Night represents the "seed" 
condition whereas the "Day" represents the manifested condition. The seers 
realized the need for both the states of consciousness. Hence in the apri mantra  
(1.13.7) quoted earlier, both the deities night and day are called upon to their 
seat for worship and they both have auspicious form "supeshasa".   
The need for their appearance is clear from the other apri mantras.  sadhvapamsi 
sanata na ukshite usha sanakta vayyeva rnvate, tantum tatam samyanti samichi  
yajnasya peshah sud ughe payasvati  (2.3.6) Milch cows, good milers, pouring out 
on us, may Night and Dawn, eternal and equal sisters, come like weaving 
women, full of gladness, weaving out the weft that is spun, the weft of our

SAKSIVC   Page 161 of 167 perfected works into a shape of sacrifice. (2.3. 6).  
Note the phrase "eternal and equal" sisters. Both of them together weave the 
cloth of our works, make it perfect and render it a yajna,  translated as sacrifice, 
which is an arrangement of works reflecting the harmony of all the powers of 
Universe.  
Both Night and Day prepare the yajamana  for the manifestation of the various 
powers of Gods in him. This idea is clear from the apri mantra  (3.4.6). May night 
and dawn differently formed in their body, Be joined close and smile on us in 
their gladness, So th at Mitra may take pleasure in us and Varuna or Indra with 
the life gods. (3.4.6).  
Notice that here the night and day are prayed to be "joined close." Note the 
significance of invoking both night and dawn together so that the consciousness 
of the rishi becomes familiar with both the forms. uta yoshane divye mahi na 
ushasanakta  sudhugheva dhenuk barhishada puruhu te maghoni a yagniye 
suvitaya shrayetam.  (7.2.6) May too dawn and night, matrons great and divine, 
like good milch -cows, queens of sacrifice, queen s of plenty called by many 
seekers, sit on the sacred grass And lodge with us for our happiness. (7.2.6)  
Both Usha and Dawn together bring happiness to the rishi. surukme hi 
supeshasa adhi shriya vira jatah, ushasa veha si datam. (1.188.6) With gay 
adornm ent, fair to see, in glorious beauty shine they forth Let night and morning 
rest them here. sushilpe brhati mahi pavamano vrshanyati naktoshasa na 
darshate  (9.5.6). Night and Dawn, beautifully formed, vast and lofty beauteous 
maidens, pavamana  longs for. ( 9.5.6). devi divo duhitara sushilpe usha sa nakta 
sadata mni yonau, avam deva sa ushati ushanta urau si dantu subhage upaste  
(10.70.6). Let the two divine daughters of heaven, formed beautifully, dawn and 
night, sit in their native seat. O dawn and night, O you who aspire, O blissful 
ones, may the Gods aspiring sit on your wide lap. (10.70.6)  
As Sri Kapali says, "It is this twin aspect of consciousness with necessary 
variation in its connotation that is the origin and support of the dictum of the 
upanishad  that both 'knowledge and ignorance' must be known together. He 
who knows THAT as both in one, the knowledge and ignorance, by ignorance 
crosses beyond death and by the knowledge enjoys immortality" ( isha 
upanishad).  
This isha upanishad passage clearly sa ys that both knowledge and ignorance 
have to be known together, and "We have heard it from the wise ones of your, 
who explained thus to us" iti shushruma dhi ranam ye nastad vicacaksire  (isha 
upanishad)

SAKSIVC   Page 162 of 167 Who else could be these wise ones but the mystics of  vedic wisdom, "dhirah" ?  
 We may also note that this concept of Day and night is expressed figuratively in 
the famous passage of the Bhagavad gita  (2.69) ya ni sa sarvabhutanam tasyam 
jagarti  samyami yasyam jagrti bhutani sanisapasyati museh.  "That (highe r being) 
which is to all creatures a night, is to the self mastering sage his waking (his 
luminous day of true being, knowledge and power); the life of the dualities which 
is to them their waking (their day, their condition of activity) is a night (a 
troub led sleep and darkness of the soul) to the sage who sees" (2.26).  
To confirm the different interpretation of the deity night, we will quote two other 
mantras, one taken from the ratri sukta,  the sukta dedicated to the deity night 
by the seer, daughter of Bharadwaja (10.127) and the other from the fifth book 
(5.84) of the Atri family of seers. O vipra amartya nivato devyudvatah; jyotisha 
badhate tamah.  (10.127.2) The Goddess immortal, she fills the vast, the high 
and the low places; she repels darkness with  light.  
This (10.127.2) is the rik used by the tantriks  for invoking the goddess Kali. 
varshantu te vibhavari divo abrasya vidyatah 1 rohantu sarvabijanyava 
brahmadvijo jahi   O Night, disguising the light, May the lightnings of thy divine 
cloud pour down.  May all the seeds grow; strike down the haters of the Divine 
(appendix of 5.84)  
Usha is mentioned along with the twin -deities Ashvins in many hymns as their 
beloved, again indicating the psychological character of Usha. Ashvins are gods 
"full of capacity  for enjoyment, drinkers of the honey of the soma, donors of the 
health to the sick, physicians. They speed like buds." Usha, their beloved, goes 
riding in their chariot. Usha is also mentioned as the daughter of Surya, the 
supreme Truth -Light (7.75.5)  
  
The Divine Dawn (RV 3.61)   
1.            Dawn, richly stored with substance, conscious cleave to the affirmation 
of him who expresses thee, O thou of the plenitudes. Goddess, ancient, yet ever 
young thou movest many -thoughted following the law of thy activ ities, O bearer 
of every boon.  
2.            Dawn divine, Shine out immortal in thy car of happy light sending 
forth the pleasant voices of the Truth. May steeds well -guided bear thee here 
who are golden -brilliant of hue and wide their might.  
3.            Dawn, confronting all the worlds thou standest high -uplifted and art

SAKSIVC   Page 163 of 167 their perception of Immortality; do thou move over them like a wheel, O new 
Day, traveling over an equal field.  
4.            Dawn in her plenitude like one that lets fall from her a se wn robe 
moves, the bride of the Bliss; creating Swar, perfect in her working, perfect in 
her enjoying, she widens from the extremity of Heaven over the earth.  
5.            Meet ye the Dawn as she shines wide towards you and with surrender 
bring forward yo ur complete energy. Exalted in heaven is the force to which she 
rises establishing the sweetness; she makes the luminous worlds to shine forth 
and is a vision of felicity.  
6.            By heaven’s illuminings one perceives her a bearer of the Truth and 
rapturous she comes with its varied light into the two firmaments. From Dawn as 
she approaches shining out on thee, O Agni, thou seekest and attainest to the 
substance of delight.  
7.            Putting forth his impulsions in the foundation of the Truth, in the 
foundation of the Dawns, their Lord enters the Vastness of the firmaments. Vast 
the wisdom of Varuna, of Mitra, as in a happy brightness, orders multitudinously 
the Light.     
  
Surya Savitri in his task of illumination follows the progress o f the Dawn. In 
another hymn the movements of the mind have been described as growing 
conscient and brilliant by the bright power of the continuous Dawns. Throughout 
the Veda Usha, daughter of Heaven, has always the same function. She is the 
medium of the a wakening, the activity and the growth of the other gods; she is 
the first condition of the Vedic realisation. By her increasing illumination the 
whole nature of man is clarified; through her he arrives at the Truth, through her 
he enjoys the Beatitude. The  divine dawn of the rishis is the advent of the divine 
Light throwing off veil after veil and revealing in man's activities the luminous 
godhead. In that light the Work is done, the sacrifice offered and its desirable 
fruits gathered by humanity.  
Many are the hymns, indeed, in which rich and beautiful figures of the earthly 
dawn veil this inner truth of the goddess Usha, but in this hymn of the great rishi 
Vishwamitra the psychological symbolism of the Vedic Dawn is apparent from 
beginning to end by open ex pressions and on the surface of the thought. "O 
Dawn rich of store in thy substance," he cries to her, "conscient cleave to the 
affirmation of him who expresses thee, O thou who hast the plenitudes." The

SAKSIVC   Page 164 of 167 word prachetas  and the related word, vichetas , are s tanding terms of Vedic 
phraseology; they seem to correspond to the ideas expressed in later language 
by the Vedantic prajnana  and vijnana . Prajnana is the consciousness that 
cognizes all things as objects confronting its observation; in the divine mind it is 
knowledge regarding things as their source, possessor and witness. Vijnana is 
comprehensive knowledge containing, penetrating into things, pervading them in 
consciousness by a sort of identification with their truth. Usha is to occupy the 
revealing thou ght and word of the rishi as a power of Knowledge conscient of 
the truth of all that is placed by them before the mind for expression in man. The 
affirmation, it is suggested, will be full and ample; for Usha is vajena  vajini , 
maghoni ; rich is the store of  her substance; she has all the plenitudes.  
This dawn moves in her progression always according to the rule of a divine 
action; many are the thoughts she brings in that motion, but her steps are sure 
and all desirable things, all supreme boons, the boons o f the Ananda, the 
blessings of the divine existence, - are in her hands. She is ancient and eternal, 
the dawn of the Light that was from the beginning, purani , but in her coming she 
is ever young and fresh to the soul that receives her.  
She is to shine wid e, she that is the divine Dawn, as the light of the immortal 
existence bringing out in man the powers or the voices of Truth and Joy, 
(sunrta h, - a word which expresses at once both the true and the pleasant); for 
is not the chariot of her movement a car a t once of light and of happiness? For 
again, the word candra  in candraratha , - signifying also the lunar deity Soma, 
lord of the delight of immortality pouring into man, ananda  and amrta , - means 
both luminous and blissful. And the horses that bring her, f igure of the nervous 
forces that support and carry forward all our action, must be perfectly controlled; 
golden, bright in hue, their nature (for in this ancient symbolism color is the sign 
of quality, of character, of temperament) must be a dynamism of id eal 
knowledge in its concentrated luminousness; wide in its extension must be the 
mass of that concentrated force, -prthupajaso ye . 
Divine Dawn comes thus to the soul with the light of her knowledge, prajnana , 
confronting all the worlds as field of that kn owledge, - all provinces, that is to 
say, of our universal being, - mind, vitality, physical consciousness. She stands 
uplifted over them on our heights above mind, in the highest heaven, as the 
perception of Immortality or of the Immortal , amrtasya ketuh,  revealing in them 
the eternal and beatific existence or the eternal all -blissful Godhead. So exalted 
she stands prepared to effect the motion of the divine knowledge, progressing as 
a new revelation of the eternal truth, navyasi,  in their harmonised and e qualized 
activities like a wheel moving smoothly over a level field; for they now, their 
diversities and discords removed, offer no obstacle to that equal motion.

SAKSIVC   Page 165 of 167 In her plenitude she separates, as it were, and casts down from her the 
elaborately sown garm ent that covered the truth of things and moves as the wife 
of the Lover, the energy of her all -blissful Lord, svasarasya patni.  Full in her 
enjoyment of the felicity, full in her effectuation of all activities, subhaga 
sudamsah,  she brings into existence i n us by her revelations Swar, the concealed 
luminous mind, our highest mental heaven; and thus from the farthest 
extremities of mental being extends herself over the physical consciousness.  
As this divine Dawn pours out widely its light upon them, so have men by 
submission to the law of her divine act and movement to bring forward for her 
the fully energised completeness of their being and their capacities as a vehicle 
for her light or as a seat for her sacrificial activities.  
The rishi then dwells on the t wo capital works of the divine Dawn in man, - her 
elevation of him to the full force of the Light and the revelation of the Truth and 
her pouring of the Ananda, the Amrita, the Soma -wine, the bliss of the immortal 
being into the mental and bodily existence . In the world of the pure mind, divi, 
she rises into the full force and mass of the Light, urdhvam pajo asret,  and from 
those pure and high levels she establishes the sweetness, madhu,  the honey of 
Soma. She makes to shine out the three luminous worlds, rocana ; she is then or 
she brings with her the beatific vision. By the effectual illuminations of the pure 
mentality, through the realising Word, divo arkaih , she is perceived as the bearer 
of Truth and with the Truth she enters from the world above Mind, f ull of the 
delight, in a varied play of her multiple thought and activity, into the mental and 
bodily consciousness, those established limits between which man's action 
moves. It is from her, as she comes thus richly laden, vajena vajini , that Agni, 
the di vine Force labouring here in body and mind to uplift the mortal, prays for 
and attains to the Soma, the wine of the Beatitude, the delightful substance.  
The supramental world in us, foundation of the Truth, is the foundation of the 
Dawns. They are the desc ent upon mortal nature of the light of that immortal 
Truth, rtam jyotih.  The Lord of the Dawns, Master of Truth, Illuminer, Creator, 
Organiser, putting forth in the foundation of Truth, above mind, the impulsion of 
his activities, enters with them by this goddess into a bodily and mental 
existence no longer obscured but released from their limits and capable of 
vastness, mahi rodasi . The Lord of Truth is the sole Lord of things. He is Varuna, 
soul of vastness and purity; he is Mitra, source of love and ligh t and harmony. 
His creative Wisdom, mahi mitrasya varunasya maya , unlimited in its scope, - for 
he is Varuna, - appearing, candreva , as a light of bliss and joy, - for he is Mitra, - 
arranges, perfectly organises, in multitudinous forms, in the wideness of  the libe - 
rated nature, the luminous expansions, the serene expressions of the Truth. He 
combines the various brilliancies with which his Dawn has entered our

SAKSIVC   Page 167 of 167 Nature of Pushan  
 
Pushan is one of the Adityas. He nourishes both the yajamana  and the Earth. 
Though the h ome of all the Gods is high above, urdhvam ayatanam,  yet their 
main station or field of action differs. Thus the abode of Indra , Lord of the Divine 
Mind, is the Mind Station, Svar. Agni is stationed on Earth. The Maruts belong to 
the mid -region, the Life -world. Similarly the other Gods preside over their 
respective places and carry on their activities. Pu shan belongs to the third 
station; still his station is taken as the Earth because he is the lord of mother 
Earth, supports and nourishes her. When he nour ishes by his Aditya power the 
outer Earth -field, physical Matter, and the inner physical consciousness and is 
himself nourished and manifest, then comes Usha , the Deity of the Dawn of 
higher Consciousness. And when the Ashvins espouse Usha , he adopts these  
health -givers who effect increasing nourishment as parents (10.85.14).  
Nourished thus, Pu shan Aditya showers the bounty of Indra and becomes his 
brother (6.55.5). Ultimately he becomes the brother of Earth and the space 
(divided into quarters) (6.58.4).  
Even after the slaying of Vrtra, the demons or Panis  obstruct the path of the 
sacrificer, steal or cover the knowledge (cows); other haters of the Gods harass 
the devotee in his upward course, directly or indirectly, by robbing him of his 
wealth -Rays, veil ing the path, showing wrong directions etc. It is here that the 
work of Pu shan is specially seen. The traffickings of the Pani and the like do not 
affect God Pu shan. He is the lord of the Paths pathaspati.  He does not lose 
cattle. Pu shan aids in the effort  of the sacrificer to reach the sun -world, even 
while living (6.53.3, 6.53.5, 6.56.5).  
Pushan nourishes the sacrificer as well as the Earth. He is the progeny of Aditya 
as Indra who showers the wealth of knowledge, light, strength; elder to Usha , he 
protec ts the Earth; brother of Indra , master of the route of the sacrificer, he 
guards the path, searches out the sacrificer, urges his effort (10.17.3).  
 
Introduction to
Vedic 
Knowl edge
Parama Karuna Devi
published b y
Jagannatha V allabha
Vedi c Research C enter

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Introduct ion to Vedi c Knowledge
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Perspectives  of st udy
The perceptio n of Vedic cult ure in w estern histor y
Study of vedic scriptures  in Indian h istory  
2. The  Vedic tex ts
When, ho w and b y whom  the Vedas were w ritten
The four original Vedas  - Samhitas,  Brahm anas,  Aran yaka s
3. The  fifth Veda: t he epic  poems
Mahabharata an d Bhagavad gita
Ramayana  and Yoga  Vasistha
Puranas
4. The  secondar y Vedas
Vedangas  and Upavedas
Vedanta sutra
Agamas and Tantra
3

The pe rception  of Vedic cu lture 
in western  history
This publication  originates  from  the need  to present  in a simple,  clear,  objective  and 
exhaustive  way, the basic  infor mation  about  the original  Vedic  knowledge,  that in the 
course  of the centuries  has often  been  confused  by colonialist  propaganda,  through  the 
writings  of indologists  belonging  to the euro-centric  Christian  acade mic system  (that 
were  bent on refuting  and demolishing  the vedic  scriptures  rather  than presenting  them in 
a positive  way) and th rough the cultural superi mposition  suffered  by sincere  students  who 
only  had acces s to very indirect  material,  already  carefully  chosen  and filtered  by 
professors  or commentators  that were afflicted  by negative prejudice.
It was pope  Onorius  IV (1286 -1287)  to inaugu rate in the West  the study of oriental 
languages  and precisely  Hebrew,  Greek  and Arabic.  He had studied  at the Universit y of 
Paris  before  entering  the diplomatic  career  at the service  of pope  Clement  IV (1265-
1268),  who sent him to celebrate  the crowning  of Charles  d'Anjou  as King  of Sicily. 
After  beco ming  pope,  Onorius  introduced  in the University  of Paris the new curriculu m 
(Studia linguarum) aimed at building the languistic  knowledge  required to understand  the 
original  texts  of the Old and New  Testa ment  and the coranic  texts,  that were  the 
theological,  ethical  and philosophical  foundations  of the scholars  which  in those  times 
were not subject  to the Church of  Rom e: Jews,  orthodox Christians  and Muslim s. 
The Ecumenic  Council  of Wien  (1311 -1312)  recognized  the importance  of Onorius' 
strategy  and encouraged  the creation  of suitable  depar tments  in all the other  European 
universities,  that were then under the complet e control of the Church  of Rome. In fact, all 
the universities  started  as Scholae  monasticae approved  by the papal  bull Studia 
generalia, and were  managed  by the cathedrals  or mona steries  and aimed  at training 
priests,  govern ment  officers,  lawyers and pyhysicians  that would  remain  strictly  loyal to 
5

Param a Karun a Devi
the Church  of Rom e. All the students  received  the clerical  tonsure  and were  only 
subjected  to the ecclesiastic  legal  authorit y and not to the autho rity of the King  or any 
other government  agenc y.
The passage  from Schola  monastica to Universit y (universitas  magistrorum  et 
scholarium, "universal  community of teachers  and scholars")  was specifically 
characterized  by the creation  of teachers'  guilds  that acquired  a certain  organizational 
autono my from  the parishes  on which  they  initiall y depended.  The first of such 
universities  was recognized  in Bologna  in 1088,  followed  by those  of Paris  in 1150, 
Oxford  (1167),  Valencia  (1208 ), Cambridge  (1209),  Salaman ca (1218 ), Montpellier 
(1220 ) and  Padova ( 1222).
The official  language  of all universities  was Latin, even  if the students  - coming  from  all 
parts  of Europe - were  divided  into "nationes". At the Universit y of Paris these  were 
France,  Normandi e, Picardie  and England-Germ any, which  also included  the students 
from Scandinavia  and eastern Eu rope.
After  attending  the preliminary  courses  (trivium: Latin  grammar, rheto ric and dialectics, 
and quadrivium: arithmetics,  geom etry, music and astrono my) the students  proceeded  to 
further  degrees  of specialization,  importance  and glory consisting  in the studies  of arts, 
natural philosoph y, medicine,  canonic law and theology .
That period saw the resurfacing  of some ancient  texts  that had somehow  escaped  the anti-
pagan  devastation  conducted  by Christians  during the previous  millennium . However, the 
only  "approved"  author  allowed  to be studied  was Aristotle,  and his writings  were 
adapted  to support  the Christian  theology , as we can see in the famous Summa 
Theologica by Thoma s Aquinas.  There were  also strict  limitation s on Aristotle's  books: 
his prohibited texts  included ph ysics  and m etaphysics.  
The arabic  texts  studied  in that period  were  on mathem atics, geometry,  medicine  and the 
commentaries  on the fragm ents of Aristotle;  the most famous autho rs were  Avicenna  e 
Averroè. 
Avicenna (Abū ‘Alī al-usayn ibn ‘Abd Allāh ibn Sīnā, 980-1037 CE), considered the Ḥ  
father  of modern  medicine  and "avicennan  logic",  perhaps  the greatest  representative  of 
the so-called  "golden  age of Islam". He wrote  The Book of Healing and the Canon  of 
6

Medicine, based  on the teachings  of Sushruta  samhita and Charaka  samhita as well as 
the writings  of Hyppocrates  and Galen.  He also explo red Indian  mathem atics and 
aristotelic and  neoplatonic philosoph y. 
Averroè  (Abū  l-Walīd  Muha mmad ibn Ahmad  Muham mad ibn Rushd,  1126-1198),  qadi 
of Sevilla  and Cordoba  like his father  and grandfather,  became famous for his logical 
refutations  in defense  of the philosophical  search,  that he presented  as compatible  and 
non-contra ry to theology . Specifically,  he wrote  many  famous translations  with 
commentaries  to the texts of  Aristotle,  that had becom e completely  forgotten in the West.
His most important  work,  The Destruction  of Destruction (Tahāfut  al-tahāfut, in Latin 
Destructio  destructionis) is a refutation  of The Destruction  of the Philosophers (Tahāfu t 
al-falāsifa, in Latin Destructio  philosophorum), the aggressive  text in which  Al Ghazali 
presented  freedo m of thinking  as offensive  against  Islamic theolog y. Averroè  also 
compos ed a voluminous  text focused  on the analysis of the Islamic  religious doctrines  of 
his time s and a treatise  on General  Medicine. Because  of his defense  of the intrinsic  value 
of cultu re and free thinking,  Aver roè was pronounced  as heretic,  exiled  and kept under 
strict  control until his death:  this sentence  is considered  the turning  point closing  the brief 
period of  the "golden age" of  Islami c domination.
Aristotle's  works were  translated  from  Greek  into Latin also by the monks  of Saint 
Michel,  including  Giacom o Veneto,  starting  from 1127.  However,  the study of Aristotle's 
philosophy  was merely  aimed at creating  Church  leaders  that were  adequatel y equipped 
with the knowledge  requi red to protect  it and bring about  its triumph  at global  level. 
Among  the laureates  from  the Universit y of Paris there were many  popes,  such  as 
Celestine  II, Ad rian IV, Innocentius II I and Onorius IV.
In his attempts  at becom ing independent  from the Church  of Rome, Henr y VIII of 
England  too established  chairs of "Regius  Professor"  to teach  Hebrew  at Cambridge  in 
1540  and at Oxford  in 1546;  then a department  of Arabic  was established  in Cambridge 
in 1643.  In 1669  Edmund  Castell  published  his "Dictionary  of seven  language",  the 
Lexicon  Heptaglotton  Hebraicum,  Chaldaicum,  Syriacum,  Samaritanum,  Aethiopicum, 
Arabicum, et  Persicum. 
Of course,  all the knowledge  offered  in the universities  had to be subordinated  to the 
Christian  doctrine:  only in the 19th century , after  the French  revolution  and Napoleon's 
7

regim e, theolog y ceased  to be a compulsory  study in the universities  - first in Paris and 
then in Oxford.
Indolog y proper  (as the study  of Sanskrit  and Vedic  texts)  only started  after  a new sea 
route  to the Indies became feasible.  During  the period of Islamic expansion,  commerce 
with  India  was strictl y controlled  and exploited  by Musli ms, therefore  the European 
kingdo ms suffered  great  economic  losses  due to the extrem e rise in the cost of spices.  At 
that time, spices  were  used as medicin es, flavorings  and preservatives  for food,  as well as 
ingredients  for perfumes and scents  for body , clothing  and houses.  We need  to reme mber 
that in that period  there  was no refrigeration  system , the Christian  rules discouraged 
people  from  taking baths and toilets  were seriousl y rudimentary.
The crusades  failed  in their attempt  to take the Middle  East away from  Islam, and south 
Europe had to engage  in a hard war on its very territory - Spain,  south  Italy, Greece  - to 
fight  back  the invasions  of the "Sarrasins".  Only in 1491  the King  of Spain  was able to 
retake  Grenada  from the hands  of the Muslim s. When  Constantinople  fell in the hands  of 
the Turks, the European m onarchs  started  to seek  urgently  for a sea  route that could allow 
them to reach  the Indies  without  having  to travel  through  the territories  occupied  by 
Islam. This  was precisel y the plan of Christopher  Colu mbus, as when  he started  his 
journe y in 1492  he was not looking  for America  but rather  for India,  It was also the plan 
of Vasco  da Gama (journey from 1497  to 1499 ), Magellan  (journey  of 1519 -1522)  and 
other  great  navigators  of those  times. The explicit  ambition  of those  monarch s was the 
direct  conquest  of the territo ries and their resources,  to be exploited  for the greater  power 
of Christianit y, so each expedition  was accom panied  by an ambassador  of the Church  of 
Rome, who was  to report ever ything t o the  pope. 
Francis  (Francisco)  Xavier  de Jasso  y Azpilicueta  (1506-1552 ) had graduated  from Paris 
University  together  with Ignatius  Loyola and Pierre Favre. He left in 1549  to accompany 
the Portuguese  expedition  of Vasco  da Gama and organize  India's  christianization.  
Initiall y Xavier  had founded  the Jesuit  order together  with Ignatius  of Loyola and other  5 
friends,  with the declared purpose of "converting all the Muslim s of the Middle East", but 
as that task had proven  impos sible,  the Company  of Jesus shifted  its attention  to the 
fabulous  Indies. The Portuguese  expedition  landed  at Goa,  on the west  coast  of India, 
taking  possession  of the territory in the name of the pope  and immediately founding  the 
College  of Saint  Paul,  a seminar to train lay priests,  that was entrusted  to by Michele 
8

Ruggieri.  This became the headquarters  of the Jesuits  in Asia,  the base  from  which 
Nobili,  Ricci  and Beschi  started  for their  mission s respectively  to India and to the Far 
East. 
In India,  Roberto  de Nobili  (1577-1656 ) developed  the method  of inculturation 
(accommodatio), that had alread y been  succes sfully  applied  in Europe  in the early 
centuries  of Christianity  (for example  with  the Christm as tree, Easter  eggs,  the 
processions  of the saints,  etc) adopting  and adapting  those  Indian  traditions  and custom s 
that could  make Christianity  "more  digestible"  for the natives.  He dressed  as a sannyasi, 
with a shaved  head  and sikha, and utilized  terms in Sanskrit  and Tamil - for example 
calling  "Veda"  the Bible  and "Guru"  the Christian  priest.  He also explained  the 
brahmanas' sacred  thread as a symbol  of Christian  Trinity and so on.
All over the occupied  region  Xavier  destroy ed the temple s, the sacred  places  and the 
religious  scriptures,  that he openl y denounced  as "works  of the devil,  repellent  and 
grotesque",  apply ing the usual  brutal  ways to force  the native  population  to convert  to 
Christianity. All the brahmanas were killed  or expelled  togethe r with their books,  and the 
population  was forced  to regularl y gather  in churches  to listen  to the preaching  against 
their  own religion. All the texts  that were  not written  in Portuguese  language  were 
burned, no m atter what thei r subject  was.
Xavier  was particula rly interested  in child ren and he removed  them from their familie s 
"to educate  them  in a Christian  way".  Still today  in India  we find innumerable  schools 
and especially  institutes  of highe r studies  - colleges  and universities  - dedicated  to the 
name of Francis  Xavier,  and still today  it is normal among  Hindus  to call "idols"  the 
sacred  image s of their own religion  and "mythology"  the sacred  stories  contained  in 
Upanishads, Puranas and  Itihasas - so much  that people  have  difficultie s in 
understanding  why such definitions  are incor rect and inadequate  to refer  to the objects  of 
their own faith.
In his diaries,  Xavie r wrote  about  the children  educated  by the Jesuits:  "Their  hatred for 
idolatr y is wonderful.  They revolt  against  the heathens  and when  they see their own 
parents  engaging  in pagan  practices,  they scold  them  and come at once  to me to report. 
As soon  as I know about one such  situation, I go to the  spot with a  band of these  children, 
who immediately  shower  the devil  with an amount  of insult  and damage  greater  than 
9

what  was the amount  of honor  and worship  it had received  from parents,  relatives  and 
friends.  The child ren jump  on the idols,  they throw them  down,  break them to pieces,  spit 
on them,  trample  them under  their feet and kick them  around  - in short,  they do them  all 
possible  offen se. I order to destroy  the huts where  the idols  were  kept,  and to shatter  the 
idols  into the  smallest  pieces  possible.  I would never end to describe  the great consolation 
that fills my soul when  I see this destruction  of the idols  by the hands  of the idolaters 
themselv es. I cannot  describe  the happiness  I feel watching  the idols  cast down  and 
destroyed  by those  same people  that once  used  to worship  them. If in spite  of all good 
advice  someone  persists  in making  idols,  we have  him punished  by the chief  of the 
village, who sentence s him to exile, and we burn his house  as a warning for the others."
Besides  tirelessly  carrying on with this kind of preaching,  Xavier  repeatedly  asked  both 
the pope  and the King  of Portugal  to introduce  the Inquisition  in India  (where  it 
continued  in full swing  until 1812)  to uproot all traces  of paganis m as well as heresy  and 
even  punish  scarce  enthusiasm  in the Christian  faith.  The local Penal  Code  of the 
Inquisition  filled  320 pages  with the list of prohibit ions,  and the punishm ents for the 
rebels  were considered  by all conte mporaries  as the heaviest  ever  applied  by the 
Portuguese  catholic  Church.  Still today  the region  of Goa is strongly  Catholic,  and the 
remn ants of Francis Xavier's  body are worshiped as  a relic in the main  basilica.
The two great  mariti me and colonial  powe rs in those  times were  Portugal  and Spain,  to 
which  pope  Martin  V assigned  the entire  world as legal  posses sion with the bulla  Rex 
Regnum, giving  them "right  of crusade  and conquest"  on all the territories they would 
find,  each on either  side of the famous "Tordesillas  line"  that divided  the planet  into two 
halves.  The Portugal  was given  Africa  and Asia,  while  Spain  was assigned  the new 
territories  of the A mericas.
The kingdo ms of Britain,  France  and Holland,  that were  politically  non-aligned  with the 
pope  and therefore  "not author ized"  to conquer lands  outside  Europe,  organized  first their 
pirate  fleets  to grab whatever  they could  of the immense wealth  transported  home  by the 
Spanish  and Portuguese  fleets.  Soon  they realized  that it was much  easier  and convenient 
to establish  their own colonies  in the New  World  dealing  directly  with the natives,  who 
did not seem to care much  for the authorit y of the pope  in Rome or Christianity  in 
general.
10

After  the battle  of Gravelines  (1588)  and the famous defeat  of the Spanish  Invincible 
Armada that was trying to invade  the English  coasts,  and the two subsequent  Spanish 
failures  of 1596  and 1597,  England  became the greatest  maritim e and colonial  power  of 
the times,  under  the enlightened  reign  of Elizabeth  I. Already  in 1600  the Queen  created 
the East India  Trading  Company  with the status  of English  Royal  Charter.  The Com pany 
practicall y had the European  monopoly  of trade  on tea, cotton,  silk, indigo  and opium, 
with a strong  competitor  in the Dutch  equivalent  of East India  Trading  Com pany,  that 
was dealing m ostly with spices,  cocoa, coffee,  sugar etc.
In the subsequent  centur ies England  founded  colonies  of migrants  in north  America  and 
Australia,  and established  a strong  commercial and political control  on India.  In 1670 
king Charles  II gave  the Company  the right to acquire  territo ries independently , to mint 
currenc y, hold forts  and command army  troops,  establish  alliances,  wage  war and sign 
peace  treaties,  exercing  full civil and criminal  jurisdiction  on the territories  it acquired. 
The British regime  in India had started.
Willia m Carey  (1761-1834 ), founder  of the Baptist  Missionary  Society , published  in 
1792  the volume An Enquiry  into the Obligations   of Christians  to use means  for the 
Conver sion of the Heathens. To further his mission,  he started  to study oriental languages 
and with the help of one Pandit  Mrityunjay he compiled  a series  of dictionaries  of the 
local  languages.  From  his Serampore  Mission  press, near Calcutta,  he printed  over 200 
thousands  Bibles  in 45 Indian  and oriental  languages  (including  Oriya, Hindi,  Tamil, 
Sikh,  Parsi,  Sindhi,  Nepali,  Armenian,  Afghan,  Guja rati, Bhutani,  Javanese,  Siamese and 
Sinhalese)  and started  to train a group  of "Christian  pundits"  who studied  the Vedic 
scriptures  to refute  and oppose  them.  He also started  the publication  of school  texts  for 
the Fort William  College  and for the Calcutta  School  Book  Society,  as well as the first 
monthly  magazine  and then the first daily  newspaper  in Bengali,  starting  from  1818.  His 
organization also  produced  the paper for the p rinting.
Charles  Grant (1746-1823),  president  of the East India  Company,  was an ardent  activist 
of the Evangelic  party led by William Wilberforce  (1759-1833 ). Under  his protection 
Claudius  Bucchanan  arrived  in 1790  at Calcutta;  Bucchanan  was convinced  that God had 
delivered  India  into the hands  of the British  for the only purpose  of christianizing  the 
Hindus,  liberating  them from  "the yoke of the dark and degrading,  monstrous  and absurd 
superstitions  of their native  faith." After  beco ming  vice president  of the Serampore 
11

College,  Bucchanan  journeyed  to Orissa  in 1805  briging  back  deeply  distorted 
descriptions  of the "Moloch  Jaggernauth"  to whom  - according  to him - thousands  of 
human sacrifice s were  offered  during  the annual  Ratha  yatra at Puri, the "Mecca  or 
Jerusale m of the Hindoos, the Sebastopol  of their idolatr y".
In 1797  Charles  Grant  wrote  a libel entitled  Observation s on the State among  the Asiatic 
Subjects  of Great  Britain,  particularly  with respect  to morals  and means  of improving 
them, in which  he clear ly expressed  his intention  to introduce  to India a strictl y Christian 
school  system  aimed at demolishing  Vedic  cultu re. His Evangelist  fellow  A.H.  Bow man 
wrote,  "Hinduis m is a great  philosoph y which  lives on unchanged  whilst other  systems 
are dead,  which  as yet un supplanted  has its stronghold  in Vedanta,  the last and the most 
subtle  and powerful  foe of Christianity ." This hostile  approach  was obviously  inspired 
and supported by the unive rsity acade mics, still heavil y under the  control of  Christianity  - 
specifically,  in Britan it was  Anglican Protestantism , in which the monarch (now e mperor 
of the colonies) was  the highest  religious  autho rity.
Horace  Hayman Wilson  (1786-1860),  graduated  in Medicine  at the St Thomas Hospital, 
arrived  in India as assistant  surgeon  with the East India  Comp any and became secretary 
(from  1811  to 1833)  and then director  (from 1837  to 1860 ) of the Royal  Asiatic  Society 
of Bengal.  He translated  the Meghaduta by Kalidasa  and the Vishnu  Purana, then in 
1819  he published  the first English-Sanskrit  dictionar y and helped  Mill to compile  his 
famous historical  treatise.  He was the first to obtain  the post of Professor  for the Boden 
Chair  of Sanskrit  at Oxford  in 1833  and he immediately announced  a prize  of 200 
sterling pounds  for "the best  refutation of  the Hindu r eligious  system".
After  him, the Boden  Chair  went  to Sir Monier -Willia ms (1819-1899,  author  of the most 
famous and still popularl y used  Sanskri t/English  dictiona ry), who wrote,  "For what 
purpose  then has this enormous  territory been  committed to England?  Not to be the 
'corpus  vile' of political,  social,  or military  experim ents;  not for benefit  of our commerce, 
or the increase  of our wealth  - but that every man, woman  and child,  from  Cape  Com orin 
to the Himalaya  mountains,  may be elevated,  enlightened  Christianized...  When  the walls 
of the mighty  fortress  of Brahmani sm are encircled,  unde rmined,  and finall y stormed  by 
the solders  of the c ross, the victory  of Christianit y mu st be signal  and co mplete."
12

Contraril y to what  had been  done  by the Portuguese  governm ent in Goa,  where  the 
catholic  Inquisition  had been  impo sed by force,  the British  colonial  governm ent strictly 
maintained  a neutral facade,  that was necess ary in order to avoid  the indignation  and the 
violent  rebellion  of 50 million  Indians  against  the 30 thousand  Britishers  staying  in India. 
The docum ents of that period  show  that sometimes this motivation  was also openl y 
declared,  as for example  by Mr. Twinings,  pionee r of the tea trade,  and by Colonel 
Montgo mery,  commander in chief  of the British army in India.  Under  the governatorate 
of Lord Cornwallis  (1786-1805 ) the official  position  of the colonial  gove rnment  was to 
"preserve  the laws of the Shaster  and the Koran,  and to protect  the natives  of India in the 
free exercise  of their  religion,"  but the missionaries  were  not only tolerated  but even 
actively  helped,  because  this was convenient  for the colonial  purposes.  The British  prime 
minister,  Lord Palmerston  (Henr y John  Temple,  3rd viscount  of Palmerston,  in office 
from 1807  until  his death  in 1865 ) declared,  "It is not only our duty, but in our own 
interest  to promote  the diffusion  of Christianity  as far as possible  throughou t the length 
and breadth of  India".
Secretar y of State  Lord  Halifax  (1881-1959 ), too, was of the same opinion:  " Every 
additional  Christian  is an additional  bond  of union  with this countr y and an additional 
source  of strength to the Empire."
It is interesting  to notice  that Lord Halifax,  also known  as Edwa rd Frederick  Lindley 
Wood,  first Earl of Halifax,  remained  in charge  as Secretar y for Foreign  Affairs  from 
1938  to 1940,  and was appointed  Viceroy  of India from 1926  to 1931  with the additional 
title of Baron  of Irwin  on direct recom mendation  of King  George  V, also because 
Edward's grandfather  had been  Secretar y of State for India. In that position, and unde r the 
direct pressure  of the British King, Lord Halifax  took a series  of disastrous  decisions  with 
the ai m of severel y repressing  the Ind ian independence m ovem ent.
Thoma s Babbington  Macaulay  (1800-1859),  first Legislator  Lord under  the General 
Governor  of India,  was given  the task to organize  the acade mic system in India precisely 
in this direction.  In a 1836  letter  to his father,  Macaulay  wrote, "It is my belief  that if our 
plans  of education  are followed  up, there  will not be a single  idolato r among  the 
respectable  classes  in Bengal  thirty years hence...  No Hindu  who has received  an English 
education  ever r emains  sincerel y attached  to his religion."
13

The missionary  Alexander  Duff  (1806-1878)  founded  in Calcutta  the famous Scottish 
Churches  College,  which  he envisioned  as a "headquarte rs for a great  campaign  against 
Hinduis m." He trained  students  from  the wealth y classes  of Indian  society  and possibly 
from the "high  castes"  to learn the language  and ideals  of the colonial  govern ment,  thus 
shaping  the impre ssionable  mind s of the youngsters  into the firm belief  in the superiorit y 
of Christianity  and European  civilization,  for the purpose  of creating  an interm ediate 
class  of "brown  sahibs"  that would  control  the native  masses for them.  The cultu ral 
battle  against  Hinduism  was well beyond  the scope  of the British  colonial  governm ent: 
the christianization  of the entire  world  was presented  as "the white man' s burden"  - the 
duty and m ission of each Eu ropean.
Amongs  the many  others, Baron von Bunsen,  ambassador  of Prussia  in England, dreamed  
about  converting  the entire world  to Christianity.  His protegé  Fredrich  Max  Mueller 
(1823 -1900),  born  in Dessau  (Germany),  studied  Sanskri t at Leipzig  and translated  the 
Hitopadesa before  arriv ing in England  in 1846.  He was introduced  to Macauley  and 
obtained  from the East India Company  the task to translate  the Rig Veda into English  - 4 
shillings  a page.  After  settling  in Oxford,  Max  Mueller  translated  many  other texts  and 
wrote  the encyclopedia  The Sacred  Books  of the East (50 volume s, started  in 1875).  He 
wrote,  "This edition  of mine  and the translation  of the Veda  will hereafter  tell to a great 
extent...  the fate of India, and on the growth  of million s of souls  in that countr y.... the 
only way of uprooting  all that has sprung  from it during  the last 3000  years... and that is 
of a more  degraded  and savage  character  than  the worship  of Jupiter,  Apollo  or 
Minerva...  It may have  but served  to prepare  the way of Christ...  India is much  riper for 
Christianity t han Rom e or G reece  were at the tim e of Saint Pau l."
Max  Muller  was particularl y irked  by those  scholars  who,  instead  of devoting 
themselv es to this "evangelic  mission",  committed the mortal sin to sincerely  appreciate 
Vedic  knowledge:  one who did that "should  know  that he can expect  no money;  nay, he 
should  himsel f wish  for no mercy,  but invite the heaviest  artillery... to condone 
Brah minical  idolat ry and to discountenance  Christianit y is to commit high  treason 
against  hum anity and civilization."
One of such  rebels  was Louis Jacolliot  (1837 -1890),  a French  scholar  that for a period 
became supre me Judge  in the court  of Chandranagar  for the colonial  regime.  In his book 
The Bible in India, Jacolliot  wrote,  "O Land  of ancient  India!  O Cradle  of Humanity, 
14

hail!  Hail revered motherland  whom centuries  of brutal  invasions  have  not yet buried 
under  the dust of oblivion.  Hail,  Fatherland  of faith,  of love,  of poetr y and of science. 
May we hail a revival  of thy past in our Western  future...  How  glorious  the epoch  that 
then presented  itself  to my study and comprehension!  ... I enquired  of monum ents and 
ruins,  I questioned  the Vedas  whose  pages  count  their  existence  by thousands  of years 
and whence  enquiring  youth imbibed  the science  of life long  before  Thebes  of the 
hundred  gates  or Babylon  the great  had traced  their  foundations....  And then India 
appears  to me in all the living  powe r of her originality  – I traced  her progress  in the 
expansion  of her enlighten ment  over the world  – I saw her giving  her laws,  her custom s, 
her morale,  her religion  to Egypt, to Persia,  to Greece  and Rom e... Name of us any 
modern  discovery,  and we ventu re to say that Indian  history  need  not long be searched 
before  the prototy pe will be found  on record...  we may read what  Manu  said,  perhaps 
10,000  years before  the birth  of Christ:  The first germ  of life was developed  by water 
and heat.  Water ascends  towards the  sky in vapors; fro m the sun  it descends  in rain, from 
the rains  are born  the plants,  and from  the plants,  animals. ... India  of the Vedas 
entertained  a respect  for women amounting  to worship;  a fact which  we seem  little to 
suspect  in Europe  when  we accuse  the extre me East of having  denied  the dignity  of 
woman,  and of having  only  made  her an instru ment  of pleasure  and of passive 
obedience."  
Even  the officers  of the British govern ment  were  often  very impres sed by Vedic  culture. 
In 1689,  John  Ovington  (the King's  chaplain)  wrote  A Voyage  to Surat, where  he said, 
"Of all the regions  of the Earth (India  is) the only Public  theatre  of Justice  and 
Tenderness  to Brutes  and all living  creatures."  He also found  that, because  of their 
(vegetarian)  diet, the Hindus  kept "a comely  and proportionate  body and lived  a long life. 
The simple  and meatles s food  made their thoughts  quick and nimble,  their 
comprehension  of things  easier and developed  in them  a spirit of fearlessne ss."
In 1690  the diplo mat Sir William Temple  wrote  in his Essay  upon  the Ancient  and 
Modern  Learning, "it seems most probable  that Pythagoras  learned,  and transported  into 
Greece  and Italy, the greatest  part of his natural and moral philosoph y, rather  than from 
the Aegyptians...  Nor does  it seem  unlikel y that the Aegyptians  them selve s might  have 
drawn m uch of their learning fro m the Indians long before."
Lord Warren  Hastings  (1732 -1818),  first governor  general  of India  (from  1773  to 1785 ), 
15

wrote,  "The writers of the Indian  philosophies  will survive,  when  the British  dominion  in 
India shall  long have ceased  to exist, and when  the sources  which it yielded of wealth and 
power are lost to rem embranc es."
Sir Thoma s Munro  (1761 -1827),  officer  of the British govern ment  and governor  of 
Madras  (in 1819 ) stated  to the House  of Commons, "If a good  system of agricultu re, 
unrivalled  manufacturing  skill,  a capacit y to produce  whatever  can contribute  to 
convenience  or luxury, schools  established  in every  village  for teaching,  reading,  writing 
and arithmetic;  the general  practice  of hospitalit y and charit y among  each  other;  and 
above  all, a treatm ent of the female sex full of confidence,  respect,  and delicacy,  (if all 
these)  are among  the signs  which  denote  a civilized  people,  then the Hindus,  are not 
inferior  to the nations  of Europe;  and if civilization  is to becom e an article  of trade 
between  England and  India, I am  convinced that England will gain b y the import  cargo."
Colonel  James Tod (1782 -1835)  wrote  in his Annals  and Antiquities  of Rajasthan:  or the 
Central  and Western Rajput States  of India: "sages  like those  whose  system s of 
philosophy  were prototy pes of those  of Greece:  to whose  works  Plato,  Thales  & 
Pythagoras  were  disciples?  Where  do I find astrono mers  whose  knowledge  of planetary 
system s yet excites  wonder  in Europe  as well as the architects  and sculptors  whose  works 
claim our admiration,  and the musician s who could  make the mind oscillate  from  joy to 
sorrow, fro m tears to s mile..."
In 1887  Sir William  Wedderburn  Bart (1838  - 1918),  magistrate  in Pune  and chief 
secretary  to the gove rnment  in Bombay,  wrote, "The Indian village  has thus for centuries 
remained  a bulwark  against  political disorder,  and the home  of the simple dome stic and 
social  virtues."
Sir John  Malcol m (1829 -1896),  governor  of Bombay,  wrote,  "The Hindoo...are 
distinguished  for some of the finest  qualit ies of the mind;  they are brave,  generous,  and 
humane,  and thei r truth is as  remarkable  as their cou rage."  
Lord Curzon  (1859-1925 ), Marquis  of Kedleston,  was vicero y of India  from 1899  to 
1905.  In a speech  in Delhi  in 1901  he said,  "Powe rful Empires  existed  and flourished 
here [in I ndia]  while Eng lishmen were still wandering painted in the woods."
Sir Charles  Norton  Edgcu mbe Eliot (1864 -1931)  simil arly stated,  "Let me confess  that I 
16

cannot  share  the confidence  in the superiorit y of Europeans  and their  ways  which  is 
prevalent  in the West...  Hinduism  has not been  made, but has grown.  It is a jungle,  not a 
building.  It is a living exam ple of a great national paganism  such as might  have existed  in 
Europe if Christianit y had not becom e the state religion  of the Roman Empire."  He also 
liked  to quote  the Taittirya  Upanishad (3.6):  "Bliss  is Brahm an, for from bliss  all these 
being are born, b y bliss  when born t hey l ive, into bliss  they  enter at their death ."
Even  Francis  Yeats-Brown  (1886 -1944),  officer  of the Bengal  Lancers,  was attracted  to 
the study of vedic  knowledge  and yoga, and ended  up writing  a book  on these  topics 
(Yoga E xplained).
However,  the British  officer  to be most impre ssively  transfor med by the Indian 
experience  was Sir John  Woodroffe,  also known  as Arthur  Avalon  (1865 -1936),  general 
advocate  for Bengal  during a period  of 18 years and supre me magi strate  in 1915.  The 
study  of Sanskrit  and vedic  scriptures  conquered  him to the point  he personall y adopted 
the traditional  Indian  cloth ing (dhoti). His greatest  interest was for Yoga  and Tantra, 
which  he considered  the greatest  expression  of India's  religious  spirit,  with  is deep 
symboli sm and secret  philosophical  aspects.  He translated  many original  texts  and 
published  several  treatises  including  the famous The Serpent  Power, and gave 
innumerable  lectures  and presentations.  He wrote, "I believe  that the East and particula rly 
India posse sses that which  is the highest  value.  I wish  to see this preserved  for the mutual 
benefit  of East and West...  An examin ation  of the Vedic  thesis  shows  that it is in 
confor mity with  the most advanced  philosophical  and scientific  thoughts  of the West  and, 
where  this is not so, it is the scientist  who will go to the Vedantist  and not the Vedantist 
to the scientist...  In India there  has been  intellectual  and spiritual  freedo m - the most 
valuable  of all... As  the Veda says, Tru th will conquer."
Sir William Jones  (1746-1794 ), graduated  from Oxford,  was appointed  judge  of the 
supre me court in Calcutta;  during his stay in India  he started  to study  Sanskrit  and 
founded  the Royal  Asiatic  Society  of Bengal.  He was fluent  in 13 languages  and knew 
28 more  rathe r well,  and probabl y this is why he was the first to see a relationship 
between  Sanskrit,  Greek and Latin, and more  distantl y with Goth  and the other Celtic 
languages,  and with ancient  Persian.  Starting fro m these  observations,  he formul ated the 
famous theory  of an ancient  indo-eu ropean  civilization,  and the belief  that Pythago ras 
and Plato  had tapped  the Indian  wisdo m of Vedanta  to develop  their philosophical 
17

system s. He wrote  poem s dedicated  to Nara yana,  Lakshm i and Ganga,  and he declared 
himsel f to be in love with the gopis, charmed with Krishna,  an enthusiastic  admirer  of 
Rama and a devout  adorer  of Brihma  (Brahma),  Bishen  (Vishnu),  Mahisher 
(Maheshwara)”.  
He encou raged  his colleague  Charles  Wilkins  to produce  the first English  translation  of 
Bhagavad  gita and inspired  many other later men of cultu re, such as Schopenhauer  (who 
mentioned  him in various  writings)  and indirectly  the poets  of the romantic  move ment, 
such as Lord Byron and Samuel  Taylor Coleridge.  Jones  was heavily  criticized  by James 
Mill (father  of the philosopher  John  Stuart Mill),  that in 1818  had written  for the 
governm ent the voluminou s History  of British  India greatl y based  on the description  of 
the notorious  French  missionary  Abbé  Dubois.  Mill's  treatise  was one of the compulsory 
texts  at the Haile ybury College,  training  the government  officers  that were  going  to serve 
in India.
Many  scholars  have  noticed  a strong  connection  of the ancient  Vedic  knowledge  with 
Greek  cultu re, still considered  by mainstrea m academ ia as the origin  of western  cultu re. 
It is well known  that in ancient  times culture  freely  circulated  in the form  of books, 
teachers,  religious  people  and scholars,  traveling  along  the rich commercial routes  both 
by sea and by land.  Merchants  of all nations  used  to establish  small  colonies  in the 
countries  where  they had commercial  interests,  and often  facilitated  the traveling  and 
settle ment  of fellow  countr ymen  who wanted  to emigrate  for various  reasons.  Both  the 
caravans  and the cargo  ships  were  happy  to accept  passengers  traveling  in both 
directions,  connecting  India with the mediterranean  and middle- eastern  countries  such as 
Greece,  Rom e, Egypt, Phoenicia,  Anatolia  and Mesopota mia. This is how cultu re spread 
- philosophy,  religion  and sciences,  that in the ancient  world  were  considered  all 
harmoniou s parts  of the One Knowledge.
The first "foreign"  scholars  to approach  Vedic  knowledge  were probabl y the Greek 
philosophers,  who even  before  the advent  of Alexander  the Great  went  to study in the 
famous universities  of Nalanda  and Takshila,  that were  nearest  to the western  boundaries 
of India.  Indians,  too, traveled  often,  and there  is evidence  of the presence  of brahmanas 
and Buddhist  monks  in Greece,  especially  in Athens,  even  before  Socrates.  Eusebius  and 
Aristoxenes  speak  about  them , and there  is also a fragment  of Aristotle's  preserved  in the 
writings of  Diogenes  Laertius, specifically  in his Biography of Pythagoras . 
18

Another  of Pythagoras'  biographers,  Iamblichu s (582-506  BCE),  clearl y states  that the 
great  philosopher  and mathematician  visited  India  during his study journe ys. Certainly 
during  his traveling  he had the opportunit y to study the Sulba  sutras, the section  of Vedic 
scriptures  that deals  with mathem atics, containing  the theorem  that is known  today  as 
"Pythagoras'  theorem"  (the quadrature  of the hypotenuse),  as well as the square  root of 2 
correct  to the fifth decim al, and other  jewels  of knowledge.  The oldest  existing  copy of 
the Sulba  sutra is a transcription  by Baudhayana,  traced  back  at least to the 8th centur y 
BCE.
Among  the Vedic  concepts  embraced  by Greek scholars  there are certainly  mathe matics 
and geom etry,  music,  cosmology,  astrono my, physics,  medicine,  metallurgy  as well as 
metaphysics  or philosoph y, religious symboli sm and the awareness  of the unity  of life. 
Specifically,  the compas sionate  awareness  of the common nature  of all beings  gave  rise 
to ethical  vegetarianis m, of which  the pythago reans  became the main  exponents,  so much 
that until the 20th centur y in E urope all vegetarians  were called p ythagoreans.
In Phedo, Plato  describes  silent  meditation  as the withdrawing  of the senses  from their 
objects  and stopping  the flow of the move ments of the mind.  To understand  how deepl y 
ancient  Greeks  absorbed  the religion  of Vedic  India it is sufficient  to compare  the image 
of the Omph alos ("the navel  of the world"),  center  of the Orphic  cult at Delphi  and in the 
entire Mediterranean region, with the picture of any S hiva linga. 
Another  great personalit y that certainl y visited  India  was  Apollonius  Tyanaeus, 
neopy thagorean  philosopher  hailing from Cappadocia,  compared  by the christians  of the 
4th centur y to Jesus hims elf. Apollonius'  biographer  Philostratus  speaks  of his journey to 
India  in 2 chapters  of the book  he wrote  in 210 CE. He also writes,  "Ever yone  wishes  to 
live near God, but only  Hindus  succeed  in doing that."
A contem porar y of Philostratus,  Lucius  Flavius  Arrianus  also known  as Xenophon  (86 - 
160 CE) compiled  the Anabasis  Alexandri, the story of the campaign s of Alexander  the 
Great,  based  on the writing  of Ptolemy  (the most  important  general  in Alexander's  army), 
Callisthenes  (the nephew  of Aristotle,  Alexander's  tutor ), Onesicritus,  Nearchus  and 
Aristobulus,  all contemporaries  of Alexander.  Here  is how Xenophon  describes  the 
Indians:  "They  are remarkably  brave,  and the best warrio rs among  all the Asians.  They 
give enormou s value  to moral  integ rity and truthfulness,  they are so honest  that they do 
19

not use bolts  for their  doors  or written  contracts  for their agreem ents.  They are so 
reasonable  that rarely they require  the intervention  of judges  to regulate  their 
disagree ment s... It is also remarkable  how in India all Indians  are free and there  is no 
slavery.  Their armie s have  never  invaded  foreign  countries  with  the purpose  of 
conquest."
Many  peoples  came in contact  with Vedic  cultu re and were fascinated  by it to the point 
that they  spontaneoulsy  chose  to embrace  it, and yet they remained  completely 
independent  politicall y; the Mahabharata  lists several  of them  among  the allies  of the 
Pandavas  or the Ku rus that took part i n the  Kurukshetra  war.
After  his brief  and unsucces sful campaign  in India,  Alexander  the Great  returned to the 
West  with  a great  quantit y of Vedic  texts  and a numerous  group  of translators  and 
copiers,  that settled  in the new capital  called  Alexandria  of Egypt and became the 
foundation  of the very famous library and universit y of Alexandria,  where  many 
hundreds  of thousands  of texts were preserved. 
Hellenistic  culture  was perfectl y compatible  with vedic  knowledge  and religion,  yet there 
were  also some who chose  to fully  embrace  the Hindu  orthodox  tradition,  especially 
Vaishnavis m. In India  we still find the famous column  of Heliodorus  the son of Dion, 
Greek  ambassador  for the King  Antiakila  of Bactria,  who was envoyed  to the court of 
King  Bhagabhadra  of Varanasi  in the 2nd centu ry BCE.  This Heliodorus  was so taken 
with Indian  spiritualit y that he officially  converted  to Hinduism , beco ming  a devotee  of 
Vishnu,  and erected  a commemorative pillar with  a Sanskrit  (Brahmi)  inscription  to 
praise  "Vasudeva,  the God of  all Gods, who rides Garuda".  
Still in 662 CE, Seve rus Sebokht  di Nisibis,  christian  bishop  of Kenneserin  in Syria, 
although  condem ning astrologers  of all denomin ations,  was very favorably  impress ed by 
the "knowledge  of the  Hindus, their subtle and ingenuous  discoveries,  superior t o those  of 
the Greeks  and Babylonians,  of their  rational  mathematical  system  and calculation 
method  (the decim al system)  that no wo rds can praise  enough".
Trade  and cultu ral exchanges  continued  for many centu ries also between  the western 
ports  of India and Egypt - one example  for all, the five ships  sent by Queen  Hatsheput  to 
purchase  spices  - and between  India and the ancient  kingdom  of Israel at the times of 
Solomon.  These  contacts  continued  with the Alexandria  of the Ptole mies  and with Rome. 
20

At Muziris  (now  Cranganore,  in Kerala)  there  was a garrison  of 1200  legionaries 
guarding  the Roman merchants ' colony . In the same period some colonies  of Jewish 
traders settled  in the area. 
The ports of the east coast  of India were  the base of trading  and cultu ral exchanges  with 
the countr ies of the far east. The greatest  Chinese  river, the Yang-tze,  received  its name 
in honor  of the Ganges.  Hu Shih,  ambas sador  of China  in the United  States,  declared, 
"India  conquered  and dominated  culturally  China  for 20 centur ies, withou t ever sending 
one single  soldier bey ond the borders."
Ancient  Indians  founded  many colonies  (collectively  called  Svarnabhu mi) all around 
Indonesia  up to Singapore  (originally  called  Sinha Puri, "the city of the lion" ). Still today 
we can see in Cam bodia  one of the largest  Hindu  temples  in the religious  compl ex of 
Angkor  Vat, and of course  we must  reme mber the huge  spreading  of Buddhism  in the far 
east - Buddhism  being  derived  without  interruptions  from  Vedic  culture  and still sharing 
many ideas  with it.
After  the fall of the Rom an empire  and with the advent  of Islam, it was the Muslim s that 
controlled  access  to India.  They, too, studied  the scientific  discoveries  of the Vedic 
civilization and percolated  som e of them  into t he regions  of Eu rope they had conquered. 
Alread y in 638 Khalifa  Umar launched  a campaign  to conque r India,  particular ly the 
region  that is today  known  as Beluchistan.  From  638 to 715 these  invasions  were 
regularl y contained  and pushed  back  by the Baluch  princes  of Makaran.  The Arab 
chronicles  of the time attribute  such defeats  to the "black  magic"  apparently  used in the 
mysterious  weapons  of the Hindus  - who became famous as the great magi cians  of the 
Arabian tales,  developing into legends  such as  those  of the Arabian Nights. 
Since  the ethical  code  of the kshatriyas  did not allow  the persecution  of defeated 
enemies, the Hindu  princes  stopped  fighting  as soon  as their opponents  accepted  defeat, 
and when  the enemi es surrendered  they were  allowed  to enter freely  into the territories 
and approach  the population without  restrictions,  as long  as they abstained  from  any form 
of violence.  Actually  all visitors  and foreigners  were  offered  great  honors,  as enjoined  by 
the vedic  teaching atithi devo  bhava, "a guest  must be respected  like God him self".
This gave  the Arab  invaders  the oppo rtunity  to come in contact  with the texts  and the 
21

teachers  of Vedic  knowledge.  The fourth  Khalifa  Ali bin Abi Talib (656-661  CE) 
described  India as "the land where  books  were  written for the first time, and where 
wisdo m and knowledge  were  born".  In the 9th centu ry the historian  Yaqubi  wrote, 
"Hindus  are superior  to all other  nations  for intelligence  and thoughtfulness.  They are the 
most precise  in astronomy  and astrolog y, and the most expert  in medicine.  Greeks  and 
Persians  have  gained  much from  their knowledge."  Another  Muslim  historian  of the 9th 
century , Al Jahiz,  commented, "the Hindus  excel  in mathem atics and in the other 
sciences,  they have  perfected  the arts such  as sculpture,  painting  and architecture,  and 
have  collections  of poetry , philosophy,  literature  and ethical  sciences.  They are wise, 
brave, and posse ss the virtues  of cleanliness  and pu rity".
After  consolidating  their  knowledge  of Indian  society  and its territo ry, and fearing  the 
growing  Hindu  religious  and cultural  influence  on their own lands  (especiall y on the sufi 
movem ent), the Arabs  returned to their  aggression  plans  and in 711 Moha mmed-ibn-
Qasim took possession  of Deval  (presently  Debal,  near Karachi)  by blackmailing  the 
guardian  of the fortress gates.  He kidnapped  his 3 children,  beheaded  one of them and 
threatened  he would  kill the other  two if the gate keeper  refused  to open  for him a 
secondary secret door that led into the walls.
Once  the Sindh  was occupied,  the invaders  focused  on Rajasthan  and Gujarat,  attacking 
respectively  the Rajputana  and Chaluk ya (Solanki ) princes,  who success fully  defended 
their  territories. In 980 there was a second  wave  of invasions  by the "new  Muslim s" of 
the islamized regions  of Persia, Turkey and  Mongolia.  The army of the Persian  Sabuktgin 
occupied  Kubha  (now  Kabul,  in Afghanistan)  by exploiting  the Hindu  princes'  ethical 
code  in war, according  to which  one should  not attack  an enemy who is not ready for 
battle.  So the Sultan  dressed  his soldiers  in black,  wrapped  the horses'  hooves  with cloth 
to muffle the sound  of their steps,  and attacked  the Hindu army camp  in the middle  of the 
night,  when  all the warrio rs had gone  peacefully  to sleep.  In the confusion  and surprise, 
almost  all the warrio rs were  killed before  they had the time to get their weapons.  The few 
survivors,  including  prince  Anandapala  the son of King  Jayapala,  withdrew  to 
Ubandapura  (presentl y Und in Pakistan)  in the kingdo m of Pakhtunisthan.  That  region, 
too, was invaded  by the muslims, who won the Laho re battle  by secretl y administering  a 
slow  effect  poison  to the war elephants in the Hindu ar my.
The 17 years old Trilochanapala,  son of Anantapala,  was crowned  king and moved  the 
22

capital  to Kangra (Him achal  Pradesh); in 1020 he was  killed b y a small group of  Muslim s 
disguised  as Hindu  sannyasis, who insisted  to meet  him in his apartment  to deliver  a 
secret  message. The fake sadhus cut the prince's  throat  and left the decapitated  body with 
a message stating  that "all those  who opposed  Allah's  soldiers  would  suffer the same 
fate".  The subsequent  attack  to the Kang ra fort found  the defenders  still shocked, 
confused  and without a leader, so al most  all the inhabitants fled  to the mount ains.
The way to the subcontinent  was opened:  the Persian  Sultan  Mahm ud Ghazni,  son of 
Sabuktgin,  immediately  started  a series  of regula r incursions  against  Purushapura 
(Peshawar),  Lavakushpura  (Lahore),  Mulasthana  (Multan),  Somanath,  Palitana, 
Staneshvara  (Thanesar),  Mathura,  Kannauj  and Khajuraho,  looting  treasures  and 
enslaving  the local  people,  that were  sent through  the Himalayan  passes  of the Hindu 
Kush  ("the  Hindu  killer" ), a territory that earned  that name because  the Hindu  slaves 
were  forced  to carry the looted  treasures  by walking  to the inner  lands  of their 
conquerors,  and at every journe y they died in their  thousands  of exhaustion,  cold and 
starvation.
From  1033  to 1187  the islamic power  in India became consolidated,  and the Sultans 
investigated  more deepl y into Indian  cultu re. With  the new Sultan  Moha mmed Ghori, 
belonging  to the second  generation  of Indian  converts  (the Gauris  had been  cowherd  men 
subject  to the Solanki  princes)  the situation  changed  drastically.  Now  the invaders  had no 
more need  to collect  infor mation  from  the local  Hindus,  therefore  all masks were thrown 
aside.  In 1191 Ghori attacked  Prithviraj  Chauhan,  Maharaja  Rajput  of Shaka  Ambara,  but 
he was defeated;  Ghori's  army escaped  by covering  their  retreat with a herd of cows 
chained  to one another,  so that the Hindu  warrio rs could  not advance  without  killing  the 
innocent ani mals.
After  being  defeated,  Ghori  proposed  the peace,  begging  forgiveness  for his aggression 
and calling  the Maharaja  "brother";  he was allowed  to go free and the Maharaja  even 
gave  him an escort  with 500 horses and 20 elephants.  But as soon  as he was out of reach, 
Ghori  massacred  his escort  and sent their heads  to the Maharaja,  then immediately 
resumed his attacks.  Finall y he defeated  the Hindu  King  by challenging  him to a personal 
duel,  and instead  captur ing him as a prisoner.  The Maharaja  was chained,  force-fed 
opium and paraded  in that condition  in front  of the Rajput  army,  then his eyes were 
carved out and he was kept as  a slave  in the court of Ghori. The entire terr itory conquered 
23

by Ghori was then subm itted to the strict islamic law: all the Vedic  texts  were destroy ed, 
the brahmanas slaughtered  or forced  to convert,  the temple s razed  to the ground  (and 
mosque s were  built  in their  place)  and the Persian  language  was impo sed as the only 
allowed  language  (which  later became the present  Urdu-Hindu ). The "infidels"  could 
continue  to practice  their  religion  but only  in a strictly  private  way, and only by 
submitting  to a constant  system  of limitations  and humiliation s. All the non-Muslim s 
were  given  a legal  status  of perm anent  slaver y (zimma), under  the power  of a local 
Musli m owne r (zamindar) to whom they had to pay a "survival  tax" just to avoid  being 
killed,  plus the rent for the land they lived  on (kharaj), and various  other  and completely 
new taxes.  Only  a Musli m could  ride (horses  etc) or carry weapons.  The non-Muslim s 
had no right  to disobe y any order given  them  by a Musli m, build  a house  that was taller 
than the house  of the poorest  Muslim  in the region, build  new temple s or repair  the old or 
damaged  temples,  teach  or study  texts  that were  "contrar y to Islam".  Non-Musli ms also 
had to submit to a series  of rules  for clothing  (for example  the prohibition  to wear  shoes) 
and restrictions  in social life  and professional  occupation,  specifically engineered to m ake 
life extremely  difficult  to those who chose  not to convert to Islam.
The islamic invasion  also wiped  out Buddhism  - an essentially  monastic,  non-violent  and 
non-political  system that until then had survived  and thrived  unde r the protection  of the 
Hindu  princes.  The Muslim s saw the Buddhists  as even  more "infidel"  than Hindus, 
because  Buddhis m denies  the existence  of God and the soul.  The monk s that survived  the 
destruction  of the Buddhist  universit y centers  escaped  to Tibet,  Lanka  and the regions 
east of India, where they  started  to thrive again under the local m onarchs.
In 1192  the islam ic invaders  took Hastinapura  (Delhi ); from there  they swar med into the 
Ganges  plain  down  to present  Bangladesh,  impo sing  the funda mentalist  islam ic 
governm ent in the regions  they were  occupying.  The Bengal  sultanate  becam e the easter 
counterpart of the sultanate  of Delhi, with which it often clashed  for the suprema cy on the 
subcontinent.  In 1326  the Muslim s arrived  in south  India,  seizing  a large  part of the 
territory; the city of Madras  took its name  from  the madrassa (islamic religious  school) 
that made it famous, and the name of Hyderabad,  in central -south  India,  was impos ed to 
the pre-existing  city. The same thing  happened  with  Allahabad  (ancient  Prayaga), 
Ahmedabad  and ma ny other cities.
24

For some time the hindu  kingdom  of Vijay anagara  resisted  in the region,  fighting 
succes sfully  from  1331  to 1565  against  the Baha mani sultans  that had settled  in present 
Andhra  pradesh.  At that time Vijayanagara  becam e the only shelter  for the brahmanas 
and the teachers  of Vedic  knowledge,  until  1565  when  this last Hindu  stronghold  was 
stormed,  his inhabitants  slaughtered  to the last, and all buildings  totally destro yed during 
6 continuous  month s of looting and  destruction. 
The islam ic control  on the Indian  subcontinent  was opposed  in Maharashtra  by 
Maharatha  Chatrapati  Shivaji, and in Kashm ir and Punjab by Sikhism, originall y founded 
by Guru  Nanak  and transfor med into the comb ative  Khalsa  Panth  by Guru  Tegh Bahadur 
and Guru Gobind Singh. 
The Marathas  fought  the Mughals  from  1674 to 1701, when they succeeded  in reclaiming 
a great  part of the subcontinent  to hindu  rule;  however  from  1775  the Marathas  were 
engaged  in wars  by the British  and were finall y defeated  in 1818.   Similarly,  the Sikh 
empire  developed  in the north  (Panjab,  Kashm ir, Sindh  etc) from  1799  to 1849,  when  it 
was dissolved  by the British.  The Kings  of Orissa  also defended  their territories  from 
1212  (the time  of the first invasion)  to 1567,  when  the Afghans  declared  their 
independence  from the Moghul  empire  and established  them selve s in Orissa,  to be briefly 
substituted  by the Marathas  and then by  the British.
However,  by and large  over several  centu ries the islamic funda ment alists  were  able to 
conduct  their system atic persecutions  against  the tradition  of Vedic  knowledge.  One 
important  exception  was Muha mmad Dara  Shikoh  (1627 -1658),  son of the Moghul 
emperor  Shah  Jahan.  The mullahs did not like Muham mad Dara  because  of his sufi 
heterodoxy  and his admiration  for Vedic  knowledge;  he was particula rly fascinated  by 
the Upanishads and translated  50 of them under  the title of Sirr i Akbar ("the Great 
Secret"),  a book  that also included  quotes  from  Bhagavad  gita and Yoga vashista. On the 
order  of his brothe r Aurangzeb,  who ascended  the throne  after  his father,  Dara  was 
executed  in 1659  as a heretic  because  he stated  in his book  Majma  ul Bahrayn ("the 
meeting  of two oceans",  referring  to Hinduism  and Islam) that the Koran  meant  to 
indicate  the Vedic texts when  it spoke of  the Kitab al Maknun , "the hidden book".
In Europe,  after  the cultu ral darkness  of the middle  ages,  the French  illuminists  were 
among  the first to rediscover  the fascination  for the ancient  Indian wisdo m. Voltaire 
25

(1694 -1774)  wrote,  "The Vedas  are the most  precious  gift for which  the west is eternall y 
indebted  to the east...  every thing  came to us from  the banks  of the Ganges  - astronomy, 
astrology , metempsycho sis and so on. It is important  to note that at least 2500  years ago 
Pythagoras  traveled  from Samo  to the Ganges  to learn  geometry.  Certainl y he would  not 
have  embarked  in such  a journey if  the reputation of the brahmanas'  science  had not been 
established  in Europe for a long time. "
A contem porar y of Voltaire,  Pierre Sonnerat  (1748 -1814),  author  or Voyage  to the east 
Indies  and China, wrote,  "Among  the Indians  we find the traces  of the remote st 
antiquity ... we know  that all peoples  came here to seek the elem ents of their knowledge... 
It is well known  that Pythago ras went  to India to study  under  the brahmanas, who were 
the most enlightened  among the human beings...  In her splendor,  India  gave  religion  and 
law to all the other peoples;  Egypt and Greece  owed her thei r own wisdo m."
Astrono mer Jean-Claude  Bailly  (1736–1793 ), member of the Academy  of Sciences, 
wrote, "The Hindu astrono mical  system  is much  more ancient  than the ones  of the Greeks 
and even  of the Egyptians;  the calculations  made by the Hindus  4500  years ago on the 
star movements are precise  to the minute."  Anothe r French  astrono mer, Pierre Simon  de 
Laplace  (1749-1827 ), who became famous for his hypothesis  on the origin  of the solar 
system  from  a nebula,  as well as for the equation  and the math ematical differential 
operator  that took his name, wrote,  "It is India  that gave  us the ingenuous  method  to 
express  all numbers  with 10 symbols,  each with a value  of position  and an absolute  value 
- a deep  and important  idea that only seems so simple now because  we ignore its true 
merit. This simplicity,  this ease of utilization  that conferred  to all calculations,  puts our 
arithmetic s above  all other useful  inventions.  We can bette r appreciate  the greatness  of 
this conquest  when  we reme mber that it escaped  the genius  of Archimed es and 
Apollinius,  two of the greatest  men  produced  by antiqui ty."
Abraham  Hyacinthe  Anquetil -Duperron  (1731-1805 ) was the first academ ic scholar  to 
study  specifically  Indian  cultu re. He lived  in India for 7 years and produced  the French 
translation  of the Zenda  Avesta, the main  text of parsis m, and also a Latin translation  of 
the Upanishads published  in 1804,  that becam e one of Arthu r Schopenhauer's  favorite 
readings.  Dupe rron wrote,  "If the British...  continue  to refuse  to enrich  European  cultu re 
with  the Sanskrit  scriptures...  they will bear the shame of having  sacrificed  honor, 
honesty  and humanity  to the vile lust for gold and money,  and man's knowledge  will get 
26

no glor y or benefit  from their conquests."
Another  French  thinke r of the times, Victor  Cousin  (1792 -1867),  wrote,  "By carefully 
reading  the poetic  and philosophical  monu ments of the East,  and especially  of India,  that 
are starting  to spread  in Europe,  we discover  so many  and so deep  truths,  that we are 
compelled  to kneel  in front  of eastern  philosophy,  and to see this cradle  of the human 
race as  the m otherland  of the m ost sublim e philosophy."
Cousin,  too, became a source  of inspiration  for the subsequent  generations,  among  which 
we may mention  Théodo re Simon  Jouffroy,  Jean  Philiber t Dam iron,  Garnier,  Pierre-
Joseph  Proudhon,  Jules  Barthelemy  Saint-Hilai re, Felix  Ravaisson- Mollien,  Charles  de 
Rémusat, Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  Jules  Simon,  Paul Janet,  Adolphe  Franck  and Patrick 
Edward Dove.
In France  the interest  for the study  of the Vedas continued  with Jules  Michelet  (1798-
1874),  who wrote,  "From India  we get a strea m of light,  a river of Right  and Reason... 
while in our West  dry and barren mind s treat Nature with ar rogance,  the I ndian spirit, that  
is the richest  and most fecund  of all, has generousl y embraced  universal  brotherhood, that 
includes  the identit y of all souls."
Another  great French man,  Victor  Hugo  (1802 -1885),  author  of Les miserable s and Notre 
Dame  de P aris, wrote a poe m on Kena  Upanishad. 
Henri  Frédé ric Amiel   (1821-  1881 ) stated,  "It is not a bad thing,  to have  some 
brahminic al souls  in the western world." 
Paul Verlaine  (1844 -1896)  wrote  a poem  entitled  after Savitri  and considered  the Vedic 
texts  "much better  than the Bible,  the Gospels  and all the works  written by the Fathe rs of 
the Church."  
Romain  Rolland  (1866 -1944),  Nobel  Prize 1915  for literature,  author  of a book  on 
Ramakrishn a's life, added,  "If there  is a place  on this earth  where man's dream have 
found  a home since  the earliest  days of his existence,  this is India!  For over 30 centuries 
the tree of vision,  with all its thousands  of branches  and millions  of twigs,  has grown  in 
this torrid land,  the burning  lap of the Gods,  and is tirelessly  renovated...  Let us return to 
our eagle  nest on the Himalaya.  It is waiting  for us because  it belongs  to us, and we, 
european  eaglets,  do not need  to renounce  any part of our true nature...  The spirit of the 
27

Vedanta  has never  been  obstructed  by a class  of priests,  each man has been  totall y free to 
go wherever  he wanted,  seeking  the spiritual  explanation  for the spectacle  of the 
universe."
The Frenchm an Edgar  Quinet  (1803 -1875)  was the first to introduce  the concept  of 
"eastern  renaissance...  a new reform of the religious  and secular  world: this is the great 
subject  of today's  philosoph y." Followed  Pierre Loti (1850 -1923,  nom de plume of Louis-
Marie-Julien  Viaud ) who  wrote, "I pay  homage  to yo u with veneration and awe,  o ancient 
India,  of whom  I am an adept,  India of the greatest  glory of arts and philosoph y... May 
your awakening dazzle  the west!"
Edward  Gibbon  (1734-1794 ), great  English  historian  of the Enlightenm ent period,  autho r 
of the famous The Decline  and Fall of the Roman  Empire, describes  with admiration  the 
freedo m of religion  in Hinduism:  "Thus the Hindus  have  an extraordina ry wide  selection 
of beliefs  and practices  to choose  from:  they can be monotheist s, pantheists,  polytheists, 
agnostics  or even  atheists.  They may follow  a strict  or a loose  standard  of moral conduct, 
or they may choose  instead  an amoral  emotionalism  or mysticis m. They may worship 
regularl y at a temple  or may not go there at all. ... The ancient  Romans also had a similar 
form of worship  like the Hindus...  The polic y of the emperors  and the senate,  as far as it 
concerned  religion,  was happily  seconded  by the enlightened,  and by the habits  of the 
superstitious,  part of their subjects.  The various  mode s of worship,  which  prevailed in the 
Roman world, were  all considered  by the people,  as equall y true;  by the philosopher  as 
equally  false;  and by the magistrate  as equall y useful.  And thus toleration  produced  not 
only mutual  indulgence, but even  religious  concord."
Among  the other  great  British  thinkers  of the times, we may mention  Percy Bysshe 
Shelley  (1792-1822),  who later becam e the idol of subsequent  generations  of poets  such 
as Robert  Browning,  Alfred  Tennyson,  Dante  Gabriel  Rossetti,  Algernon  Charles 
Swinburne  and William  Butler  Yeats.  Both  Shelle y and his wife Mary  (author  of the 
famous Frankenstein  novel)  were  passionate  admirers  of Vedic  wisdo m, that also turned 
them into vegetarian  activists.  Shelley  even  wanted  to move  to India.  Robert  Southey 
(1774 -1843)  was the first English  poet to incorpo rate Vedic  references  in his works  - for 
example  in The curse  of Kehama he speaks  of mount  Meru,  Parvati,  Shiva and the 
Ganges.
28

Among  the German admirers  of Vedic  knowledge  we can mention  Immanuel Kant 
(1712 -1804),  who gave  many lectu res on the subject  at the Konigberg  Universit y in 
eastern  Prussia,  and Johann  Gottfried  Herde r (1744-1803)  the leader  of the famous 
movem ent Sturm  und D rang. 
He wrote,  "(India  is) the lost paradise  of all the religions  and philosophies,  the cradle  of 
humanity,  and my eternal  home, the great  Orient  awaiting  to be discovered  within 
ourselves.  The o rigins  of m ankind  can be traced  back to India, where the human  mind  has 
obtained the first form s of wisdom  and virtue with a simplicity,  a strength and  a sublimity 
that have,  frankl y, absolutel y no equal  in ou r cold philosophical  european wor ld."
A very similar  opinion  was expressed  by Fried rich Creuzer  (1771-1858 ), philo logist  and 
archeologist,  in his Symbolik  und Mythologie  der allen  Volker: "If there  is a countr y on 
earth  which  can justly  claim  the honor  of having  been  the cradle  of the human race or at 
least the scene  of the earliest civilization,  the succes sive develop ments  of which  carried 
into all parts  of the ancient  world  and even  beyond,  the blessings  of knowledge  which  is 
the second  life of m an, that country  assuredly is India."
August  Wilhel m von Schlegel  (1767 -1845)  founder  of the Rom antic  move ment together 
with his brother  Frederich  (1772 -1829),  produced  18 lectures  on Bhagavad  gita, entitled 
Dialogues  of Krishna  and Arjoon. In his commentaries  he wrote, "Even  the loftiest 
philosophy  of the Europeans,  the idealis m of reason  as it is set forth  by the Greek 
philosophers,  appears  in comparison  with  the abundant  light  and vigor of Oriental 
idealis m like a feeble  Promethean  spark  in the full fold of heavenl y glory of the noonda y 
sun, faltering and feeble  and ever ready  to be extinguished ." 
The Prussian  minister  of public  education,  Wilhel m von Humboldt  (1767-1835 ) becam e 
such an enthusiast  of Schlegel's  edition  of Bhagavad  gita that he started  to study Sanskrit 
himsel f. 
He wrote to his friend, the statesm an Frederick von Gentz (1764 -1832): "I read the Indian 
poem for the first time when  I was in my country  estate  in Silesia  and, while  doing so, I 
felt a sense  of overwhelming  gratitude  to God for having  let me live to be acquainted 
with this  work. It mu st be the m ost profound  and sublim e thing to be found  in the wor ld." 
Fried rich Majer  (1771-1818)  wrote,  "It will no longe r remain to be doubted  that the 
29

priests  of Egypt and the sages  of Greece  have  drawn  directly  from the original  well of 
India...  Towards  the Orient, to the banks  of the Ganga  and the Indus  that our hearts  feel 
drawn  as by some hidden  urge -  it is there  that all the dark presentim ents point  which  lie 
in the depths  of our heart...In  the Orient,  the heavens  poured  forth  into the earth."  In his 
book Philosophy of Mythology , F. W. J.  Schelling ( 1773-1854 ) devoted  over 100 pages  to 
India;  in a 1802  lecture  he praised  "the sacred  texts  of the Indians,  that are superior  to the 
Bible."
Novalis  (1772-1801 ), pseudon ym of Baron  Friedr ich von Hardenberg,  leader  of the 
romantic  movement, wrote,  "Sanskrit  takes  me back  to the original  people  that had been 
forgotten."
Inspired  by von Schlegel,  Fried rich Ruckert  (1788-1866 ), profes sor of eastern  languages 
in Erlangen  from  1827  to 1841,  produced  many translations  from  Sanskrit  to German, 
including the Gita Govinda.
Henrich  Heine  (1797-1856 ), whose  poems were  put in music as Lieder  ("sonate")  by 
Robert  Schu mann  and Franz  Schubert,  speaks  in his Buch  der Liede r "the dear 
motherland,  the blue and sacred  Ganga,  the eternall y shining  Himalayas,  the gigantic 
forests  of Banyan  trees  on whose  wide  shadow y paths  quietl y walk  wise  elephants  and 
pilgrim s". 
Always  in the field of music,  it is interesting  to know  that Ludwig  van Beethoven  (1770-
1827)  left several  fragment s of translations  and adaptation  of the Upanishads and 
Bhagavad gita.
However,  the most famous scholar  of the Vedas  in this period  was Arthur  Schopenhauer 
(1788 -1860),  who wrote,  "There is no religion  or philosophy  so subli me and elevating  as 
Vedanta...  The Vedas  are the most rewarding  and the most elevating  book  which  can be 
possible  in the world... In the whole world there  is no study so beneficial  and so elevating 
as that of the Upanishads.  It is destined  sooner or later  to beco me the faith of the people... 
It has been  the solace  of my life - it will be the solace  of my death.  It is the product of the 
highest  human wisdom ." Schopenhauer  openl y expressed  his disappointm ent about  the 
european  Christian  cultu re based  on the Bible;  he often  proclai med  that his own 
philosophy was based  on Vedic  teachings.
30

Another  great German  scholar,  Johann  Wolfgang  von Goethe  (1749 -1832),  expressed  in 
various  occasions  his admiration  for the works  of Kalidasa  (Shakuntala and Meghaduta) 
and for  Gita Govinda. 
Heinrich  Zimmer (1890 -1943),  the greatest  German  scholar  on Indian  philolog y, to 
whom a Chair  was dedicated  at the University  of Heidelberg  (for Indian  philosoph y and 
intellectual  histor y), wrote,  "with the cult of the Great  Goddess  in Hinduism , the archaic 
heritage of  sensual  earth -bound rites  rises once  again overwhelmingly to the zenith".  
Fried rich Nietzsche  (1844-1900 ) spoke  disparagingl y of those  Europeans  who,  lacking  in 
intellectual  discernm ent, wanted  to convert  and "civilize"  the brahmanas. Paul Dessen 
(1845 -1919)  also known  as Deva  Sena,  wrote,  "on the tree of wisdo m there is no fairer 
flower  than the Upanishads,  and no finer  fruit than the Vedanta  philosophy".  Carl Gustav 
Jung  (1875 -1961),  the founder  of the Anal ythical  Psycholog y, gave  summer lectu res on 
yoga philosoph y and kundalini  in Zurich for a few years.  He wrote,  "We  do not yet 
realize  that while  we are turning  upside  down  the material  world of the East with our 
technical  proficiency,  the East with  its psychic  proficiency,  is throwing  our spiritual 
world into confusion."
Rudolph  Steiner  (1861 -1925),  the famous founder  of the Anthroposofic  Societ y, wrote, 
"What  we read in the Vedas,  those  archives  of Hindu  wisdo m, gives  us only a faint idea 
of the sublim e doctrines  of the ancient  teachers".
Herman Hesse  (1877-1962 ), Nobel  Prize 1946  for literature,  becam e famous for his 
Siddharta, a novel  centered  on spiritual  search  in ancient  India.  He wrote,  "India  is not 
only a country  and something  geog raphical,  but the home  and the youth of the soul,  the 
every where  and nowhere,  the oneness  of all times... The marvel  of the Bhagavad-Gita  is 
its truly beautiful  revelation  of  life's  wisdom  which  enables  philosoph y to blosso m into 
religion."
Albert  Einstein  (1879-1955),  famous physicist,  autho r of the revolutiona ry relativit y 
theor y and the law of the photoelectrical  effect  (the basis  of quanta  theor y) and Nobel 
Prize  for Physics  1921,  declared,  "We owe a lot to Indians  who taught  us how to count, 
without  which  no worthwhile  scientific  discovery  could  have  been  made... When  I read 
the Bhagavad-Gita and reflect  about how God created  this universe everything else seems 
so superfluous."
31

The Belgian  Count  Maurice  di Maeterlinck  (1862-1949),  Nobel  Prize 1911  for literature, 
explains  in his book  Mountain  Paths that the doctrine  of Karma  is "the only satisf actory 
solution  of life's  injustices."  He also wrote,  "We  cannot  tell how the religion  of the 
Hindus  came into being...  we find it alread y complete  in its broad outlines,  its main 
principles.  Not only is it complete,  but the farther  back  we go, the more  perfect  it is, the 
more unadulterated..."
Georg  Wilhel m Friedrich  Hegel  (1887-1961 ), one of the most famous German 
philosophers,  author  of the thesis  of Total Reality,  wrote,  "India  has created  a special 
momentum in world  history  as a country  to be searched  for...  Withou t being  known  too 
well,  it has existed  for millennia  in the imagination  of the Europeans  as a wonderland.  Its 
fame, which  it has alwa ys had with regard  to its treasures,  both its natural  ones,  and in 
particular, its wisdo m, has lured men there... India has alwa ys been  an object  of yearning, 
a real m of wonder, a wo rld of  magic."
Inspired  by the ancient  Indian  schools  described  by the Greeks,  Count  Hermann 
Keyserling  (1880-1946 ) founded  in 1920  the School  of Wisdom  in Darm stadt,  Germany  - 
based  on the concept  of a planetary  culture  beyond nationalis m and cultu ral 
ethnocentris m. He wrote abut  the "absolute  superiority  of India  over  the West  in 
philosophy;  poetry from the Mahabharata,  containing  the Bhagavad- Gita,  “perhaps  the 
most beautiful work of  the literature of  the world." 
One of the most remarkable  personalities  of this period  was Margaret  Elizabeth  Noble 
(1867 -1911),  born  in Ireland,  but famous in India as Sister  Nivedita.  She wrote  various 
books,  such as The Master  as I Saw Him;  Notes  of Some  Wanderings;  Kedar  Nath  and 
Bhadri  Narayan;  Kali the Mother;  The Web of Indian  Life; An Indian  Study of Love and 
Death;  Studies  from  an Eastern  Home;  Indian  Art; Cradle  Tales of Hinduism;  Religion 
and Dharma;  Aggressive  Hinduism;  Footfalls  of Indian  History;  Civic  Ideal and Indian 
Nationality;  Hints on National  Education  in India ; Lambs  Among  Wolves;  On 
Education ; On Hindu  Life,  Thought  and Relig ion; On Political,  Economic  and Social 
Problems.  
She met Swami Vivekananda  in London  in 1895  and became his disciple,  moving  to 
Calcutta  on his invitation  and accepting  the order of brahmacharya in 1889;  she the first 
western  woman  admitted  to an Indian mona stic order.  A few weeks  later she was joined 
32

by two more female disciples  of Vivekananda,  the Americans  Sara C. Bull (wife  of the 
famous Norvegian  violinist  and compo ser Ole Bull)  and Josephine  MacLeod. 
Vivekananda  had written  her, "Let me tell you frankly  that I am now convinced  that you 
have  a great future in the work for India.  What  was wanted  was not a man,  but a woman  - 
a real lioness  - to work for Indians,  women  especially.  India cannot  yet produce  great 
women,  she must borrow  them  from  other nations.  Your  education,  sincerit y, purit y, 
immense love,  determination  and above  all, the Celtic  blood  make you just the woman 
wanted."
She was intimate  friend  of Sarada  Devi  (Ramakrishna 's wife),  Aurob indo Ghosh  and 
many intellectuals  in the Bengali  community,  such  as Rabindranath  Tago re, Jagadish 
Chandra  Bose  (the Indian  scientist  that invented  the radio  simultaneou sly with Marconi) 
and his wife Abala  Bose,  and the artists Abanindranath  Tagore,  Ananda  Coomarasw ami 
and Nandalal  Bose.  She is particularly  famous in India because  she activel y contributed 
to the cause  of Indian  independence  and to the developm ent of a Hindu  educational 
system  for wo men,  including adult women  and widows. She wrote, "The whole history  of 
the world  shows  that the Indian  intellect  is second  to none...  Are the countr ymen  of 
Bhaskaracharya  and Shankaracharya  inferior  to the countr ymen of Newton  and Darwin ? 
We trust not."
In this brief  review  of the admirers  of Indian  cultu re we cannot  forget  the founders  of the 
Theosophical  Society.  Helena  Petrova  Blavatsky  (1831-1891)  greatly  drew  from Vedic 
knowledge,  especially  from  the Upanishads and the Vedanta, to write  her magnum  opus, 
The Secret  Doctrine (published  in 1885 ). It was precisely  the Theosophians  who first 
introduced Mohandas  Kara mchand  Gandhi to the reading of Bhagavad gita.
The Theosophist  Christopher  W. B. Isherwood  (1904 -1986)  worked  with  Swami 
Prabhavananda  to the translation  of Gita, Upanishads and Patanjali's  Yoga sutras, 
awakening  among  Indians  a new interest  for vedic  knowledge,  "that  was so valued  by 
westerners".  Isherwood  also wrote Vedanta  for the Western  World and My Guru  and His 
Disciple  (about  Swami  Prabhavananda,  who was his spiritual  guide  for about  30 years). 
He declared, "I believe the Gita to be  one of the m ajor religious docum ents of the world... 
The Gita is not si mply  a sermon,  but a philosophical  treatise."
Colonel  Henr y S Olcott  (1832-1907 ), co-founder  of the Theosophical  Society  together 
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with Blavatsky,  strongly  believed  that "the ancient  Hindus  could  navigate  the air, and not 
only navigate  it, but fight  battles  in it... they must have  known  all the arts and sciences 
related to the science",  as he stated  in a lecture in Allahabad (the ancient Pra yaga).
Probabl y the most famous personality  in this Theosophist  group  was Annie  Wood  Besant 
(1847 -1933), active  socialist  on the executive co mmittee of the Fabian Societ y along with 
George  Bernard  Shaw.  She became directly  engaged  in the Indian  independence 
movem ent and was a founder  of the Indian  National  Congress  (still  today  the most 
powerful  party on the Indian  political  scene).  Besant  wrote, "After  a study of some forty 
years and more  of the great  religions  of the world, I find none  so perfect,  none  so 
scientific,  none so philosophical  and none so  spiritual that the  great religion known b y the 
name of Hinduis m. Make  no mistake,  without  Hinduism , India  has no future...  This is the 
India of  which I  speak  - the I ndia which,  as I said, is  to me  the Hol y Land. F or those  who, 
though  born for this life in a Western  land and clad in a Western  body, can yet look back 
to earlier incarnations in which they drank the  milk  of spiritual wisdom  from  the breast  of 
their true mother  - they must feel ever the magic of her immemorial past, must dwell ever 
under  the spell  of her deathless  fascination;  for they are bound  to India by all the sacred 
memories of their  past;  and with her, too, are bound  up all the radiant  hopes  of their 
future,  a future  which  they know  they will share  with her who is their true mother  in the 
soul-life...  India is the moth er of religion.  In her are combined  science  and religion  in 
perfect  harmony,  and that is the Hindu  religion,  and it is India  that shall  be again  the 
spiritual m other  of the world."
Mirra  Alfassa  (Morisset  or Rochard,  1878-1973 ), also known  as Mother  Meera,  or Mère 
as she was called  by Aurobindo  and his followers,  arrived  in India for the first time with 
Alexandra  David-Neel  (1868-1969 ), French  explore r and scholar  in Sanskrit  and 
Buddhis m at the Sorbonne  Universit y - the first woman to travel  alone  in India  and to 
organize  tours  for her friends.  In 1920  Mère  settled  in Pondicherr y where  she established 
an ashra ma for Aurobindo,  who had decided  to retire in isolation.  This first ashra ma later 
developed  into t he great project now known as  Aurovil le.
Also  rather  famous, albeit  extre mely  controversial,  is the Russian  George  Ivanovich 
Gurdjieff  (1877-1949 ). Both  Gurdjieff  and his "rebellious"  student  Peter D. Ouspensky 
(1878 -1947)  greatly  drew from the Indian  traditions  of Yoga  and sacred  dance  to create 
their personal philosophy, although t hey never r ecognized  their intrinsic original value. In  
34

this, they were  following  the path alread y traced  by the medieval  sufis,  dervishes  and 
fakirs,  that had come in touch  with the surviving  fragment s of the Hellenic  and Vedic 
knowledge  and utilized some of their concepts  to build  an "islamic mysticism " to mellow 
out the public i mage  of the political isla m.
The numb er of the admirers  of Vedic  knowledge  continued  to grow  all over Europe 
among  philosophers,  literates,  scientists,  musicians  and thinkers  of all fields.  Here  is a 
brief  chronological list.
Edward  Washburn  Hopkins  (1857 -1932),  American  sanskritist  who studied  at Leipzig, 
secretary  of the American  Oriental  Societ y and directo r of its magazine,  and also autho r 
of several  books,  such  as  Religions  of India,  Epic Mythology,  History  of Religions, 
Origin  and E volution of Relig ion.
Goldsworthy  Lowes  Dickinson  (1862 -1932),  pacifist  activist  during World  War 1, was 
the father  of the concept  of the League  of Nations,  that later became the United  Nations 
Organization.  Hailing  from a Christian-socialist  family,  Dickinson  gave  up Christianit y 
and e mbraced  the I ndian religion. 
In An Essay  on the Civilizations  of India, China &  Japan, he wrote, " The real antithesis  is 
not between  East and West,  but between  India and the rest of the world.  Only  India is 
different;  only India unspools  some other possibilit y fantastically..  In the first place,  India 
has never  put Man in the center  of the universe.  In India,  and wherever  Indian  influence 
has penetrated,  it is, on the one hand,  the tremendou s forces  of nature, and what  lies 
behind  them that is the object  of worship  and of speculation;  and, on the other  hand, 
Mind  and Spirit; not the mind  or spirit  of the individual  person,  but the universal  Mind  or 
Spiri t, which  is in him, but which  he can only have  access  by philosophic  mediation  and 
discipline...  Indian  religion  has never  been  a system of dogma, and is not entangled  in 
questionable  history . Indian philosoph y and religion  have  always  affirm ed that there is; 
that by meditation  and discipline  an internal  perception  is opened  which  is perception  of 
truth."
Gustav  Holst  (1874-1934 ) compo sed various  symphoni es inspired  by the Hindu 
scriptures:  in 1903  to Indra  and in 1908  to Savit ri (inspired  by the Mahabharata episode) 
and The Cloud  Messenge r, inspired  by Kalidasa's  Meghadu ta. Another  work,  dedicated 
to Sita and inspired  by the Ramayana, was never  completed.  Later  in life he started  to 
35

study  Sanskrit  to produce  a translation  of the Rig Veda that could  be adapted  to western 
music.
Lady Maria  Callcott  (1785 -1842)  also known  as Mrs.  Graha m, from  the name of her 
second  husband.  She is the author  of Journal  of a Residence  in India, published  in 1812 
when  she returned  to England.  She declared  that the purpose  of her journal was "'to 
exhibit  a sketch  of India's  former grandeu r and refine ment so that I could  restore  India  to 
that place  in the scale  of ancient  nations,  which  European  histor ians have  in general 
unaccountably  neglected  to assign  to it... Were  all other  monum ents swept  away  from the 
face of Hindustan,  were all its inhabitants destro yed, and its  name forgotten, the existence 
of the Sanskrit  language  would  prove that it once  contained  a race who had reached  a 
high  degree  of refinem ent...  superior  to the havoc  of war and conquest,  it remains  a 
venerable  monu ment of the splendour  of other times, as the solid  Pyramid  in the deserts 
of Egypt."
Albert  Schweizer  (1875 -1965)  wrote, "The Bhagavad- Gita has a profound  influence  on 
the spirit of  mankind  by its devotion to God which is  mani fested by actions."
Erwin Schroedinger  (1887-1961),  Austrian  physicist  and political refugee,  Nobel  Prize 
1933  for quantu m mechanics,  kept at his bedside  Gita, Upanishads, and various  Vedic 
texts  especially  on Yoga  and Sankh ya. He stated,  "Some blood  transfusion  from  the East 
to the West  to save Western  science  from  spiritual  anem ia... is the only solution...  found 
in the ancient  wisdom  of the Upanishads."  Schroedinger  was the author  of What is Life? 
The Physical  Aspect  of the Living  Cell, and Mind and Matter, both inspired  by Vedic 
concepts.  Especially  the second  book  became very famous and according  to Francis 
Clark,  who discovered  the DNA  genetic  code,  it created  the basis  for that revolutionary 
breakthrough.  Here  are some extracts,  "This life of yours which  you are living  is not 
merely  a piece  of this entire existence,  but in a certain  sense  the whole;  only this whole  is 
not so constituted  that it can be surve yed in one single  glance.  This, as we know,  is what 
the Brahmin s express  in that sacred,  mystic  formula  which  is yet really so simple  and so 
clear;  tat tvam asi, this is you... From the great  Upanishads  the recognition  Atman  = 
Brah man was considered,  far from being  blasphe mous, to represent,  the quintessenc e of 
deepest  insight  into the happenings  of the world. The striving  of all the scholars  of 
Vedanta  was, after having  learnt  to pronounce  with their lips, really  to assimilate in their 
minds this grandest of  all thoughts."
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According  to Schroedinger's  biographer,  Walter  Moore,  "The unity  and continuity  of 
Vedanta  are reflected  in the unity  and continuity  of wave  mechanic s. In 1925,  the world 
view  of phys ics was a model  of a great machine  composed  of separable  interacting 
material  particles.  During  the next few years,  Schrodinger  and Heisenberg  and their 
followers  created  a universe  based  on super  impo sed inseparable  waves  of probabilit y 
amplitudes.  This new view would be entirel y consistent  with the Vedantic concept."
Fried rich Heiler  (1892 -1967),  author  of Mysticism  of the Upanishads,  Christian  faith and 
Indian  thought  and Das Gebet  and Die Religionen  der Menschheit, wrote, "India  is our 
motherland   of speculative  theology ... There runs an unbroken  chain  from the Atman-
Brah man mysticis m of the Vedic  Upanishads  to the Vedanta  of Sanka ra on the one side 
and on the other through  the mystical  technique  of the Yoga  system... Anothe r line of 
develop ment  equall y continuous  leads  from  the Orphic -Dionysiac  mystici sm to Plato, 
Philo  and the later Hellenistic  mystery  cults  to the Neoplatonic  mysticism  of the Infinite 
of Plotinus  which  is in turn is the source  of the mystical  theolog y” of the pseudo-
Dionysius the Areioagute. Perhaps  this second  chain is only  an off shoot  from the first."
Amos Bronson  Alcott  (1799-1888),  self-taught  philosopher  and school  teacher,  strictly 
vegetarian  and founder  of the community  "Fruitlands",  was author  of Orphic  Sayings, 
Tablets, and Concord  Days. He was the father  of Louisa  and May  Alcott,  famous 
respectively  as a write r and an artist.  Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  was so impres sed by Amo s' 
intellectual  power  that he convinced  him to move to Concord  and join his circle of 
friends.  Amo s wrote in his diary, "I read more  of the Bhagavad  Gita and felt how 
surpassingly  fine were  the senti ment s. These,  or selections  from this book  should  be 
included  in a Bible  for Mankind...  Were  I a preacher,  I would  venture  sometimes to take 
from its texts  the motto and moral of my discourse.  It would  be healthful  and 
invigorating to b reathe  som e of this m ountain  air into t he lungs of  Christendom ."
Ralph  Waldo  Emerson  (1803-1882 ), father  of the American  Transcendentalist  
Move ment, writer, philosopher,  minister  of the Unitar ian Church,  lecture r and professor 
of theology  at Harvard,  was a great  admirer  of Vedic  scriptu res. He came to know  about 
the Vedic  texts  from the works  of Victor  Cousin,  and from  his 1845  diary we learn  that 
he was reading  Bhagavad  gita and Henr y Thomas Colebrooke's  Essays  on the Vedas. We 
also know he read the Vishnu  Purana, Katha Upanishad  and various other texts. Emerson  
wrote,  "I owed  a magnific ent day to the Bhagavad- Gita.  It was as if an empire  spoke  to 
37

us, nothing  small or unwo rthy, but large,  serene,  consistent,  the voice  of an old 
intelligence  which  in anothe r age and climate had pondered  and thus disposed  of the 
same questions  which  exercise  us....  When  Confucius  and the Indian  Scriptu res were 
made known,  no claim to monopoly  of ethical  wisdo m could  be thought  of. It is only 
within  this century  (in the 1800s)  that England  and America  discovered  that their nursery 
tales were  old German and Scandinavian  stories;  and now it appears  that they came from 
India,  and are therefore  the propert y of all the nations...  (Vedic  though t) is subli me as 
night  and a breathless  ocean.  It contains  every religious sentim ent, all the grand ethics 
which  visit in turn each noble  poetic  mind....  Natu re makes a Brah min of me presentl y: 
eternal  compen sation,  unfathom able power,  unbroken  silence....  Peace,  she saith  to me, 
and purity...  It teaches  to speak  truth,  love others,  and to dispose  trifles...  all is soul and 
the soul  is Vishnu  ... Har i is alwa ys gentle and serene."  
In his poem Brahman, Emerson  offers  the perspective  of American  Vedantism , and in his 
Essays  we find many  comments on Vedic  knowledge  and its diffusion  in the West. 
Among  his othe r poe ms on Vedic knowledge,  we may  mention  Hamatreya and Maya.
John  Greenleaf  Whitt ier (1807-1892 ), one of Emerson' s circle of friends,  borrowed  a 
copy  of the Bhagavad  gita from  him and wrote,  "It is a wonderful  book-and  has greatly 
excited  my curiosity  to know  more  of the religious  literature  of the East."  He later 
introduced  many vedic  ideas  in his poems, including  The Brewing  of Soma, that 
imaginatively describes  the use  of the Vedic sacrificial  drink.
Another  representative  of American  Transcendentalist,  Walt  Whit man (1813 -1892),  is 
the author of  the famous Leaves  of Grass, and Passage  to India. In another poe m, entitled 
Salut  Au Monde, he wrote,  "I hear the Hindoo  teaching  his favorite  pupil he loves,  wars, 
adages,  transmitted  safely  to this day from poets  who wrote  three thousand  years ago." 
Emerson  described  Leaves  of Grass  as something  between  the Gita  and the New York 
Tribune  Herald.  In his 1889  essay  A Backward  Glance  O'er Travel'd  Roads, Whitman 
says he  read "the ancient Hindu poe ms".
Henry  David  Thoreau (1817 -1862),  also part of Emerson' s circle, was a philosopher, 
writer,  social  critic  and the father  of the "civil  disobedience"  concept.  Although  he was a 
minister  of the Unitarian  Church,  he rejected  organized  Christianit y (he never  went  to 
church)  and wrote,  "Whenever  I have  read any part of the Vedas,  I have  felt that some 
38

unearthly  and unknown  light illuminated  me. In the great teaching  of the Vedas,  there  is 
no touch  of sectarianis m.... When  I read it, I feel that I am under  the spangled  heavens  of 
a summer night...  In the morning  I bathe  my intellect  in the stupendous  and cosm ogonal 
philosophy  of the Bhagavat  Geeta,  since  whose  compo sition  years of the gods  have 
elapsed,  and in comparison  with which  our modern  world and its literature  seem puny 
and trivial...  I would  say to the readers  of the Scriptures,  if they wish  for a good  book, 
read the Bhagvat- Geeta...  It deserves  to be read with reverence  even  by Yankees...  Ex 
oriente  lux may still be the motto of scholars,  for the Western  world  has not yet derived 
from the East all the light it is destined  to derive  thence...   One sentence  of the Gita,  is 
worth the State of  Massachu setts many  times over."
From  1849  to 1855  he borrowed  all the Indian  texts  of the library of Harva rd University , 
and in 1855  he received  from  his friend   Thom as Chilmondeley  a gift of 44 eastern 
volumes,  including  Rig Veda  Samhita,  Mandukya  Upanishad,  Vishnu  Purana,  Manu 
smriti,  Bhagavad gita, and Bhagavata Purana.
Herman Melville  (1819-1891 ), author  of the novel  Moby Dick, wrote, "the most ancient 
extant  portrait anyways purpo rting  to the whale’s  is to be found  in the famous cavern 
pagoda  of Elephanta,  in India. …The Hindoo  whale  referred  to, occurs  in a separate 
depart ment  of the wall,  depicting  the incarnation  of Vishnu  in the form of leviathan, 
learnedly  known as  the Matse- Avatar."
Lev Nikolaevich  Tolsto y (1828 -1910),  Russian  writer  and mystic,  founder  of the first 
vegetarian  society  (closed  down  in 1917  by the bolshevic  revolution ) quoted  in a 1909 
letter  to Gandhi  the Upanishads, Bhagavad  gita and the Tamil  Tirukkural, as well as 
Vivekananda's  writing,  encouraging  Indians  "not to give up their ancient  religious  cultu re 
for the materialis m of the West."  He inserted  many  quotes  from the Vedas  in his Range 
of Reading,  Thoughts  of Wise Men, and other  collections.  To the orthodox  Church  that 
infor med him about  his excom munication,  he replied,  "To regard  Christ  as God,  and to 
pray to him,  are to my  mind  the greatest  possible  sacrilege."
Sir Edwin  Arnold  (1832 -1904),  wrote  a translation  of Bhagavad  gita entitled  The Song 
Celestial. He wrote in the introduction,  "This famous and marvelous  Sanskrit  poem ... 
enjoys  immense popularit y and authorit y in India,  where  it is reckoned  as one of the 
"Five  Jewels"  - pancharatnani  - of Devanagari  literatu re... blending  as it does the doctrine 
39

of Kapila,  Patanjali,  and the Vedas."  In his book  India Revisited  he emotionally  describes 
the ritual of ablutions  in the Ganges  river.
Mark  Twain  is the pen name of Samuel  Langhorne  Clemens (1835 -1910).  One of the 
most famous American  writers,  he is the author  of The Adventures  of Huckleberry  Finn, 
The Adventures  of Tom Sawyer,  A Connecticut  Yankee  in King  Arthur's  Court,  Following 
the Equator  and Travelogue - a sort of diary on his experiences  in Asia.  He wrote, "Land 
of religions,  cradle  of human race, birthplace  of human speech,  grandmother  of legend, 
great  grandmother  of tradit ion. The land that all men desire  to see and having  seen once 
even  by a glimpse,  would  not give that glimp se for the shows  of the rest of the globe 
combined...  Our most valuable  and most artistic  materials  in the histor y of man are 
treasured  up in India only!.. India had the start of the whole  world  in the beginning  of 
things.  She had the first civilization;  she had the first accum ulation  of material  wealth; 
she was populous  with deep  thinke rs and subtle  intellects;  she had mine s, and woods,  and 
a fruitful  soul...  Varanasi  or Banaras  is older  than history , older than tradition,  older  even 
than legend,  and looks twice as  old as  all of the m put together."
Clarence  Edward  Dutton  (1841 -1912),  geologist,  poet and captain  of the United States 
army,  named the peaks  of the Grand  Canyon "Vishnu  temple ", "Shiva  temple",  and 
"Brah ma temple".  
Georg Morris Cohen  Brandes  (1842-1927 ), Danish  litera ry critic, had a great influence  on 
scandinavian  literatu re. He wro te, "my  spiritual home  is on the banks  of the Ganga."
Willia m James (1842-1910 ), first president  of the American  Society  for Psychical 
Research,  philosopher  and pioneer  of psychology  in America,  brother  to novelist  Henr y 
and diarist  Alice.  He was a close  associate  of Ralph  Waldo  Emerson,  Charles  Sanders 
Pierce,  Bertrand  Russell,  Mark  Twain,  Henri  Berson  and Sigmund  Freud.  He wrote, 
"from the Vedas  we learn a practical  art of surger y, medicine,  music, house  building 
under  which  mechanized  art is included.  They are encyclopedia  of every aspect  of life, 
culture, religion, science,  ethics, law, cos mology  and m eteorology."
Mihai  Emine scu (1850 -1889),  the greatest  Rom anian  poet,  discovered  Indian  philosophy 
through  Schopenhauer.  In his poem  Tattvamasi he speaks  of the identity  of Atman  and 
Brah man.  In another  poem , Kamadeva, he speaks  of the Deva  of erotic  love as the spark 
of creation.
40

Ella Wheeler  Wilcox  (1850-1919 ), American  poet  and journalist,  supporter  of the 
Rosicrucian  move ment in the United  States,  wrote,  "India - the land of Vedas,  the 
remarkable  works  contains  not only religious  ideas  for a perfect life, but also facts  which 
science  has proved  true. Electricit y, radium, electronics,  airship,  all are known  to the 
seers  who founded  the Vedas."
Richard  Garbe (1857-1927 ), professor  at the University  of Tubingen,  becam e famous for 
his work to trace  the original  version  of Bhagavad  gita. In 1885  he traveled  to India on 
the request  of the Ministry  of Culture  of the Prussian  govern ment,  and later he published 
the diary of his experience  under  the title Indian  Travel  Sketches. This  book  is 
particularl y interesting  because  in the 19th centur y very few Germ an indologists  actuall y 
visited  India. He  dedicated m ost of his life  to stud y the Sankhya phi losophy.
George  Bernard Shaw,  (1856-1950), Irishman,  Nobel  Prize 1925  for literatu re, vegetarian 
activist,  socialist  activist,  founder  of the London  School  of Econo mics,  member of the 
Executive Co mmittee of the Fabian Society , write r and  dramatist,  wrote, "The Indian way 
of life provides  the vision of  the natu ral, real way of life."
Willia m Butler  Yeats  (1856 -1939),  another  Irishm an and Nobel  Prize 1923  for literature, 
was a personal  friend  of Rabindranath  Tagore,  Mohini  Chatterji  and Sri Purohit  Swami. 
He wrote a poe m entitled to Mount  Meru, which he identifies  with the  Everest, and  whe re 
he pictures  the yogis engaged  in meditation.  He wrote, "It was my first meeting  with a 
philosophy  that confirmed  my vague  speculations  and seemed at once  logical  and 
boundless."
Nicola  Tesla  (1856-1943),  one of the most ingenuous  inventors  of western  histor y, used 
Sanskrit  terms such  as akasha and prana  to describe  the natural pheno mena  and 
described  the universe  as a kinetic  system  full of energ y that could  be channeled  from 
any point.
Alfred  North Whitehead  (1861-1947 ), pacifist  activist,  pioneer  of mathe matical logic  and 
analy thic philosophy,  member of the Royal  Societ y and the British  Acade my, president 
of the Aristotelian  Societ y from 1922  to 1923,  co-autho r with Bertrand  Russell  of the 
famous Principia  Mathematica, stated,  "Vedanta  is the most impres sive metaphysics  the 
human mind has conceived."
41

Maurice  Wintern itz (1863-1937 ), famous indologist  and autho r of History  of Indian 
Literature, wrote,  "From  the mystical  doctrines  of the Upanishads,  one current  of thought 
may be traced  to the mysticism  of Persian  Sufism , to the mystic,  theosophic  logos 
doctrine  of the Neo-Platonics  and the Alexandrian  Christian  Mystics,  Eckhart and Taule r, 
and finall y to the philosoph y of the great  German  mystic  of the nineteenth  centu ry, 
Schopenhauer...  Garbe,  the greatest  author ity on Samkhya  Philosoph y in Europe,  has 
made it very  probable  that Samkhya  Philosoph y has been  of influence  on the 
philosophical  ideas  of Heraklitos,  Empedokl es, Anaxagoras,  Demokritos  and Epiku ros… 
It seems to me to be proved  the Pythago ras was influenced  by the Indian  Samkhya.  Nor 
have  I any doubt  that the Gnostic  and Neo-Platonic  philosophies  have  been  influenced  by 
Indian philosophical ideas."
Sylvain  Levi  (1863-1935 ), French  orientalist  and professor  of Sanskrit  at the Sorbonne 
University , wrote, " From  Persia  to the Chinese  sea, from  the icy regions  of Siberia  to 
Islands  of Java  and Borneo,  India  has propagated  her beliefs,  her tales,  and her 
civilization... has  left indelible  imprints  on one fourth  of the hu man race in the course  of a 
long succession  of centuries.  She has the right  to reclai m ... her place  among st the great 
nations  sum marizing  and symbolizing  the spirit of  humanity."
Rudya rd Kipling  (1865 -1936),  Nobel  Prize  1907  for literature,  author  of the famous The 
Jungle  Book, Kim,  Captains  Courageous, and The Man Who Would Be King. Among  his 
poems the most famous are Gunga  Din, Mandalaya  and The White Man's  Burden, in 
which  he describes,  with  an irony  that may be invisible  to the eyes of the fanatic 
supporters  of european  imperialism , the attitude  of the British  colonist  that believes 
himsel f invested with the duty to "civilize" the rest  of the world, sacrificing  in the atte mpt 
himsel f and his own children  to exile.  Kipling's  parents  moved  to India  before  his birth, 
but as demanded  by the social  convention  of the times, they sent him to England  to study 
when  he was 5, alone  with his little sister aged  3. 
Rudya rd was perm anently  scarred  by the cultural  and emotional  trauma  of the shift from 
the colonial  home in Bombay  to the Lorne  Lodge,  the private  hostel  in the house  of 
Captain  Holloway  at Portsm outh,  where  Rudya rd and his sister  Alice  - together  with 
other children  of British  settlers  in India - were  regula rly mistreated  and neglected.  At the 
age of 16 he returned to I ndia, where he  started his writing caree r.
42

Count  Louis Hamon  (1866-1936 ), born  in Ireland  as William  John  Warner  and also 
known  as Cheiro,  was a famous palmist and astrologer,  whose  clients  included  Mark 
Twain,  Sarah  Bernhardt,  Mata  Hari,  Oscar  Wilde,  Grover  Cleveland,  Thoma s Edison,  the 
Prince  of Wales,  General  Kitchener,  William Gladstone,  Bernard  Shaw  and Joseph 
Chamberlain.  
He wrote, "Looking  back  to the earliest  days of the histor y of the known  world,  we find 
that the first linguistic  records  belong  to the people  under  consideration,  and date back  to 
that far distant  cycle of time known  as the Aryan civilization.  Beyond  history  we cannot 
go; but the monu ments and cave  temples  of India,  according  to the testimony  of 
archaeologists,  all point  to a time so far beyond  the scant  history  at our disposal...  Long 
before  Rom e or Greece  or Israel was even  heard  of, the mountains  of India  point  back  to 
an age, of learning  beyond, and still beyond.  From the astrono mical  calculations  that the 
figures  in their  temples  represent,  it has been  estimated  that the Hindu  understood  the 
Precession  of the E quinoxes  centuries before  the Christian Era... and made  the calculation 
that it took  place once  in every 25,870  years.  The observation  and mathem atical 
precision   necessary   to establish  such  a theory has been  the wonder  and admiration  of 
modern  astronom ers. They, with  thei r modern  knowledge and  up-to-date instrument s, are 
still quarrelling  among  them selve s as to whether  the precession,  the most important 
feature   in astronomy,  takes  place ever y 25,870  y ears or  ever y 24,500  y ears."
Herbert  George  Wells  (1866-1946 ), historian  and novelist,  autho r of The Time  Machine, 
A Short  History  of the World and Crux  Ansata:  An Indictment  of the Roman  Catholic 
Church, wrote, "The history  of India for many  centuries  had been happier, less  fierce, and 
more dreamlike  than any other  histor y. In these  favorable  condit ions,  they built  a 
character  - meditative  and peaceful  and a nation  of philosophers  such as could  nowhere 
have  existed except  in India."
A. E. George  Russell  (1867 -1935),  Irish nationalist,  econo mist,  leader  of the movem ent 
for cooperation  among  Irish  farmers,  poet,  essayist,  painter  and mystic,  wrote, "Goethe, 
Wordsworth,  Emerson,  and Thoreau  among  moderns  have  something  of this vitality  and 
wisdo m but we can find all they have  said and much  more  in the grand sacred  books  of 
India.  The Bhagavad  Gita and the Upanishads  contain  such  godlike  fullness  of wisdo m 
on all things  that I feel the autho rs must have  looked  with calm  remem brance  back 
through  a thousand  passionate  lives,  full of feverish  strife  for and with shadows,  ere they 
43

could have  written with such  certaint y of things  which the soul feels  to be sure."
W. Somerset  Maugham  (1874 -1965),  son of the British  ambassador  in Paris,  had an early 
start in his writing  career  and is considered  the greatest  English  novelist.  In India  he met 
Ramana Maharshi  - this event  inspired  his famous novel  The Razor's  Edge, whose  title is 
taken  from an example  in Katha  Upanishad: "the wise say that the path is like the sharp 
edge  of the razor, narrow and difficult  to tread".  The main  character  in the story goes to 
India  to seek relief from the horrors of the war and finds  peace  in the Indian  philosophy 
of Vedanta.
Professor  James Bissett  Pratt  (1875 -1944),  American  writer autho r of Why Religions  Die 
and India  and its Faiths, believed  that Hinduis m was the only  religion  capable  of 
surviving  the modern  crisis  of faith.  He wrote,  "The Vedic  Way.. is a self perpetuating 
religion... not death, but developm ent...  keeping that which  in it was  vital and true cast  off 
the old shell  and clothed  itself  in more  suitable  expression,  with  no break  in the 
continuity of life and no loss in the sanctity and weight  of its autho rity... If a religion is to 
live it must adapt  itself  to new and changing  conditions;  if it is to feed the spiritual  life of 
its children,  it must have  the sensitivity  and inventiveness  that shall  enable  it to modi fy 
their  as their needs  demand...  because  of its ingrained  conclusivenes s, its tolerance,  and 
its indifference  to doctrinal  divergences,  stressed  the essential  unity of all Indian 
Dhar mas,  whether  Hindu  or Buddhist,  and minimized difference s... For most Westerners 
the histories  of philosophy  begin  with  the Greeks  and end with  the American s, and 
convey  not the least suggestion  that anyone outside  of the West  ever had a philosophical 
idea.  A glance  at the curricula  of most our colleges  and unive rsities  would  seem to 
indicate  that the one principle  on which  they are planned  might  be phrased:  nothing east 
of Suez!...  To one who has had a taste  of the riches  which  Indian  thought  and Indian 
literatu re can contribu te to our intellectual  life and our spiritual  expe rience,  this 
deprivation  which  we Westerners  inflict  upon  ourselves  and upon  our young people 
seems pitiful  in the extreme. Indian  philosophical  literature,  taking  its rise several 
centuries  before  the time of Thales,  has swept  down  through  the ages,  retaining  always  a 
characteristic  point of view  of its own,  but developing  in a great  variet y of fresh  forms. 
Indian  thought  constitutes  today the one type of living  philosophy  independent  of our 
Western  tradition...  The tendency  of nearly all the schools  of Western  philosophy  is more 
and more steadily  setting  in the direction  of naturalis m, and often  of a rathe r crude 
44

naturalism . The victories  of natural science  have  hypnotized  most of our philosophers. 
From  such  a world  as Western  naturalism  usuall y offers,  the thoughtful  mind  which 
craves  something  more than a scientific  pattern  of space-ti me evens  may be glad to take 
refuge  in the eternal  insights  into a spiritual  realm, spread  out before  us in the 
Upanishads,  the Bhagavad-Gita, and the  Vedantic philosoph y."
Robert  Earnest  Hume (1877-1948 ), born in India from an American  family, taught  both 
in India  and at Oxford.  In 1921  he published  Thirteen  Principal  Upanishads, in which  he 
wrote,  "In the long histor y of man's endeavor  to grasp  the funda mental truths  of being, 
the metaphysical  treatises  known  as the Upanishads  hold an hono red place  . . . they are 
replete  with subli me conceptions  and with intuitions  of universal  truth...  The Upanishads 
undoubtedly  have  great historical  and comparative  value,  but they are also of great 
present-day  importance...  The earnestness  of the search  for the Truth is one of the more 
delightful  and com mendable features  of the Upanishads."
Jacob  Wilhel m Hauer  (1881 -1961),  the son of German  protestant  mission aries,  taught  in 
a missionary  school  in India  from 1907  onwards.  After  coming  in touch  with Hinduism 
and yoga, he studied  Sanskrit  and wrote  various  books  on the subject,  such as Der Yoga 
als Heilweg  ("Yoga  as a mean s of salvation")  dedicated  to C.G.  Jung.  He considered 
Bhagavad  gita as "a work  of imperishable  significance" occupying  a central  place  in his 
own faith.  He wrote, "gives  us not only profound  insights  that are valid  for all times and 
for all religious  life, but it contains  as well the classical  presentation  of one of the most 
significant  phases  of lndo-German  religious  histor y... It shows  us the way as regards  the 
essential  natu re and  basal characteristics  of Indo-Germanic  religion."
Satyananda  Stokes,  born Samuel  Evans Stokes  (1882 -1946),  abandoned  his studies  at the 
Yale  Universit y at the age of 22 and traveled  to India with the purpose  of dedicating 
himsel f to the service  of humanity.  In 1905  he started  working  at a leper  home at 
Sabathu,  then  he was sent to Kangra for rescue  and relief work after a serious  earthquake, 
and later he worked  at the Christian  Mission  House  at Kotgarh,  in Himach al pradesh.  In 
1910  he purchased  an abandoned  tea plantation,  he married  and settled  in Barubagh, 
Kotgarh.  He built  a temple  for the Arya Samaj at Thanedar,  which  became famous as 
Param ajyoti  Mandir,  "the temple  of the supre me Light".  Although  he still considered 
himsel f "a lover of Christ",  he studied  Sanskrit  and in 1932  he officially  became a Hindu 
in a ceremony  performed  by Arya Samaj. He expressed  his own philosophy  of life in a 
45

book  entitled  Satyakam, explaining  that he had decided  to convert  to Hinduism  because 
he detested  the Christian  concept  of eternal  punishm ent. He wrote,  "The light  from the 
Hindu scriptures  had com e to fill the gaps  in Christianit y."
Vera  Christine  Chute  Collum  (1883-1957 ), autho r of The Dance  of Civa  or Life's Unity 
and Rhythm, wrote,  "The  conviction  that seeming diversities  and difference s are but 
passing  and rhythmically varying phases  of a funda mental unity led the East to symbolize 
Life and Death  as the ever supple  and continuously  flowing  Dance  of Civa,  in which 
construction  and destruction  are rhythmically  pulsating  patte rns that the subtle  dancer 
eternally  presents  and dissolves  with t he swiftness  of a rapidly  turning wheel."
Ernest E. Wood  (1883 -1965)  lived  in India  for 38 years and founded  2 Universities, 
working  as a principal  and professor  of phys ics, Engl ish and Sanskrit,  with the aim of 
contributing  to the Indian  culture  renaissance  started  by Rabindranath  Tagore  and his 
conte mporaries.  He was author  of several  books,  including  Practical  Yoga and The 
Glorious  Presence. He wrote,  "Shankara  did not leave  the Vedanta  teaching  as a matter 
of religious  belief,  however,  but said we must verify it by thinking,  and the realize  it by 
experience,  as did the illumin ed men of old...  The ancient  Aryan thinkers  who collected, 
collated,  classified  and commented upon  the thought -traditions  accum ulated  by their 
distant  progenito rs perfor med a rational  and ethical  service  of the greatest  value  to 
posterity , when  they put together  a set of brief sayings,  which  they called  the Vedanata 
(the end or highest  point,  of knowledge;  the 'last word'),  and presented  them  for study 
along  with further  statement:  'you will not be able to understand  or realize  the full import 
of these  Great Sayings unless  you first put your mind  in order  by certain practices  or 
disciplines,  which we  will describe.'"
American  writer  Will Durant  (1885 -1981),  autho r of The Story  of Philosophy,  The Story 
of Civilization  (11 volume work  for which  he was awarded  the Pulitzer  Prize in 1967  and 
Presidential  Medal  of Freedo m, by President  Ford  in 1977 ) and The Case  for India, 
wrote,  "India  was the motherland  of our race, and Sanskrit  the mother  of Europe's 
languages:  she was the mother  of our philosoph y; mother,  through  the Arabs,  of much of 
our mathematics; mother,  through  the village  community,  of self-government  and 
democracy.  Mother  India is in many  ways the mother  of us all...  It is true that even  across 
the Himal ayan  barrier India  has sent to us such questionable  gifts as gram mar and logic, 
philosophy  and fables,  hypnot ism and chess,  and above  all our numerals  and our decimal 
46

system . But these  are not the essence  of her spirit;  they are trifles compared  to what  we 
may learn  from her in the future...  This is the India that patient  scholarship  is now 
opening  up like a new intellectual  continent  to that Western  mind which  only yesterda y 
thought civilization an exclusive  Western  thing."
General  George  S. Patton  (1885 -1945),  one of the greatest  military  figures  in histor y, 
came from a long family tradition  in the army,  firmly  believed  in reincarnation  and was 
convinced  that he had learned  his personal  strategic  abilities  on ancient  battlefields.  He 
often  quoted Bhagavad gita to support his beliefs.
Rene  Grousset  (1885-1952),  French  historian,  author  of Civilization  of India  and The 
Empire of the Steppes:  A History  of Central  Asia. 
He wrote,  "In the high plateau  of eastern  Iran,  in the oases  of Serindia,  in the arid wastes 
of Tibet, Mongolia,  and Manchuria,  in the ancient  civilized  lands  of China  and Japan,  in 
the lands  of the primitive  Mons  and Khmers  and other tribes  of Indo-China,  in the 
countries  of the Malaya-Po lynesians,  in Indonesia  and Malay,  India left the indelible 
impress  of her high culture,  not only upon  religion,  but also upon  art, and literature,  in a 
word,  all the higher  things  of spirit... There  is an obstinate  prejudice  thanks  to which 
India  is constantly  represented  as having  lived,  as it were,  hermetically  sealed  up in its 
age-old  civilization,  apart  from  the rest of Asia.  Noth ing could  be more  exaggerated. 
During  the first eight  centuries  of our era, so far as religion  and art are concerned,  central 
Asia was a sort of Indian  colony . It is often  forgotten  that in the early Middle  Ages  there 
existed  a 'Greater  India,'  a vast Indian  empire...  the Indian  Ocean  really deserved  its 
name."  Grousset  was particularly  impres sed by Indian  arts, and gave  emotional 
descriptions  of the image s in the Elephanta  caves  and of Shiva  Nataraja.  In this regard he 
wrote,  "Universal  art has succeeded  in few materialization  of the Divine  as powerful  and 
also as balanced...  Never  have  the overflowing  sap of life, the pride of force  superior  to 
every thing, the secret  intoxication  of the inner god of things  been so  serenel y expressed."
Niels  Bohr  (1885-1962),  Danish  nuclear  physicist,  Nobel  Prize  1922  for physics,  wrote, 
"I enter the Upanishads  to seek  answers  to my  questions."
Leonard  Bloom field (1887-1949 ), American  linguist,  wrote,  "The Hindu  gram mar taught 
Europeans  to analyze  speech  form s; when  one compared  the constituent  parts,  the 
resemblanc es, which  hithe rto had been  vaguel y recognized,  could  be set forth  with 
47

certainty  and precision...  As one of the greatest  monum ents of human intelligence  is by 
no means an exaggeration;  no one who has had even  a small acquaintance  with that most 
remarkable  book  could  fail to agree. In some four thousand  sutras  or aphor isms - some of 
them no more than a single  syllable  in length  - Panini  sums up the grammar not only of 
his own spoken  language,  but of that of the Vedic  period  as well.  The work  is the more 
remarkable  when  we consider  that the author  did not write  it down  but rathe r worked  it 
all out of his head,  as it were.  Panini's  disciples  committed the work to memory and in 
turn passed  it on in the same manner  to their  disciples;  and though  the Astadhayay i has 
long since  been  committed to writing,  rote memorization  of the work, with several  of the 
more important  commentaries,  is still the approved  method  of studying gram mar in India 
today , as indeed  is true of most learning  of the traditional  cultu re... It was in India, 
however,  that there  rose a body of knowledge  which  was destined  to revolut ionize 
European  ideas about  language."
T.S (Thoma s Stearns)  Eliot (1888 -1965),  poet and dram atist,  Nobel  Prize 1948  for 
literatu re, wrote, "Two years spent  in the study of Sanskrit  under  Charles  Lanm an, and a 
year in the mazes of Patanjali's  metaphysics  unde r the guidance  of James Woods,  left me 
in a state  of enlightened  mystification.  A good  half of the effort  of unde rstanding  what 
the Indian  philosophers  were  after - and their subtleties  make most of the great  European 
philosophers  look like schoolboys...  In the literature  of Asia  is a great  poetry...  and I 
know that my  own poetry  shows  the influence  of Indian thought and sensibility."
Arnold  Joseph  Toynbee  (1889-1975 ), autho r of A Study  of History, an encyclopaedic 
work of  metahi story or historical synthesis  on the rise and fall  of the various civilizations, 
with a strong  spiritual  orientation,  wrote, "It is alread y beco ming  clear  that a chapter 
which  had a Western  beginning  will have  to have  an Indian  ending  if it is not to end in 
self-destruction  of the human  race.  At this supre mely  dangerous  moment in human 
history  , the only way of salvation  is the ancient  Hindu  way. Here  we have  the attitude 
and spirit  that can make  it possible  for the human race to grow  togethe r in to a single 
family...  So now we turn to India.  This spiritual  gift, that makes a man human,  is still 
alive  in Indian  souls.  Go on giving  the world  Indian  example s of it. Nothing  else can do 
so much  to help mankind  to save itself from  destruction...  India is not only the heir of her 
own religious  traditions;  she is also the residuar y legatee  of the Ancient  Mediterranean 
World's  religious  traditions."
48

Walter  Eidlitz (1892-1976 ), also known  as Vaman  dasa,  autho r of Journey  to Unknown 
India. He was a jew from Germ any, and was sent to an internment  camp during the 
World  War 2 while  he was traveling  in search  of God.  He later became a follower  of the 
Gaudiya  Vaishnava  move ment. He wrote,  "God  himself speaks  the Bhagavad  Gita,  the 
innermo st God  which  Brahma  the Creator,  Vishnu,  the Preserver,  and Shiva  the 
Destroye r are only  aspects."
Aldous  Huxle y (1894 -1963),  English  novelist  and essayist,  autho r of Brave  New World, 
The Doors  of Perception,  Heaven  and Hell and The Perennial  Philosophy, wrote,  "The 
Bhagavad- Gita is the most systematic  statem ent of spiritual  evolution  of endowing  value 
to mankind.  The Gita is one of the clearest  and most comprehensive  summaries of the 
spiritual  thoughts  ever to have  been  made...  The Perennial  Philosophy  is expressed  most 
succinctly  in the Sanskrit  form ula, tat tvam asi ('That art thou') ; the Atman,  or immanent 
eternal Self, is one with Brahman,  the Absolute  Principle  of all existence;  and the last  end 
of ever y human  being, is to discover  the fact  for him self, to find out who he really  is."
Paul Brunton  (1898 -1981),  traveler,  mystic  and author  of A Hermit  in the Himalayas,  A 
Message  from  Arunachala, The Orient: Legacy  to the West, and A Search  in Secret  India. 
His experience  in India,  among  yogis, mystic s and gurus  culminat es in his meeting  with 
Ramana Maharshi  in his ashra m at Arunachala.  He wrote,  "We are witnessing  in the 
West  the appearance  of an at present  thin but slowl y deepening  current  of interest  in 
those  very though ts and ideas  which  the young  men of India are today  doing  their best to 
reject  as inadequate  to their needs  and which  constitute  the faith and religious  traditions 
of their forefathers...  The Bhagavad  Gita contains  the mental  quintessence  and succes sful 
synthesis  of the various  systems of religion  and philosophy,  it offers  a unique  epitome  of 
the high culture of  prehistoric India."
Theos  Casimir Bernard  (1908-1947),  pioneer  of the Indian  and Tibetan  studies  at 
Colu mbia  Unive rsity,  USA;  his doctorate  thesis  was on Hatha  Yoga.  In his book  Hindu 
Philosophy  he wrote,  "There  is an innate  in the human  heart a metaphysical  hunger  to 
know and unde rstand  what  lies beyond the mysterious  and illusive veil of  nature...  Hindu 
philosophy  does not attempt  to train one to discern  metaphysical  truths;  it offers  a way of 
thinking  which  enables  us one rationall y to understand  the realit y experienced  by self 
fulfilled  personalities,  and thereby to lead one to the realization  of Truth. In this light, 
philosophy  is seen as art of life and not a theory about  the universe,  for it is the means of 
49

attaining  the highest  aspirations  of man. It is not for the discovery,  but for the 
understanding  of Tr uth."
David  Bohm  (1917-1992),  one of the greatest  physicists  of quanta  mechanic s, pupil of 
Einstein  and Oppenhei mer, was deeply  influenced  by his contact  with J. Krishna murti. 
He wrote,  "You would  say Atman is more  like the meaning.   But then what  is meant 
would be Brah man,  I suppose;  the identity  of consciousnes s and cos mos."
Daniel  Joseph  Boorstin  (1914 -2004),  American  historian  and Librar ian of Congress  from 
1975 to 1987, author of The Discover s, The Creator s and The Seekers. 
He wrote, "The  Hindus  have  left an eloquent  histor y of their efforts  to answer  the riddle 
of Creation.  The Vedas,  sacred  hymns  in archaic  Sanskrit  from  about  1500  to 900 BC do 
not depict  a benevolent  Creator,  but record  a man’s awe before  the Creation  as singers  of 
the Vedas  chant  the radiance  of this world. Their objects  of worship  were  devas  (cognate 
with Latin  dues,  god) derived  from  the old Sanskrit  div, meaning  brightness.  Gods  were 
the shining  ones.  The lumino sity of their world impres sed the Hindus  from  the 
beginning... What  sanctifies  the worshipper  is no act of conve rsion,  no change  of spirit, 
but the simple  act of seeing,  the Hindi  word  darsan.  A Hindu  goes  to a temple  not to 
'worship,'  but ra ther for 'darshan,'  to see  the im age of the deit y... According to the Hindus,  
the deity  or a holy spirit  or place  or image  'gives  darsan'  and the people  'take darsan'  for 
which there see ms no counte rpoint in any  Western  religion."
Joseph  Cam pbell  (1904 -1987),  author  of A Hero  with Thousand  faces, was an intim ate 
friend  of J. Krishnam urti, and he cooperated  to the translation  of The Gospel  of Sri 
Ramakrishna. He stated  that the reading  of Mandukya  Upanishad had a stronger  impa ct 
on him than the beginning  of World  War 2. He wrote,  "The first principle  of Indian 
thought,  therefore,  is that the ultimate  reality  is beyond  description.  It is something  that 
can be experienced  only by bringing  the mind  to a stop;  and once  experienced,  it cannot 
be described  to anyone  in terms of the form s of this world. The truth,  the ultimate  truth, 
that is to say, is transcendent.  it goes past, transcends,  all speech  all image s, anything  that 
can possibly  be said.  But, as we have  just seen,  it is not only transcendent,  it is also 
immanent, within  all things,  Ever ything  in the world,  therefore,  is to be regarded as its 
manifestation...  In the Biblical  tradition,  God creates  man, but man cannot  say that he is 
divine  in the same sense  that the Creator  is, where  as in Hinduis m, all things are 
50

incarnations  of that power.  We are the sparks  from a single  fire. And we are all fire. 
Hinduis m believes  in the omnipresenc e of the Supreme  God in every  individual.  There is 
no fall.  Man  is not cut off  from the divine."
Ananda  Kentish  Coomara swam y (1877 -1947),  originally  from Sri Lanka,  autho r of The 
Dance  of Shiva : Essays  on Indian Art and Culture, wrote, "We must, however,  specially 
mention  the Bhagavad  Gita as probably  the most important  single  work  ever produced  in 
India; this book  of eighteen  chapters  is not, as it has been  sometimes called,  a "sectarian  " 
work,  but one universall y studied  and often  repeated  daily from  memory by millions  of 
Indians  of all persuasions;  it may be described  as a compendiu m of the whole  Vedic 
doctrine  to be found  in the earlier Vedas,  Brah mana s, and Upanishads,  and being 
therefore  the basis  of all the later develop ments,  it can be regarded  at the focus  of all 
Indian relig ion."
Walter  Raymond  Drake (1913 -1989),  author  of Gods  and Spacemen  in the Ancient  East, 
published  4 years before  Erich Von Daniken's  bestseller  Chariots  of the Gods, wrote, 
"The oldest source of wisdom  in the world must surely spring from  India , whose  initiates 
long ago probed  the secrets  of heaven,  the story  of Earth, the depths  of Man’s  soul,  and 
propounded  those  sublim e thoughts  which  illumined  the Magi  of Babylon,  inspired  the 
philosophers  of Greece  and worked  their subtle  influence  on the religions  of the West... 
The Indian  lyricize  of spaceships  faster  than light  and missiles  more violent  than H-
bombs;  their Sanskrit texts  describe aircraft apparently  with radar and cam eras."
André  Malraux  (1901-1976 ), author  of Anti-memoir, wrote,  "The problem of this century 
is the religious  problem  and the discover y of Hindu  thought  will have  a great  deal to do 
with the solving  of that particular p roble m."
John  Archibald  Wheeler  (1911 -2008),  American  theoretical  physicist,  worked  with Niels 
Bohr  on the foundations  of nuclear  fission,  introduced  the S-matrix  and created  the 
expressions  black  hole, quantum  foam  and wormhole.  He wrote,  "I like to think  that 
someon e will trace how the deepest  thinking  of India  made its way to Greece  and from 
there to the philosoph y of our t imes."
Alun  Lewis  (1915-1944 ), who served  in the military  regiment  of Royal  Engineers  in the 
World  War 2, wrote  The Earth is a Syllable  - a story  inspired  by Mandukya  Upanishad 
and that also contains  a reference  to the Brihad  aranyaka  Upanishad. The novel  tells the 
51

story  of a soldier  who,  mortally  wounded  in the jungle,  experiences  the various stages  of 
awareness  towa rds enlightenm ent and reme mbers the first verse of the Mandukya 
Upanisad: "the entire E arth is the syllable Om ".
Yehudi  Menuhin  (1915 -1999),  one of the greatest  violin  players of the 20th centur y, 
descendent  of Russian  jews  emigrated  to America,  becam e famous as disciple  of the 
Hatha  yoga teacher  BKS  Iyengar  and friend  of sitarist  Ravi  Shanka r. He wrote, "India  is 
the primal  source, the m other  countr y."
Nancy  Wilson  Ross  (also known  as Mrs. Stanle y Young,  1901-1986 ), writer  and lecture r, 
wrote,  "Many  hundreds  of years before  those  great  European  pioneers,  Galileo  and 
Copernicus,  had to pay heavy  prices  in ridicule  and exco mmunication  for their daring 
theories,  a section  of the Vedas  known  as the Brahm anas  contained  this astounding 
statement: The sun neve r sets or rises. When  people  think  the sun is setting,  he only 
changes  about after  reaching the end  of the day and  makes night below and day to what is 
on the other  side. Then, when  people  think  he rises in the morning,  he only shifts  himsel f 
about after  reaching the end of  the night."
Huston  Smith  (nato  nel 1919),  author  of The World's Religions,   Science  and Human 
Responsibility, and The Religions  of Man, wrote,  "When  I read the Upanishads,  I found  a 
profundit y of world view  that made my Christianity  seem like third grade...  The invisible 
excludes  nothing,  the invisible  that excludes  nothing  is the infinite  – the soul of India  is 
the infinite."
Alexander  Zinoviev  (1922-2006),  the controversial  Russian  write r and dissident 
intellectual,  wrote,  "But I would  like to believe  Hinduis m is too valuable  for humanity, 
and sacred  Indian  books  contain  too much precious  and unique  knowledge  that it will not 
sink in oblivion.  I’d like to believe  that the principles  of Indian  philosophy  and religion 
are much more in agreem ent with the needs  for the future  than any other religion  in the 
world,  in agreement  with the tendency,  known  in Western  countries  as New  Age.  It’s my 
deep  belief that without India the world wi ll sink  in spiritual da rkness  and igno rance."
Carl  Sagan  (1934-1996 ), astroph ysicist  and author  of Cosmos, wrote,  "The Hindu 
religion  is the only one of the world's  great  faiths  dedicated  to the idea that the Cosmos 
itself  undergoes  an immense, indeed  an infinite,  number  of deaths  and rebirths.  It is the 
only  religion  in which  the time scales  correspond,  to those  of modern  scientific 
52

cosmology.  Its cycles  run from our ordinary  day and night to a day and night  of Brah ma, 
8.64 billion y ears long... And there are m uch longer time  scales  still."  
Frith jof Schuon (1907 -1998), author of  Language of the Self, defined  his own ideolog y as 
Sanatana  Dharma,  "the eternal re ligion", and  wrote, "The Vedanta appears  among  explicit 
doctrines  as one of the most  direct  formulation s possible  of that which  makes the very 
essence  of our spiritual realit y."
Julius  Robert  Oppenhei mer (1904 -1967),  famous as the "father  of the atomic bomb", 
author  of the Born -Oppenhei mer approximation,  the electron -positron  theor y, the 
Oppenhei mer- Phillips process  and the first foundations  of the quantu m tunneling,  of the 
modern  theor y of neutrinic  stars  and black  holes,  quanta  mechanics,  the theor y of the 
quantu m field,  and the interaction  of the cosm ic rays. He wrote, "What  we shall  find [in 
modern  physics]  is an exemplific ation,  an encourage ment,  and a refine ment of old 
wisdo m... the juxtaposition  of Western  civilization's  most terrifying  scientific 
achieve ment  with the most dazzling  description  of the mystical  experience  given  to us by 
the Bhagavad  Gita,  India's  greatest  literary monum ent... the most beautiful  philosophical 
song  existing  in any known  tongue...  Acces s to the Vedas  is the greatest  privilege  this 
century  may clai m over all previous centuries."  
Watching  the first atomic  explosion  at the Trinity Test in New  Mexico,  on 16 July 1945, 
he emotionally  quoted  verse  11.12  of Gita:  "If the radiance  of a thousand  suns Were  to 
burst  at once  into the sky, That would  be like the splendor  of the Might y One."  He also 
quoted  Bhagavad  gita in a speech  for the memorial  service  at the death  of president 
Franklin  D. Roosevelt.  In 1963,  the Christian  Century magazine  asked  him in an 
interview  to list the 10 books  that did most to shape  his vocational  attitude  and 
philosophy of life; he mentioned  the Bhagavad  gita (that he read in the original  Sanskrit), 
Bhartrihari's  Satakatrayam, and The Waste Land  by T S Eliot, in which  he speaks  of the 
Vedic  scriptu res, specifically of  the Upanishads and the  Gita.
Queen  Fredricka  (1931 -1981),  researcher  in physics  and wife of King  Paul of Greece, 
went  to Kalahasti  to pay homag e to the Shankaracharya  there,  attracted  by his book  on 
the Advaita  Vedanta.  She declared,  "While  Greece  is the countr y of my birth,  India is the 
countr y of my soul."
53

Savitri  Devi  (1905-1982),  born  Maxi miani  Portas in France,  obtained  the Greek 
citizenship  and embraced  Hellenis m, then she traveled  to India  to discover  the roots  of 
the aryan civilization  and became famous in the nazi circles.  She believes  that only 
Hinduis m could  oppose  the Judaeo- Christian  heritage.  In 1939  she published  A Warning 
to Hindus, in which  she expressed  the fear that the Musli ms could  overtook  the Hindus  in 
India.  In 1939  she married  a Bengali  brahmana, Asit Krishna  Mukherjee;  together  they 
helped  Subhash  Chandra  Bose  to get in touch  with the Japanes e to support  his Indian 
National  Army in the campaign  against  the British  occupation.  She wrote, "We defend 
Hinduis m, because  it is India ’s very self-expression;  and we love India,  because  it is 
India...  Hinduism  is really  superior  to other  religions,  not for its spiritualit y, but for that 
still more precious  thing  it gives  to its followers:  a scientific  outlook  on religion  and on 
life...  If those  of Indo-European  race regard the conquest  of pagan  Europe  by Christianit y 
as a decadence,  then the whole  of Hindu  India  can be likened  to a last fortress  of very 
ancient  ideals,  of very old and beautiful  religious  and metaphysical  conceptions,  which 
have  already  passed  away in Europe.  Hindu ism is thus the last flourishing  and fecund 
branch  on an immense tree which  has been  cut down  and mutilated  for two thousand 
years."
Werner  Heisenberg  (1901-1976 ), pioneer  of quanta  mechanics  (formulated  with  Max 
Born  and Pascual  Jordan  in 1925),  father  of the "uncertainty  principle  of quantu m 
theor y", Nobel  Prize  1932  for the work  that set the foundations  for the discover y of the 
allotropic  form s of hydrogen.  At the end of the war he was appointed  director  of the 
Kaiser  Wilhel m Institute  for Physics  and he reorganized  it until the transfer  to Munich  in 
1958,  when  it was renam ed Max Planck  Institute  for Physics  and Astrophysics. He was 
also president  for the German  Research  Council, chair man of the Com mission for Ato mic 
Physics, chairm an of the Nuclear Ph ysics  Work ing Group, and president  of the Alexander  
von Humboldt  Foundation.  He wrote,  "After  the conve rsations  about  Indian  philosophy, 
some of the ideas  of Quantu m Physics  that had seem ed so crazy suddenl y made  much 
more sense."
We must also mention  Alain  Danileou,  Mircea  Eliade  and Juan  Mascarò,  respectively 
from France,  Romania  and Spain.  Danielou  (1907 -1994,  also known  as Shiv Sharan), 
author  of many  books  on the philosophy,  religion,  histor y and arts of India,  such  as 
Virtue,  Success,  Pleasure,  & Liberation  : The Four Aims  of Life in the Tradition  of 
54

Ancient  India. He lived  15 years in India  to study Sanskrit,  he was initiated  in Varanasi 
by Karpatraji  Maharaja,  and he was the first European  to open  claim  to be a Hindu.  He 
wrote,  "The Hindu  lives  in eternity . He is profoundly  aware  of the relativity  of space  and 
time and of the illusor y nature  of the apparent  world. Hinduism  especially  in its oldest, 
Shivaite  form,  never  destro yed its past.  It is the sum of human expe rience  from the 
earliest  times. Non-dogmatic,  it allows  every  one to find his own way. The Greeks  were 
always  speaking  of India  as the sacred  territo ry of  Dion ysus and historians  working under 
Alexander  the Greek  clearl y mentions  chronicles  of the Puranas  as sources  of the myth  of 
Dionysus...The  Egyptian  myth  of Osiris  seemed directl y inspired  from a Shivaite  story  of 
the Puranas  and that at any rate, Egyptians  of those  times considered  that Osiris  had 
originall y come  from  India mounted  on a bull ( Nandi), the traditional t ransport of  Shiva." 
Eliade  (1907 -1986)  novelist  born  in Bucharest,  Rom ania;  he was fluent  in Rom anian, 
French,  German,  Italian  and English,  and could  read Hebrew,  Persian  and Sanskrit.  His 
long  doctorate  thesis  was entitled  Yoga: Immortality  and Freedom, translated  and 
published  in French  3 years later.  In 1928  he traveled  to India,  where  he spent  a long 
period  studying  at the University  of Calcutta  under  the guidance  of Surendranath 
Dasgupta,  the author  of a five volume History  of Indian  Philosophy. He wrote,  "From the 
Upanishads  onwa rd, India  has been  seriously  preoccupied  with but one great proble m - 
the structure  of the human  condition.  With  a rigor unknown  elsewhere,  India  has applied 
itself  to analyzing t he various  conditionings of  the human  being."
Mascarò  (1897-1987 ) produced  a translation  of Bhagavad  gita. He wrote,  "Sanskrit 
literatu re is a great literatu re. We have  the great  songs  of the Vedas,  the splendor  of the 
Upanishads,  the glory of the Upanishads,  the glory of the Bhagavad- Gita,  the vastness 
(100,000  verses)  of the Mahabharata,  the tenderness  and the heroism found  in the 
Ramayana,  the wisdo m of the fables  and stories  of India,  the scientific  philosoph y of 
Sankhy a, the psychological  philosoph y of yoga, the poetical  philosoph y of Vedanta,  the 
Laws  of Manu,  the grammar of Panini  and other scientific  writings,  the lyrical poetry , 
and drama s of Kalidasa...  The greatness  of the Bhagavad  Gita is the greatness  of the 
universe,  but even as the wonde r of the stars  in heaven  only reveals  itself in the silence  of 
the night,  the wonder  of this poem only reveals  itself  in the silence  of the soul..  the 
essence  of the Bhagavad  Gita is the vision of  God in all things and  of all things in God."  
Mascarò' s work constitutes  a remarkable  exception  to the deep  ignorance  and intellectual 
55

blindness  shown  by the scholars  of Spain,  Portugal  and Italy, who remained  largely 
unable  to drop  the prejudices  of the colonial  indology  - as for example  the Crepuscular 
Guido  Gozzano  (1883-1916)  and the imaginative  but disinform ed Emilio  Salga ri (1862 -
1911).  Also  the more recent  Antonio  Tabucchi,  Alberto  Moravia  and P.P. Pasolini  have 
perceived  India  superficially  and through  dense  prejudice,  painting  a sad picture  of a 
miserable  India,  devoid  of culture  and humanity,  doomed  to remain  slave  to ignorant 
fatalis m. Similarly,  those  who want  to understand  the genuine  Indian  tradition  and the 
vedic  wisdo m may be misled  by the famous novel  Passage  to India by Edward  Morgan 
Forster,  published  for the first time in Great  Britain  in 1924  and by The City of Joy by 
Dominique  Lapierre  (both  adapted  for the big screen)  and also by the recent  movie 
Slumdog millionaire , directed  by Dann y Bo yle.
Alan  Watts  (1915 -1973),  pioneer  of the popularization  of eastern  knowledge  in the 
1960s,  author  of  The Way of Zen and Psychotherapy  East and West, wrote,  "To the 
philosophers  of India,  however,  Relativity  is no new discovery , just as the concept  of 
light years is no matter  for astonishm ent to people  used to thinking  of time in millions  of 
kalpas  (a da y of Brahma,  about 4,320,000 earth y ears)."
Fritjof Capra  (born  in 1939),  American  of Austrian  origin,  founder  of the Center  for 
Ecoliteracy and author  of The Tao of Physics:  An Exploration  of the Parallels  Between 
Modern  Physics  and Eastern  Mysticism, wrote,  "Modern  physics  has shown  that the 
rhythm  of creation  and destruction  is not only mani fest in the turn of the seasons  and in 
the birth  and death  of all living  creatures,  but is also the very essence  of inorganic  matter. 
Modern  physics  has thus revealed  that every subatom ic particle  not only perform s an 
energy  dance,  but also is an energ y dance;  a pulsating  process  of creation  and 
destruction...  The dance  of Shiva  is the dancing  universe,  the ceasele ss flow  of energ y 
going  through  an infinite  variet y of patte rns that melt into one another...  The scale  of this 
ancient  myth  is indeed  staggering;  it has taken  the human mind more  than two thousand 
years to come  up again  with a simil ar concept...  the two foundations  of of twentieth-
century  physics  - quantu m theory and relativity  theory - both force  us to see the world 
very much in the way  a Hindu, Buddhist...sees  it."
Hans  Torwesten  (born in Germany  in 1944 ), author  of Vedanta  - Heart  of Hindu ism, 
wrote,  "A fair numb er of leading  physicists  and biologists  have  found  parallels  between 
modern  science  and Hindu  ideas.  In America,  many writers  such  as J. D. Salinge r (An 
56

Adventure  in Vedanta:  J.D. Salinger's  the Glass  Family),   Henry Miller,   Aldous  Huxle y, 
Gerald  Heard,  and Christopher  Isherwood,  were  in contact  with the Vedanta.   Most  of 
them came from  elevated  intellectual  circles  which  rejected  the dogmatis m of the 
Christian  Churches  yet longed for spiritualit y and satisfactory  answers  to the funda mental 
questions  of existence.  In Vedanta,  they found  a wide-open,  unive rsal,  and 
philosophically  oriented  religion  where  even  the penetrating  scientific  mind could  find 
something  to its taste."
Canadian  Klaus  Klosterm aier (born in 1933 ), Distinguished  Professor  in the Depart ment 
of Religious  Studies  at the Unive rsity of Manitoba  in Canada  and author  of Hinduism:  A 
Short  Introduction, wrote, "Hinduis m has proven m uch more  open than any other religion  
to new ideas,  scientific  thought,  and social  exper imentation.  Many  concepts  like 
reincarnation,  meditation,  yoga and others  have  found  worldwide  acceptance.  It would 
not be surprising  to find Hinduism  the dominant  religion  of the twenty -first  century . It 
would  be a religion  that doctrinall y is less clear-cut  than main stream  Christianity , 
politicall y less determin ed than Islam, ethically  less heroic  than Buddhis m, but it would 
offer  something  to everybody ... Hinduis m will spread  not so much through  the gurus  and 
swamis, who attract  a certain  number  of people  looking  for a new commitment and a 
quasi-m onastic life-style,  but it will spread  mainly  through  the work  of intellectuals  and 
writers,  who have  found  certain Hindu  ideas  convincing  and who identify them with their 
personal  beliefs.  A fair number  of leading  physicists  and biologists  have  found  parallels 
between  modern  science  and Hindu  ideas.  An increasing  numb er of creative  scientists 
will come from a Hindu  background,  will consciously,  and unconsciously  blend  their 
scientific  and their religious  ideas.  All of us may be alread y much  more Hindu  than we 
think."
George  Ifrah  (born in 1947),  author  of The Universal  History  of Numbers, quotes  24 
passage s from  Indian  scriptu res to support  the ancient  knowledge  of mathe matics. He 
noticed  the connection  between  mathematics and metaphysical  abstractions,  and exalts 
the scientific  character  of Sanskrit,  highlighting  the fact that the very term  samsk rita 
means precisel y "perfect,  complete,  definitive".  
He wrote,  "A thousand  years ahead  of Europeans,  Indian  savants  knew  that the zero and 
infinity we re mutually inverse  notions."
57

Brian  David  Josephson  (born in Wales,  1940), pioneer of superconductivity and  magnetic 
fields,  director  of the project  of Unification  Mind-Matter,  and Nobel  Prize 1973  for 
physics,  wrote, "The Vedanta  and the Sankhya  hold the key to the laws  of mind  and 
thought  process  which  are co-related  to the Quantu m Field,  i.e. the operation  and 
distribution of  particles  at atomi c and m olecular  levels."
Another  theoretical  physicist,  Bernard  Enginger  (1923-2007 ), had taken  the vedic  name 
of Satprem. Member of the French  resistence  during the World War 2, he was arrested  by 
the Gestapo  and spent  18 months  in a concentration  camp, then at the end of the war he 
went  to India  where  he served  unde r the colonial  French  governm ent at Pondicher ry, 
where  he discovered  Aurobindo  and Mère.  He wrote,  "Which  sadist  God has decreed  that 
we would  have  only one life to realize  ourselves  and through  which  colossal  ignorance 
Islam and Christianity  have  decided  that we shall  go to Heaven  or Hell,  according  to the 
deeds,  bad or good, which we have  com mitted in a single life ?"
Many  other  Westerners  have  openl y converted  to Hinduis m. We may mention  for 
example  Ram  Dass  (born  Richard  Alper t in 1931)  author  of Be Here  Now and disciple  of 
Neem Karoli Baba.
Another  well known  personality  is Satguru  Sivay a Subramuniyaswam i (1927-2001 ), 
American  by birth,  edito r of the magazine  Hinduism  Today. He wrote,  "Hinduism  is so 
broad.  Within  it there is a place  for the insane  and a place  for the saint...The re is a place 
for the intelligent  person  and plent y of room  for the fool.  Hinduism,  the Eternal Way  or 
Sanatana  Dharm a, has no beginning,  therefore  will certainl y have  no end. It was never 
created,  and therefore  it cannot  be destroy ed. It is a God-centric  religion.  The center  of it 
is God. All of the other religions are prophet -centric."
Daya  Mata  (1914-2010 ), president  and sanghamata ("Mother  of the Association")  of Self 
Realization  Fellowship,  Los Angeles,  and Yogoda  Satsanga  in India  for 55 years. Born 
Faye Wright  in a prominent  family of the Church  of Jesus  Christ  of Latte r-day Saints, 
descendent  of the early Mormon  pioneers,  wrote  Only  Love':  Living  the Spiritual  Life in 
a Changing  World, Find ing the Joy Within  You: Personal  Counsel  for God Centered 
Living, and Enter the Quiet  Heart: Creating  a Loving R elationship with  God.
Swami Kriyananda  (born J. Donald  Walters  in 1926),  disciple  of Param aham sa 
Yogananda  (1893-1952 ) and minister  of his church called  Self Realization  Fellowship, 
58

wrote  more  than 100 books  (including  The New Path, The Essence  of Self-R ealization 
and Conversations  with Yogananda) and composed  400 music pieces.  He speaks  English, 
Italian,  Rom anian,  Greek,  French,  Spanish,  German,  Hindi,  Bengali  and Indonesian.  In 
1962  he left the SRF and founded  Ananda,  a global  move ment of spiritual  communities 
based  on "simple  living,  high  thinking",  with  1000  full time residents.  In 1973  he 
founded  a schooling  system called  Education  for Life based  on an ecumenical  curriculum 
open  to students  of all religions,  and later he produced  movie s on Francis  of Assisi  and 
Jesus  Christ.
In contrast,  David  Frawle y (also  known  as Pandit  Vam adeva  Shastri,  a name  he received 
from Avadhuta  Shastri ), has focused  on traditional  hinduis m, vedic  astrolog y, yoga and 
Ayurveda.  He was the first westerner  to receive  the title of Jyotish Kovid  from  the Indian 
Council  of Astrological  Sciences  (ICAS ) in 1993.  Founder  and directo r of the American 
Institute  for Vedic  Studies  in Santa  Fe (New  Mexico),  he is also professor  at the Hindu 
University  of America  in Orlando  (Florida). Author  of  How  I Became  a Hindu,  Arise 
Arjuna  : Hinduism  and the modern  world,  Awaken  Bharata:  A Call for India's  Rebirth, 
Hinduism  and the Clash  of Civilizations,  Gods,  Sages,  and Kings,  From  the River of 
Heaven,  Hinduism:  The Eternal  Tradition  (Sanatana  Dharma),  The Myth of the Aryan 
Invasion Theory,  In Search  of the Cradle  of Civilization,  The Rig Veda and the History  of 
India,  Yoga and Ayurveda,  Tantric  Yoga, Wisdom of the Ancient  Seers,  Yoga and the 
Sacred  Fire, Oracle  of Rama,  Ayurvedic  Healing,  Ayurveda  and Marma  Therapy,  Yoga 
for Your Type:  Ayurvedic  Guide  to Your Asana  Practice,  Ayurveda:  Nature's  Medicine, 
Yoga of Herbs:  Ayurvedic  Guide  to Herbal  Medicine,  Ayurveda  and the Mind,  Astrology 
of the Seers,  Ayurvedic  Astrology. He speaks  of the need  to develop  a new intelligentsia 
compos ed by intellectual  kshatriyas ("wa rriors") trained  in Vedic  dharma to face cultural 
challenges.  He writes,  "Hinduism  honors  the Earth  as the Divine  Mother  and encourages 
us to hono r her and help her develop  her creative  potentials.  The deities  of Hinduis m 
perm eate the world  of nature…they  don't  belong  to a single  country  or book  only... I see 
Hinduis m as a religion emin ently suited for  all lands and for  all people because  it requ ires 
that we connect  with the land and its creatures  - that we align  our individual  self with the 
soul of all beings  around us."
Some other  great thinke rs among  our conte mporaries  who have  openl y taken  a stand, 
with words and action,  in support  of the enormou s value  of vedic  knowledge  are also 
59

Koenraad Elst (from  Holland), Michel Danino and  François  Gautier (f rom France).
Michel  Danino  (born in 1956)  from  a Jewish  family emigrated  from  Morocco,  has been 
living  in Tamil  Nadu  for about  30 years.  Author  of The Invasion  That  Never  Was, The 
Indian  Mind Then  and Now,  Arise  Awake  to the New Indian Age, The Lost River:  On the 
trail of the Sarasvati,  L’Inde  et L’invasion  de nulle  part, and Kali Yuga or The Age of 
Confusion. He is also  the convener of the International Fo rum for India's  Heritage.
He wrote,  "The  so-called  “New  Age”  trend  of the 1960s  owed  as much to India  as to 
America;  a number  of Western  universities  offer  excellent  courses  on various  aspects  of 
Indian  civilization,  and if you want  to attend  some major  symposiu m on Indian  culture  or 
India’s  ancient  history , you may have  to go to the U.S.A;  some physicists  are not shy of 
showing  parallels  between  quantu m mech anics  and yogic science;  ecologists  call for a 
recognition  of our deeper  connection  with Nature  such  as we find in the Indian  view  of 
the world;  a few psychologists  want  to learn  from Indian  insights  into human  nature; 
hatha  yoga has becom e quite  popular...  Western  civilization,  not even  three  centu ries 
after  the Industrial  Revolution,  is now running  out of breath.  It has no direction,  no 
healthy  foundations,  no value  left except  selfishne ss and greed,  nothing to fill one's  heart 
with.  India alone  has preserved  something  of the deeper  values  that can make a man 
human,  and the world will surel y be turning to the m in search  of a remedy  to its advanced 
malady...  In fact, since  the start of the Judeo- Christian  tradition,  the West  broke  away 
from Nature  and began  regarding  her as so much inani mate  matter to be exploited  (a 
polite  word  for plunder ). The contrast  with the ancient  Indian  attitude  is as stark  as could 
be. Indian tradition  regards  the earth  as a goddess,  Bhudevi  ; her consort,  Vishnu,  the 
supre me divinity, incarnates  from  age to age to relieve  her of the burden of demonic 
forces...  'Heaven  is my father;  my mother  is this vast earth, my close  kin,' says the Rig-
Veda  (I.164.33 )."
Koenraad  Elst (born in 1959  in Belgiu m in a Flamish  family), author  of The Saffron 
Swastika,  Decolonising  The Hindu  Mind - Ideological  Development  of Hindu  Revivalism 
and Negationism  in India : Concealing  the Record of Islam , wrote, "The struggle of  Hindu 
society  is not primarily  with the Musli m community. The most important  opponents  of 
Hindu  society  today are not the Islami c communal leaders,  but the interiorized  colonial 
rulers  of India,  the alienated  English-educated  and mostly  Left-leaning  elite that noisil y 
advertises  its 'secularism '. It is these  people  who impo se anti-Hindu  policies  on Hindu 
60

society, and  who keep Hindu ism down and prevent it fro m proudly  raising its  head  after  a 
thousand  years of oppression...  The worst  torment  for Hindu  society  today is this mental 
slavery,  this sense  of inferiori ty which  Leftist  intellectuals,  through  their power  positions 
in education  and the media,  and their  direct influence  on the public  and political  arena, 
keep  on inflicting  on the Hindu  mind...  Most  Western  scholars  positively  dislike 
Hinduis m when it stands  up to defend  itself.  They prefer m useum Hinduism ."
François  Gautier  (born in 1950),  political  analyst for the French  daily pape r Le Figaro 
and defender  of Indian  nationalis m, author  of A Western journalist  on India  : The 
Ferengi's  Columns,  Rewriting  Indian  History  and A New History  of India. He wrote, 
"Ancient  Hindus  were  intensel y secular  in spirit,  as their spiritualit y was absolutely  non-
sectarian  - and still is today  in a lesser  measure.  Seven  thousand  years ago, Vedic  sages, 
to define  the Universal  Law which  they had exper ienced  within  them selve s on an occult 
and supra-spiritual  plane...  Hinduis m is probabl y the only religion  in the world  which  has 
never  tried  to convert  others,  or conquer  other  countr ies to propagate  itself  as a new 
religion.  The same is not true of Islam and Christianity...  O members of the Indian 
intelligentsia!  You think  that reading  the latest  New  York  Time s bestseller,  speaking 
polished  English,  and putting  down  your own count rymen,  specially  anybody  who has a 
Hindu  connection,  make s you an intellectual.  But in the process  you have  not only lost 
your roots,  you have  turned  your back  on a culture  and civilisation  that is thousands  of 
years old and has given  so much to the world... For the greatness  of India is spiritual. The 
world  has lost the truth.  We have  lost the Great  Sense,  the meaning  of our evolution,  the 
meaning  of why so much  suffering,  why dying, why getting  born...  But India has kept 
this truth.  India  has preserved  it through  seven  millennia  of pitfalls,  genocides,  and 
mistake s."
61

Study  of vedi c scr iptures  
in Indian  histo ry
In the previous  chapter  we have  seen how Vedic  knowledge  was system atically  attacked 
and weakened  by the invasions  suffered  by India  in the course of centu ries, and how still 
today  such negative  effects are influencing  the image that Indians  have  of the Vedas  and 
Hindu  tradition.  The most serious  problem  is the cultural  inferiorit y complex  in the 
majority of Indians in general and  especiall y in Hindus.
An important  symptom  is the naive  and uninfor med utilization  of definitions  that contain 
a negative  meaning,  such  as "idol",  "mytholog y", or "legend",  that usuall y almost  all 
Hindus  use to refer  to the sacred  images and stories  of Hinduism , while  they would  neve r 
dream  of applying them to the Christian  or  Musli m equivalents.  Othe r definitions  that 
communicate  a distorted me aning,  that dem eans the or iginal sense,  are for exam ple "seer" 
to indicate a  rishi and "incantation" or "litan y" to refer to a mantra.
Equall y symptom atic is the utilization  - especially  by those  who  want  to pass  as 
"intellectuals"  - of definitions  of typicall y Christian  origin  to refer to Hindu  concepts 
having  very different  meaning s: for example  "pontiff"  to refer  to an acharya,  mahanta or 
guru, "monk " to refer  to a brahmachari or sannyasi, "priest"  for a brahmana or pujaka, 
and "caste"  to ind icate  varna as well as  jati and kula. 
Actually  these  Sanskrit  words  do not have  a precise  translation  in the western  languages, 
because  they refer to very specific  concepts  - just like the words  yoga,  ashrama,  dharma 
and karma, that would  require  several  lines  of explanation  in order  to be translated 
adequately,  and therefore  are better  left in their  original  form, so much that they have 
officially  entered  the vocabulary  of other languages.  In the west,  many of those  who 
study  Hinduis m and Vedic  cultu re have  already  adopted  the original  definitions  - such as 
62

guru,  acharya,  brahmana,  sannyasi,  brahmachari,  pujaka,  varna etc - but strangely 
Indians  them selve s show  a greater  attachment  for the bad English  translations,  that in 
their e yes seem  to lend a  kind of "respectable  aura" to the Indian concepts.
Also  persisting,  albeit in a smaller measure,  is the obsolete  anglicization  of the spelling of 
the original  terms  when  they are written  in western  letters - such as hindoo,  pooja,  mutt, 
teertha,  sreeman and so on, and the unnecessary  use of English  words  and expressions 
within  conversations  in Hindi,  even  by people  who practically  have  no knowledge  of the 
English language,  and i ronically  by people  who a re openl y hostile to the use  of English as 
"colonial"  and "foreign"  and who want  to impo se the use of Hindi  over the entire  Indian 
territory and in the contacts  with  foreigners  or people  who have  a different  mother-
tongue...  for the purpose  of highlighting  their  dedication  to the cause  of Indian 
nationalis m.
Even  more  significant  is the frequent  reference  to the idea that all religions  are equally 
valid  (sarva  dharma  samabhava) and therefore  a Hindu  who does not claim to appreciate 
Bible,  Gospels  and Koran is watched  suspiciously  or even  openl y accused  of "Hindu 
funda mentalis m", while  nobod y expects  Christians  or Musli ms to appreciate  Vedic 
scriptures  as much as their own scriptu res, or even  just to recognize  the genuineness  and 
legiti macy of  Vedic scriptures  or Hindu tradition. 
This  creates  a paradoxical  situation,  in which  openly  and publicly  insulting  Vedic 
scriptures  constitutes  a legitimate  exercise  of freedo m of religion,  while defending  them 
constitutes  a crime and a proof  of intole rance,  if not even  an act of inciting  to hatred and 
violence.  So the great  majority  of Hindus  feel compelled  to abundantl y praise  the 
Christian  and Islami c scriptures, even  without having an y knowledge of  them.
Thus  Shirdi Sai Baba,  Brah mo Samaj,  Arya Samaj,  Ramana  Maharshi,  Paramaha msa 
Yogananda,  Ramakrishna,  Vivekananda  and many  others  after  them  have  felt and still 
feel the need  to validate  their own ideological  position  with frequent  quotes,  recognition, 
appreciation  and praise  for the Christian  ideology . Rare  exceptions  are for example 
Swami Dayananda  Sarasvati  of Arsha Vidya Gurukulam  and Pejawar  Visvesha  Tirtha 
Swami.
63

This sense  of subordination  towards  the abraha mic ideolog y, not only in India but at 
global  level,  has created  the widespread  idea that the most representative  form  of Vedic 
or Hindu  knowledge  and culture  is monis m, sometimes modi fied in a drastic  manner 
towards  impersonalis m, that was more  digestible  for the Islamic or protestant  Christian 
iconoclasts,  who still consider  "diabolic"  the tradition  of worshiping  the visible  form s of 
the Godhead,  especially  the multiple  form s - an iconoclastic  position  that was 
unfortunately absorbed and carried on b y the A rya Samaj.
The only "personalist"  form  of Hindu ism that is tolerated  by this colonial-ty pe 
ideological  tendency  is Vaishnavis m, especially  presented  as an absolute  monotheis m 
focused  on a male God,  usually  identified  as the God of the Bible  and Koran.  In this 
context,  the Gaudi ya Vaishnavism  presents  Chaitan ya as the divine  incarnation  in the 
garb of  a prophetic  figure equated to the figure of  Jesus  Christ in christianit y.
It is i mportant  to remem ber this fact  when we  see that the majority of  the p resentations  on 
Vedic  knowledge  presentl y available  to the public have  been  produced  by colonialists  of 
Christian  faith,  by "impersonali st" monists  or by monotheistic  Vaishnavas  that have 
beco me institutionalized  in a church-l ike form.  Later on in the chapter  we will see how 
the present  Hindu  Resurgence  is striving  to overcome these  limitations,  that are 
detriment al to the understanding of  the genuine and original Vedic knowledge.
Another  sympto m of the Hindu  cultural  inferio rity complex  is the passive  acceptance  of 
non-verified  negative  concepts,  such  as the idea that Vedic  tradition  is the origin  of the 
so-called  "social  evils"  of India,  such as the mistreatm ent of women,  the mistreatm ent of 
"low  castes " and "outcaste  people"  generall y known  as dalit  or "downtrodden"  and the 
opposition  against  scientific  or cultural  progress.  Unfortunately , due to a widespread 
ignorance  many  Hindus  have  embraced  these  negative  concepts  and keep  propagating 
and defending  them as if they were genuine  Vedic  teachings  of the so-called  "ancient 
tradition"...  although  they are systematically  unable  to quote  the approp riate passages 
from the original scriptures. For a ver y simpl e reason: they  do not exist.
The propaganda  by the Christian  missionaries  and the colonialist  literatu re have  painted 
Hinduis m in dark tones,  for example  quoting  the immolation  of widows  on the funeral 
pyre of their husbands;  there  is a famous story described  by Jules  Verne  in his Around 
the world  in 80 days, where  the British  hero Phineas  Fogg  saves  a young  Indian  woman 
64

who was precisely going to be killed in that way. Such propaganda  also claims that Vedic 
tradition  is at the root of the arranged  or forced  marriages  based  on profit considerations, 
female infanticide,  child  marriages,  and some kind  of prostitution  connected  to the 
temples.  Nothing of these  is prescribed by Vedic culture - neither by the original texts nor 
by their  commentaries  or by the general  ethics  on which  their practical  application  is 
based.  
However,  it is true that under  the  Musli m domination  in India  unmarried  women were  in 
a disadvantaged  and difficult  position,  because  they were more exposed  to the danger  of 
sexual  exploi tation  by the invaders.  Often  the widows  of the warrio rs that had fallen  on 
the battlefield  chose  mass suicide  (jauhar) rathe r than the inevitable rape, followed  by the 
sufferings  of slaver y. For this same reason  the warriors  of a besieged  fort prepared 
themselv es for battle b y wearing the saffron  colored clothes  of a sannyasi. 
Vedic  civilization  considers  the possibilit y tat at the death  of her husband  a woman may 
feel an overwhel ming  sense  of loss,  considering  herself  devoid  of the support  and 
protection  she wanted,  and may not wish  to continue  to live in that condition.  In such 
case she could  freely  choose  to kill herself  in order to be immediately  reunited  to the 
husband's  soul and follow  him in his next destination,  on the heavenl y planets  or in a new 
earthly  incarnation.  The western  tradition,  too, has witnessed  similar  sentim ents.  Their 
most famous expression  is seen in Juliet  and Romeo,  described  by the beautiful  tragedy 
written  by William  Shakespeare.  Such senti ment s can be observed  even  among  animals, 
that sometimes let themselv es die when  they lose their life companion.  Such  choice  is 
severely  conde mned  by the Christian  ideology  as a major  sin deserving  eternal  hell, 
irrespective  of the circum stance s that prompted  it; on the other hand  it is considered 
legiti mate  in the Vedic  ethics,  that sees death  as a normal fact of life, a simple passage 
from one incarnation  to another,  along  a path of personal  evolution.  In the Vedic 
ideological  system  there  is no eternal  hell and nobod y has the autho rity to judge  what 
another  person does with his or her own body. Based  on these considerations,  suicide  (of 
women and men alike)  is not condem ned - although  it is not recom mended eithe r, and 
certainly  it is not prescribed.  And certainly  there  is no autho rization  for false  suicide  - 
that is to say, homicide  passed  as suicide  on the basis  of social  or cultural  pressure  or 
even  com mitted by violence.
65

In Vedic  culture,  the funda mental  factor  is not death  in itself  - which  is an inevitable  and 
often  liberating  passage  - but the type of awareness  that a person  has at the moment of 
death,  as it is confir med for exam ple in Bhagavad  gita (8.6). The entire human  life is a 
preparato ry course  for the moment of death,  that must be faced  with  the maximum 
respect  and the m axim um attention, to ensure a favorable  birth in the next life.
In western  countries  this perspective  is only recently  being  understood  and appreciated, 
for example  by those  who oppose  prolonged  artificial  life support  for patients  that are in 
desperate  and irreversible  conditions,  especially  when  the patient  himsel f/hersel f has 
expressed  the intention of  being allowed to die in a serene  and dignified  way.
In an y case,  as we have alread y mentioned,  the choice  of voluntaril y leaving one's  body is 
never  suggested  or prescribed  by Vedic  tradition,  and the original  texts  only describes  a 
very small number  of cases.  For example,  there  is the story  of Sati, Shiva's  wife,  who 
decided  to leave  her body as an act of protest against  the offen sive behavior  of her father 
Daksha  against  her because  she had chosen  to marry Shiva.  Sati's suicide,  committed by 
awakening  the inner  fire from  within  her body  and using  it to consum e the body itself, 
was therefore  a rejection  of the relationship  with the physical  body of which  Daksha 
could  claim to be the father.  Sati considered  Daksha  as an unworth y person,  with whom 
she did not want to have any  relationship any more.
Popular  ignorance,  reinforced  by the distorted  propaganda  of colonialism , has connected 
this radical  choice  of Sati's with the idea of the widow  that immolates herself (or worse, 
that is immolated)  on the funeral  pyre of her husband,  precisely  called  sati - forgetting 
that Sati's  suicide  has nothing  to do with widowhood.  Shiva  had certainl y not died.  On 
the contra ry, many  Puranas clearl y describe  this very famous episode  and say that Shiva, 
infor med about  the death  of his beloved  wife,  becam e extremely  angry  and rushed  to the 
spot,  taking  the dead  body of his wife in his arms, and immediately  decided  to punish  the 
offender  that had  caused  such a drastic  gesture.
Other  examples  of self-immolation  are described  in regard  to Self-r ealized  yogis and 
yoginis and tapasvis/ tapasvinis (both males and females) who left their bodily  sheath 
exactly  in the way used by Sati and in circum stance s chosen  in conscious  and deliberate 
way - but never  dictated  by despair  and fear as it is the norm  with ordinar y suicides.  This 
factor  gives  a superior  dignit y and glory to such  action,  transcending  the identification 
66

with a particular material  body and offering  the oppo rtunit y of liberation or a better bi rth.
In the light of these  considerations,  we can better  unde rstand  the reasons  why, during  the 
late middle  ages,  unde r the Islamic  threat  or domination,  some Hindu  women chose  to 
commit suicide  at the death  of their husband  - also because  this action  discouraged  those 
who could  consider  the killing  of the husband  of an attractive  woman  as an easy and 
convenient  method  to force  her into their own harem, something  that used  to happen 
frequently in t hose times.
On the basis  of similar  considerations,  the fathers  of young girls tended  to be quick  in 
officializing  the marriage  of their daughters  to guarantee  them  a better  protection. 
According  to the Islamic law,  a married  woman belongs  to her husband  (even  if he is of a 
very low social  condition ) and it is more  difficult  to get her into the harem  of another 
man.
We see from the descriptions  of the Puranas that in Vedic  society  girls marry  only after 
attaining  the "marriageable  age",  when  they actually  desire  to unite with a man and have 
children,  directly  choosing  their future  husband,  and there  is not even  one single  mention 
of a marriage  in pre-pubescent  age. On the other  hand,  still today the Islami c ideology 
teaches  that it is perfectly  moral and legitimate  to organize  or force  marriage  on a pre-
pubescent  girl, following  for example  the model  offered  by Moham med himsel f, who at 
the age of 52 married  Ayesha,  a little  girl that was only  6 years old. In the 
Tahrirolvasyleh of Ayato llah Khomeini  (volum e IV, published  in 1990)  we even  find the 
following  statem ent: "It is not illicit  for an adult  male to have  a sexual  relationship  with a 
girl that is still in her weaning age".
Because  according  to the Muslim  logic it is normal that a married  wom an is kept within 
the house  under  the strict  contro l of her husband,  the Hindu  families that married  their 
daughters  at a very  young  age could  keep  their  girls  out of sight  for their better 
protection.  On the other  hand,  the brahma  vadinis, devadasis and  ganikas, the 
"independent  women"  that had been  very respected  in Vedic  societ y, becam e fully 
exposed  to the danger  of sexual  exploitation  under  the new  norm s imposed  by the Islami c 
governm ent, so their tradition  totally  disappeared,  substituted  by vulgar  prostitution  - 
often  forced prostitution or sex slavery.
67

The legal  system  of sharia, introduced  in India unde r the Musli m domination  and only 
partiall y abolished  by the British regime,  impos es considerable  restrictions  to women' s 
rights,  including  the right  to propert y, to inheritance  and to court witness.  For exam ple, 
according  to the sharia a raped  wom an must bring  at least one male  witness  supporting 
her declarations,  so that her version  can have  more  weight  than the rapist's  word  who 
chooses  to deny the facts.  Failing which,  she will be subjected  to severe  corporal 
punish ment  (including  stoning)  for the crime of adulte ry, as we often  hear  from 
international  news.  If the raped  wom an and her supporting  witness  are non-Musli ms 
while  the rapist  is a Muslim , she will require  no less than 4 male witnesses  to support  her 
claims. This system of legislation  can still be seen  in the countries  with an Islamic 
governm ent, as in Saudi  Arabia,  and in Islamic  reference  texts  regarding  women' s rights, 
that can  be consulted on m any internet websites.
Many,  even  among  Hindus,  believe  that the purdah, i.e. the segregation  of wom en and 
the obligation  for wom en to remain  completely  covered  or at least  "as covered  as 
possible"  in public,  is a "morality"  value  characteristic  of Hinduis m based  on "shyness". 
It is easy to disprove  this myth,  simply  by visiting  one of the few surviving  temples 
among  those  that had been  built  and decorated  before  the Musli m invasions.  The more 
ancient  are the temple s, the more we can find many depictions  of women that are very 
scantily  dressed:  anyone  can observe  the joyful and serene  exaltation  of the beaut y and 
glory of the hu man body as a religious value  in itself.  And these are not si mply depictions  
of female dancers  or ordinary  women  visiting  the temple:  they include  wom en 
worshipers,  painted  or sculpted  in the act of personall y fanning  the Deity  or offering 
various  worship  articles  - and even  the female  Deities  them selves,  whose  maje stic and 
splendid  physical  forms are amply revealed  to the devotees.  Someone  may object  that 
such Deities  were sculpted  with very little clothing  because  the worship  method  precisel y 
includes  the offering  of clothing  as dress,  but even  a quick  verification  will show  that the 
sculpted  imag e is already ado rned not just  with som e clothing (although r ather revealing),  
but even  with a wealth  of beautiful  ornament s, including  crowns,  belts  and necklaces.  On 
the other  hand,  the images  of female Deities  sculpted  or painted  after  the period of the 
Musli m and British  dominations  usuall y come as a sort of monolithic  bloc,  where  the 
clothing co mpletely covers  and hides  the body.
68

The technical  term  defining  these  paradigm s is laukika  sraddha or "popular  belief", 
devoid  of factual  value  because  it is opposed  to shastra  pramana, or author itative 
"scriptural foundation".
Another  of these  silly beliefs  claim s that Hindu  girls or wom en, especially  from "good 
familie s", should  not receive  any cultural  or professional  education,  so that they will 
remain more  "faithful  and obedient"  to their  husband  and in-laws,  because  they totally 
depend  on them.  Instead  of "getting  ideas"  about  their own personal  value  as individuals 
within  the family and society, these women should  simply concern  themselve s to produce 
a sufficient  number  of male child ren. This  idea,  that is certainl y offensive  towa rds 
women,  has infiltrated into the m ass of othe r prejudices  cultivated by  ignorant people, but  
does  not have  any foundation  in the genuine  vedic  Tradition.  On the contrary, in the 
original  scriptu res and especially  in the very little known  Kama  sutra, we read that girls, 
especially  those  from  good  families,  including  princesse s, were  encouraged  to learn the 
64 arts, thanks  to which  they would  beco me able to bring prosperit y to their home and 
even  get independent  incom e in case of widowhood  or financial  difficulties  of the 
husband  or his family - as  the text explicitl y states.
Such  arts include  the study of foreign  languages,  gastronomy  and culinar y arts, medicine, 
gardening,  the preparation  of preserves,  drinks,  perfum es, oils and medi cinal  extracts, 
tailoring,  dyeing  of clothes  and other  materials,  fashioning  gold and creating  jewels,  the 
ability  to evaluate  the price of gems and metal s, chem istry and mineralogy,  metallurgy 
and the knowledge  of mining  processe s, the creation  of flower  ornaments  both for the 
person  and for home decoration,  the creation  of turbans  and various hair-d ressing  styles, 
tattooing,  the art of service  to the Deity,  the art of making  malas (rosaries)  and religious 
decorations,  magical  (i.e. tantric ) arts, spells  and magic al potions,  coded  languages  and 
communications,  the managem ent of cisterns  for water  and storage  facilities,  singing, 
dancing,  perform ance  arts, paint ing, sculpting  and all the figurative  arts, poetr y and the 
various  literar y arts, training  and care of pet animals,  the art of toy making,  martial  arts 
and military  strateg y, architecture,  carpent ry and ebonister y, house  manage ment and 
accountings,  gambling,  psycholog y (especially  marital  counseling),  sociolog y, as well as 
the various  sexual  arts. The original  scriptu res clearl y state  that the women  who are 
expert  in these  arts and sciences  are immensely respected  in societ y even  when  they live 
alone  independentl y; thanks  to their personal  abilities  they obtain a place  of respect  in the 
69

city assemblies, they are praised  by respectable  people  and become  able to overcom e any 
crisis  at personal or fam ily level.
Besides  these  independent  professional  abilities,  married  women  could  norm ally 
participate  in a direct way to the profes sional  activities  of their husband.  A famous 
example  is queen  Kaike yi, who normally  went  to battle  on her own chariot in the army of 
the kingdom  of Ayodhya ; once  she entered  the fight  to face the great warriors  that had 
stricken  king  Dasaratha  unconscious.  After  defeating  and routing  the generals  of the 
enemy army, Kaikey i picked  up the unconscious  body  of her husband,  moved him to her 
own chariot  and took  him to safety,  saving  his life. For this action,  Dasaratha  had 
promi sed to repay  his debt b y fulfilling any r equest  from  her. 
Similarly,  the wives  of brahmanas  and vaisyas were  welcom ed to directl y participate  to 
the professional  activities of  their families if the y so desired.
The ignorant  notion for which  women should  not be given  any education,  however 
elementary,  specifically  because  they must not be made able to honestl y make a living in 
an independent  way, obviously  leads  degraded  people  to believe  that the birth  of a girl 
child  should  be considered  a disgrace  rathe r than a happ y event  as in the case of a male 
child.  In the most extrem e cases  the disapproval  of the family can turn into serious 
neglect  towards  the girl all along  her childhood,  if not into infanticide  or foeticide  when 
the ultrasound tests  reveal that the  unbo rn child is  a fem ale.
Such  ideas  do not find any support  in any Vedic  texts,  eithe r in a theoretical  or in a 
practical  form.  Rather,  the teachings  of the Vedas lead in a completely  opposite  direction. 
There  are no Vedic  texts  that endorse,  conte mplate  or even  mention  the killing  of girl 
children  or the neglect  or mistreat ment of girls or women,  of any age. On the contrar y, 
according  to the Vedic  scriptu res a woman or a brahmana must never  be subject  to 
physical  punish ment  or mistreat ment of any kind,  even  when  they are factually 
recognized as  guilt y of so me serious  crime. 
Apart  from  being  respected  as visible  manifestations  of the Divine  Feminine,  women  are 
described  as perfectly  equivalent  counterparts  to men. The Saunaka  Samhita of Atharva 
Veda (10.8.27 ) states,  tvam  stri tvam  pumanasi, "you (i.e. the incarnation  of atman/ 
brahman) are woman and man",  and stri pumsau  brahmano  jatau  striyah  brahma  utha 
bhavana, "both  women  and men  are born from  the same Brah man  - women  are 
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manifestations  of the Supreme  Being  and so are men" (Atharva  Veda  Paippalada 
Samhita 8.9.11 ). The Mahanirvana  tantra (8.47)  teaches  that a girl must be raised  and 
educated  with  the same oppo rtunities  that are offered  to male child ren. In Vedic 
civilization  there  is no discrimination  between  sons and daughters:  Rig Veda (8.31.8 ) 
offers  the description of  a happ y fam ily, blessed  by Indra with sons  and daughters.
It is true that Vedic  scriptu res do not force  anyone  to engage  above  and beyond their 
capacities  and wishes,  and therefore  in Vedic  civilization  a woman may choose  to simply 
dedicate  herself  to family,  children,  husband,  home,  and concern  herself  about  her own 
physical  appearance  without  being  forced  to engage  in other  activities,  but such 
occupations  do not constitute  a limitation,  an obligation or a prio rity dut y.
According  to the Harita  Dharmasutra of the Maitrayani ya school  of Yajur Veda, women 
can be classified  into two types:  (dvi vidha  striyah,  brahmavadinyah  sadyovadhvas  ca, 
tatra  brahmavadini namupanayana magnindhanam  svaghre  bhikshacharyeti ). 
The first type of women mentioned  in this Dharma  sutra is the category  of the brahma 
vadinis,  those  who choose  to dedicate  their lives  to the study, practice  and teaching  of 
Vedic  knowledge  and Brah man realization.  These  transcendental  and powerful  women 
are not requi red to marry and raise  child ren, although  there  is no rule that forbids  them  to 
do so, even  later in life. Tradi tion offers  the exam ples of Visvavara,  Ghosha,  Sikata, 
Nivavari,  Apala  and Visvavara  from the family  of Atri,  Angirasi  Sarasvati  from  the 
family of Angirasa,  Yami  Vaivasvati,  Sraddha,  Ghosha,  Surya, Indrani,  Urvasi,   Saram a, 
Juhu  and Paulomi  Saci, who are associated  to the mantras of Rig Veda. 
Another  famous brahma  vadini,  Lopamudra,  was famous for her deep  knowledge  of 
Sanskrit  and Tamil.  The meaning  of her name is "complet ely absorbed  in the Self",  and 
we find her in the category  of the Brah mavadhini  Rishi- patnis,  because  she became the 
wife of Agast ya Rishi.  Two mantras of the Rig V eda (1.179.1 -2) are attr ibuted  to her.
It is said that some Vedic  scholars  named their literary work from  their  wives  or 
daughters,  as in the case of the Vedanta commentary called  Bhamati and the mathe matic 
treatise  called  Lilavati. However, we cannot dis miss the possibilit y that such  texts  have  in 
fact been  written  or compo sed by the women whose  names they bear,  because  there  is no 
specific  document ation  for the authorship of  these  works.
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The  Rig Veda suktas 10-134,  10-39,10-40,  10-91, 10-95,10 -107,10-109,10 -154,10-
159,10-189  are explicitl y feminine  in origin;  the book  14 of Atharva  Veda and various 
sections  in several  more  books  are attributed  to Rishikas  or "female Rishis".  The Vac 
sukta (Rig Veda 10.125),  focusing  on the very revelation  of the Vedas, is attributed  to the 
Rishika  Vaga mbhrina.  The entire book  of Atharva  Veda  concerning  dome stic rituals, 
marriage  etc, is attributed  to a Rishika.  Many  parts of the other 19 books  are attributed  to 
women,  and the rituals  described  as specifically  called  strikarmani, ceremonie s 
specifically  celebrated b y wom en.
The ritual  texts  of the Vedas offer  a list of the Rishikas  to whom the student  must offer 
his homage  during the learning  of the divine  texts  - for exampl e the Ashvalayana 
Grhyasutra (3.4.4)  and Shankhayana  Grhyasutra (4.10 ) that list female Vedic  gurus, 
such  as Sulabha  Maitre yi and Vadava  Prathite yi. Some  Vedic  texts  present  women as 
authorities  on the details  of the Vedic  rituals;  for example  the Aitareya  Brahmana 2.9 
quotes  the opinion  of Kumari  Gandharva -grihita  on the ritual  of Agnihotra  (the daily 
celebration of  the fire sacrifice).
Some texts  are specifically  destined  to be recited  by women  - like the mantras of the 
Madhyandina  Yajurveda (5.17,  3.44-45  etc), the Apastambha  dharmasutra s (2.2.29.11 -
15) and the Srauta  sutras on the Vedic  ceremonie s. Also  many  mantras from  the Yajur 
Veda (for example  Sukla 5.17) are specifically  meant to be recited  by wo men.  Even when 
men recited  the other  slokas, the presence  of women  was implicit:  the recitation  of the 
Sama  Veda is intended  to be accom panied  by the music of the instrument s played  by 
women.
In Kena  Upanishad, Uma Brahm avidya  appears  to dissipate  Indra's  ignorance  with her 
teachings:  apparentl y Adi Shankara  saw this discourse  as very  important,  because  he 
wrote no less  than two different  and subsequent  com mentaries  on this one text.
The girls called  brahma  vadini underwent  the vows  of brahmacharya and the upanayana 
samska ra just like boys, beginning  the perform ance of the Agnihotra  (daily  fire sacrifice) 
and the veda-adhyayana  (daily study of Vedic  scriptures)  at a very young age, with the 
only difference  that - due to their generall y more  delicate  physical  structures  - girls were 
not required  to observe  the strict rules  of austerities  prescribed  for males. Therefore  they 
were  allowed  to to spend  their brahmacharya period in the home of their own father  or in 
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the home  of other relatives,  receiving  a private  tuition  and obtaining  their  bhiksha (ritual 
alms) from  family members rather  than from  strangers.  This is also confirmed  in another 
text (now  lost)  quoted  by other  commentators/  writers  with the title of Yama-
dharmashast ra. 
However,  it is important  that such provision  did not constitute  a limitation  or obligation, 
or a strict  rule.  Still in post-Vedic  times,  Panini  wrote that girls attend  Vedic  schools 
called  charanas (4.1.63)  and that sometimes they reside  in hostels  or chhatri-sala 
(6.2.86 ) for the purpose  of their studies.  According  to the gram marian Katya yana  (4.1.14, 
6.1.92),  who lived  after  Panini,  one of such  schools  was very famous because  of the 
gram mar course  by Apisali,  an illustrious  grammarian who lived  before  Panini.  In his 
Mahabhasya (2.206 ) Patanjali  mentions  a school  where  female students  learn the 
Mimamsa philosophy  and makes a distinction  between  beginne r and advanced  students, 
respectively defined  by the te rms adhyetri and manavika (4.193, 2.249).
When  they chose  to marry,  the brahma  vadinis looked  for men who were  equally 
dedicated  to the cultivation  of spiritual  knowledge  and practice.  Some  famous Rishi 
patnis,  respected  and famous at least as much  as their husbands,  were  Rom asa the wife of 
Svany a, Anasuya  the wife of Atri,  Maitrey i the wife of Yajnavalk ya, Arundhati  the wife 
of Vasistha,  Vasukra  patni,  Ghosha  and so on. And just like men, these brahma  vadinis 
had the oppo rtunit y to go through  the other  tradit ional  ashramas in human life, up to the 
level  of the order of total renunciation  or sannyasa. It is said that Gargi  attained  perfect 
realization  in the stage  of brahmacharya, Chudala  in the grihastha  ashrama, Maitre yi in 
the stage  of vanaprastha, and Sulabha  yogini as a sannyasini. This Sulabha  bhikshuni 
("sacred  mendicant ") was fa mous for he r vast  and deep  knowledge of the  Mahabharata. 
According  to the Vedic  tradition  the second  category  of wom en, called  sadhya  vadhu, 
consists  of the ordinary  persons  who simply  aspire  to be housewives  and mothers.  They 
may not be particula rly learned  or austere,  but they are much  respected  nonetheless, 
precisely  for the educational  role and influence  they have  for their children,  and for the 
support  and care they provide  to all the members of the family and the clan.  Unlike  the 
women who live under the Islami c segregation regime, ordinar y married  women in Vedic 
society  are totall y free to move around,  and they can go out in public  either  alone  or 
escorted,  to participate  to the various  social,  religious  or cultural  functions,  or for 
shopping  or visiting  pleasant  or interesting  places.  In this regard there  are many 
73

descriptions  from  the scriptures  and histor ical records.  However,  everyone  is expected  to 
be faithful  to their  duties,  as duty is the basis  of religion,  so Vedic  women  who are 
dedicated  to the family and the home  must give priority to such  duties even  in the case 
financial  prosperit y allows  them to maintain  servants  and maidservant s: the mistress of 
the house  must supervise  all work strictl y. Thanks  to the pleasantness  and comfort  of 
traditional  Vedic  housing  structu res, endowed  with vast orchards  and kitchen  gardens, 
water  tanks,  storing room s and laboratories  for the home production  of various goods,  the 
"mother  of the family" did not need  to leave  her house  in order  to perfectly  perform  her 
duties.  In Vedic  society  merchants  and independent  service  providers  (such  as 
astrologers,  palmi sts, physicians,  artists  etc) were  usuall y going  from door  to door  to 
present  their merchandise  and services  for the convenience  of custom ers. There  are no 
rules  that prevent  women  from interacting  with merchant s (male  or female), and for this 
reason  the women  of wealth y families did not need  to take the trouble  to go out of their 
homes to run errands  or to enjoy the pleasures  of shopping,  entertainment  or popular 
culture. 
The ordinary  mother  of a family, called  sadhya  vadhu, was encou raged  to directly 
participate  to all the religious  rituals  as Guardian  of Dhar ma, while  men are excluded 
from the participation  to some specific  dom estic rituals.  This position of great  importance 
for wom en within the religious  system  in the family is symboliz ed by the ancient 
tradition  of the husband  who walks  behind  the wife around  the sacred  fire during the 
marriage  ceremony.  Such  tradition  is still alive  in Orissa, together  with a strong  devotion 
to the Mother  Goddess  - in spite  of all the efforts  made  by invaders  to demolish  it, both 
through  laws that oppress  women and through  the distortion  of Vedic  concepts,  or even 
with the physical  destructions  of the texts  on the subject  and the qualified  teachers  that 
supported the  original and genuine version.
The brahmanas who were  famous for their  learning  and experience  in the study  of 
scriptures  were  particularl y targeted  during the Islamic conquest  of India:  normally  they 
were  slaughtered  or deprived  of their distinctive  symbols  and forced  to work in extremely 
dangerous,  exhausting  and degrading  conditions.  For example,  they were engaged  in the 
remov al of garbage,  stool  and dead  bodies, or personal  service  to the conque rors.  To 
make a small example,  within  the short  period  of the year 1393,  just one ruler among 
many, Sultan  Sikander  But-Shiken,  was responsible  for the disappearance  of about  80 
74

thousand  brahmanas: the number  of his victims can be calculated  on the basis  of the 80 
kg of sacred  thread that he collected  by eliminating  those  who were  wearing  it. Consider 
that the weight  of one sacred  thread is approximately  1 gram. The chronicles  of another 
Islamic sultan  in India,  Amir  Sham asu'd- Din Iraqi,  openl y state that every  day from  1500 
to 2000  brahmanas were  brought  to his palace,  where  they were  deprived of their sacred 
thread,  forcibl y circum cised  and force-fed  with  cow meat. If the unfortunate  victims 
dared  to return to their  old religion,  they were  immediately  slaughtered  together  with 
their fam ilies and associate s.
Unfortunately  in India the texts  of the Muslim  chronicles  are difficult  to acces s, because 
their free consultation  by the public  is considered  dangerous  as it could  cause  "communal 
tension".  However,  it is possible  to find the quotes  in other  countries,  especially  where 
the government  is openly  Islamic,  where  the events  related  by such  chronicles  are still 
proudl y considered as  great and glo rious  achievem ents by the religious funda mentali sts. 
The same type of persecution  targeted  the texts  of Vedic  scriptures.  While  such  texts 
were  extrem ely numerous  originall y, they were decim ated or mutilated  in such a way that 
it became impo ssible  to effectively  counteract  the invaders'  propaganda.  Nonetheless, 
there  is still suffici ent material  to help us unde rstand  the true ideological  position  of 
Vedic  knowledge  in relation  to these  problem s. The Dharma  shastra  text commented by 
Kullukabhatta  (15th centur y CE) is missing  many  texts  in its later versions:  these  texts 
specifically  said that the wives  are in charge  of the daily perform ance of the agnihotra in 
the house.  In fact according  to the traditional  rule a man becom es eligible  to celebrate  the 
Vedic  rituals  only after  marriage  (Madhaviya  Shankara  digvijaya 2.14)  and the 
samska ras (the ritual  purification  ceremonies)  can be success ful only if the two spouses 
sit together  (Aitareya  Brahmana 7.10,  Rig Veda 8.31.5 -9, Taittiriya  Brahmana 2.2.2.6, 
commentary by Shabara  Swami sul Purvamimamsa  sutra 6.9.17,  Siddhanta  kaumudi on 
Ashtadhyayi 4.1.33). 
Trad ition  requires the wife to support  the husband's  hand  every  time he pours the ahuti 
(ritual  oblation  in the sacrificial  fire) to indicate  that the ritual  is perfor med jointl y. 
However,  there  is no similar  prescription  for women when  they directly  celebrate  the 
homa and pour the ahuti - something  they can do independentl y. In the Mahabharata we 
see Savitr i and Amba  performing  the Agnihot ra, the fire sacrifice,  by them selve s and on 
their own right. This tradition  is confir med in the Gobhila  Grihasutra (1.3.15 ) and in the 
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Asvalayana  Grihasutra (1.9),  that quotes  the famous female teacher  Vadava  Pratite yi 
(3.4.4 ). In Ramayana we see Kausalya,  Sita and Tara (respectivel y wives  of Dasaratha, 
Rama and Sugr iva) independentl y perfor ming  the Agnihotra,  while  on the occasion  of 
Rama perfor ming  the Asva medha yajna in the absence  of his wife Sita, he is required  to 
install  a golden  statue  of his wife  in the yajna site so that the process  will not be 
invalidated.
According  to Vedic  scriptures,  women  also possess  the necessary  requisites  to perform 
the daily sandhya rituals.  In Vedic  Arya societ y all women wear  the sacred  thread 
(upavita), as brahmacharini (celibate  students)  or as married  wom en. In Dandin's 
Kadambari (8th centur y CE) a lady called  Mahasveta  is described  as decorated  by a 
white sacred  thread resplending like pure moonlight.
According  to the Harita  smriti, the second  categor y of women (sadyo  vadhus) having 
more ordinar y tendencies,  who have  not unde rgone  the stage  of brahmacharya and 
connected  rituals,  received  their  sacred  thread  (in the ceremony  called  upanayana) just 
before  marriage.  In fact the Gobhila  Grihasutra (2.1.9) states  that during the marriage  the 
bride  must wear  the upavita  (sacred  thread)  signifying  that she has undergone  all the 
samska ras or prescribed  purification  rituals,  and is therefore  an arya, a "civilized  and 
educated  person".
Manusmriti (2.145)  teaches  that the mother  is 1000  times more  venerable  than the father, 
and many scriptu res (such  as Gautama  Dharmasutra 2.57,  Yajnavalkya  Smriti 1.33, 
Mahabharata 1.196.16 ) state  that the mother  must be considered  the greatest  Guru  for 
her child ren, before  the father  and even  before  the brahmana that gives  initiation.  At the 
celebration  of the Sraddha  (the ritual  to hono r the dead)  the mother  is remem bered and 
honored  before  the father.  Further more,  special  extra ceremoni es such  as the Chandana 
dhenu  sraddha  are performed  for the moth er (but not for the father).  While  an unwo rthy 
father  can be excluded  from  the Sraddha  offerings  performed  by the son (Vasistha 
Dharmasutra 13.47,  Gautama  Dharmasutra 20.1)  the mother  can never  be. A son is 
considered  as directl y responsible  for the atone ment  for his mother' s bad actions  after her 
death  (Hiranyakeshin  Grihasutra 2.4.10.7, Shankhyayana  Grihasutra 3.13.5).
A man who enters the order of sannyasa receives  pranama (ritual  homag e) from  his own 
father,  but offers  it to his mother.  According  to the Vedic  tradit ion, at the time of diksha 
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or initiation  (upanayana  samska ra) the student  approaches  his mother  to beg for bhiksha 
(ritual alms) and when  the student  returns  home  after completing  his studies,  he bows  to 
his mother  and offers  her whatever he has  acqui red.
Devotion  to mother  as everybody's  first Guru also remain s when  all other  relationships 
are abandoned.  We know  about  the example  of Adi Shanka ra, who personally  perfor med 
the cremation  of his deceased  mother  in the court yard of her own house  even  after he had 
entered  the order  of sannyasa. Still today, the Nam putiri  brahmanas perform  the 
cremation  of their family members in the court yard of their own home s, as a homage  to 
Adi Shankara. Chaitanya, too, was  famous for his devotion towards  his moth er Saci. 
When  he entered  the order of sannyasa he approached  her offering  his obeisances  and 
asked  her orders  about  his future  residence.  Mother  Saci told him to reside  in Jagannatha 
Puri and he obe yed, rem aining  in Pu ri for the rest  of his  life.
In many  cases,  glorious  sons are associated  to the name of their mother  rather than to the 
name of their  father  - like Devakiputra  Krishna  (also  mentioned  in Chandogya 
Upanisad), Rishi  Aitare ya (son of Itara),  Mahidasa  of Aitareya  Upanishad, Dakshiputra 
Panini  (the grammarian) and Kaunte ya Arjuna,  and obviousl y all the main  Devas,  called 
Adity as ("sons  of Aditi").
In Taittiriya  Upanisad (1.11.2)  the teachers  speak  to the students  of Vedic  knowledge, 
recommending them  to first offer  their homage to their own mother  as a mani festation  of 
the Divine.  In the famous dedication  song  of the devotee,  God is first celebrated  as 
Mother and  then as Father: tvam eva mata ca pita tvam eva.
A very  well-known teaching recom mends all men  to consider all wom en as their mothers, 
as manifestations  of the one Mother  Goddess,  she who gives life  to ever yone.
Manu  smriti states,  yatra  naryastu  pujyante,  ramante  tatra  devata: where  women are 
venerated  the Gods  are pleased,  but where  they are not hono red, no sacred  ritual can give 
fruits.  The houses  where women  are not properl y hono red and therefore  pronounce  a 
curse,  completely  perish.  In the marriage  hymn  of the Rig Veda (10.85.26)  it is said that 
the bride  "addresses  the assem bly like a general  addresses  the army".  Then Rig Veda 
continues  (10. 159.2 ) describing  the position  of a married  woman in the words  of Sachi 
Paulo mi: "I am the banner.  I am the guide. I posses s excellent  eloquence;  my husband 
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cooperates  with me  and follows  my will."
Rig Veda (1.73.3 ) describes  the Divine Realit y as mani fested in the "glorious  wife of the 
worshiper",  that is formally  venerated  as Griha Lakshmi,  the personification  of the 
house's  prosperity  (Taittirya  Brahmana  2.9.4.7,  Manusmriti 9.26), "auspicious"  (Rig 
Veda 3.53.6 ), "very auspicious"  (Rig Veda 10.85.37 ), "worthy of worship"  (Mahabharata 
5.38.11),  that must be treasured  by her husband  more  than his own life itself,  worshiped 
as a mother  and respected  as an elder  sister  (Mahabharata 4.3.13).  The husband  must 
never  do anything  that displease s his wife (Mahabharata 1.74)  because  this would  make 
all rituals ineffective.
Still today in Hinduis m, the most important  and popular religious  festivities  are dedicated 
to the Mother  Goddess  - like Navaratri  (the seasonal  celebration  of "nine  nights"),  Durga 
puja,  Divali  and so on. The appearance  of Sri Rama and his victory are both celebrated  in 
the immediate  vicinities  of the Navaratri  festival,  because  it is said that Rama was able to 
defeat  Ravana  and to return to Ayodh ya to be crowned  there as king,  only by the grace  of 
Mother  Durga,  who was devoutedly  worshiped  by Ram a. Before  participating  to the 
battle of  Kurukshetra, Arjuna wo rshiped  Mother Durga, following Krishna's  instructions.
The famous Devi  mahatmya in the Markandeya  Purana describes  how the Mother 
Goddess,  on the request  of all the Devas  and for the purpose of  protecting the m, killed the 
demoniac  Madhu  and Kaitabha,  Sumbha  and Nishum bha, Raktabija  and Dhumralochan a, 
and Mahisha  asura with all his ar my.
In fact the worship  of the female form  of the Divine  seem s to have  been  the main 
tradition  in the ancient  times, followed  by a subsequent  develop ment  of iconograph y 
towards  the masculine  form especially  after  the beginning  of Kali yuga, although  the 
worship  of the male  Deities  is done  together  with the Shakti  or even  openly  subordinated 
to the Shakti, like in the exa mples  of Shiva/Kali and  Krishna/Radha.
Mother  Kali ("the Black",  identified  with Time and Change)  is often  depicted  standing 
over the body  of Shiva, who lies on the ground  in a subm issive and passive  position.  In 
the Krishna  lila, beautifully  represented  by the great  poet Jayadeva,  Govinda  embraces 
Radha's  feet and worships  them with love - the echo  of such devotion  is also found  in the 
personal  relationship  of the poet with his own wife Padmavati.  Even when  the female 
form in the Divine  couple  is depicted  as submissive and devoted  towards  the Lord, the 
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name of the Shakti  is always  mentioned  before  the name of the Lord - Sita Rama, Radhe 
Shyam, Uma Mahesha,  Lakshmi  Nara yana, Sri Vishnu, etc.
Lakshm i is considered  inseparable  from  Vishnu,  as stated  in the Vishnu  Purana (1.8.17-
20), where  Parasara  says: "Constant  companion  of Vishnu  and Mother  of the Universe, 
Lakshm i Devi  is eternal.  She is speech  where  Vishnu  is the object  of description.  Where 
Vishnu  is the law, she is policy. Whe re Vishnu  is knowledge,  she is intelligence.  Where 
Vishnu  is creator,  she is creation.  He is mountain,  she is earth.  He is pleasure,  she is 
perfect  satisf action.  Vishnu  is desire,  she is the object  of desire.  He is yajna  (the 
sacrificial  ritual ), she  is dakshina (the gift  offered  in sacrifice)."
The female form s of Sri Vidya  and Gayatri  are considered  the personifications  of 
knowledge,  respectively  in Tantras and Vedas. Atharva  Veda  (19.71.1 ) and many  other 
texts  state  that Gayat ri is "the Mother  of all Vedas" (namaste  surya  sankaro  surya 
gayatrike  amle, brahmavidye  mahavidye  vedamata namo 'stu  te).
No scholar  or student  could  even  imagine  starting  any study without  first offering  his 
homage  to Goddess  Sarasvati,  and the annual  festival  of Sarasvati  puja is still considered 
funda mental in all Indian  schools.  Sarasvati  is often  called  Vag Devi  ("the  Goddess  of 
Word"),  mistress  and teacher  of all knowledge,  both spiritual  and material.  Traditionall y, 
the recitation  of Vedic  texts  begins  with  an invocation  to the Devi  - om shanno 
devirbhishtiye  apo bhavantu (Atharva  veda). Specifically,  this mantra constitutes  the 
beginning  of Pippalada's  version  of the Atharva  Veda. It appears  again  as mantra 1.6.1  in 
Shaunaka's  version  of Atharva  Veda, and in many  texts  even  this version  starts  with the 
invocation to the Devi.
Bhumi puja, the ritual homage  to Mother  Earth as the asana of the worshiper,  is an 
integral  part of all traditional  ritual  ceremonies.  Rig Veda contains  various  hymns 
dedicated  to Mother  Earth, and Atharva  Veda (12.1.63 ) contains  this beautiful  hymn:  "O 
Earth, Mother!  Safely  establish  me in spiritual  and material  happiness,  and in full 
accordance  with the Heaven. O  greatest  of Sages! Suppo rt me in grace and splendor!"
Cereal  grains,  too, are considered  sacred  as a form  of Devi  Annapurna,  and water  is 
considered  sacred  as the form of the Goddess  (jala rupena  samsthita), that should  be 
present  in all celebrations  in the form of the sacred  kalasha or water  pot, that traditionall y 
"forms the body " of all the invoked  Deities  (males  and females). The kalasha is also 
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present  over the templ e dome s and as an auspicious  image  painted  inside  temples  and 
homes, especially on the occasion  of festival s and certainly  for m arriages.  
Both  male and female Deities  are praised  in the Apri suktas and in the family prayers of 
all the 10 Rishi  lineages.  The primeval  Goddess,  Aditi or Adi Shakti, the mother  of all the 
Devas,  has a central place  in these  songs.  Among  the ancient  Vedic  Deities  we find two 
Adity as ("child ren of Aditi")  are in female form (Dhatri  and Savit ri). Also  female are the 
names of the Deities  called  Ila, Usha,  Yami, Ratri,  Prithivi,  Kamadhenu,  Aranyani, 
Urvasi,  and so on. All these  Goddesses  are mentioned  as venerable  in themselves, 
without any  association  with a male  Deit y counterpa rt; others - such  as Saci and  Rati - a re 
mentioned  together with a m ale companion,  such as  Indra and Ka ma respectively.
Regarding  the supposed  oppression  of the "low  castes"  or "outcaste"  and the rigid 
hereditar y immobility  of social  position,  it will suffice  to read the original  text of 
Puranas and Itihasas, for example,  to find out a very different  reality . To begin  with,  in 
the original  texts  there  is no reference  to persons  or categories  called  dalit ("opp ressed") 
or paria ("emarginated")  or "outcaste"  or "untouchables"  that are part of the hindu 
society.  In fact, Vedic  scriptu res state that human kind (manusya  jati) can be divided  into 
two vast categories  - arya and anarya, respectively  those  who follow  the Vedic  rules  of 
civilized  life, and those  who don't.  Both  these  definitions  can be applied  at individual  and 
collective  level. 
These  rules are based  on hygienic,  ethical,  social  and cultu ral principles.  The most 
important  example  is cleanliness  or purity: an arya must take a bath every  day, 1 to 3 
times a day according  to the circum stance s. After  bathing  in clean  water,  preferably 
running  water,  one must wear  fresh  clean  clothes.  In any case it is necessary  to take a 
complete  bath and wear  fresh  clothes  in order  to purify  oneself  from  excretions  - for 
example  after going  to the toilet  or in case of vomit,  sexual  secretions,  mucus secretions, 
bleeding  etc. The general  rule become s even  stricter  when  the individual  is engaged  in 
activities  that requi re a higher  hygienic  level,  such  as food  preparation,  water 
manage ment (especially  drinking  water)  and all those  religious  activities  with a public 
distribution  of food,  water,  flowers,  leaves  and other  substances  that have  been  offered  to 
the Deity  and that a re traditionall y eaten or drunk wi th great respect  by people.
The need  of cleanliness  and purity also applies  to one's food habits  through vegetarianism  
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as the abstention  from substances  that are intrinsically  impure  such as the bodies  of dead 
animals,  as well from substances  that can conta minate  the mind   such as alcoholic  drinks 
or som e plants  containing active principles  with undesirable  effects.
The second  fundam ental  principle  of Vedic  civilization  is the indiv idual's  evolution  of 
awareness  through  study  and personal  discipline,  the participation  to social  prosperity 
through  the performan ce of profes sional  duties  (irrespective  of the profit  that one can 
get), the responsibilit y towards  one's  family and ancestors,  gratitude  and respect  towards 
one's  superiors,  gradual  detach ment  from  temporary  identifications  and material 
attach ment s, and liberation  from  all conditionings  in preparation  for death.  These 
qualities  are cultivated  through  the system of the ashramas or progressive  stages  in the 
life of an individual,  where  one is trained  in one's  personal  evolution.  In the west,  the 
word  ashrama is generall y known  for its meaning  of "residence  of persons  who are 
engaged  in spiritual  life",  but the original  sense  also include  the meaning  of "position  in 
life".
In the first stage  of life, in the ashrama called  brahmacharya, the student  learns  to follow 
the rules of purity and cleanliness,  studies  the scriptures  and applies  their teachings  in 
practice,  developing  a strong  basis  of loyalty to dharma, the universal  rules of ethics  and 
civilized  life. In the second  stage,  called  grihastha, the individual  engages  in economic 
develop ment  and prosperity  by working  for the family and for society  without  any sense 
of selfishne ss. The grihastha  ("one  who lives  in his own home")  faithfully  perform s his 
sacred  duties,  thus repaying his debt towards  his ancestors,  societ y in general  and the 
Devas.
Gradual  detach ment  is attained  in the stage  of vanaprastha ("that  lives  in the forest") 
when  one leaves  his house  to his adult  children and retires from  social  activit ies to devote 
himsel f to pilgrimage s and austerities,  until he arrives  at the level  of complete 
renunciation,  called  sannyasa, where  a man abandons  all fixed  residence,  personal 
propert y, social position and  all kinds of  material  identifications.
Vedic  or arya society,  composed by individuals  that accept  to follow  these  rules  of 
personal  purification,  is divided  into four varnas or occupational  categories,  constituted 
respectively  by brahmanas (intellectuals),  kshatriyas  (administrators  and warriors), 
vaisyas (entrepreneurs  and traders  of all types)  and sudras (craftsm en and labore rs). 
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These  categories  constitute  the natural divisions  of all human  societies  because  they are 
based  on spontaneous  talents  and tendencies  that are found  everywhe re; the difference  in 
Vedic  societ y is that the varna  system is regulated  by the precise  description  of the 
qualities,  the activities, the  duties and the rights characteristic  of each  position. 
Classi fication  in one of such categories  does not simply depend  on birth,  although  birth 
may help considerably  - just like someone  who was born in a family of medical  doctors 
or law yers can  take advantage of  a favorable  envi ronment,  of the constant  exam ple and of 
the expert  guidance  of his relatives.  When  the Vedic  system and rules are strictl y 
followed  (especiall y in regard  to the circum stance s of conception)  and the level  of 
consciousne ss of the family is solid  and consistent  with  the position  it occupies  in 
society,  there  are good  probabilities  that the souls  attracted  to take birth  in that family 
will be positively  attuned  to the family traditions.  In order to reinforce  the positive  and 
virtuous  tendencies  of the child ren, the parents  also must perfor m a series  of purificatory 
rituals  that are meant to constantly  elevate  the level  of consciousne ss; the number  of such 
purification  rituals  (called  samska ras) can sum up to 40, for those  who choose  to perform 
the less important  ceremonie s as well.  Of course  it is alwa ys possible  to fall into 
accidents  on the way, and sometimes it is evident  that a soul who has taken  birth  in a 
particular  family does  not possess  the necessary  qualities  that are required  to prope rly 
carry on the family tradition.  In this case the child  must be offered  choices  that are more 
suitable  to his actual  potential.  
It is also possible  that in some cases  affection  and attach ment  could obscure  the judg ment 
of parents  and relatives  on the factual  potential  of a child.  To counteract  this danger,  in 
Vedic  society  all child ren are sent to the Gurukula,  "the family of the Guru",  in the home 
of a qualified  teacher,  where  they will be watched  and trained  in a personalized  way for a 
certain nu mber  of yea rs.
Since  the children  (generall y from  the age of 5 onwards)  live in close  contact  with the 
Guru  and his family, day and night,  the teacher  can easily observe  their behavior  in a 
variet y of situations  and evaluate  which  professional  and social  occupation  each  child 
will best perform in the future.  Of course  the Guru  must be qualified  for such  task, 
because  by his endorse ment  and guidance  he become s totall y responsible  for the success 
or failure  of each student.  Apart  from  the fundam ental  education  and training  on ethical 
and religious principles  that is given to everyone, each boy is specifically  engaged  in one 
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of the four occupational  fields  that is most suitable  according  to his natural  tendencies 
and capabilities.  Those  who  love  to study  and learn  quickly , and show  the most 
exemplary  ethical  behavior  are trained  as brahmanas, or teachers  and consultants.  Those 
who are good  in organizing  things  (because  they are able to manage  people ) and love 
physical  activities  are trained  as kshatriyas, while  those  who  have  entrepreneurial 
tendencies  (organizing  materials  and resources)  are trained  as vaisyas. These  three 
categories  of students  receive  the religious  initiation  or diksha, by which  they become 
officially  recognized  as "twice  born", something  that includes  precise  duties  for the 
perfor mance  of rituals and work for society, 
The less enthusiastic  students,  who are lazy, hungr y for sense  gratification,  rather  selfish 
and devoid  of specific  talents,  unable  to actually  take responsibilities,  remain  in the 
generic  position  of sudras and they are simply expected  to perform the duty to assist the 
other  social  categories.  In exchange,  their employers  take care of them and their families 
in all aspects  of life.
It is important  to unde rstand  that the sudras are not "untouchables",  parias  or dalits. The 
life conditions  of a sudra depend  solel y on his relationship  with his employer  and has 
nothing  to do with social  conventions  or prejudice.  Sudras are considered  aryas and their 
employers  treat them like their  own children  or family  members. Because  generally  the 
sudras or servants  live in their  employer's  house,  the British  colonialists  that observed 
Indian  society  from  the outside,  through  the lenses  of their  own  social  prejudice, 
mistakenly  confused  the position  of the sudra with the position  of the slaves  in some 
ancient  European  societies.  This misunderstanding  has been  solidified  by the notorious 
Aryan Invasion Theor y, on which we will discuss  later on.
The key to correctl y unde rstand  the position  of the sudra  in Vedic  society  consists  in the 
analysis  of the two apparently  similar  definitions  of dasa ("servant")  and dasyu  ("thief, 
criminal "). As we have  already  examin ed, Vedic  scriptures  encourage  each individual  to 
evolve  and improve  himself. However,  it may happen  that some people  choose  to indulge 
in the lowest  and most degrading  tendencies,  and tend to pick up bad habits  instead  of 
developing  good  habits.  For example,  a sudra can beco me lazy to the point  of neglecting 
the basic  hygienic  and cleanliness  norms, or greedy  to the point  of misappropriating 
valuable  objects  without  the permi ssion  of the legitimate  owner.  Or he can beco me 
selfish  to the point of showing  a cruel and insensitive  behavior towards  people  or towards 
83

animals.  These violations  to the rules are not extremely  serious  in them selve s, but they 
create  a danger  for the proper  functioning  of society,  therefore  one who chooses  to 
continue  into that direction  is dismissed from  service  and expelled  from  Vedic  social  life, 
thus becoming  known  as an anarya or chandala, a "non-civilized  person".  It is important 
to unde rstand  that the classification  into the categor y of anarya or chandala is based  on 
the individual's  free choice  of not following  the basic  rules  of cleanliness,  austerit y and 
compassion.  In the original  system, this is not about  birth  right, and nobody  is forced  in 
that direction.
Of course  we must consider  the importance  of the environmental  factor  of family in the 
develop ment  of a system of values  for the individual  - because  taking  birth  in a degraded 
family  exposes  one to the bad example  and to the bad teachings  of his parents  and 
relatives.  However,  this is not a decisive  factor,  because  as we all know  there  are often 
exceptions  both in the good  and in the bad. Such  exceptions  must be recognized  and 
officialized  by the leaders  of society,  specifically  by the teachers  (brahmanas) and rulers 
(kshatriyas), who have always had the power to officially m odify  the social position  of an 
individual on the basis  of his actual  qualit ies, his level of consciousne ss and his behavior.
Apart  from  these  exceptions,  that we will examine  later on, we need  to understand  that in 
general  the anaryas  (also called  chandala or mleccha) constitute  a cause  of disturbance 
and danger  for Vedic  society,  and for this reason  they are not permitted  to normally 
reside  within  the urban  areas  where  civilized  people  live. However,  they are left free to 
choose  a fixed  or nomadic  residence  of their liking in any  area that is distant enough fro m 
urban habitation. 
This effectively  contradicts  the picture  of slaver y and mistreatm ent that is presented  by 
the anti-Vedic  propaganda,  because  normally  such  drastic  segregation  does  not allow 
sufficient  condit ions of contact and  vicinit y between  members of the civilized society and 
members of the wild or tribal  societies.  In the case where  a member of the civilized 
society  (arya) comes in contact  with a member of a non-civilized  societ y (anarya), the 
arya has the duty to alwa ys behave  in a kind and respectful  way, because  each  human 
being  deserves  a basic  level  of respect  simply  because  of the potential  developm ent 
afforded  by his body. No mi streatm ent or coe rcion  is ever allowed.
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Svetasvatara  Upanishad (II. 5) says that all human beings,  without  any distinction,  are 
amritasya  putra, "children of the Im mortality", as  they are heirs to spiritual realization. 
Both  the Rig Veda (5-60-5)  and Yajur Veda (16.15)  state  that all human  beings  are 
members of the same family, and they are all entitled to equalit y. Atharva  Veda  (3-30-1 ) 
states  that all human beings  must have  for each other  the same affection  and love shown 
by a cow  to her newborn  calf,  they should  share food and be firmly  united like the spokes 
in a chariot  wheel.  Tolerance  of lifestyles  that are different  from ours should  be based  on 
such  considerations,  but it should  not fall into the opposite  exaggeration,  by which  one 
must give the same value  to all behaviors,  or even  give more  facilities  and rights to those 
people  who are less qualified.  This would  inevitabl y cause  people  to behave  in the worst 
possible  way and to avoid all effort  to improve  and evolve personally.
Therefore,  the clear  perception  of the basic  equality  of all human beings  does  not 
invalidate the  need to regu late the no rmal community life,  because  the free  choices of  one 
individual  or one group  of individuals  should  not damag e other individuals  or other 
groups of  individuals.
The rules that forbid  chandalas or anaryas  to live in close  contact  with  aryas are not 
based  on racism  or social  prejudice,  but simply  by strictl y hygienic  considerations.  Even 
when  we talk of segregation,  it is important  to understand  that it is not based  on birth 
considerations  or prejudice,  and above  all it is not a permanent  or coercitive  system , and 
it is not caused  by a condition  of financial  poverty . In Vedic  civilization  the lack of 
financial  resources  never constitutes  a reason for segregation  or social  discri mination,  and 
certainly  it is not the cause  of impurity  or contamin ation.  Anyone  can maintain  his 
legiti mate  position  of civilized person  in Vedic  society  by simply accepting  to keep 
himsel f decently  clean,  something  that can be done  even  by regularl y bathing  and 
washing  one's  clothes  in a river or pond,  without  spending  any money,  and abstaining 
from dirty and unhy gienic  life habits.  Not even  travelling  beggars  are assim ilated to the 
chandalas - of course  provided  they observe  the fundam ental  rules  of hygiene  and 
civilized behavior.
In some cases,  chandalas can enter the urban areas  if they wish  to do so in order  to 
perfor m some legitimate  activity  - for example  to remove  the dead  bodies  of human 
beings  that are carried  to the crematorium  outside  the city, or the bodies  of animals  who 
85

died of natural  causes,  that the chandalas  will be allowed  to utilize  to get leather  and 
meat, because  they are character istically  non-vegetar ian. In fact, one of the most frequent 
definitions  for a chandala is sva-pacha, "one  who cooks/  eats dog meat".  The habit  to 
consu me impure  foods,  such as meat,  fish and eggs - that are not part of the diet of aryas 
or civilized  persons  - constitutes  an extremely  important  factor  in the definition  of 
anarya and in the necessity  for them to reside  in separate  settlem ents at a distance  from 
the aryas. This is not simply  for the comfort  of the aryas. For those  who are attached  to 
the consum ption  of non-vegetarian  foods  it is not convenient  to live in civilized  urban 
areas,  because  in such  areas it is not possible  to slaughter  animals.  In fact the kshatriya 
has the duty to protect  all the prajas, those who have  taken  birth in his  area - and this also 
includes  innocent  animals,  those  animals  that do not cause  damage  or even  constitute  an 
asset  for civilized society, as for exa mple  the cows.  
Characteristically,  the anaryas do not care for such  considerations  and eat any animal 
they want  to kill, therefore  they prefer  to live in their own villages,  in the forests  and on 
the hills,  or at the delta  of rivers  or along  the sea, where  the environmental  situation 
offers  ample  oppo rtunities  for hunting  and fishing,  and where  they are free to behave 
according to their chosen  lifestyle,  even if  it is disgusting,  cruel and  unhygienic.
When  they enter civilized  areas, the chandalas are always  treated kindl y, respectfully and 
generously,  provided  they abstain  from behavio rs that create  a danger  for the hygiene  of 
the civilized  community - as for exam ple contaminating  water  tanks  or cooked  foods,  or 
imposing  unwanted  and unpleasant  physical  contact  to the inhabitants  of the city. Such 
prohibitions  are purel y functional  to the purpose  of maintaining  a rigorous  public 
hygiene,  and are comparable  to the laws  of contem porar y societies  that regulate  the 
sanitary  requirem ents and the behavior  of those  who handle  food destined  to the public, 
for example,  or to the rules  that require  swim mers to use the bathroom  and take a shower 
before  entering i nto a  public swim ming pool.
Conte mporary  societies  also condem n unwanted  physical  contacts  by dirty and smelly 
persons,  or persons  who may be carriers of contagious  diseases,  and although  usuall y 
there are no specific  laws  that punish  the violators,  nobod y wil l be scandalized  when such 
individuals  are removed  from  public  and private  places  by securit y guards. In this regard 
it is important  to notice  that among  the characteristics  defining  the chandala category 
there  is the uncontrolled  consu mption  of alcoholic  beverages  and other  intoxicating 
86

substance s that distort  the state  of awareness  and the perception  of realit y - something 
that in conte mporary western societies  is often considered  a crime  proper.
When  they perform a service  of transportation  of dead  bodies  to the crematoriu m, the 
chandalas always  receive  gifts or payment from the relatives  of the deceased,  and they 
are allowed  to keep  the valuable  ornament s that remain  among  the ashes  after cremation. 
Often  a small number  of chandalas choose  such occupational  profession  in a permanent 
way and establish  their residence  within  a crem atorium  or in its immediate vicinity , 
obtaining  further  incom e from  the collection  and selling  of firewood  for the cremation. 
Often  the members of this particular  categor y of "undertakers"  are financiall y very 
prosperous  and can afford  servants  and luxur ies of various  kinds,  as we can still see 
today , for example  among  those  who work in the cremation  ghats in Varanasi  (Benares). 
This is not a recent  develop ment,  because  in the puranic  story of emperor  Harischandra 
we find that the king fell from  his position and ended up as the servant of  a chandala who 
worked in a crem atorium .
Another  tradit ional  occupational  position  for a chandala consists  in the remov al and 
treatm ent of garbage  in general,  or the cleaning  and maintenance  of sewage.  Although 
Vedic  civilization  produces  a very small amount  of garbage  if compared  to the 
consu meristic industrial  culture  based  on plastic  and "disposable"  products  and 
packaging,  there  is always  a certain  amount  of detritus  that will be found  in an urban area 
- for example  broken  utensils  and containers,  worn out and damaged  clothes  or furniture 
and so on. All these  discarded  materials  must be taken  out of the city to a suitable  place, 
and they are generally  recycled,  which  creates  another  occupational  oppo rtunit y for those 
who do not have  particular  abilities  or talents,  and are not very concerned  about  hygienic 
rules.
It is important  to unde rstand  that Vedic  societ y does not need  chandalas to perform  these 
services,  because  there is  no rule that prohibits the four social  categories  (sudras,  vaisyas, 
kshatriyas and brahmanas) to personally  perform even  the "dirtiest"  jobs for them selves. 
In other  words, anyone can perform  any work  within  one's  own house  or family, 
including  the ordinar y and extraordinar y activities  of cleanliness  and the removal  of dead 
bodies.  Besides,  the sudras  who works  as servants  and assistant s to the other  three 
occupational  categories  normally  perfor m such services  for the family of their employers, 
but they are not considered  as chandalas, for the simple  reason  that they normally 
87

observe  the rules of cleanliness  and hygiene.  Many  people  confuse  the categor y of sudras 
with the category  of chandalas, but these  are very different  positions:  as we have  already 
mentioned,  the sudras live in the same house  with the family that employs  them and are 
considered  family m embers.
The contam ination  associated  with the occasional  performance  of impure  or dirty 
activities,  such  as the transportation  and crem ation  of dead  bodies  and the cleaning  of 
animal detritus, the removal  of garbage  and the cleaning  of sewage  systems is a 
temporary  proble m and can easily be removed  with a nice full bath,  a change  of clothes 
and in the case of the three  social  categories  of "twice  born", they simply  need  to change 
their sacred thread with a new  clean one. Also,  there are so me simple  cere monie s of ritual 
purification,  especially  for those  who are engaged  in delicate  tasks,  such as the worship 
of Deities  and the p reparation of  food that will be distributed as  prasada.
Furthe rmore,  all social  categories,  including  the highest,  go through  a period  of ritual 
conta mination  on the occasion  of a death  or birth in their  family;  for 10 days  the 
concerned  persons  cannot  perform the usual  rituals,  visit temples  or sacred  places,  or 
touch  sacred  objects,  because  they consider  themselve s temporarily  impure.  At the end of 
the prescribed  period  such  contamin ation  is remov ed by the physical  and ritual 
purification that we  have m entioned.
The persons  who live as chandalas outside  the Vedic  rules of purification  can also enter 
the urban areas  inhabited  by the aryas to sell useful  products  that they had collected 
outside  the city - for example  conchshells  and pearls,  ivory, wood  and firewood,  feathers 
from peacocks  and other  birds,  hides  and leather,  wild honey,  medicinal  herbs  and other 
forest  products,  as well as gardening  soil, clay and so on. Such  merchandi ses are 
considered  pure (for exam ple hone y is a natural  antibiotic)  or they can easily be purified 
before  being used.
When  the chandalas or mlecchas consider  their  impure  life habits  as a valid  ethnic  and 
cultural  tradition,  they take a tribal  name according  to the particular  ethnic  or cultural 
group  to which  they belong:  the nishadas  are the members of wild tribes that live by 
hunting  in the forests  or deserts  (with a life style that is typical  for example  of some 
african  tribes),  the pulindas are the peoples  belonging to the patria rchal  Greek cultu re, the 
yavanas are the peoples  who lived in the arabian  region  (considered  the descendants  of 
88

Maharaja  Yayati),  the kiratas and khasas  are peoples  of mongolian  culture,  the hunas are 
the Huns,  and so on. In this case,  too, the condit ion of "uncivilized"  people  is conditioned 
to the choice  of not observing the rules of hygiene and  civilized life, and become  obsolete 
when  an indiv idual  agrees to follow  the civilized rules,  and even  more so when  he 
engages  in personal  evolut ion towards  a level of  transcendental  consciousne ss.
Bhagavata  purana (2.14.18 ) unambiguously  declares:  kirata  hunandhra  pulinda  pulkasa 
abhira  sumbha  yavanas  khasadaya,  ye 'nye ca papa  yad apasrasra yah sudhyanti  tasmai 
prabhavisnave  namah,  "Kiratas,  Hunas,  Andhras,  Pulindas,  Pulkasas,  Abhiras,  Sumbha s, 
Yavanas,  Khasas  and others  (similar  groups),  even  those  who were  born  in still more 
degraded cultu res, are immediately purified  when they put them selve s unde r the guidance 
and protection of  those who have  taken shelter in Vishnu.  Therefore I offer  my homag e to 
the all-powerful Sri Vishnu."
Even  the historical  chronicles  and archaeological  findings  confirm  that often  individuals 
or entire populations  of foreign  origin  chose  to beco me part of Vedic  society,  adopting 
Sanskrit  name s and the rules  of the varna  ashrama, like for example  the Scythian  kings 
who beca me known as  Satyasim ha and Rudrasena.
Because  Vedic  society  does  not force  anyone  to perform  specific  actions  or to follow 
rules,  the anaryas and chandalas are even  free to choose  to becom e robbe rs. This was the 
case of the family of origin  of Valmiki  Rishi,  the famous author  of the Ramayana, who 
after  meeting  Narada  Rishi  renounced  his uncivilized  way of life and becam e a great 
brahmana.
In fact, at any time,  any member of the various  categories  of anaryas  can decide  to purify 
himsel f and refor m his habits,  unde r the guidance  of arya brahmanas, and beco me a part 
of the civilized  community, in the very least in the position  of sudra or generic  laborer. 
From  that position,  he will be allowed  to evolve  further.  In the exceptional  case of a 
person  who was born in a family of anaryas but alread y naturall y posses ses the level  of 
consciousne ss of an arya or even  of a brahmana, his actual  position  must be immediately 
recognized without the need  of intermedi ate passage s.
The greatest  brahmana, Veda  Vyasa,  who compiled  the entire corpus of Vedic  literature, 
was the son of a wom an from  the fisherm en community  (considered  in the categor y of 
chandalas). His mother  Satyavati  was engaged  in ferrying the travelers  by boat on the 
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river  Yamuna,  and this is how she met Parasara  Rishi;  the boat girl was very attracted  by 
the Rishi,  but she was asham ed of the fish stench  emanating  from  her own body; when 
the Rishi  realized  that, he was moved  and by a special  blessing  he transform ed the stench 
into a very sweet  scent,  then the couple  retired to a small island  on the river. These were 
the circu mstanc es of the birth  of Vyasadeva,  also called  Dvaipayana  Vyasa precisel y 
because  he was conceived  on an island  (dvipa). Parasara  immediately  resumed his 
traveling  without  marrying  the girl, and later on Satyavati  became the wife  of king 
Santanu, fro m who m she had m ore children, as described  in the Mahabharata.
The Rig Veda (9.63.5) clearl y states  that all hum an beings  must make an effort  to beco me 
civilized:  krnvanto  visvam  aryam - "ever yone  should  become  aryas". The colonialist 
myth  according to which belonging to the class  of aryas is determin ed by the genes of the 
"aryan race"  will be amply  refuted  later on, when  we will speak  about  the famous theor y 
of aryan invasion  in India.  Here  we will simply quote  some traditional  scriptures  to 
demonstrate  that anyone  can beco me an arya, provided  he accepts  to follow  the rules of 
civilized  life in his own life. According  to the original  scriptures,  the fundam ental  rule of 
civilized  life consists  in personal  evolution,  purification  and cultivation  of Vedic 
knowledge,  that lead one to realize the Self  at the spiritual and rel igious  level.
The Bhagavata  Purana (6.16.43 ) states:  na vyabhicarati  taveksa  hy abhihito  bhagavato 
dharmah,  sthira- cara-sattva-kadambesv  yam upasate  tv aryah, "Aryas are those  who do 
not hesitate  to follow  the Dharma  prescribed  by God,  and who have  no prejudice  towards 
the various  types of  living beings."
The religious nature  of the position  of arya, identifying  it with the original  Hinduism , is 
highlighted  by many passage s of the scriptures  and practical  example s in the lives  of 
great  personalities.  Again  the Bhagavata  purana (3.33.7 ) states:  aho bata sva-paco  'to 
gariyan  yaj-jihvagre  vartate  nama  tubhyam, tepus  tapas  te juhuvuh  sasnur  arya 
brahmanucur  nama  grnanti ye te, "It is wonderful  to see how those  who have  accepted  to 
invoke  your holy name (the prayer is addressed  to Vishnu)  are immediately  glorified  as 
civilized persons  (aryas) and are called  brahmanas, even if there were born in uncivilized 
familie s. The very fact that they call your name qualifies  them  for the perform ance  of 
sacrifices  and austerities  according to t radition."
A very famous verse  of Garuda  purana, regularly  used  in all the daily  rituals  of 
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purification  and sacrifice,  recites:  om apavitrah  pavitro  va sarvavasthan  gato ‘pi va yah 
smaret  pundarikaksam  sa bahyabhyantarah  sucih, "Anyone  who reme mbers the lotus-
eyed  Lord (Vishnu)  is immediately  and completely  purified,  both  internall y and 
externally , irrespectively  of the conditions  he has gone  through."  The Mahabharata 
(5.88.52 ) states:  vrittena  hi bhavaty aryo  na dhanena na vidyaya , "The requisite by  which 
a person  becom es arya is the level of  consciousness,  not scholarship  or wealth."
Later  on in Bhagavata  purana (11.14.21 ) we find another  relevant  verse,  spoken  by 
Krishna:  bhaktyaham  ekaya  grahyah  sraddhayatma  priyah  satam,  bhaktih  punati  man-
nistha  sva-pakan  api sambhavat,  "Onl y devotion  enables  one to attain  me. The devotees 
who serve  me with faith  and transcendental  attach ment  are completely  purified  through 
their devotion, even if  they had been born in uncivilized fam ilies (of dog-eaters)."
It is important  to note that all categories  of uncivilized  people  are free to practice  any 
form of worship  or religiosity they prefer,  including the typically brahminical  cult offered 
to Vishnu,  Shiva  and the Mother  Goddess  - and in such case they should  be considered 
"Hindu".  Both  scriptures  and oral tradition  present  many  illustrious  examples,  starting 
from Visvavasu,  the t ribal chief  of the Sabaras or Sao ras of Orissa,  who lived in the forest  
where  he worshiped  the beautiful  Deity of Nila Madhava,  a particular  form of Vishnu 
that later on manife sted as Jagannatha.  Still today the daitas, the most intimate  servants 
of the Jagannatha  Deity  in the original  temple  in Puri, who have  the privilege  of physical 
contact  with the Deity especially  during the festivals,  are Visvavasu.  The entire region  of 
Orissa  (presently  called  Odisha)  was originall y populated  by uncivilized  tribal groups,  of 
which  many continue  to exist  in considerable  numbers.  These  populations  started  to 
follow  the Vedic  rules after the arrival of some groups  of sasana  brahmanas invited  into 
the region  by Hindu  kings  for the purpose  of teaching  Vedic  knowledge  to the natives. 
The members of these  aryanized  tribal populations  are gene rally called  vratyas, because 
their purification  and their vow (vrata) to follow  the ethical  rules  was officialized  in the 
particular r itual of  sacrifice  called vratyastoma.
The same concept  of purification  and evolution  applies  to the requirem ents for 
membership  in one of the four  varnas or social  categories  that constitute  the Vedic 
society of  the aryas.
Among  the various  popular  beliefs  (laukika  sraddha) that do not have  a genuine  basis, 
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there  is a rather  widespread  misconception  saying  that the knowledge  of Vedic  scriptures 
is exclusive  monopoly  of a "caste  of brahmin s" to which  one can belong  only by birth : 
this creates  the double disaster  by which  one who was not born in a family of brahmin s is 
not allowed  to study  the scriptures  because  he does  not posses s the "intellectual  and 
religious  DNA"  that is needed  to learn their knowledge  and beco me purified  by it, while 
one who was born in a family of brahmin s has no need  to study the scriptures  because  his 
"intellectual  and religious  DNA"  automatically  makes him learned,  pure and qualified  by 
nature.  Thus ignorance  triumph s, because  for one reason  or another,  nobody  studies  or 
practices.
Of course  one who has even  a minimum genuine  knowledge  of biology  and psychology 
knows  that the genetic  code  has nothing  to do with the habits  of physical  and mental 
cleanliness,  or with knowledge,  wisdom,  morality,  honesty,  truthfulness,  benevolence  for 
other  living  beings,  generosit y and professional  talents.  These  qualities  are deter mined 
partiall y by the environ ment  and training,  and partiall y by the individual  tendencies  that 
the soul carries along  lifetim e after  lifetim e, according  to its particular  evolutionar y 
journe y. As we have  seen,  each  human being  (whose  genetic  code  is not seriously 
damaged)  possess es the potential  of personal  evolution  that can take him/her  to Self 
realization  and to the develop ment  of adequate  profes sional  and social  qualities,  in a 
more or less brilliant way. The scriptures  clearl y state that the system  of professional  and 
social  categories  is not based  on birth (jati) but on natural talents  (guna) and the duties 
actually  performed  (karma) by each  individual.  The Vedic  scriptu res quote  this 
universall y recognized  and very  clear  statment  by Atri Rishi:  janmana  jayate  sudra, 
samska rad bhaved dvijah, veda-pathad bhaved viprah, brahma  janati iti brahmanah, "By 
birth  everybod y is simply  a sudra, while  through  ritual purification  one becom es a twice-
born,  through  the study  of Vedic  knowledge  one beco mes learned,  and brahmana is one 
who knows  Brahm an."
According  to Bhagavad  gita (18.42 ), a brahmana is recognized  by the following 
characteristics:  samo  damas  tapah  saucam  ksantir  arjavam  eva ca, jnanam  vijnanam 
astikyam  brahma-karma  svabhava-jam, "Peacefulnes s, self-contro l, austerity,  purity, 
tolerance,  honesty,  knowledge,  wisdo m and religiousnes s - these  are the natural  qualities 
deter mining  the duties of  the brahmana."
The Mahabharata confirm s: dharmas  ca satyam  ca damas  tapas  ca amatsaryam  hris 
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titiksanasuya,  yajnas  ca danam  ca dhrtih  srutam  ca vratani  vai dvadasa  brahmanasya, 
"(A brahmana) must alwa ys behave  in accordance  to dharma  (the ethical  principles  that 
constitute  the foundations  of religion).  First of all he must be truthful  and able to contro l 
his own senses.  He must be austere,  detached,  humble  and tolerant.  He must  not envy 
anyone. He must be expert  in the performanc e of sacrifices  and distribute  his possession s 
in charit y. He must be determined  in the study of Vedic  scriptures  and in religious 
activities:  these  are the  12 fundam ental  qualities  of a brahmana."
Again  in the Mahabharata (Vana  Parva  chapter  180)  we find:  satyam  danam  ksama-
silam  anrsyamsam  tapo ghrna,  drsyante  yatra  nagendra  sa brahmana  iti smrtah, "A 
persons  who is truthful,  charitable,  forgiving,  sober,  kind,  austere  and free from hatred  is 
called  brahmana."
In the Bhagavata  purana (7.11.21)  Narada  Muni  states:  samo  damas  tapah  saucam 
santosah  ksantir  arjavam,  jnanam  dayacyutatmatvam  satyam  ca brahma-laksanam , "The 
qualities  that characterize  a brahmana are the control  of one's  mind  and senses,  austerity 
and tolerance  in the face of difficulties,  cleanliness,  content ment,  tendenc y to forgive, 
simplicity,  knowledge,  comp assion,  truthfulnes s, and complete  surrender  to the Supreme 
Personalit y of Godhead."
One who does  not show  such  qualities  cannot  really be considered  a brahmana. In the 
Mahabharata (Vana  Parva  chapter  180),  Maharaja  Yudhisthira  states:  sudre  tu yad 
bhavel-laksma  dvije  tac ca na vidyate,  na vai sudro  bhavec  chudro  brahmano  na ca 
brahmanah, "If these  qualities  (listed  as the character istics  of the brahmanas) are found 
in a sudra (i.e. a person born  in a sudra family),  such  person  must never  be called  a 
sudra, just like a brahmana  (i.e. a person born in a brahmana family) is not a brahmana 
if he lacks  these qualities."
Again  the Mahabharata  gives  further  clarifications  in this regard (Anusasana  Parva 
163.8,  26, 46), where  Shiva  tells Parvati:  sthito  brahmana-dharmena  brahmanyam 
upajivati,  ksatriyo  vatha  vaisyo  va brahma-bhuyah  sa gacchati,  ebhis  tu karmabhir  devi 
subhair  acaritais  tatha,  sudro  brahmanatam  yati vaisyah  ksatriyatam  vrajet,  etaih 
karma- phala ir devi suddhatma  vijitendriyah,  sudro'pi  dvija-vat  sevya  iti brahmabravit 
svayam,  sarvo'yam  brahmano  loke vrttena  tu vidhiyate,  vrtte  sthitas  tu sudro'pi 
brahmanatvam  niyacchati. Here  is the translation:  "If kshatriyas or vaisyas (i.e. persons 
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born  in kshatriyas or vaisyas) behave  like brahmanas and engage  in the occupations  of 
brahmanas, such  persons  attain the position of  brahmana. In the sam e way, a sudra (i.e. a 
person  born  in a sudra family) can beco me a brahmana and a vaisya can beco me a 
kshatriya. O Devi,  thanks  to the perform ance  of these  activities  and by following  the 
instructions  of the Agamas (Vedic  scriptures  that contain  the instructions  for the rituals) 
even  a person  born in a family of sudras devoid  of qualifications  can beco me a 
brahmana. In this world,  a person  is born in a brahmana family as a result  of his 
tendencies,  therefore  a sudra that manifests the tendencies  of a brahmana and acts as a 
brahmana, automatic ally becom es a brahmana."
Another  verse of the Mahabharata (Anusasana  Parva  143.50)  explains  even  more 
precisely:  na yonir  napi samska ro na srutam  na ca santatih,  karanani  dvija tvasya  vrttam 
eva tu karanam, "Neither  birth, nor purification  rituals,  scholarship  of ancestry  constitute 
legiti mate  qualifications  for the position  of brahmana. Only  the behavior  as brahmana 
constitutes  the basis  for the position of  brahmana."
Bhagavata  purana (7.11.35 ) confir ms: yasya  yal laksanam  proktam  pumso 
varnabhivyanjakam,  yad anyatrapi  drsyeta  tat tenaiva  vinirdiset, "One  who shows  the 
characteristics  of a brahmana,  kshatriya,  vaisya or sudra as described  above,  should  be 
classi fied in the cor responding  social  categor y."
Actually , one who refuses  to recognize  such qualifications  based  on guna and karma, and 
rather maintain s a birth p rejudice  and the identification  with the  gross body  is behaving in 
an offen sive and degrading  way that automatically  disqualifies  him from the position  of 
arya. The Bhagavata purana (10.84.13 ) states:  yasyatma  buddhih  kunape  tri-dhatuke 
sva-dhih kalatradisu  bhauma  ijya-dh ih, yat tirtha  buddhih  salile  na karhicij  janesv 
abhijnesu  sa eva go-kharah, "Those  persons  who identify  the self as the gross  material 
body , who maintain  a sense  of belonging  to their family, who worship  their native  land, 
and who visit the sacred  places  simply  to take a bath,  are not better  than animals  like 
cows  and donkeys, even if  they were bo rn as  hum an beings."
The Padma  Purana states:  arcye  visnau  sila-dhir  gurusu  nara-matir  vaisnave  jati-
buddhir,  visnor  va vaisnavanam  kali-mala-mathane  pada-tirthe  'mbu-buddhih,  sri visnor 
namni  mantre  sakala-kalusa-he  sabda  samanya  buddhir,  visnau  sarvesva rese tad-i tara 
sama-dhir  yasya  va naraki  sah. This is the translation:  "Only  a person who has a hellish 
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mentality  can think that the Deity  of Vishnu  is a statue,  that the Guru  is an ordina ry 
human being,  that a Vaishnava  can be judged  based  on his birth, that Vishnu  and the 
Vaishnavas  can be touched  by the contamination  of the Kali yuga, that a sacred  place  of 
pilgrimage  is just a water  reservoir,  that the mantra  constituted  by the name  of Vishnu  is 
just an o rdinary  sound,  or that the Supreme  Lord, Vishnu, is  an ordina ry person."
In the Padma  purana Lomasa Rishi  declares,  sudram  va bhagavad  bhaktam  nisadam 
svapacam  tatha  viksatam  jati samanyat  sa yati narakam  dhruvam, "A devotee  of the 
Lord may have  taken  birth in a family of sudras,  nishadas or sva-pachas, but those  who 
evaluate  him on the basis  of his birth  are destined  to fall into a hellish  condition."  In the 
same text,  Vishnu  himself states,  na me bhaktas  caturvedi  mad-bhaktah  svapachah 
priyah,  tasmai  deyam  tato grahyam  sa ca pujyo  yatha  hy aham, "Even  if he was born as a 
sva-pacha, my devotee  is dearer to me than one who is expert  in reciting  the four Vedas. 
His touch is purif ying, and he  is as  worshipable  as me."
The Padma  Purana states,  na sudra  bhagavad-bhaktas  te tu bhagavata  matah  sarva-
varnesu  te sudra  ye na bhakta  janardane, "A devotee  of God should  neve r be considered 
a sudra, while  those  who are devoid  of devotion  must be considered  sudras, irrespective 
of the varna of the family  where  they were born."  And again,  sva-pacham  iva nekseta 
loke vipram  avaisnavam  vaisnavo  varno-bahyo  'pi punati  bhuvana-trayam , "If a person 
born as a brahmana is devoid  of devotion  to Vishnu,  he should  be avoided  just like we 
avoid the contact  with a sva-pacha. On the other hand, a devotee of Vishnu has the power 
to purif y the three worlds, even  if he was  born outside the social  system of the  varnas."
It is important  to unde rstand  that being  "a devotee  of Vishnu"  is not just about  some 
external  demonstration  of superficial  or fanatical  devotion  to a particular  form  of the 
Deity , but it must be sustained  in practice  by the level  of consciousnes s and behavior  that 
is characteristic of  pure sattva. 
One of the most famous exampl es is the famous Rishi  Satyaka ma Jabala,  whose  story is 
told in the Chandogya  Upanisad (4.4.1 -5): "Satyaka ma, the son of Jabala,  told his 
mother,  'I wish  to go to study as a brahmachari  in the house  of the Guru.  To which  gotra 
(ancestry ) do I belong ?' Jabala  replied,  'My dear child,  I do not know  who your father  is, 
because  during my younger  years I worked in many places,  and in that period  I had you. 
Simply  tell the teacher  that your name  is Satyakama Jabala.'  Thus Satyakam a went  to 
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Haridrumata  Gauta ma and said, 'I wish  to live with you as a brahmachari.' Gautama  said, 
'To which  lineage  do you belong ?' Satyaka ma simply  repeated  what  his mother  told him, 
and Gautam a said,  'Dear  boy, only  a brahmana could  be this truthful,  therefore  you 
certainly  are a brahmana and I accept  you as such.  Go now to get the firewood  to kindle 
the sacred  fire. And never abandon  truthfulness."
In his commentary to the Chandogya  Upanishad, Madhvacharya  writes,  arjavam 
brahmane  saksat  sudro'narjava-  laksanah,  gautamas  tviti vijnaya  satyakamam  upanayat, 
"A brahmana is recognized  by the qualit y of simplicity,  while  a sudra is recognized  by 
his conto rted m entality. Knowing this  fact,  Gautam a accepted  Satyakam a as a disciple."
As we have  already  mentioned,  Veda  Vyasa and Valmiki are other  famous persons  who 
became known  as full fledged  brahmanas in spite  of their  birth  in families of low 
condition.  Vyasa had a brahmana son (Sukadeva),  two kshatriya sons  (Pandu  and 
Dhritarastra ) and a son that was situated  on a level  of consciousnes s that was completely 
transcendental  to the varna system  (Vidu ra).
Visva mitra  son of Maharaja  Gadi  and Maharaja  Vitahavya  becam e brahmanas although 
they were  born  in kshatriya  familie s; they are mentioned  precisely  in this regard  in 
Mahabharata respectively  in Adi Parva chapter  174 and Anusasana  Parva,  chapter  30. 
The story  of Visva mitra,  who became the guru of Ram a and Lakshmana the sons of 
Dasaratha,  is very famous because  it is found  in Ramayana and in several  Puranas as 
well.  Vitahavya  attained  the level  of brahmana due to the blessing  of Bhrigu  Muni.  Also 
the son of Vitahavya,  Gritsamada, became a brahmana, and so his descendents  Suceta, 
Prakasa,  Pramiti  (very expert  in Veda and Vedanga), Sunaka,  and his son Saunaka  Rishi 
(who  narrated  the Bhagavata  purana to the Rishis  assembled in Naimisharanya).  The 
Hari  vamsa (29.7-8)  also says that among  the descendant s of Gritsamada there  were 
many brahmanas, as well as  kshatriyas,  vaisyas  and sudras.
Another  kshatriya who becam e a brahmana and generated  a descendence  of brahmanas 
was Maharaja  Dhrista,  mentioned  in Bhagavata  purana (9.2.16-17).  Again  the 
Bhagavata  purana (9.2.22 ) mentions  for the same reason  Maharaja  Agnivesya,  son of 
Devadatta,  whose  brahmana  descendants  becam e famous as the Agnivesyay anas.  We 
must also remember Jahnu  Muni  born as the son of king Hotra  of the Chandra  vamsa 
(Bhagavata 9.15.1 -4), Kanva  Rishi  born in the dynast y of Maharaja  Puru and his son 
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Medhatithi  who was the ancestor  of the brahmanas Praskanna  (Bhagavata 9.20.1-7 ), 
Gargy a the son  of King Sini, the three sons  of King Duritaksha ya called Trayyaruni, Kavi 
and Puskararuni  (Bhagavata 9.21.19 ); Ajamidha  and his son Priyamedha  and his 
descendents  such  as the great Rishi  Mudgala  (9.21.21, 9.21.31). 
Also,  the Bhagavata infor ms us that among  the 100 sons  of king  Rishabhadeva,  81 
became brahmanas  (5.4.13)  and that the vaisyas Nabhaga  and Dista later  becam e 
brahmanas (8.18.3).  The  Hari  vamsa (31.33 -35) states  that Maharaja  Bali had 5 
kshatriya sons  but also other sons  who  were  brahmanas and generated  brahmana 
lineages.
Another important  thing is the concept  of adopted  son or disciple,  that according to Vedic 
culture  is perfectly  equivalent  to the concept  of seminal  son, both at the social  and the 
legal level,  to all effects.
On the other  hand,  one who was born in a family of brahmanas but does not posses s the 
required  abilit ies and tendencies  is called  brahma  bandhu, or "relative  of brahmanas". 
This is the definition  given  by Chandogya  Upanishad: asmat  kulino  'nanucya  brahma-
bandhur  iva bhavati,  "A brahma  bandhu, a relative  of brahmanas, is a person  who 
belongs  to a family of brahmanas but has failed  to study  the Vedas." In his commentary 
to this verse, Adi Shankarachar ya writes,  he saumya  ananucya  anadh itya brahma-
bandhur  iva bhavatiti,  brahmanan  bandhun  vyapadisati,  na svayam  brahmana-vrtah , 
"One  who has not studied  the Vedas (in spite  of being  born  from  brahmana parents)  is 
simply  a relative  or kinsman of brahmanas. He can call such  brahmanas his dear and 
near, but he does  not have the required behavior t o qualify personall y as a brahmana."
The definitions  of brahma  bandhu (“relative  of brahmanas) and  brahma  atma -ja (“son  of 
a brahmana”) is used by Krishna  in the Bhagavata purana to refer to Asvattham a the son 
of Drona  (1.7.19,  1.7.35)  and to describe  the gene ral categor y of unqualified  persons 
(dvija -bandhu) for whom Vyasa compiled  the Mahabharata (1.4.25 ). Dvija-bandhu, or 
"relative  of twice-bo rn" is used  not only to describe  the unqualified  sons of brahmana 
parents,  but also for the unqualified  children  of kshatriyas and vaisyas, because 
kshatriyas and vaisyas too receive  the sacred  thread  in the religious  initiation  that 
constitutes  the second  birth of an arya. Sometim es in the Vedic  scriptures  we find the 
definition  kshatra  bandhu to refer to some unworth y descendent  of kshatriyas. The lack 
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of particular  qualifications  in the sons  of vaisyas or entrepreneurs  is considered  less 
serious,  and not dangerous in the ad ministration  of society, the refore  it is not me ntioned.
This applies  to the sons of brahmanas who,  due to their individual  nature,  are lacking  the 
personal  qualifications  that are characteristic  of the brahmanas in regard  to guna 
(qualities) and karma (activities).  So what  is, according  to the Vedic  scriptu res, the 
position  of a person  who had previously  been  recognized  as brahmana but for one reason 
or another falls  to a lower level of consciousne ss or behavior?
The Manu samhita (4.245)  states,  uttamanuttaman  gacchan  hinam  hinams  ca varjayan, 
brahmanah  sresthatam  eti pratyavayena  sudratam, "According  to the good  or bad 
company  he keeps,  a brahmana can becom e extrao rdinaril y elevated or even a  sudra."
The  Kurma  purana explains:  go-raksakan  vanijakan  tatha  karuka- silinah,  presyan 
vardhusikam s caiva  vipran  sudra- vad acaret,  yo'nyatra  kurute  yatnam,  anadhitya  srutim 
dvijah  sa sammudho  na sambhasyo  veda-bahyo  dvijatibhih, "Those  brahmanas who earn 
a livelihood  by raising  cattle,  by trade,  by artistic  shows,  by the service  to others,  or by 
lending m oney on interest,  are nothing but sudras. One who does  not stud y the Vedas, but 
carefully  engages  in other  activities  is certainly  a foolish  person  and must be ostracized 
from the Vedic  societ y - the (t rue) brahmanas should not even talk to hi m."
It is important  to unde rstand  that Vedic  tradition  accepts  as valid  those  improper  actions 
that were  perfor med due to emergency  considerations.  The Bhagavata  purana (11.17.47) 
states  that in case of serious  financial  constraints  a brahmana can temporarily  engage  in 
the occupations  that are characteristic  of the vaisyas or the kshatriyas, but he must 
consider  such  activities  as an emergency  action,  and return as soon  as possible  to the 
activities  that are characteristic  of the brahmanas, otherwise  he will lose his social 
position  as a brahmana and acquire  the position  of the activities  that he perform s 
continuously. 
Particular ly serious  and degrading  is the case of a brahmana who chooses  to perform the 
activities  that are characteristic  of the sudra, such  as service  unde r salar y, even  to the 
governm ent (raja sevakan), employed  teacher  against  a salar y (bhrtakadhyapakan ), 
employee  in banking  or trade  (vanijakan), technician  of any kind (yantra-vidyakan ), 
medical  doctor  or pharm acist (cikitisikan). Even  worse are those  activities  that are based 
simply  on the use of one's  body, such  as the show  business  - the  perform ances  of dancers, 
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singers,  actors,  professional  reciters,  painte rs, sculptors,  crafts men and so on - as well as 
personal  service  to others,  especially  to persons  who are on the level  of sudras or even 
worse,  of anaryas. Such  professional  occupations  are not negative  in themselves,  but 
because  they are aimed at the satisfaction  of the custom er and depend  on it, they create  a 
situation  of dependence  and reinforce  the identification  with the material  body: therefore 
they are co mpletely inco mpatible  with the  duties of the brahmana.
Neglecting  to study and to unde rstand  the Vedic  scriptu res (svadhyaya  tyaga) still 
remains the most serious  cause  for degradation  for a son of brahmana parents.  The 
Vishnu  dharma  shastra (93.7)  states,  yaitral-laksyate  sarpa  vrttam  sa brahmanah  smrtah 
yatraitan  na bhavet  sarpa  tam sudram  iti nirdiset,  na vary api prayacchet  tu vaidala-
vratike  dvije  na baka-vratike  vipre  naveda  vidi dharma-vit, "Persons  who observe  the 
religious  teachings  should  not offer  even  a drop of water  to a hypocrite  that, in spite  of 
being the son  of a brahmana, behaves  in a way that is contra ry to the laws  of ethics."
Manu  samhita (2.157,  2.172 ) states,  yatha  kastha-mayo  hasti  yatha  carma-mayo  mrgah 
yas ca vipro'nadhiyanas  trayas  te nama  bibhrati, "A brahmana who does  not study  the 
Vedas is comparable  to an elephant  or deer made  of leathe r, that are called  elephant  or 
deer but cannot  function  as such.  We must know  that as long as a brahmana is not 
qualified  in the Vedic knowledge,  he remain s on the sa me level of  a sudra."
Trad itionally , a brahmana is considered  fallen  from  his social  position  if he commits 
violations  to purity, for example  because  of the consu mption  of non-vegetarian  foods, 
alcoholic  drinks,  or even  of vegetar ian foods  that have  been  cooked  by sudras (sudranna 
pustam), as confir med by the Kurma  purana: nadyac  chudrasya  vipro'nnam  mohad  va 
yadi kamatah  sa sudra- yonim  vrajati  yas tu bhunkte  hy-anapadi. This is the reason  why a 
brahmana never  goes  to a restaurant  for eating,  and is extre mely  careful  about  what  he 
purchases  on the m arket.
The  Mahabharata (Santi  parva,  189.7)  declares,  himsanrta-priya  lubdhah  sarva-
karmopjivinah  krsna  saucaparibhra sthast  e dvijah  sudratam  gatah  sarva-bhaksyarati rn 
ityam  sarva- karmakaro  'sucih  tyakta-vedastvanaca  rah sa vai sudra  iti smrtah, "A 
brahmana who  commits violent  acts (as for exam ple in the consum ption  of non-
vegetarian  foods),  who lies and cheats,  who is greed y, impure,  or engages  in any activity 
in order  to earn a livelihood,  is degraded  to the position  of sudra. Precisely  because  he 
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eats and drinks  anything  without  discrimin ation  and is attached  to the material  things  and 
to the idea of making  money,  he has abandoned  Vedic  dharma  and ethical  behavior,  and 
is called a sudra."
It is said that because  of the negative  influences  of the age in which  we live, the Kali 
yuga ("the  black  age")  we should  expect  an increasing  degradation  for all the social 
categories.  
The Padma  purana states,  brahmanah  ksatriya  vaisah  sudrah  papa-parayanah  nijacara-
vihinas  ca bhavisyanti  kalau  yuge,  vipra  veda -vihinas  ca pratigraha- parayana  hatyanta -
kaminah  krur bhavisyanti  kalau  yuge,  veda-n indakaras  caiva  dyutacaurya  karas  tatha, 
vidhva-sanga-  lubdhas  ca bhavisyanti  kalau  dvijah,  vrttyartham  brahmanah  kecit 
mahakapata-dharminah,  raktambara  bhavisyanti  jatilah  smasrudha rinah,  kalau  yuge 
bhavisyanti  brahmanah  sudra- dharmina. This is translation:  "In Kali yuga, all the four 
social  categories  become  degraded,  abandoning  the proper  behavior,  and fall into 
activities  that are contrar y to ethics.  The brahmanas do not study Vedic  knowledge  and 
do not perform  sacrifices,  and abandoning  the five ritual duties  prescribed  in the Vedas 
and the level  of spiritual  consciousnes s, they engage  in other activities,  even  while  still 
claiming  the social  position  (of brahmanas) in order  to collect  money  and ask for 
donations,  that the y will uti lize to satisfy their unlimited  desires for  sense  gratification.  
The so-called  brahmanas of Kali yuga are afflicted  by lust and cruelty , malice  and envy , 
and becom e profes sional  thieves,  blasphem ing the Vedic  scriptures,  getting  drunk  and 
exploiting  women  for sexual  pleasure.  They even  come to the point  of wearing  the red 
robes  of the sadhus, growing long beard and hair, i n order to bette r cheat  the people."
Many example s of degraded people  who were born in brahmana  familie s can be found  in 
the scriptures  as well as in the more  recent  historical  tradition  - from  the young Sringhi, 
the son of Samika  Rishi,  who cursed  Maharaja  Parikshit  to die within  7 days to avenge 
himsel f of a silly joke,  to the entire  generations  of corrupt priests  whose  nefarious 
activities  in the distortion  of the Vedic  ritual sacrifices  prepared  the way to the Buddhist 
revolution and to the decadence  of Indian society.
Even  among  the followers  of Buddhism  and Jainism  we find many brahmanas who 
openly  rejected  the autho rity of Vedic  scriptures  rather  than condem ning its distortion  - 
for example  Boddhidharma,  Buddhapalita,  Nagarjuna,  Asvaghosa,  Asanga,  Kumarajiva, 
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Dinnaga,  Dharmakirti,  Chandrakirti,  Santideva  and Ratnakirti  for Buddhis m, and 
Prabhachandra,  Anantavi rya, Devasuri,  Hemacandra,  Nem ichandra,  Mallisena,  and 
Siddhasena  Divakara  for Jainis m. What  to speak  of the innumerable  brahmanas who 
chose  to convert  to Islam  during  the muslim invasions  and domination,  or the many 
brahmanas who,  out of greed or foolishnes s, cooperated  with the British colonialists  to 
the distortion  of the Vedic  scriptures  and to the translation  of the Christian  propaganda 
into the Indian languages.
The Varaha  purana even  states,  raksasah  kalim  asritya  jayante  brahma-yonisu  utpanna 
brahmana-kule  badhante  srotriyan  krsan, "Some who were  demoniac  beings  in their 
previous  lifetim es will be born  in Kali yuga in brahmana familie s with the purpose  of 
weakening  and destro ying the tradition of sruti (of Vedic  scriptu res)."
Obviously this  situation was exploited as much  as possible  by the colonialists,  as we have 
alread y mentioned  in our first chapter.  Only  recentl y Hindu  societ y is trying to beco me 
free from the shackles  of the colonial  mentality  and to rediscover  the genuine  version  of 
the Vedic  scriptu res. For example  Dr. Raj Pandit  Sharma, member of the managing 
committee of the Hindu  Council  of the United  Kingdo m has prepared  an important  report 
on this topic - which  has been  published  by his organization  and approved  by the  Shiri 
Guru Valmik  Sabha  of Southall in Lond ra, the official  organization of the so-called hindu 
outcaste.  The report states:  "It was the British who single-handedly  formulated  the caste 
schedules  that remain  in place  today. The evils  manife st in the current  form  of the caste 
system  can not be ascribed  to the Hindu  faith.  The current  adulteration  of the Hindu 
varnashra m system  is a direct result  of generations  of British  Colonial bu reaucracy."
Alread y Swami Vivekananda  wrote: "The plan in India is to make every body  Brah mana, 
the Brahm ana being  the ideal  of humanity.  If you read the history  of India you will find 
that attempt s have  alwa ys been  made to raise  the lower  classes.  Many  are the classe s that 
have  been  raised.  Many  more  will follow  till the whole  will becom e Brah mana.  That is 
the plan.  Our ideal  is the Brahm ana of spiritual  cultu re and renunciation.  By the 
Brah mana  ideal  what  do I mean?  I mean  the ideal  Brah mana- ness in which  worldliness  is 
altogether absent  and true wisdom  is abundantl y present.
We read in the Mahabharata  that the whole  world was in the beginning  peopled  with 
Brah mana s, and that as they began  to degenerate  they became divided  into different 
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castes,  and that when  the cycle turns round  they will all go back  to that Brah manical 
origin.  The son of a Brah mana  is not necess arily alwa ys a Brahm ana; though  there  is 
every  possibility of his  being one, he m ay not beco me so.
As there  are sattva, rajas and tamas - one or other of these  gunas more  or less - in every 
man, so the qualities  which  make a Brahmana,  Kshatriya,  Vaishya  or a Shudra  are 
inherent  in every man, more  or less.  But at time one or other  of these  qualities 
predomin ates in him in varying degrees  and is manife sted accordingly . Take  a man in his 
different  pursuits,  for example:  when  he is engaged  in serving  another  for pay, he is in 
Shudra -hood;  when  he is busy  transacting  some piece  of business  for profit,  on his 
account,  he is a Vaishya;  when  he fights  to right wrongs  then the qualities  of a Kshatriya 
come out in him; and when  he meditate s on God,  or passes  his time in conversation  about 
Him, then he is  a Brah mana.  Naturally , it is quite possible  for one to be changed fro m one 
caste  into another. Otherwise,  how did Viswa mitra  beco me a Brahman a and Parashuram a 
a Kshatriya ?
Formerly  the characteristic  of the noble-minded  was (tri bhuvanam  upakara  shrenibhih 
priyamanah) 'to please  the whole  universe  by one's  numerous  acts of service',  but now it 
is - I am pure and the whole  world  is impure.  'Don't  touch  me!' 'Don't  touch  me!' The 
whole  world  is impure,  and I alone  am pure! Lucid Brah ma-jnana!  Bravo!  Great  God! 
Nowadays,  Brah man is neither  in the recesse s of the heart,  nor in the highest  heaven,  nor 
in all beings  - now He is in the cooking  pot! We are orthodox  Hindus,  but we refuse 
entirel y to identif y ourselves  with 'Don't- touchis m'. That is not Hinduism ; it is in none  of 
our books;  it is an orthodox  superstition,  which  has interfered  with national  efficiency  all 
along the line. Religion has entered in the cooking  pot. The present  religion of  the Hindus 
is neithe r the path of Knowledge  or Reason  - it is 'Don't-touchis m'. - 'Don't  touch  me', 
'Don't  touch  me' - that exhausts  its description.  'Don't  touchis m' is a form of mental 
disease.  See that you do not lose your lives  in this dire irreligion  of 'Don't-  touchism '. 
Must  the teaching  (Atmavat  sarva  bhuteshu) - 'Looking  upon  all beings  as your own self' 
- be confined  to books  alone?  How  will they grant salvation  who cannot  feed a hungry 
mouth with a crumb  of bread? How  will those,  who beco me impure  at the mere breath  of 
others, purify o thers?
I sometimes feel the urge to break  the barrie rs of 'Don't-touchism ', go at once  and call 
out, 'Com e all who  are poor, miserable,  wretched and downt rodden',  and to bring the m all 
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together.  Unless  they rise, the Mother  will not awake.  Each Hindu,  I say, is a brothe r to 
every  other,  and it is we, who have  degraded  them  by our outcry, 'Don't  touch',  'Don't 
touch!'  And so the whole  count ry has been  plunged  to the utmost  depths  of meanne ss, 
cowardice  and igno rance.
Our solution  of the caste  question  is not degrading  those  who are alread y high up, is not 
running  amock  through  food and drink,  is not jumping  out of our own limits in order to 
have  more enjoyment,  but it come s by every  one of us fulfilling  the dictates  of our 
Vedantic  religion, by  our attaining spiritualit y and b y our beco ming  ideal  Brahman a.
The command is the same to you all, that you must make  progress  without  stopping,  and 
that from the highest  man to the lowest  pariah, every  one in this count ry has to try and 
beco me the ideal Brahm ana. 
This Vedantic  idea is applicable  not only here but over the whole  world.  The Brahman a-
hood  is the ideal  of humanity  in India as wonderfully  put forward  by Shankarachary a at 
the beginning  of his commentary on the Gita,  where  he speaks  about  the reason  for 
Krishna's  coming  as a preacher  for the preservation  of Brah mana-  hood,  of Brah mana-
ness.  That  was the great end. This Brahm ana, the man of God,  he who has known 
Brah man,  the ideal  man, the perfect  man,  must remain,  he must not go. And with all the 
defects  of the caste  now, we  know that we mu st all be  ready  to give to the Brah mana s this 
credit,  that from them have  come more  men with real Brah mana- ness in them than from 
all the other  castes.  We must be bold  enough,  must be brave enough  to speak  their 
defects,  but at the same time we must give credit  that is due to them. Therefore,  it is no 
use fighting  among  the castes.  What  good  will it do? It will divide  us all the more, 
weaken  us all the more, degrade us all the more. It seems that most of the Brah mana s are 
only nursing  a false  pride of birth; and any schem er, native  or foreign,  who can pande r to 
this vanit y and inhe rent laziness,  by fulsom e sophistr y, appears  to satisfy m ore."
Vivekananda's  diagnosis  is correct.  Those  who were  born  in "traditionall y qualified" 
familie s but do not make the effort  requi red to qualify personally through the study of the 
scriptures  and proper  behavior,  life style and spiritual  practices,  end up by creating  an 
atmosphere  of cynicis m, more or less unconscious  inferiorit y/ superiorit y complexes, 
fear,  sense  of dissatis faction,  that are covered  and hidden  by arrogance  and 
aggressivenes s. When  such imbal anced  persons  insist  in claiming  that the study  of Vedic 
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scriptures  is their  exclusive  birth  right, and cannot  be legitimately  taken  up by persons 
who were  born  in family of a different  origin, they enforce  on society  in general  the 
impression  that trying to beco me spirituall y qualified  is a useless  pursuit,  at least in this 
lifeti me.
Because  the degrading  tendencies  of Kali yuga are dragging  down  all those  who fail to 
sincerely  make efforts  to progress and elevate  them selves,  even  those  who have  some 
good  tendencies  and a good  potential  for developm ent end up falling  back  into laziness 
and indifference,  thus wasting  the valuable opportuni ty of hum an birth.
This situation  did not happen  by chance.  The accusation  of the Hindu  Council  is well 
founded.  As we have  seen in the previous  chapter,  the British  colonial  gove rnment  was 
certainly  interested  in weakening  the Vedic  ideology , so that the Indian  subcontinent 
could  more easily  be dominated.  And  certainl y there  was some malice  in their 
introducing  the notorious  Aryan Invasion  Theor y and the idea of the caucasian  origin  of 
the so-called  indo-european  race.  The idea that the Vedic  culture  had been  introduced  to 
India  by the so-called  indo-european  aryans,  of white  race,  was presented  as the 
justification  rationale  of the superio rity of the "white"  civilization  on racial  basis.  To 
understand  the origin  of this theory  and its fallacy,  we need  to clarify some important 
Vedic  concepts,  defined  as varna, kula, gotra,  vamsa and jati. We have  alread y seen that 
varna is the social  position,  including  rights  and duties,  of the four professional 
categories  defined  as brahmanas,  kshatriya s, vaisyas and  sudras - respectivel y 
intellectuals,  admini strators,  entrep reneurs  and labore rs.
The word  kula refers  to the "family" or "house"  to which  one belongs  - by birth or by 
choice  - in a permanent  or temporary  way. For example,  the house  of the Guru where  the 
students  live during  their brahmacharya period  is called  Guru Kula.  This word  also 
applies  to religious  associations,  especially  in the tantric field,  where  the initiated 
members consider them selve s as belonging to the sam e family.
The words  gotra and vamsa indicate  seminal  descent,  or the origin  of a particular  family 
descending  from  a founder  of the "dynast y", respectivel y for brahmanas (gotra) and 
kshatriyas (vamsa). The descendents  of brahmanas and kshatriyas are (or should  be) 
aware  of the responsibilities  that derive from  their  family heritage,  and make  all the 
necessary  efforts  to cultivate  the qualities  (guna) and activities  (karma) that make them 
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worth y of their ancestors  and constitute  a brilliant  example  for the personal  develop ment 
for their own child ren. This is about  a relationship  of affection,  gratitude and respect,  of a 
veritable  debt (rina) that must be repaid,  both by ritually  honoring  the memory of one's 
ancestors  and by adequatel y training  one's  descendants.  As in the case of the varna, 
membership  in the gotra can also be modified  in the course  of one's  lifetim e, especially 
with the ostracis m of an unwo rthy descendent.
A different  situation  concerns  jati or "birth",  that exclusively  relates  to the genetic 
condition,  that enables  (or not) the individual  to physically  perform particula r duties 
through  fundam ental  character istics  and abilities of the body and the mind.  Vedic 
scriptures  describe  3 types of jati: manusya  jati ("birth as a human  being"),  pakshi  jati 
("birth as a bird") and mriga jati ("bir th as a mammal animal").  
The British  propagandists  erroneously  grafted  the concept  of jati on their  own pseudo-
scientific  ideas  on racial  anthropolog y that had been  brewing  in Europe  from  the times of 
Carl Linnaeus  (1707-1778 ), the famous physician,  botanist,  and zoologist.  In Systema 
Naturae  (1767 ) he wrote of five human  races:  the white  Europeanus  of gentle  character 
and inventive  mind,  the red Americanus of stubborn  character  and angered  easily;  the the 
black  Africanus relaxed  and negligent;  yellow  Asiaticus avaricious  and easily  distracted; 
and the Monstrosus sub humans  such  as aborigines.  Even  thinkers  such  as Fried rich 
Hegel,  Immanuel Kant  and Auguste  Com te believed  that western  European  cultu re was 
the acme of human socio- cultu ral evolution  in a linear  process,  and approved  slavery  of 
"inferior  races".  In their  Indigenous  Races  of the Earth  Before  Origin  of Species (1850), 
Josiah  Clark  Nott and George Robins  Gliddon  implied  that "negroes"  were  a creational 
rank  between  “Greeks”  (considered  the beginning  of western  European  culture ) and 
chimpanzee s.
Non-white  people  were  kept in cages  at “hum an zoos”  during colonial  exhibi tions 
promoting  the benefits  of white colonialis m to such  colored peoples.  In 1906  a Pygmy 
named Ota Benga  was displayed  as the “Missing  Link”,  in the Bronx  Zoo, New  York 
City, alongside apes  and ani mals.  Several othe rs exam ples are recorded.
Max Muller  is often  identified  as the first writer to speak  of an Aryan "race".  In 1861  in 
his Lectures  on the Science  of Language he referred  to Aryans  as a "race  of people". 
Muller  was responding  to the develop ment  of racial  anthropolog y and to the influence  of 
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the work  of Arthu r de Gobineau  who argued  that the Indo-E uropeans  represented  a 
superior branch of  humanity. A  number  of later w riters, such  as the F rench anthropologist  
Vacher  de Lapouge  in his book  L'Aryen argued  that this superio r branch  could  be 
identified  biologically  by using  the cephalic  index  (a measure of head  shape)  and other 
indicators.  He argued  that the long-headed  "dolichocephalic-blond"  Europeans, 
characteristically  found  in northern  Europe,  were  natural leaders,  destined  to rule over 
more "brachiocephalic"  (sho rt headed) peoples.
In the 18th century  an early  physical  anthropo logist,  the American  physician  Samuel 
George  Morton  (1799 -1851),  collected  human  skulls  from around  the world and 
attempted  a logical classification  schem e. Influenced  by the conte mporary  racialist 
theor y, Dr Morton  said he could  judge  racial  intellectual  capacit y by measuring  the 
interio r cranial  capacity  - ergo a large  skull  denoted  a large  brain, thus high intellectual 
capacity;  conversel y, a small skull  denoted  a small brain,  thus low intellectual  capacity. 
Of course  nobody  noticed  that the cranial  capacit y of Neanderthals  was much larger 
compared  to the Cro Magnons',  the modern  type of man that is the supposed  result  of 
progressive  evolution  - or that in proportion  to the total weight  of the body, a rat's brain 
constitutes  the m axim um brain capacit y of all species,  including the hu man species.
In the United  States,  scientific  racism  justified  Black  African  slavery  to curb the moral 
opposition  to the Atlantic  slave  trade.  Alexander  Thomas and Samu ell Sillen  described 
black  men as uniquel y fitted  for bondage  because  of their “primitive  psychological 
organization”.  In 1851,  in antebellum  Louisiana,  the physician  Samuel  A. Cartwright 
(1793–1863 ) labeled  the escape  attempts  of slaves  as “drapetom ania”,  a kind of mental 
illness,  and wrote  that “with  proper  medical  advice,  strictly  followed,  this troubleso me 
practice  that many Negroes  have  of running  away  can be almost  entirely prevented”. 
After  the Civil  War,  Southe rn (Confederacy)  physicians  wrote textbooks  of scientific 
racis m based  upon  studies  claiming  that black  freem en (ex-slaves)  were  beco ming  extinct 
because  they were inadequate  to the demands  of being  a free man,  implying  that black 
people  actuall y benefited  from  enslavem ent.
With  the purpose  of gaining  support  from the "highest  breeds"  of India,  British 
ideologists  formulated  the "Ary an invasion  theor y", according  to which  some foreign 
invaders,  the white  "Ary an" nomadic or semi-nomadic  tribes  coming  from  Central 
Northern  Asia (i.e. Caucasu s, hence  "Caucasian  race")  had swept  into India around  1500 
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BCE  and conquered  the primitive  and pacific  civilization  of black  Dravidians  by mean s 
of superior  iron weaponr y, chariots  and horses.  According  to this theory , the stronger, 
war-mongering  and ruthless  invaders  killed  the "primitive  indigenous  tribes"  by the 
thousands,  enslaved  some of the m and drove the rest  away to South I ndia.
Thus  India  was supposedly  "civilized"  by these  typically  white  nomad s with  the 
introduction  of Vedic  knowledge  and Sanskrit,  and the division  of social  classe s where 
the two higher  and dominating  classes  (brahmanas and kshatriyas) were  of "pure  Aryan 
race",  the third class  (the vaisyas)  was a mixture  of the conquero rs and the conquered, 
and the fourth  and lowest  class  (sudra) was composed  by the enslaved  conquered 
"primitive  and raciall y inferior"  (black)  Dravidians.  The same theor y also affirmed that 
Aryan peoples  invaded  Europe,  too, where  they becam e the dominant  race,  identified  by 
Nazi  theo ries as stout and tall white people with blond hair and blue ey es.
The above  described  "Ary an invasion  theory" has been  amply  discredited  by many 
archaeological  finds,  starting  from 1922  with the discovery  of the remains  of Mohenjo 
Daro  and Harappa,  two highly  developed  and civilized  urban  settle ment s that have  been 
dated  much  earlier than  1500  BCE.  The most ancient  of such  urban  settlem ents, 
Mehrgarh,  is presently  dated  around  7000  BCE,  while  the largest  - Lakhmirwala  and 
Rakhigarhi  - covered  225 hectares  each,  more than double  the area of Mohenjo  Daro  and 
Harappa.
While  it is perfectly  possible  that around  1500  BCE  a wave  of barbaric  and nomadic 
invaders  actuall y came down  into India  from  the Caucasus,  as this also happened  several 
centuries  later with the Huns  and other  similar populations,  the result  of such  marginal 
invasions  could  not be the introduction  of Sanskri t and Vedic  knowledge  with  a 
"civilizing  effect". As such,  these  barbaric  and nomadi c invaders  could  not possibly  have 
been  a "superior r ace of civilizers".
Why ? Simply because  the aryas, i.e. the people  following Vedic civilization, Sanskrit and  
the Vedas  were  already  in India,  with a presence  that dates  back  several  thousands  years. 
In all the Vedic  scriptures  or in the oral tradition  there  is absolutel y no mention  of a 
previous  place  of origin of the aryas that was not the Indian subcontinent,  from which  the 
aryas might have " migrated".
The revolutionar y discovery  of Mohenjo  Daro  and Harappa  was the mind- boggling 
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testimony  of a highl y refined  urban  civilization,  with modern  sanitary  works  (each  house 
had a bathroom connected  to a city sewage  system running under  the paved  streets,  with 
regular  manhole s for inspection),  shopping  complexes,  public  grana ries, swimming 
pools,  and rounded  corners  in the ample  streets  to ease the passage  and turning  of large 
vehicles.  People  used  to wear  cotton  clothes,  decorated  them selves  with  complex 
ornam ents and hair arrangem ents,  used  containers  made  of vitrous  ceramic and had 
developed  a flourishing  river -born  commercial  trade.  The houses  had worship  rooms 
(centered  around  the Vedic  system  of fire sacrifice,  as well as image s of Shiva,  Durga, 
and other  vedic  Deities)  and among  the great  wealth  of seals  discovered,  many seals 
depict Vedic  deities, the bull, and other classical  Vedic s ymbols.
Toda y we know  of more  than 1,000  similar  sites with remains  of urbanized  settlem ents 
along  the valleys  of ancient  Sindhu  and Sarasvati,  spread  across  a territory that includes 
present  Pakistan  and Afghanistan  besides  India.  The ancient  Sarasvati  river is particula rly 
interesting  as it dried  up more  than 5000  years ago, yet it is amply  described  in Vedic 
texts  as a very important  and large  river.  Western  scholars  used  to consider  the river 
Sarasvati  a mere  legend  or a symbolic  figure,  until  its huge  dry bed was located  by 
satellite  photos. The dr ying of  the Sarasvati river, that occur red around the sa me period of 
the drying of the Saha ra region  in Africa,  seem s to be the most likely  reason  why these 
areas  were  abandoned,  when  their inhabitants  went  to join the other very ancient  cities  of 
the Ganga  plains,  such  as - for exam ple - Prayaga  (presently  known  as Allahabad)  and 
Kasi (also known as  Varanasi or Benares).
The long academ ic succes s of the Aryan Invasion  Theo ry (still taught  in schools  in India 
and at global  level  as an historically  proven  and unquestionable  fact)  is even  more 
disconcerting  when  we take the pain of actuall y reading  the Vedas and Vedic  literatu re, 
and find that they always  describe  a highly  urbanized,  prosperous,  settled  and refined 
Vedic  societ y which  does not tally with the inevitabl y limited  conditions  of nomadic  life 
or even  with  the desolate,  arid and mountainou s territory of Caucasus  which  was 
supposed  to be  the "place of  origin" of  the so-called Ary an race.
People  that are constantl y on the move as a way of life do not build  cities, palaces,  or 
temples.  Rather,  they need  to live very simply  in tents,  preferably  made of anim al skins 
(as hunting  is an important  resource  of nomad s) that can be packed  and moved easily, as 
we can see still today in the populations  that continue  to live in this way. Nom ads are 
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people  who are constantly  on the move as a life style, therefore  they never  build  cities, 
palaces  or templ es: they are forced  to keep  the material  posses sions  to a minimum that 
can be transported  easily  (which  usuall y do not include  books)  and do not have  complex 
knowledge.  The nomads ' cultu re is transmitted  orally, around  the camp fires,  and religion 
is usually  of a sham anic type. Even simple  craftsm anship is reduced  to the minimum 
because  there  is a tendenc y to abandon  those utensils  that are not strictl y necessary  and to 
build new ones  when the next ca mp is set.
In nomadi c life cattle herding is only practical  when  the animals  are regularly slaughtered  
for meat, especially  the young  and old ones that cannot  move  quickl y with the tribe when 
it's time to move the camp. On the contrar y, we see that Vedic  civilization  never 
conte mplate s the slaughtering  of cattle  (especially  calves),  rather  considering  it a very 
heinous  sin. Even  separating  the calf from the mother  is considered  an act contra ry to 
religiosit y. A nomadic  life is naturall y dependent  on hunting  and pillaging  rather than 
agriculture  (that requires  a settled  life) and marginally  with the occasional  gathering  of 
spontaneously  growing  vegetables.  All the accounts  of Vedic  civilization,  in the form of 
the many  stories  they contain  astronomic al references  even  dating  back  to hund reds of 
thousands  of years,  show  a great developm ent of settled  agricultu re based  on cultivation 
of cereals,  a preference  towards  ethical  vegetarianism , non-violence  and peacefulnes s, 
and a system of social  classes  based  on the natural tendencies  of each single  individual, 
no matter  what  color or race.  The Aryans they describe  were  not a geneticall y superior 
race but a civilized  societ y to which  anyone  could  be admitted.  Similarly,  the chronolog y 
accepted  by mainstrea m academ ic institutions  and textbooks  for the compilation  of the 
Vedic  scriptures,  based  on the Aryan Invasion  Theor y, seems to be highl y biased  and 
above  all it does  not cor respond  with what the Vedas  themselve s tell.
Still in the 20th centur y, the dating  of ancient  civilizations  were  influenced  by the belief 
of many scholars  and archaeologists,  including  the famous Max  Muller,  according  to 
which  the creation  of the world  had been  established  in 4004  BCE,  and the Great  Flood 
described  in the Bible  in 2500  BCE.  Even  when  the Bible's  version  was disproved  by the 
discovery  of fossil s and by the growing  populari ty of Darwin's  evolutiona ry theor y, 
acade my maintain ed the belief  that until  a few thousands  years before  Christ,  the entire 
mankind  had been  living  in an extremely  primitive  state,  slowly  evolving  from  the Stone 
Age (up to 3000  BCE)  to the Iron Age (start ing around  600 BCE)  with the most ancient 
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civilizations  located  in Sumer,  in the middle  east and in Egypt, between  3500  and 2200 
BCE,  then in Greece  and in the Roman Empire,  while  the rest of the world was more  or 
less immersed in a barbaric state  up to the colonial period.
With  the end of colonialis m and the establish ment of the humani stic values  and the 
independent  scientific  research  in the fields  of anthropo logy and archeology,  many  old 
myths  of indology  have  justly  been  exposed.  The very perspective  on ancient  history  has 
been  deeply  transfor med, thanks  to many revolu tionary  discoveries  in the last centur y, 
that "set back  the clock"  on the history  of human race several  thousands  years. 
Unfortunately  the outdated  model  of the history  of mankind  is still taught  in the majority 
of the school  texts, especially those  for the p rimary schools.
Later  on, the nazi theories  on the aryan race have  unjustl y burdened  the word  "aryan" 
(and the symbol  of svastika, also stolen  from the vedic  culture)  with a very unhappy 
association  with  the negative  concepts  of racis m, oppression  and violence,  that are 
expressed  in our da ys with the  "poli tically co rrect" euphe mism ethnic cleansing .
The resurgence  of Vedic  culture  in India  had to struggle  against  all these  huge 
difficulties.  In the beginning,  unde r the British  colonial  regime, the only chance  of 
survival  consisted  in presenting  Vedic  knowledge  in a format that could  be acceptable  to 
the victorian  British  mentality,  and this was the origin  of the so-called  neo-Hinduism  or 
"refor med"  Hinduism.
Among  the famous teachers  that started  to spread  the spiritual  message of Sanatana 
Dhar ma in Engl ish language  already  during  the British  colonial  regim e in India we 
remember Ram akrishna  (1836-1886 ) and especiall y his disciple  Vivekananda  (1863 -
1902),  Bhaktivinoda  (1838-1914 ) and his son Bhaktisiddhanta  (1874-1936),  Aurobindo 
(1872 -1950),  Ram  Tirtha (1873 -1906),   Ram ana Maharshi  (1879-1950 ), Swami  Ramdas 
(1884 -1963),  Swami  Sivananda  (1887 -1963),  Sarvepalli  Radhakrishnan  (1888-1975 ), 
Param aham sa Yogananda (1893-1952 ) and Swa mi Chin mayananda  (1916 -1993). 
This presentation  of the Vedic  tradition  to the western  work  by Indian  preachers  started 
as a reaction  to the denigrato ry comments given  by the majority  of the officers  of the 
colonial  empire  and by the European  scholars  that visited  the British  colonies.  The first 
stage  was some kind of "refor m of Hinduism " meant to give a secondary  place  or to 
eliminate  altogether  those  ideas  that seem ed to be most  difficult  to digest  for the 
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sensitivity  of the British officers,  acade mics and religious  missionaries  - specific ally, 
anglican  protestants.
The first of these  groups,  the movement called  Brah mo samaj (1820 ) founded  by Ram 
Mohan  Roy (1772-1833 ), was strongl y influenced  by the teachings  of the Unitarian 
Church  and by the syncretist  concept  of the Radical  Universalism . Roy wrote  a treatise 
entitled  The Precepts  of Jesus:   The Guide  to Peace  and Happiness, and he learned 
Hebrew  and Greek to study  the Bible  and translate  it into Bengali,  with  the idea of 
"purify ing"  and "mod ernizing"  Vedic  tradition,  by merging  it with  Christianity, 
Hebrais m, Islam and Buddhis m. The ideolog y of the Brah mo samaj rejected  the worship 
to the sacred  imag es (which  they called  "graven  image s" and "idols"),  the validit y of the 
sacred  stories  of Puranas and Itihasas (which  they called  mythology),  the tradition  of the 
temples  and the holy places  of pilgrimag e (which  they called  superstition)  and the 
multiplicity  of the Personalities  of Godhead  (which  they called  demigods).  It also 
rejected  the system  of varnas or social  categor ies, the offerings  in the memory of the 
deceased,  and whatever  compon ent of the Vedic  tradit ion could  appear  as "pagan"  or 
somehow  unacceptable  for the victorian  moralis m of that period.  It only retained  those 
aspects  that it considered  "respectable",  such  as the highly symbolic  hymns of Rig, Sama, 
Yajur and Atharva  Veda (translated  in a practically incomprehen sible  way and  impos sible 
to apply into some practical  or useful  knowledge)  and the concept  of Brahman  as God or 
Universal  Spirit or Logos  as explained  in some Upanishads. A similar ideology , albeit 
less openly  servile  towa rds the British  missionaries  and the other religions,  was affirmed 
by the Prarthana  samaj and by the subsequent  Arya samaj (1875),  still surviving  and 
prospering  - and bizarrel y considered  one of the most authoritative  official 
representatives  of traditional hinduism , especially by  the govern ment.
Swami Dayananda  Sarasvati  (1824-1883 ) founder  of the Arya samaj, strongl y 
conde mned  the "idol wo rship,  ritualis m, legends and  superstitions"  of the Hindu tradition,  
exalting  instead  the philosophical  speculation  on the four original  branches  of Rig, Sama, 
Yajur and Atharva  Veda (Samhitas,  Aranyakas and Upanishads), celibacy  for the 
religious  students  and the meditation  on the sacred  syllable  Om, considered  "the real 
name of God".
He also supported  Universalism , or the spreading  of knowledge  without  limitations  of 
nationality  or race or religious  faith.  Briefly  joined to the Theosophical  Societ y, the Arya 
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samaj becam e the inspiration  for many  other "Hindu  reformers"  of the colonial  period,  as 
well of  many western philosophers  who were attracted by  the eastern  ideas in general.
Ramakrishn a, who inspired  the Ramakrishna  Mission  founded  by his disciple  Swami 
Vivekananda,  openl y stated  he wanted to follow  "all re ligions".
Vivekananda  wrote,  " I shall  go to the Mosque  of the  Moham medan; I shall  enter  the 
Christian’s  Church  and  kneel  before  the Crucifix;  I shall  enter the Buddhist  Temple, 
where   I shall  take refuge  in Buddha,  and in his Law. I shall  go into the forest  and sit 
down   in meditation  with the Hindu  who is trying  to see the Light, which  enlightens  the 
heart of  ever y one."
Still today the Ram akrishna  Mission  calls  "abbots"  its "top monks",  compare s its 
"mona steries"  to the Essene  communities of the times of Jesus Christ  and to the Catholic 
monastic  orders,  and has openl y renounced  the Hindu  identit y by declaring  itself "non -
hindu  organization"  in its registration  with the Indian  government.  It freely  celebrates 
Christ mas and Easter,  but it does  not recognize  its western-born  disciples  as eligible  to 
beco me authorized  gurus to confer  initiation  in the name of the Math.  It also has a 
separate  organization  for women,  called  Sri Sarada Math,  because  the Ram akrishna  Math 
is strictl y for men only. The ideology  of the Ramakrishna  Mission  states  that God is 
essentially  without  a form, but he takes  personal  aspects  for the benefit  of mankind; 
however,  it discourages  the building  of temple s or altars including  private  altars in one's 
own house.  
After  India obtained  independence  from the British  empire,  a slow  recover y period 
started,  especially  with the help of the second  generation  of the preachers  of Sanatana 
Dhar ma - starting  from  Bhaktivedanta  Swami  Prabhupada  (the famous founder  of the 
Hare  Krishna  move ment), followed  by Neem  Karoli  Baba,  Herakhan  Babaji,  Meher 
Baba,  Mother  Meera,  Swami  Muktananda  (Siddha  Yoga),  Anandam ayi, Amritananda 
Mayi,  Osho  (Rajneesh),  Maharishi  Mahesh  Yogi,  Mataji  Nirmala  Srivastava  (of Sahaj ya 
Yoga),  Sant Sri Asaram ji Bapu  (founder  of Sri Yog Vedanta  Seva  Samiti),  Sri Sri Ravi 
Shankar  (not the musician,  but the head  of the Art of Living  Foundation ) and a growing 
number  of Swamis and Gurus who have  accepted m illions  of disciples  among  westerners.
The teachings  deriving from  Vedic  knowledge  have becom e extremely  popular especially  
in the form of the various  yoga disciplines,  with  thousands  of teachers  (Iyengar  for 
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example)  and natural  Ayurvedic  medicine  with popular  names such  as Deepak  Chopra 
and many others.  Very  soon  westerners  too have  moved from  the position  of disciples  to 
the position  of teachers,  multiplying  the groups,  the schools,  the centers  and the 
organizations  that p resent  such  disciplines.
In the last decades  western  countries  have  seen a huge increase  in the interest  for spiritual 
research  through  a number  of methods  of personal  growth  produced  by the New  Age 
culture  but inspired  by the Indian  wisdom  - such  as rebirthing,  the various  form s of 
meditation,  creative  visualization,  conscious  dreaming,  pranotherap y, spiritual  healing 
and so  on.
For a sincere  seeker  who wants  to study the original  Vedic  knowledge  for his/ her own 
cultural  and spiritual  progress,  free from political,  institutional  or acade mic motivations, 
the best choice  is to make the best efforts  to go diretl y to the source,  approaching  those 
who have  followed  the Vedic  knowledge  as their own belief  system  and way of life for 
innumerable  generations  on the Indian  subcontinent.  Although  in the course  of the 
centuries  Indian  culture  has being  subjected  to the superimpo sition  of cultu ral influences 
from the Islamic and European  domination  (especially  British),  its roots  continue  to 
survive  almost  unchanged  by the millennia,  in what  is today known  as traditional 
Hinduis m.  
"Hinduis m" is a rathe r controve rsial  definition,  because  the word hindu is never 
mentioned  in the original texts. 
Sarvepalli  Radhakrishnan  wrote: "The Hindu  civilization  is so called,  since  it original 
founders  or earliest followers  occupied  the territory drained  by the Sindhu  (the Indus) 
river  system  corresponding  to the North -West  Frontie r Province  and the Punjab...  The 
people  on the Indian  side of the Sindhu  were  called  Hindu  by the Persian  and the later 
western  invaders."
Many  prefer  the Vedic  definition  of sanatana  dharma, that can be approx imately 
translated  as "the eternal  function  of the living  being",  where  sanatana means "eternal, 
imperishable".  To get a more precise  translation  of the technical  word sanatana  dharma 
we need  to analyze  the deep  meanings  of the word dharma, that contraril y to what  many 
believe,  does  not exactly  correspond  to the western  idea of "relig ion".  Later on we will 
elaborate  more  on this very important  concept:  now we will simply  say that the primary 
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meaning  of dharma  is "the natural law that sustains  the universe". 
As the eternal  and universal  law that supports  the cosm os, Vedic  knowledge  is therefore 
on a level  that transcends  space  and time, and rather  exists  intrinsically  as the "original 
blueprint"  of everything  that exists  in the unive rse. From time to time it is perceived, 
experienced  and revealed  by the Self realized  souls,  that transm it it in the form  of sacred 
literatu re. Thus, it does  not have a  historic  origin in time.  
According  to tradition,  Vedic  knowledge  was manifested by the creator  of the unive rse, 
Brah ma, at the time of starting  to form the various  element s of creation.  Because  it is the 
natural  awareness  of reality , the original  Veda ("knowledge")  does  not need  to be 
explained  or taught,  but is directl y realized  in the heart,  in the transcendental  awareness 
of the Self that constitutes  the true spiritual  nature  of all beings,  and that is eternit y (sat), 
happiness  (ananda) and knowledge  (cit). According  to Vedic  tradit ion, the individual 
Self (atman) or microco sm is not different  from the universal  Self (brahman) or 
macrocos m. By realizing  his own nature  of knowledge,  one becom es able to understand 
the nature  of everything,  because  he obtains  the darshana of the Reality  from  which 
every thing e manate s.
At the creation  of the universe,  all human  beings  were  adequatel y qualified  to realize 
Vedic  knowledge  in its most complex  and concentrated  form, orally transmitted  in a 
perfect  way thanks  to the excellent  memory that constitutes  the original  genetic  heritage 
of human  beings.  Later on, with the passing  of time, the quali ties of the human  beings 
became weaker  and the original  Veda had to be explained  in a more elabo rate way and 
divided  into various  categories.  Contrar ily to the western  theory of the progress  of 
mankind,  starting  from a primitive  condition  of brute  ignorance  and culminating  with the 
conte mporary  technological  man (considered  the final  result  of an evolution  where 
survival is  obtained thanks  to the  best characteristics  of a species)  the Vedic vision speaks  
of a journe y of reverted  evolution,  or involution,  where  man's genetic  patrimony 
graduall y decays to a minimal part of the original  qualities.  Then  the genetic  assets  of 
mankind  are renewed  cyclicall y according  a calendar  of four unive rsal seasons  or ages 
(yuga), called  respectively Saty a, Tre ta, Dvapara and Kali. 
At each cycle of creation of each single  universe  there is a set of 1000  cycles  of four ages 
constituting  one "day" of Brahm a, the creator  of that particular  unive rse. Each night 
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Brah ma withdraws  the greatest  part of his creation  and "puts  the rest to sleep"  until the 
next morning.  There is also a longer  cycle that covers  the entire  life of Brahm a the 
creator,  constituted  by 100 of his years, each  compos ed of 365 of his days. Thus  it is 
calculated  that in each lifeti me of Brah ma there  are 36.5 million  complete  cycles of the 
four ages (365x100x1000 ). In each  of these  cycles  mankind  is created  according  to the 
original  and perfect  genetic  project,  and the same applies  to all the other  living  species  - 
according  to the Vedas  there  are 4 million  300 thousand  species  of life, of which  400 
thousand  are human  or humanoid.  Not all these  species  are simultan eously  present, 
because  their  particula r characteristics  make them suitable  to different  circum stance s of 
time and place.  This mech anism of incom pletenes s in the diversity  of the species  in a 
particular  historical  moment can give the impression  of an evolution  of the darwinian 
type, but according  to the Vedic  tradition  these are rather  cyclic manifestations  that may 
sometimes superi mpos e, with the continued  existence  of elem entary  form s of life (i.e. 
unevolved  bodies)  that according  to the darwinian  theor y should  have  been  extinct 
alread y. According  to the people's  abilit y to understand  and work  in each period,  Vedic 
knowledge  is expressed  in more  or less extended  and complex way. Furthe rmore,  it is 
said that the extension  and the compl exity  of the Vedic  texts  are different  on the various 
planets  inhabited  by the 400 thousand  human  and humanoid  species  existing  in the 
universe.  The present  version  of Vedic  scriptu res existing  on this planet  and in this 
particular  period (that  started  about  5 thousand  years ago) is the simple st and shortest, 
because  in the age of Kali,  in which  we live, the potential  of the human  beings  falls to a 
minimum. It is said that at the beginning  of the Kali yuga the avatara Vyasa  decided  to 
write  down  this particular  compilation  precisely  to cater  to the different  needs  of the 
people.
As we have alread y mentioned,  in Satya yu ga (the first age of the four), human  beings  are 
all qualified  to the maximum level  - healthy  and sound  of body  and mind,  endowed  with 
great  intelligence,  extraordina ry longevit y and good  fortune,  and naturall y able to 
understand  and follow  the universal  principles  of dharma  - austerit y, cleanliness, 
compassion  and truthfulness.  There were  no particular  social  categories  because 
every body  was able to understand,  directl y and personally,  the subtleties  of Vedic 
knowledge  simply  by listening  to the natural  voice  of conscience  and intuition,  without 
the intervention  of teachers  or guides.  There  were  no dangers,  criminality  or wars,  and 
therefore  there  was no need  of warriors  or kinds,  or of any form  of govern ment.  As the 
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land spontaneously  produced  nutritious  plants  and the cows  had a natural  production  of 
excess  milk,  people  had plent y of food and other  commodities without  any need  to work 
in agriculture,  trade,  or enterp rises  of any kind.  And because  every body  was perfectly 
able to take  care of the mselves,  there was  no need  for servants  or assistant s. Therefore  the 
entire  population  was constituted  by brahmanas, without  any need  of kshatriyas,  vaisyas 
or sudras (what  to speak  of chandalas). For every body , the method  for spiritual  and 
religious  realization  was the practice  of Yoga  and meditation  on Transcendence,  that 
purifies  intelligence  from all material  identifications  and attach ment s. Renunciation, 
balance,  dutifulness  and self-discipline  enabled  every one to control  the mind  and the 
sense s and to engage  in the contemplation  of the Divine  within their own hearts. This 
ancient  happ y period saw the rise of Yoga,  Sankhy a and Tantra, and the expression  of the 
highly  symbolic  hymns  of the original Veda.
In the subsequent  yuga mankind  started  to beco me degraded  because  of the restlessnes s 
of the mind  and because  of strong  desires.  At first austerity  was lost, because  people 
developed  a lust for the pleasures  of the heavenly p lanets  and the m aterial  advantages  that 
can be obtained  on this planet:  a favorable  birth,  good  descendents,  a good  wife  or 
husband,  fame, wealth  and opulence,  material  power,  beauty , physical  strength,  mental 
strength, knowledge  and so on.
Thus  in Treta yuga the yuga  dharma consists  in the ritual  performanc e of sacrifices,  in 
the faithful  celebration  of the nitya  karmani, the daily duties  that include  the homa or fire 
sacrifice.  The main qualification,  the prime concern  for this type of religious  practice  is 
cleanliness  (sauca), therefore  tradit ion gives  a huge  importance  to purification  and 
cleanliness  at every step:  both externally  and internally . Without  the proper  cleanliness 
and purit y, a person  does not have  the adhikara (right ) to perfor m the traditional  rituals, 
while  on the other  side as we have  seen anyone can becom e qualified  through  the proper 
system  of purification  and cleanliness.
In the cycle of the universal  season s, Treta yuga is followed  by the Dvapara  yuga, with a 
propo rtional  decrease  of the qualities  of the human  beings.  Cleanliness  beco mes difficult 
to maintain,  both internally  and externally , therefore  the emphasi s of religious  activities 
moves  towards  the more  comp assionate  yuga  dharma consisting  in Deity  worship. 
Although  cleanliness  and austerit y are still recom mended, the worship  of the Deities  in 
the temple  is made accessible  to those  who do not posses s great  qualifications  in that 
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field,  because  the mass of people  can alwa ys assist  to the rituals,  offer  their homage  and 
receive  the prasadam without  having  to demonstrate  to have  any personal  qualification. 
The direct  worship  of the Deities  on the altar is delegated  to the pujakas that are able to 
maintain  high levels  of cleanliness  and austerity  because  they are not required  to perform 
any other  work,  and they act as interm ediaries  in the relationship  between  people  in 
general  and the vigrahas installed  in the temple.  Therefore  in Dvapara  yuga wealthy 
kshatriyas and vaisyas take up the responsibility  to establish  templ es and provide  to the 
regular  maintenance  of the brahmanas who perform  the rituals  in the name of the karta 
(the person  that finances  the worship  and is thus considered  its autho r) and of societ y and 
large.
Of course  cleanliness  is always  encou raged,  especially  for the officiating  priests  but also 
for the gene ral visitors,  albeit  in a lesser  degree.  For example,  the traditional  temple s 
always  have  at least  a sacred  pool,  called  kunda or sarovara, where  the devotees  or 
pilgrim s can take bath or at least  purif y themselve s a little before  entering  the temple. 
However,  the main activity  of the temple  is the compa ssion ate distribution  of sanctified 
food  (prasadam) and other consecrated  offerings  such  as water,  flowers  etc, and the 
perfor mance  of lectures  and public  discussion s on the shastra, so that the mass of people 
can obtain  the benefit  of transcendental  knowledge  without  having  to strictl y observe  the 
rules of  cleanliness  or austerity .
The age where  we live at present,  started  about  5 thousand  years ago, is the age of Kali,  a 
period  of degradation  where  human decadence  reaches  a maximum - and then there  is a 
crisis  at global level, by  which the population of  the planet is  purified  and sm all groups of 
persons  evolved  as qualified  brahmanas inaugu rate a new golden  age or Satya yuga, 
return ing to the original version of  Vedic knowledge.
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When, ho w and 
by w hom  the V edas  
were  written
In the previous  chapters  we have  seen how Vedic  knowledge  has been  perceived  in the 
West  and in India  in the past centuries,  and which  misconception s have  developed 
because  of the superi mposition  of various influences  and motivation s.
We have also  seen how Vedic  knowledge transcends  time and applies  to reali ty itself,  and 
how at each age it is again  presented  in the modalities  and in the dimen sions  required to 
cater for the  needs of  the people of  that age. The refore  when we speak  of Vedic scriptures  
we refer  not only to the original  manuscripts  that bear witness  to the great  antiquity  of 
Hinduis m in this age, but also to the previous  versions  of which  we do not have  copies, 
and also to the later  texts  compiled  by self-realized  souls  that explain  the original 
knowledge  in ha rmony with the sa me eternal conclusions.  
For exampl e in the case  of the Puranas ("ancient  stories")  we see that the original  version 
is presented  and elaborated  by a series  of realized  teachers.  In the Bhagavata  purana the 
two most prominent  speakers  are Sukadeva  and Suta; Suta  had received  the knowledge  of 
this Purana  from  Sukadeva  when  Sukadeva  was speaking  to King  Parikshit  and the other 
great  sages  assembled on the bank  of the Ganges,  and later he transmitted  it to Saunaka 
and the other sages  assem bled at Naimi sharanya.  The Bhagavata also contains  spiritual 
discourses  between  Maitreya  and Vidu ra, Kapila  and Devahuti,  Narada  and Vyasa, 
Krishna  and Uddhava,  and so on. However,  we know  from  other  Vedic  texts  that the 
Bhagavata  purana (as the description  of the activities  and glories  of Bhagavan  Vishnu) 
was originall y spoken  by Shiva  to Parvati,  and that on that occasion  Sukadeva  listened  to 
it while  he was hiding  among the branches  of the banyan  tree unde r which  the divine 
couple  was sitting.
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If they refuse  to believe  the statem ents of Vedic  scriptures  regarding  their own origin  and 
antiquity , archeologists  can at most date a compilation  of such and such manuscripts  that 
are in their possession.  Usuall y this is done  by evaluating  the antiqui ty of the material  on 
which  the text is written - palm leaves,  paper  etc - but here the situation  is complicated 
because  the text often  quotes  previous  "ancient"  texts  that contained  the same knowledge. 
So in the Vedic  texts  and in Vedic  tradition  in general  there is a very strong  sense  of 
continuity , called  parampara (or tradition, literall y, "transmitted  through  a chain  of 
temporal  succes sion").  This continuit y is supported  by a sense  of universalit y, that unlike 
abraha mic traditions  (that  are exclusively  linear)  recognizes  the validi ty and 
complem entarity of  parallel traditions that continue  to develop  in time. 
Another  factor  that tends  to confuse  conventional  archeologists  about  dating  consists  in 
the evaluation  of the complexity  of the ideas  and language  of the text; this confusion 
originates  from  the theor y that human  technological  progress is exclusively  linear  - that 
from a primitive  initial  period,  the entire  mankind  developed  through  a series  of 
inventions  and discoveries  up to the maxi mum level of technological  progress  of toda y. 
School  books  list such  technological  develop ment s as the use of fire, the passage  from 
stone  to bronze  to iron and then the inventions  of the wheel,  agricultu re, pictog raphical 
writing,  alphabetical  writing,  mathe matics, geometry,  organized  religion  (in the 
institutional-teocratic  model), philosophy,  physics  and mechanic s, astrono my, industry , 
electricity , steam  engine,  internal  combu stion  engine,  electronics,  infor matic s, nuclear 
physics  and so on. This evolutionary model  is eminently  centered  on a series  of historical 
events  that were  reported or docu mented  first in the regions  around  the Mediterranean 
sea, and for exam ple considers  Greek  civilization  as superior  to the Mesopotam ic and 
Egyptian,  then the Rom an civilization  as superior  to the Greek,  the Rom an-Christian 
civilization  as superior  to the "pagan"  one, and so on. Following  this faulty  logic,  the 
European  kingdo ms created  colonies  in the rest of the world  with the idea of "civilizing" 
those  other  peoples,  and still we can see a delibe rate campaign  of "globalization"  of the 
industrial  culture  of non-sustainable  develop ment  of the north -American  type. Thus  we 
end up in the absurd  position  of considering  "more  advanced"  those  practices  that destroy 
and pollute  the environ ment  and the resources,  create  conflicts  in society  and family, 
break  the harmony  between  the living  beings  and nature,  degrade  the funda mental  ethical 
values  and bring sufferings,  degradation and  despair.
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When  archeologists  and anthropologists  stumble  on evidence  that disproves  this 
paradig m, the most frequent  reaction  of conventional  acade my is to hide the proof of the 
existence  of a realit y different  from  what  it preaches  in a fideistic  way. Vedic  scriptures 
constitute  one of the most brilliant  example s of such  evidence,  and therefore  they have 
been  specifically  targeted  by the conventional  western  acade my, as we have  seen in the 
first chapter  - also because  they speak  of things such  as spaceships,  atomic time, 
electricity , control of the atmosph eric conditions,  biotechnolog y and control  of those 
human faculties  that still today are considered  "paranorm al" because  conte mporary 
science  is unable to explain the m.
The present  compilation  of Vedic  scriptu res is attributed  to Veda  Vyasa,  who was born 
about 5000 yea rs ago, son of  Satyavati and Parasara Muni.  
The name Vyasa mean s "one  who divides",  because  Vyasa compiled  four separate 
collections,  dividing  the various  texts  that composed the original  Veda and elaborating  on 
its meaning s according  to different  perspectives,  to facilitate  their  unde rstanding  for the 
people  of this age, whose  intellect  was weaker  in comparison  to the previous  ages.  Later 
on we will see how this division  was structu re, and what  are the main texts  of that period 
which are traditionall y recognized as  "Vedic scriptures".
Another  name  of Veda  Vyasa  or Vyasa Deva  is Krishna  Dvaipa yana,  “the Black  from  the 
Island",  because  Vyasa's  complexion  was very dark and the circumstan ces of his birth 
(that we alread y mentioned  in the second  chapter ) were centered  around a small island  on 
the Ya muna  river.
The Vedic  scriptures  are compo sed in Sanskrit,  a language  that is also called  devanagari 
(“of the Devas'  cities”)  because  it is considered  the unive rsal language  also used on other 
planets.  The word Sanskrit  derives  from the Sanskrit  word samskrita, that literall y means 
"perfect,  highl y evolved".
According  to the western  academy,  Sanskrit  is considered  the mother  language  of the 
various  "indo-eu ropean"  languages,  but we can add that Sanskrit  also has some special 
characteristics  that are not found  in European  languages:  particularly  the "modular"  build 
of the simple and complex  consonants,  that produces  a huge  number  of graphic 
configurations.  The most important  and basic  point  to understand  in the study of Sanskrit 
is the concept  of akshara ("letter-s yllable"):  unlike the Latin alphabet,  where  each 
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consonant  is standing  alone  (B, C, D, M, G etc),  in Sanskri t each  consonant  is 
accompanied  by a vocalic  sound  that enables  its pronunciation  (norm ally, A). Therefore 
when  we refer to the consonants  in Sanskrit, we call the m Ba, Ca, Da, Ma and  so on. 
Actually  the same thing  happens,  albeit  not officially,  also in the European  languages, 
because  the consonants  by them selve s are spelled  as Bi, Ci, Di, eM, Gi, and so on. 
Sanskrit/Devanagari  scientifically  applies  this instintive  concept  and codifies  it precisely: 
this alread y shows  us the type of mental  structure  that is the basis  of Vedic  knowledge  - 
the precise  understanding  and the scientific  formulation  of the natural  universal  laws 
instinctively known and applied by  ever yone. 
The Sanskrit  alphabet  includes  15 vowels  and 34 simple consonants,  4 of which  (ra, ya, 
la, va) are considered  "semi-vowels"  and according  to the laws  of sandhi ("euphonic 
ties")  they can transform  in their vocalic  counte rpart  or in special  consonantic  groups 
with a special  graphic  configuration.  This,  too, is a "natural"  law of language,  that we 
find especially  in ancient  Greek  but also in the transfor mation of words in modern 
languages.  Simple  consonants,  when  doubled  or coupled  with other  consonants,  unite 
graphicall y to create  a remarkable  number  of complex  consonants,  which  sometimes due 
to the particular  pronunciation  may take on a very different  look compared  to the simple 
consonants  that compo se them.
Furthe rmore,  vowels  have  a different  form  when  they are alone  or at the beginning  of a 
word, and when they  are within a word. However, each  lette r - vowel or consonant - has  a 
very precise  sound,  that always remain s the same in all cases  without  exception,  therefore 
there cannot be  doub ts in pronunciation.
This is  how the vowels appear  at the beginning of a word:
                  
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This is  how the vowels appear  within  a  word:
                 
Here are the si mple  consonants:
                        
Many  scientists  have  analyzed  the structure  and the dynamic  of Sanskrit,  and have  found 
them so perfectl y logical and consistent  to be comparable  to the infor matic  language  used 
to program computers.  Its mech anism to develop  words from  common roots is also 
scientifically  precise  in determining  the meaning  of the various  definitions,  the hues and 
the logical  connections  between  the concepts.  Sanskrit  is therefore  a highly  scientific  and 
precise  language,  used  by the Rishis  to express  the deep  realities  they had perceived,  both 
regarding the knowledge of  matter  and the knowledge of  spirit. 
The philosophical  implications  of this language  structure  are extremely  deep.  First of all, 
the need  of the primary  vowel  A, that can be easily  recognized  in the graphic  structure  of 
most consonants,  and that transform s into the other wovels  through  the modulation  of the 
primev al sound,  helps  us to better  understand  the importance  of the sacred  syllable  AUM, 
that Vedic  scriptu res consider the first  divine incarnation, that the G reeks  called  Logos.
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The prim eval sound  as the origin  and foundation  of the entire creation,  of energy , 
element s, knowledge  and visible  manifestations,  is therefore  highlighted  alread y from the 
first steps  of schooling,  when  the pupil  learns the alphabet  letters.  As modulations  of the 
primev al sound  (sabda  brahman) the letters  of the alphabet  are considered  sacred  also in 
the context  of religious  practices,  that include  the special  bija mantras, "seed  mantras" or 
letters/syllables  that are recited  singularly  as primary  representations  of the Deity  and 
have  the power t o directl y evoke that specific  energ y that is present  everywhe re.
A vague  memory of this tantric science  is still found  in the various  cultu res of the world 
in the for m of "magic spells"  or "for mulas " that see m to have no literal meaning.  The bija 
mantras are not ordinar y lexicons  with a limited  meaning,  and they are not the "name" of 
the Deity either:  they are the "sound  form” of the Deity, just like the yantra ("sacred 
diagram ") is its  geometrical  form.
Here are so me exam ples of yantras, in the order Bhuvanesvari,  Kali and Shiva.
    
The "popular"  counterpar t of Sanskrit,  anciently  used  at familiar level  for the simple st 
and most immediate  forms of communication  is called  prakrita (literally  "simple, 
natural")  and has given  origin  to the various  modern  Indian languages  through  the 
superi mposition  with  the local  tribal  languages.  Specifically,  Hindi  constitutes  the 
modern  version  of the Prakrita  modi fied by the influence  of the Persian  and Arab 
languages  during the Musli m invasions,  so much that it has an almost  identical  twin, 
Urdu,  that is written  in Arab  characters  instead  of the original  Devanagari  characters  of 
Sanskrit. The Rajasthani  and the Bihari languages  are closely re lated  to the Hindi.
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Among  the other  major  languages  derived from the prakrita form of Sanskrit that are still 
popular  in India we may mention  Bengali,  Oriya, Marathi,  Assa mese, Panjabi,  Gujarati 
and Sindhi:  although  apparentl y varying in the graphic  representation  of the characters, 
they use exactly  the same lingu istic structure  and each  letter  exactl y corresponds  to a 
Devanagari  equivalent. 
More  differences  can be found  between  the north-Indian  and the south-Indian  groups  of 
languages,  led by Tamil, the language  that gives  the name to the State  of Tamil Nadu. 
The 19th  centur y indologists  deducted  that Tamil was the original  language  of the 
Dravidian  populations  that lived  in India before  the aryan invasion,  while  Sanskrit  had 
been  introduced in relatively recent times. On the contrary, scriptu ral evidence shows  that 
the presence  of Sanskrit  in south  India is just as ancient,  if not more  ancient,  than the 
presence  of Tamil. Further more,  about  80% of the words  in Tamil  (and related  languages 
such as Telugu, Kannada  and Malyalam)  are taken directl y fro m Sanskrit,. 
The version  of the Vedas that precedent  the present  compilation  was simply  called  Yajus, 
or "knowledge  of the sacrifice”  (in the sense  of “sacred  action”) ; it was more 
concentrated  and was generally  transm itted from teacher  to student  through  a complex 
system  of memorization  that still survives  in a few traditional  schools.  To make sure that 
the students  perfectly  remem bered and repeated  the original  texts  and with the prope r 
intonation,  teachers  arranged  the verses in various  sequences,  called  prakriti  patha 
("simple  reading") and vikriti  patha ("elabo rate reading").
The prakriti  patha consists  in reciting  the verse  as it is written,  without  divid ing the 
words  that are connected  by sandhi. For example,  here is a mantra offering  homage  to 
Sambhu  (another  name  of Shiva)  and Maya,  respectivel y the Suprem e Lord and the 
Divine Energ y: 
                               
The pada  patha ("step  by step reading")  consists  in separating  the basic  words  from each 
other,  so that the verse can be better  understood  and memorized:  namah  sambhava,  iti 
sam-bhave  cha, mayobhava iti mayah bhave  cha namah
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The krama  patha ("program med reading")  consists  in uniting  the basic  words  in an 
elaborate  mathematical schem e (1+2, 2+3, 3+4 and so on): namassambhave:  sambhave 
cha, sam bhava  iti sam-bhave,  cha mayobhave:  mayobhave  cha, mayobhava  iti mayah 
bhave,  cha namah nama iti namah.
The 8 types  of vikriti  patha ("elaborate  reading")  are called  jata ("bunch"),  mala 
("necklace"),  sikha ("peak"),  rekha ("line"),  dhvaja ("banne r"), danda ("stick"),  ratha 
("chariot")  and ghana ("cloud").  Here  are some example s applied  to the verse  we 
mentioned  before:
Jata:
namassambhave  sambhave  namo namas sambhave
sambhave  cha cha  sambhave sambhave  cha
sambhave  iti sam-bhave
cha mayobhave  mayobhave  cha cha mayobhave
mayobhava  cha cha mayobhave  mayobhave cha
mayabhava  iti mayah-bhave
cha namo  namascha cha namah
nama iti namah
Sikha:
namassambhave  cha cha sambhave  namo namassambhave  cha
sambhave  cha mayobhave  mayobhave  cha sambhave  sambhave  cha mayobhave
sambhava  iti sam-bhave
cha mayobhave  cha cha mayobhave  cha cha mayobhave  cha
mayobhave  cha namo namascha  mayobhave mayobhave  cha namah
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mayobhava  iti mayah-bhave
Ghana:
namassambhave  sambhave  namo
namassambhave  cha cha sambhave
namo namassambhave  cha
mayobhave  mayobhave cha  sambhave
sambhave  cha mayobhave
cha mayobhave  mayobhave  cha
cha mayobhave  cha
mayobhave  cha cha mayobhave  mayobhave
cha namo  namasca mayobhave
mayobhave  cha namah
mayobhava  iti mayah-bhave  
cha namo  namasca cha namah
About  the intonation:  the recitation  of the Vedas utilizes 3 types of intonations,  called 
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anudatta ("low"),  udatta ("high")  and svarita ("medium "), with a passage  towards  the 
high tone towards  the last letter/syllable  of the word.  We will speak  again  about  the 
pronunciation  and intonation  in the reading  of Vedic  texts  in the chapter  on the Vedangas 
("the secondary limbs  of the Veda").
In any case it is important  to understand  that oral tradition  does  not mean that at those 
times people  were  too ignorant and primitive  and therefore  they did not know  how to 
write. It rather m eans that before  Kali yuga people  had a much better m emory and did not 
need  to depend on wr itten texts  - although t hese also existed.
We can verif y this  easil y by considering that according to the scriptures  them selve s, Veda 
Vyasa  started  to compile  the collections  (in Sanskrit  samhita means "collection"  or 
"anthology" ) of Vedic  hymns just after  the battle  of Kurukshetra.  The narration  of the 
historical  events  of that period,  contained  especially  in the Mahabharata (also compiled 
by Veda  Vyasa together with the samhitas and other  texts) includes  many episodes  where 
we see many people  normally  utilizing  written docu ments,  texts,  books,  letters  and 
written  messages of various  types.  This proves  that people  in that period  not only knew 
the art of  writing, but the y considered  it a totally  norm al and ele mentary thing.
As we have  already  mentioned,  Vyasa is credited  with having  organized  the 4 collections 
of hymns  called  Rig, Sama,  Yajur and Atharva, adding  the respective  texts  with the ritual 
instructions  (called  Brahmanas because  they were meant  to be utilized by the officiating 
brahmanas during the perfor mance  of the ceremonie s) and philosophical  elaborations 
(called  Upanishads and Aranyakas). Vyasadeva  is also credited  with the compilation  of 
the Vedanta (also called  Uttara  mimamsa), the Mahabharata (which  includes  Bhagavad 
gita) and the Puranas, including the Bhagavata purana .
Many  other  Rishis  contributed  to the body of knowledge  of Vedic  scriptures,  compiling 
various texts  even before  Vyasa's  work. 
Here is  a short list:
* Parasara  (father  of Vyasa),  is the autho r of Brihat  Parashara  Hora  Shastra (famous 
treatise  on astrolog y), as well as some hymns of the Rig Veda (dedicated  to Agni  and 
Soma), the Parasara  dharma  samhita, Vishnu  purana, and Vriksha  ayur  Veda (herbolog y 
and botanics).
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* Atri Rishi  is the autho r of the 5th book  (or mandala) of the Rig Veda, that is also called 
Atri samhita. Atri, husband  of Anasu ya and father  of Dattat reya,  Durvasa  and Patanjali 
Rishi  (considered  as incarnations  respectively  of Vishnu,  Shiva  and Brah ma) is a direct 
son (manasa  putra) of Brah ma and the first of the Seven  Rishis  who reside  on the planets 
of the Great  Dipper  (Ursa  Major ) constellation.  Among  his descendents  there  are many 
other Rishis,  such  as Mugdala, Uddalaki,  Shakalayani, Chandog ya etc.
* Agastya  Rishi,  another  of the Seven  Rishis,  is the author  of an original  text on the Ayur 
Veda  (now  lost,  but mentioned  in later literature ), the Nadi  jyotisha (treatise  on 
astrology ), the famous stuti ("prayer of glorification")  called  Lalita  sahasranama ("the 
1000  names of Lalita",  the Mother  Goddess),  the famous Aditya  hridayam ("the heart of 
Aditi's  son",  a hymn  to the Sun), and the Sarasvati  stotram (in honor  of Sarasvati,  the 
Goddess  of Knowledge).  Agast ya's wife,  princess  Lopamudra  of the Vidarbha  kingdo m, 
cooperated to the Lalita sahasranama  and personally w rote one  hymn of the Rig V eda. 
* Gauta ma Maharishi,  another  of the Seven  Rishis,  is the author  of many suktas 
("hymns")  of the Rig Veda, the hymn  Bhadra of Sama  Veda, and the Gautama  Dharma 
sutra, the first text among  the Dharma  shastra s. Gauta ma is descendent  of Angi rasa 
Rishi;  he married  Ahalya,  manasa  putri ("born from the mind")  of Brah ma the creato r of 
the universe.  He became father  of Shatananda,  purohita ("royal officiating  priest")  of 
King  Janaka  of Mithila  father  of Sita (the wife of Rama), as well as of Vam adeva,  author 
of the 4th mandala ("book" ) of Rig Veda, and of  Nodha.
* Vasistha,  anothe r of the Seven  Rishis,  family Guru  of the avatara Ram a, is the author 
of the 7th book of the Rig Veda, as well as the Vasistha  samhita (a treatise  on Jyotisha, or 
astrology ). The teachings  of Vasistha  are also related  by Valmiki Rishi  (the author  of the 
Ramayana) in the fam ous Yoga Vasistha.
* Marici,  direct  son of Brah ma and another  of the Seven  Rishis,  was the father  of 
Kashyapa  Rishi,  who in turn generated  almo st all the creatures  of the universe,  including 
the Devas  and the  Danavas,  through his  two wives Aditi and Diti. 
* Pulast ya, direct son of Brah ma and one of the Seven  Rishis,  received  from  Brahma  the 
Vishnu  purana  and transmitted  him to Parasara  Rishi.  Father  of Visravas  and therefore 
grandfather of  Kuvera and Ravana,  is considered the forefather  of all the  Rakshasas.
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* Bharadhvaja,  another  of the Seven  Rishis,  is famous for having  written  the Vimanika 
shastra  (a treatise  on aereonautics-astronautics).
* Brighu,  a famous Rishi  who lived  in Treta yuga, is the protagonist  of the famous 
episode  in which  the other  Rishis  sent him to verif y who was the most magnanim ous 
among  the great  divine  Personalities  Vishnu,  Shiva  and Brah ma. He is the author  of the 
Brighu  samhita, a oracle-t reatise  on astrolog y, by which  one can find out even  the past 
and future  lives  of a person,  with 45 million s of possible  astrological  combinations.  He 
compiled  about  500 thousand  horoscopes,  most of which  have  been  lost. He also 
compiled  a treatise  on the Dhanur Veda, the m ilitary and strategical science.
* Brihaspati,  also known  as Deva  Guru ("the  Guru  of the Devas"),  is considered  the 
author  of the Artha  shastra, the treatise  on the science  of econom ic developm ent and the 
Barhaspatya  sutras. Brihaspati  is son of Angirasa  and has 3 wives  - Shuba,  Havishm ati 
and Ma mata.
* Kasyapa Rishi  (not to be confused  with the other Kasyapa also  known  as Kanada) is the 
author  of the Kasyapa  samhita (also  known  as Braddha  Jivakiya  Tantra) and the 
Vraddha jivakiya  tantra (both treatises  on the Ayur Veda).
* Markandeya  Maharishi,  descendent  of Brighu,  is the author  of the Markandeya  purana, 
where  we find the Devi  mahatmya, one of the most famous and beloved  texts  of the 
shakta Trad ition.  The Devi  mahatmya, also called  Chandi  path, is traditionally  recited 
during  all the festivities  connected  to the worship  of the Mother  Goddess.  Markandeya 
Rishi  is mentioned  in many other Puranas and in the Mahabharata, and is credited  also 
with the fa mous Maha mrityunjaya  mantra.
* Kapila,  son of Kardama Rishi  and Devahuti,  is considered  the founder  of the Sankh ya 
philosophy;  his teachings  are mentioned  in the Bhagavata  purana  and Mahabharata. 
Unfortunately, no text compiled  directly  by him has survived.
* Narada Rishi,  son of Brahm a, is famous for having compiled  the Bhakti  sutra, a treatise 
on the path of  devotion.
* Valmiki  Rishi,  disciple  of Narada,  is the famous author  of Ramayana and Yoga 
Vasistha. 
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* Nandi,  direct  disciple  and companion  of Shiva  Mahadeva,  is the autho r of the original 
Kama  shastra, that regulates  and o rganizes  the activities  meant for sense  gratification.
* Bharata  Muni,  disciple  of Tandu,  who is also direct  disciple  and companion  of Shiva 
Mahadeva,  is the author  of the present  Gandharva  Veda, dealing  with music, singing, 
dance  and drama.
* Dhanvantari,  considered  an avatara  (direct  manife station)  of Vishnu,  is the prim ary 
source  of the knowledge  of Ayur Veda.
Other Rishis  that co mpos ed hymns  of the original Veda are:
* Angira,  author  of most of the Atharva  Veda, is known  as a dignitar y at the court of 
Yama on P itriloka, the inter -dim ensional  planet where the vi rtuous  ancestors  live.
* Atharva  is author  of many hymns of the Atharva  Veda; the fact that the Atharva  Veda 
was composed  by these  two Rishis  has earned  it the na me of Atharvangirasa  samhita.
* Kausika,  Vasistha,  Kasyapa,  Saunaka,  Vam adeva,  Meghatithi,  Priyamegha,  Nodha, 
Savy a, Nrim egha,  Kusta,  Pracheta,  are the authors of  othe r hymns  of the Atharva Veda.
* Kanva  is the author  of various  hymns  of the Rig Veda dedicated  to Agni,  Yupa,  Marut, 
Brah mana spati,  Varuna,  Mitra,  Aryaman,  Pusha,  Rudra  and Soma.  Kanva  Rishi  was the 
adoptive father  of Sakuntala,  the p rotagonist  of the fa mous poetic wo rk by  Kalidasa.
* Medhatithi,  autho r of various  hymns  of the Rig Veda dedicati  a Agni,  Nirmathya 
Havaniya  Agni,  Idhmah  Samiddha  Agni,  Astanunapat,  Narasa msah, Ilah, Barhih, 
Devirdvarah,  Ushasanaktha,  Daiv ya, Hotara,  Pracetasa,  Sarasvati,  Ila, Bharati,  Tvashta, 
Vansapati,  Svaha  Akruta yoh Agnih,  Visve  Devah,  Indra, Maruta,  Tvashta,  Mitra  Varuna, 
Dravinoda  Agnih,  Asvini  (ritu devatah), Indra Varuna,  Gayat ri, Padani,  Brah mana spati, 
Soma, Dakshina,  Sadaspati,  Narasa ma, Maruta,  Rbhu,  Asvini,   Savita, Devyah,  Varuna, 
Anyagna yah, Dyavapruthiv ya, Prithivi,  Vishnu,  Ayu,  Vayu, Marutvan,  Pusha,  Apah  and 
Pura-ushnik.
* Praskanva,  autho r of various  hymns  of the Rig Veda dedicated  to Agni,  Usha,  Ashvini 
and Sur ya. 
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* Ghosha,  author of 2 suktas ("hymns")  in the 10th book of  Rig Veda.
* Vaga mbhrina,  author of  the Vac sukta  of Rig Veda.
* Maitrey i, wife  of Yajnavalk ya, is  autho r of 10 hymns  of Rig V eda.
* Gargi,  mentioned  in Yajnavalkya  samhita  and Brihad  aranyaka  Upanishad  on the 
occasion  of a fam ous philosophical  debate, is the  autho r of the Gargi samhita.
Besides  Ghosha,  Vagam bhrina,Maitreyi  and Gargi,  there were several  other  Rishikas 
(female  Rishis)  who composed  some of the hymns  of the Rig Veda: we may mention 
Visvavara,  Sikata,  Nivavari,  Apala  and Visvavara  from  Atri's family,  Angi rasi Sarasvati 
from Angi rasa's family, Yami  Vaivasvati,  Sraddha,  Surya, Indrani,  Urvasi,  Saram a, Juhu 
and Paulo mi Saci.
Among  the Rishis  of the generation after  Vyasa we may  mention:
* Jaimini,  disciple  of Vyasa;  he compiled  the section  Karma  kanda (also  called  Purva 
mimamsa) of the Brahmana texts  as well  as a treatise  on Jyotishi (astrolog y).
* Yajnavalkya,  who compiled  his own  Dharma  shastra on the direct instructions  by 
Brah ma, Manu  and Brighu,  and he becam e famous especially  for the Vajasaneyi-
samhita.
* Panini, fa mous for his  treatise  on gram mar. 
* Charaka  and Sushruta,  who wrote the Charaka  samhita  and the the Sushruta  samhita, 
respectively, both important  texts  of Ayur Veda
* Patanjali,  famous for his Yoga sutras, he also wrote  treatises  on Panin i's gram mar and 
on Charaka's  Ayur Veda
According  to the Bhagavata  purana, Vyasa  assigned  the 4 collections  of hymns to his 
disciples,  entrusting  the  Rig Veda to Paila,  the Yajur Veda to Vaisa mpayana,  the Sama 
Veda to Jaim ini and the  Atharva Veda to Sum antu.
In turn,  Paila  divided  the Rig Veda in two parts,  assigning  them respectivel y to 
Indrapra miti and Bashkala.  Bashkala  divided  his part in 4 sections,  giving  them to his 
disciples  Bodh ya, Yajnavalk ya, Parasara  and Agni mitra.  Indrap ramiti taught  the texts 
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given  to him to Mandukeya,  whose  disciple  Devam itra gave  it to Saubhari  and others. 
Mandukeya's  son Sakal ya divided  the text he had been  given  into 5 parts,  distributing 
them to Vatsya,  Mudgala,  Saliya, Gokhalya  and Sisira.  Another  disciple  of Sakal ya, 
named Jatukarnya,  divided  his texts  in 3 parts  and added  a glossary,  entrusting  these 
divisions  to his disciples  Balaka,  Paila,  Jabala  and Viraja  respectively.  From the various 
texts  of the Rig Veda Baskali  also made an antholog y and transm itted it to Valayani, 
Bhajya and Kasara.
The disciples  of Vaisam payana  becam e the recognized  autho rities  on the Yajur Veda. 
One of them, Yajnavalkya  son of Devarata,  abandoned  Vaisam payana  handing  back  the 
hymns  he had been  given;  the other  disciples  immediately  took them, like the quails 
(tittirah) eat what  has been  regurgi tated  by other anim als. Therefore  that particular 
collection of  hymns  of the Yajur Veda is called Taittirya samhita . 
From  his part, Yajnavalkya  directl y approached  Surya, the Deva  of the Sun, praying him 
to reveal  the secret  mantras of the Yajur Veda. Taking  the form of a horse, Surya 
revealed  himself to Yajnavalk ya and gave  him 15 new chapters  of Vedic  knowledge, 
known  as Vajasaneyi- samhita (because  they eman ated from Surya's mane).  These  new 
chapters  were ent rusted  to the disciples  of Kanva, Madhyandhina and other Rishis.
Jamini Rishi,  the authorit y of the Sama Veda, had a  son named Sumantu,  who becam e the 
father  of Sutvan;  Jaim ini entrusted  both son and grandson  with one of the divisions  of the 
Sama  Veda  samhita. Another  disciple  of Jaim ini, named Sukarma,  divided  his part of the 
Sama  Veda in 1000  samhitas, that were  entrusted  to Hirany anabha  (son of Kushala), 
Paushyanji and Avant ya.
The 5 main  disciples  of Paushyanji  - Laugakshi,  Mangali,  Kuly a, Kushida  and Kukshi, 
received  100 samhitas  each,  while  500 among  the disciples  of Paush yanji  and Avantya 
developed  their own disciplic  succession s in the north.
Krita,  disciple  of Hiran yanabha,  transm itted 24 samhitas to his own disciples,  and the 
remaining  text was  entrusted  to the Rishi  Avant ya.
Sumantu  Rishi, the authorit y on the Atharva  Veda, taught his  samhita to hiw own disciple 
Kabandha,  who in turn transm itted it to Pathya and Vedadarsha.  The main disciples  of 
Pathy a were  Kumuda,  Sunaka  and Jajali,  while  the disciples  of Vedadarsha  were 
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Sauklayan i, Brah mabali,  Modosha  and Pippala yani.  The  Atharva  Veda  was also 
commented by the two disciples  of Sunaka  named Babhru  and Saindhava yana,  and by 
Savarna,  the disciple  of Saindhavayana.  Among  the acharyas of the Atharva  Veda we 
may also  mention  Nakshatrakalpa,  Santikalpa, Kashyapa and Angirasa.
The develop ment  of the Puranas  was entrusted  to Trayyaruni,  Kash yapa,  Savarni, 
Akritavrana, Vaisam payana  and Harita; each  one of the m studied  one of  the 6 anthologies 
prepared b y Rom aharshan a, who was  a disciple  of Vy asadeva.  
A beginner  in the study  of the Vedic  scriptu res can easily  remain  confused  by their 
vastity  and variet y, that are aimed  to offer  a suitable  approach  for many  different  types of 
people  and mentalitie s. Where  should  one start from, to actually  understand  the contents 
of Vedic knowledge?
The 3 most authoritative  scriptures  are defined  as Prasthana  traya (“starting  points”) 
because  they constitute the best  beginning for the stud y of Vedic knowledge.  
They are:
* Bhagavad  gita, also called  Sadhana  prasthana, centered  on the practical  application  of 
Vedic  teachings,
* Upanishads, also  called Upadesha  prasthana, are the mo st philosophical  part,
* Brahma Sutra or Vedanta sutra, also called  Nyaya  prasthana or logical discussions.
Other  perspectives  on the categorization  of Vedic  scriptures  are based  on different 
factors.  For example,  all the various  texts  belong  to 2 vast groups  called  sruti ("to be 
heard")  and smriti  ("to be remem bered"). Sruti  are the original  texts  of the Vedas (Rg, 
Sama,  Yajur and Atharva) including  the respective  Samhitas,  Brahmanas,  Aranyakas and 
Upanishads, while the smritis or collections  of com mentarie s are all the other texts. 
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The four o riginal Vedas
It is said that originally the Rig Veda had 21 sakhas or branches,  Yajur 109, Sama 1000 
and Atharva 50, for a total of over 100 thousand  verses.  Unfortunately  not all the Vedic 
texts  have  survived:  at present  we know  only about  1/5 of the total volume, about  20 
thousand  verses.
Of the 21 original  samhitas ("collections")  of the Rig Veda there is now only the Sakhala 
samhita, of the 85 of  the Krishna  Yajur Veda there are now only  5 (Taittirya,  Maitrayani, 
Katha,  Kapisthala  and Svetasvatara), of the 17 of Sukla  Yajur Veda only 2 remain 
(Kanva and Madhyandina, also known  as Vajasaniya), of the 101 of Sama  Veda only 3 
remain (Kauthuma,  Ranayaniya and Jaminiya), of the 9 of the Atharva  Veda  only  2 
remain (Pippalada and Saunaka).
The  Bhagavata  purana (1.4.15 -18 and 4.19-20) and Vishnu  purana (3.4) say that 
Vyasadeva  divided  knowledge  into the four  Vedas. Vyasa  considered  the particular 
requirement s of the people  in Kali yuga and decided  to simplify  the traditional  religious 
and spiritual practices.
The scriptures  state that in ancient  times there  was one Veda  only, called  Yajur, and that 
Vyasadeva  divided  it into four parts.  The Vishnu  purana also explains  that Vyasa 
instituted  four categories  of officiants  for the rituals,  each  of them  expert  in one of the 
four categories  - respectively  the Hotri for the Rig Veda, the Adhvary u for the Yajur,  the 
Udgatri  for the Sama and the Brahmana  for the Atharva.  Thus  the Hotri  recites  the 
hymns  to invoke  the various manifestation s of the Divine,  the Adhvary u perform s the 
ritual  proper,  the Udgata  provides  a musical  background  by singing  the hymns of the 
Sama and the Brah mana  or Achary a supervises  the procedure by correcting  any mistak es, 
protecting  the rituals  from  negative  influences  and producing  the higher  level  of 
consciousne ss required for the succes s of the ri tual. 
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The knowledge  of these  three components  (upasana  kanda or worship  of the Deity), the 
perfor mance  of the ritual (karma  kanda or practical  procedure)  and the consciousne ss of 
their  esoteric  meaning  (jnana  kanda) is collectively  defined  as Trayi  Vidya, "Threefold 
Knowledge".
The officiating  priests  that are exper t in all these  three  aspects  of Vedic  knowledge  are 
called  Trivedi  - a title that later on, with the spreading  og the typical  degradation  of the 
Kali yuga, becam e hereditary  like an ordinary  family name,  exactly  like the titles  of 
Achary a ("supervising  or founder  spiritual  master"),  Gosvam i ("master  of the senses", 
indicating  a person  that had learned  to perfectl y control  his own  sense s), Tyagi 
("renounced",  i.e. a person who has renounced  all material  attach ment s and posse ssions) 
and so  on.
The definition  of Brah mana,  characterizing  the most expert  and realized  among  those 
who cooperate  to the sacrifice  ritual,  derives  from  the word Brah man,  referring  to the 
Transcendental  Reality on which all visible  and invisible  creation  is resting.  According to 
the definition  provided  by Atri Rishi:  janmana  jayate  sudra ("by birth every one is 
sudra"), samskarad  bhaved  dvijah ("through the purification  rituals  one beco mes a twice-
born  person",  initiated  to the knowledge  and perform ance  of the rituals,  veda  pathad 
bhaved  viprah ("through  the study of the Vedas one becom es learned  and inspired")  and 
brahma  janati i ti brahmana ("brahmana is one who knows  Brahman").
This  transcendental  knowledge  and awareness  gives  the name to the definition  of 
brahmanism, sometimes used  in place  of Hinduism. Here  we need  to clarify  the 
difference  between  the two names Brah man (also  written as Brah ma, with a short  final a) 
referring  to the Transcendental  Reality  and Supreme Spirit - and Brah ma (with  a long 
final a), that is the first created  being  in each universe,  the demiurge- creato r that appears 
in the Trimurti  or "triad"  of the guna  avataras, the divine  manifestation s ruling  over the 
three  funda ment al qualities  of matter.  This Brahma  (also  called  Prajapati)  rules over the 
quality  of passion,  because  he creates  or better  manife sts the universe,  while  Shiva  rules 
over the quality  of ignorance  because  he destro ys it at the time of the dissolution,  and 
Vishnu  rules over the qualit y of goodness  because  he is the one to who m the Devas  resort 
to maintain  and protect the universe  during the period of its  mani festation.
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It is easy to give in to the tempt ation  of cultural  superi mposition  and read this Trimurti  as 
an Indian  version  of the Christian  Trinity  (compo sed by Father, Son and Paraclitus)  but 
that would  be a serious  mistake  and would  cause  unnecessary  confusion,  because  the two 
concepts  do not tally  with each other. 
We have alread y me ntioned  how each  one of the four  Vedas is co mposed  by four parts:
1. Samhita ("collections")  or the hymns or prayers prope r, collected  in the texts  called 
Rig, Y ajur, Sama and Atharva.
2. Brahmana ("of the brahmanas") containing  the meditations  to be perform ed during the 
rituals,  the history  of the rituals  and the reason  why they are celebrated,  and the 
procedures  to be executed  by the brahmanas officiating  the rituals.  The texts  that are still 
available  are called  Aitareya  and Kausitaki  (also called  Sankhyayana) from  the Rig Veda, 
Taittiriya  from  the Krishna  Yajur Veda, Sathapatha  from  the Sukla  Yajur Veda, 
Panchavimsa  (or Tandya), Sadvimsa,  Samaidhana,  Arsheya,  Mantra,  Devatadhyaya, 
Vamsa, Jaiminiya  from  the  Sama Veda, and Gopatha from  the Atharva  Veda.
3. Aranyaka ("of the forest"),  containing  the symbolic  meaning  of the rituals,  the inner 
mystic  knowledge  elaborated  by the Rishis  that have  renounced  materialistic  activities 
and retired  to the forest  (aranya) to engage  in meditation.  At present  there  are only the 
Aitareya and Kausitaki (Sankhyayana) from  the Rig Veda, Taittirya and Maitraniya  from 
the Krishna  Yajur Veda, Brihad  aranyaka  from  the Sukla  Yajur Veda and Talavakara or 
Jaiminiya from the Sama Veda.
4. Upanishad ("the instructions"),  containing  the philosophical  and theological 
elaboration  of the Aranyaka; luckily  the majority  of the Upanishads have  survived  until 
our time s.
These  distinctions  are rather indicative,  because  sometimes the Upanishads are directl y 
inserted  in the  text of the Aranyakas or Samhitas. 
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Rig V eda
The Rig Veda  samhita that have  survived  contain  some hund reds of mystical  hymns  (rik, 
or richa) dedicated  to the Deities  that mani fest the material  manife station  (considered  as 
personifications  of the unive rsal archetypes  or forces  of nature)  meant to keep  us in 
harmoniou s contact with the m in our daily  life. For example,  the hymn  (10.85) describing  
the marriage  between  Soma  Deva,  the God of the Moon,  and Surya, the daughter  of the 
Sun God, is  still chanted during the t raditional m arriage  ceremonie s. 
However,  the most important  and famous hymn of the Rig Veda is the Purusha  sukta 
(10.90 ), that constitutes  an important  part of the traditional  worship  rituals.  Not less 
famous is the Sri sukta, dedicated  to Lakshmi and recited  in the traditional  rituals,  that is 
in one of  the khilanis or "appendixes"  of the samhita. 
Some collections  directly  insert  it in the mandala or book  number  5. The Vak sukta 
(10.125 ) is another fam ous hymn dedicated to the Mother Goddess.
The precise  number  of the hymns  is controversial  because  there  are several  manuscripts, 
more or less complete.  The Rig Veda  samita consists  of 10 books  or mandalas, which  are 
in turn  organized  in chapters  and sections  and accom panied  by anuvakas or 
"explanations"  and suktas or "poems". Not all the mandalas are of the same length  or 
have  the sam e number  of hymns.
One for the mo st authoritative sources  offers  this subdivision:
Book  1: the largest,  with 191 hymns - especially  for Agni  (fire), Vayu  (wind),  the two 
Asvini  kumaras  (the healing principle), Indra (rain and thunder / lightning ), Visvedeva  (all 
the Devas  in general),  Ritu (the seasons),  Indra-Varuna  (the water  falling  in the form of 
rain),  Brah manasp ati or Brihaspati  (the teaching  of religious  knowledge),  Marut  (the 
directions),  Ribhu  (the rulers  of the universe),  Aryaman  or Yama (death),  Pushan 
(growth),  Rudra  (destruction),  Usha  (dawn),  Surya (the sun),  Soma  (the moon),  Agni-
Soma (the offering  of the medicinal  tonic  into the fire),  Vishnu  (the transcendent 
principle),  Indra-Va yu (the temp est), Mitra-Varuna  (the sun on the water ), Bhum i-
Dyayoh (earth and sky, both  considered  Deities),  Asva  (the horse),  Rati (attraction ), 
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Anna m (food),  Apris  (the three-fold  Goddess  that mani fests as Sarasvati,  Bharati,  Ila), 
Ap-T rina-Su rya (water, g rass and sunlight).
Book  2: 43 hymns, praising  Agni,  Indra, Brihaspati,  Aditya, Varuna,  Visvedeva,  Rudra, 
Marut, Kapinjala  (the hawk).
Book  3: Agni,  Yupa  (the sacrificial  pillar),  Indra, Parvata  (mountain s), Visvedeva, 
Asvini,  Mitra ( the sun),  Ribhu, Usha.
Book  4: 58 hymns praising  Agni,  Indra, Kapinjala,  Ribhu,  Indra-Varuna,  Indra-Va yu, 
Indra-Brihaspati,  Brihaspati,  Usha,  Savitar (the sun in its androg ynous  aspect), 
Visvedeva,  Bhumi-Dyayoh, Kshetrapati  (the principle  of protection  for the earth), Ghrita 
(clarified butter ).
Book  5: 87 hymns  praising  Agni, Indra, Surya, Atri (the Rishi),  Visvedeva,  Marut, Mitra-
Varuna, Asvini,  Usha, Savitar, Parjan ya (rains), Pri thivi (earth ), Ind ra-Agni.
Book  6: 75 hymns  praising  Agni,  Indra, Visvedeva,  Kamadhenu  (the cow), Pushan 
(nourishment),  Indra -Agni,  Sarasvati  (knowledge  and speech),  Asvini,  Usha,  Marut, 
Mitra-Varuna,  Indra-Varuna,  Indra-Vishnu,  Bhumi-Dyayoh, Savitar,  Indra-Soma, 
Brihaspati,  Soma- Rudra,  Ayudha ( weapons).
Book  7: 104 hymns  praising  Indra,  Asvini,  Marut,  Asvini,  Aditya (the 12 main Devas), 
Savitar,  Bhaga,  Dadhik ras, Rudra,  Apas  (the waters  of rivers  and lakes),  Ribhu,  Bhumi-
Dyayoh, Vastospati  (the personification  of Vastu),  Mitra-Varuna,  Usha,  Indra -Varuna, 
Varuna, Ind ra-Agni, Sarasvati, Brihaspati,  Vishnu,  Parjany a, Indra -Soma.
Book  8: Indra,  Asvini,  Marut,  Aditya, Agni,  Mitra -Varuna,  Visvedeva,  Indra-Agni, 
Varuna, So ma, Vak (speech).
Book  9: the extraction  of the soma  rasa, the juice  of the soma plant  or soma  lata. 
Colonial  scholars  explained  that the soma  rasa was the milky  juice  of the Sarcostemma 
viminalis (or Asclepia  acida) turned alcoholic  with the ferm entation  with flour  and butter 
- but this procedure  does  not correspond  with  the original  texts  in regard  to the 
preparation  or in regard to the beneficial  and purification  effects  described  in the 
traditional  texts.  On the other  hand,  the ancient  Ayurvedic  tradition  identifies  the soma 
lata with the Ephedra  gerardiana, the Indian  variety  of the ubiquitous  Ephed ra, a very 
138

popular  medicinal  herb that grows  spontaneously  in Asia,  Europe  and America,  where  it 
is called Mormon Tea and Squaw  Tea. 
The Susruta  samhita (which  is part of the Ayur  Veda) lists those  places  where  the soma 
lata grows  spontaneously  in two varieties:  the mountain  and the marsh.  Ephedra  contains 
a bland  alkaloid  called  ephedrine,  comparable  to the "good  caffeine " of guaranà and 
yerba  matè, used in Ayurvedic  medicine  as a stimulant  at the mental  and phys ical level, 
for curing  headaches,  allergies  and rheumatis m, and improving  metaboli sm and 
digestion.  Its active  principles  stimulate  the natural production  of adrenaline,  and in fact 
it is very popula r among sports  people  and students  during  the exam periods,  and also for 
the purpose  of burning  off excess  weight.  Synthetic  ephedrine  is catalogued  by the 
International  Olympic  Com mittee and by the World  Anti-Doping  Agency  among  the 
banned  substance s in professional  sports,  so much  that some athletes  have  been 
disqualified  in so me comp etitions.  
Hymn  4 of mandala 9 of Rig Veda prays, "may  we obtain  agilit y, strength  and mental 
power,  to win and repel  our enemie s, and to beco me better  persons."  In the various 
descriptions  of the chapter  we also find the important  infor mation  that the soma plant 
does not have  leaves  or bark, but smells like pine and tastes  rather  bitter.  Depending  on 
the variet y and the age of the plant,  the color  goes from bright  green of the everg reen to 
green  with golden  or dark red hues.  The stem s are pressed  with special  stones,  then the 
juice  is filtered  and left to macerate  for one night:  a procedure  that is norm ally used  in 
herbal  medicine  to extract  the active  principles.  It is interesting  to see that Soma as the 
juice  of the plant  is identified  with the Deity Soma  (the Moon)  and the other  way around, 
and that in traditional iconograph y it is rep resented  as a bull, a bird o r a hu man embryo.
Book  10: hymns to Agni,  Apas,  Yam a and Yami (the twins  Yam araja  and Yamuna, 
children  of the Sun),  Havirdhanas  (the oblation  of clarified  butte r), Yama, Pitri (the 
ancestors),  Indra,  the Asvinis,  Soma, Pushan,  Surya, Indra-Vaikuntha,  Agni,  Manas  (the 
mind),  Visvedeva,  Brihaspati,  Apris, Jnana m (knowledge),  Nadi  (the  rivers), 
Visvakar man (technological  abilit y), the marriage  of Surya (the daughte r of the Sun), 
Purusha  (the personification  of the cosmos), Urvasi  and Pururava  (the ancestors  of the 
human race,  or the union  between  the human and the heavenl y), Vak,  Ratri  (the night ), 
Sristi  (creation),  Mitra-Varuna,  Savita r, Sapatnibadhana m (the perfor mance  of the rituals 
together  with the wife),  Arany ani (forests),  Sraddha  (faith),  Saci Paulo mi (one of the 
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Rishikas),  Usha,  Kamadhenu  (the cow),  Raja  (the king),  Mayabheda  (the dualit y 
produced  by illusion),  Yajam ana (the perform er of the ritual),  Aditi (the moth er of the 
Devas),  Vayu. 
Here are so me extracts  from the first  book o r mandala:
"We call on Agni,  the Officiant  God,  minister of the sacrifice,  who grants  wealth,  who is 
worth y of being  honored,  who will bring  the Gods  to us... Be easily  accessible  to us, like 
a father  to a son."  (1.1)
"Beautiful  Vayu, please  come:  we have  prepared  these  drops of soma  rasa ("juice  of the 
Soma")  for you, and the singers  are praising  you with their hymns.  O Indra-Vayu,  come 
to accept  our offer.  O Mitra  and Varuna,  please  be our Rishis,  you who love and hono r 
Dhar ma: give us  strength and success. " (1.2)
"O Asvinis,  splendid  Lords,  rich with treasures  and nimble- handed,  please  accept  this 
sacrificial  food and our songs.  Come, treading  on blazing  red roads...  O Visvedeva,  who 
change  your shape  like serpents,  who are brave and sincere,  you are our protecto rs: please 
reward  and love human beings,  accept  this drink from our hands,  and bring the powerful 
river  Sarasvati  so that she will inspire  us with gracious  though ts and accept  our ritual." 
(1.3)
"Come, Indra,  and enjoy the stimulating  juice  of the soma, be present  at these  offerings. 
Grant us  opulence,  o powerful king of  the heavens,  glorious  Lord of rains..."  (1.9)
"O Agni,  bring the Gods  to the one who offers  the sacred  gifts.  Please  worship  them, o 
purifier.  I call upon  the Night  and Dawn,  so that they will sit on the sacred  straw  at this 
solemn sacrifice..  Ila (Earth), Sarasvati  (Knowledge),  Mahi  (Power),  o three Goddesses 
who bring  joy, please  sit with us... Tvastar  (Chaos)  I call, the first born, who wears  any 
shape  at will: o Lord and King  of the woods,  please  present  these  oblations  to the Gods." 
(1.13 )
"May  we awaken  the Asvini  twins,  the Gods  who travel  in the splendid  chariot  that 
reaches  up into the skies,  to go to the abode  of those  who offer  the soma  juice.  I invoke 
Savitar  of golden  hands,  so that he will protect  me and send me help.  Praise  to Savitar, 
born  from  the water:  we aspire  to follow  his saintly  way... O Agni  resplendent  with 
youth, bring  here the spouses  of the Gods  - Hotra  (oblation),  Bharati  (prayer), Varut ri 
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(the power  of Varuna ) and Dhisana  (meditation),  Indrani,  Varunani  and Agnayi 
(respectivel y the powers  of Indra,  Varuna  and Agni ), so that they will accept  the soma 
juice  from  us... May Heaven  and Earth  sit with us and nourish  us with their blessings... 
you who were  covered  by the three steps  of Vishnu,  the Guardian,  he whom nobod y can 
cheat."  (1.22)
"Rise  over us, inundating  us with blessings  and prosperity , o Usha,  daughter  of the sky, 
Lady of the light. Awaken  the sounds  of joy, let the sons of Kanva  sing to the princes 
generous  with gifts,  while dawn  advances.  Dawn  has yoked her horses  beyond  the place 
where  the Sun rises, and on one hund red chariots  she comes forth,  while  all creatu res 
bow down  before  her glance...  bring  us the Gods  from  the firmament, so that they will 
drink ou r soma juice and grant us a large house  free fro m enemie s..." (1.48)
"The fast Maruts,  sons  of Rudra, strong and wild, taste  the offerings  of the sacrifice...  The 
sons  of Kam adhenu,  resplendent  in their  beautiful  clothes,  decorate  themselv es with 
golden  ornam ents and chase  away the adversaries  from their  path.  O powerful  warrio rs 
who  carry sparkling  spears,  o conquerors  of the unconque rable,  please  evoke  the 
lightning  and yoke your battle  chariots  so that the storm  clouds  will shower  down 
torrential  dark red waters,  to moisten and soften  the land with water...  Sit on the sacred 
straw,  on the com fortable  seats  prepared for yo u, and delight in this pleasant  food."  (1.85 )
"May  the auspicious  powers  and the good  things  come to us from all sides  - free from 
deceit,  obstacles  and defeat.  May  the God always  be generous  with  us, constantl y 
watching  on our good.  May the generous  favors  of the Gods  bring  us all abundance.  We 
devoutly  aspire  to the friendship  with the Gods,  so that they may extend  our lives...  we 
evoke  them  with t he hymns of the ancient time s." (1.89)
"O Agni,  may your friendship  always  save us from all sufferings.  Those  for whom  you 
celebrate  the sacrifice  becom e prosperous,  free from enemies,  strong  and happy ... In you, 
the Gods  consum e the offerings  that we present  to them. Bring  us the Adityas, because 
we desire  their company...  We will provide  the firewood  and the offerings,  remem bering 
you at each festival...  o wonde rful harbinger  of the Dawn,  you are powerful  and capable 
of seeing  even  in the darkness  of the night. Listen  to our words  and let our hymns chase 
away the evil."(1.94 ) 
"In the water  the soma runs like the moon,  with its wonde rful heavenly  wings,  chariot 
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wheels  like lightning,  abode  impo ssible  to find for mortals.  O Earth and Heaven,  look at 
my condition...  human beings  have  desires  to satisfy.  Where  is the ancient  divine  law? 
Who  will be its new preacher ? O Gods  who live in the three splendid  realm s of the 
heaven,  what  is truth  for you? How  do you firmly sustain  Dharm a? How  can we escape 
from the wicked? ... I am the one who sang  many  praises  to you while  the soma  juice 
flowed,  yet worries assault  me like a wolf chases  a thirsty deer.  May the five Bulls  that 
rise in the middle  of the glorious sky return  to me after taking  my prayers to the Gods." 
(1.105 )
"To our aid we call Indra,  Mitra,  Varuna  and Agni,  and the Maruts,  and Aditi  and the 
Vasus.  May they save us from  all sufferings  and grant us prosperity.  May the glorious 
Fathers  and the two Mother  Goddesse s, who give strength  to Dharma,  save us from  all 
sufferings...  O Brihaspati,  open  an easy path for us... may our prayer be heard  by Varuna, 
Mitra, Aditi, the river S indhu, the Earth and the Sk y." (1.106)
"To the strong  Rudra  we offer  our hymns of praise,  to the Lord of the heroes,  whose  hair 
is braided.  May everything be auspicious  for our people  and our herds, may there  be 
health  and plent y of food  in our village.  Bring  us joy, o Rudra:  we will serve  you with 
great  respect...  Guide  us, so that we may obtain  the health  and strength  that our father 
Manu  obtained  through  his sacrifices...  To our aid we call the wandering  sage,  the 
impetuous  Rudra,  the wild boar of the sky, who makes the sacrifice  perfect.  May he grant 
us his grace,  and by his healing  hand  give us protection,  shelter  and a safe house.  O 
immortal,  grant us the food of the mortals,  bless  our progeny,  avert your arrows  that kill 
men and beasts.  May not the fathers  die, may not the moth ers die, may not the child ren 
die, m ay not the adults  die." (1.113 )
"We bring sacrifices  to the generous  Rudra,  this juice  to drink for him whose  anger  easily 
abates!  Like the heroes  of the Asura  Dyaus,  I have  praised  the Maruts  with prayers to the 
Heaven  and the Earth. Strong  in the first invocation  to the Night  and to the Dawn...  and 
the radiant  Morning  that shines  with the light of Surya...  Listen,  o Mitra-Varuna,  these 
invocations  raised by  all the m en in the worship hall."  (1.122)
"I call Agni  as the harbinge r, the generous  and gentle,  the child  of power,  who knows 
every thing  that lives,  the holy singer,  omni scient,  Lord of the sacred  rites, the God that 
rises  towards  the Gods,  who leaps  forth  to the offerings  of sacred  butter.  We the 
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sacrificers  evoke  you, the best of worshipers,  the singer  of hymns...  o bull of the fiery 
mantle...  at whose  touch  the solid  things  tremble,  who crumbl es the hardest  food,  who 
firmly protects  us like a father  protects  his young son...  Roaring  loudl y like the armies  of 
the Maruts  in the fertile  cultivated  fields  and the solitary  places,  worshiped  by us, you 
accept  and eat our gifts...  we invoke  you, o Lord of all our houses,  o guardian  of all 
familie s." (1.127)
"The  charioteer  yokes seven  horses  to the one-wheeled  chariot.  He is one yet has seven 
names. The wheel  has three spokes,  strong  and perpetual,  on which  all the inhabited 
worlds  rest. The seven  that ascend  the seven-wheeled  chariot  have  yoked horses, and the 
seven  sisters  sing togethe r hymns  of glory, where  the jewel  consists  of the names of the 
seven  cows.  Who  watched  him come to existence,  considering  the way the one who is 
without bones  sustain  those who have  bones ? Where is the blood of  the earth -  life, spirit ? 
Who  can approach  the Knower  to inqui re about  it? My mind  is immature, my spirit  is 
confused,  but I ask them  about  the Gods'  abodes,  because  the Wise  have  woven  their 
threads  on the yearling  calf, like a spider  web...  Two birds  of beautiful  wings,  bound  by 
friendship,  have  made their  nest on the same tree. One of the two is eating  the sweet 
fruits  of the fig tree, and the other just watches,  without  eating...  The Wise  give many 
names to he who is the One - calling  him Indra,  Mitra,  Varuna,  Agni  and Yama...  Dark  is 
the descent,  the birds  are golden,  they rise up to the sky clothed  in waters,  and then again 
they  descend  to the above  of Dhar ma, and the entire  earth  is moisten ed by their 
opulence."  (1.164)
From  the second  book o r mandala:
"We  invoke  you, Lord and guide  of the heavenl y hosts,  wisest  among  the wise,  of 
supre me fame... o Brah mana spati,  listen  to our prayers and help us, please  sit in the 
sacrificial  place...  Just like the Sun spreads  its rays in the morning,  you are the father  of 
all the sacred  hymns...  your excellent  protection  guides men.  One who offers  gifts to you 
is never  overcome by suffering,  enemies or deceitful  creatures...  O Brihaspati,  for you we 
sing hymns  of glory: we pray that those  who are laying traps  for us will fall down  and be 
destroyed by their own bad actions  - the evil, arrogant, rapacious  enemies that threaten us 
although  we are offensel ess. Cast them  away from our path and lead us to the banquet  of 
the Gods.  Crush  all our enemie s, leave  them  impotent,  o devourer  of the evil - you who 
victoriousl y raise  your war cr y, and support Dharma."  (2.23 )  
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From  the thi rd book or mandala:
"To Agni,  Vaivasvanara,  supporter  of Dharm a, we offer  our praise  like clarified  butter. 
Human priests  evoke  him with deep  meditation:  he is our ancient  Herald.  Like an axe 
fashions  a chariot,  his birth  gave  radiance  to the sky and the earth.  O son of the two 
Mothers,  praised  by prayers, you who carry the oblations,  alwa ys young, infallible,  guest 
of men, created by the suprem e mind  of the Gods... O radiant High Priest of the Gods,  the 
humans  are here gathered  around  your abode,  desiring  to serve  you and bind themselves 
in your friendship...  Born  as Lion and roaring Bull,  immortal Fire of great power,  in the 
ancient  times you rose to the highest  skies,  welcom ed by noble  expert  singers,  creating 
wealth  for the people: now yo u have returned among  us." (3.2)
"O king of the forest,  we asperse  you with  heavenly oblations  for the sacrifice.  Please  gift 
us with opulence, yo u who stand  upright as  when yo u rested on the  bosom  of this Mother. 
Watching  sentinel on the east  of the blazing fire, dressed  in ro yal clothing, consecrated by  
the song  of religious men, please  chase  away povert y and famine, and bring us great 
fortune  and opulence.  O Sacred  Pillars,  hewn  and planted  into the earth to bring blessings 
to the fields:  please  take our gifts  to the Gods  - Adityas, Rudras,  Vasus,  Earth and 
Heaven  and Antariksha  (interp lanetary  space).  O Lord of the woods,  rise with a hund red 
branches  like the antlered deer, and raise us  to greatness  with a thousand branches."  (3.8)
"We hearti ly honor  Agni  Vaisvanara,  who provides  light,  whose  promise s never  fail, the 
generous,  merry God:  we invoke  him with oblations...  from age to age Vaisvanara,  who 
neighs  like a horse, is  kindled in the p resence  of women."  (3.26)
"Here  is the requi rement  for the friction,  here is the kindle  ready for the spark.  Bring the 
Lady of the sacrifice:  we will rub the aranis, calling  Agni  according  to the ancient 
tradition. Agni is the Jataveda  ("the knower") who lies sleeping  in the two arani sticks  for 
lighting  the fire, like the embryo  in a pregnant  woman...  With  your red radiant  pillar, 
through  our action  you are born as the Son of Ila, in the center  of the Earth, to take our 
offerings  to the Gods...  take your abode,  o Priest,  in your own house,  accept  the sacrifice 
in the te mple  of worship." (3.29 )
"From  the bosom  of the mountains  they come running  fast like two mares racing  each 
other...Vipas  and Sutud ri flow  with  rushing  currents,  they  run to the ocean  as on 
resplendent  chariots,  swelling  with waters...  the son of Kusika  has evoked  you. Indra, 
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who wields  the lightning,  has dug your channels,  crashing  down  Vritra that blocked  your 
current.  Savitar  of beautiful  hands  has guided  you and increased  your waters.  O sisters, 
slow  down  your pace and allow  easy passage  to the chariots of the Bharatas,  that invoke 
the favor  of the rivers." (3.33 )
"As soon  as the young Bull came  to existence,  he desired  to taste the juice  of the soma. 
So drink your fill, as per your wish,  from the milk of the plant  nourished  by the 
mountains,  that your mother  poured for you in your father's  house.  Alread y at your birth 
you defeated  Tvastar  - o powerful  hero who comes to our aid in the battle,  o conqueror of 
Vritra." (3.48)
"At the first radiance  of the morning,  the Great  Immortal  took birth in the House  of the 
Cow.  Now  the laws  of the Gods  becom e active.  Great is the supre me and exclusive 
lordship  of the Gods...  My desires  fly to many places,  I turn my eyes towards  the ancient 
sacrifices:  when  the fire is kindled,  we announce  the truth.  Great  is the supre me and 
exclusive  lordship  of the Gods...  The Son of the two Mothers,  the Priest,  the only Lord in 
the assem blies, comes forth  striding  although  he remains  as steady  as strong  foundations. 
Vishnu,  the Guardian,  has the highest  position  in the immortal  places.  Agni  knows  very 
well all these  created  beings.  Great  is the supre me and exclusive  lordship  of the Gods." 
(3.55 )
"By his exhortations,  Mitra  calls  the human beings  to action:  it is Mitra  who sustains 
earth  and heaven.  Mitra  watches  men with eyes that never  close.  To Mitra  we offer  our 
oblations  of sacred  clarified  butter.  O Mitra,  o Aditya, you who always  sustain  Dharma: 
give glory to those  who worship  you, because  those  who are assisted  by you never  suffer 
defeat  or disaster.  Tasting  the sacred  food,  free from disease s, faithfully  observing  the 
orders  of the Adity as, we want  to remain under  their protection  and their favor.  O great 
Adity a, source  of all blessings  and worth y of worship,  Lord and King!  May  we enjoy 
your affection  and kindness!  To you, the Supreme, we offer  pleasurable  oblations  in the 
fire. O support  of human beings,  by your grace  give us glory and fame! Your  glories 
spread  everywhe re, your power  goes  beyond  the sky and your fame goes  beyond  the 
earth.  All the Five Nations  ask for your blessings,  o Mitra, powe rful support  of all the 
Gods  - you who give the Sacred Laws  of Dharma  to the human beings  who hono r you 
with the sacred  herbs." (3.59 )
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From  the othe r books  or mandalas:
"Within  my mother's  womb I contemplat ed all the generations  of these  Gods.  Surrounded 
by a hundred  iron fortresse s, I soared  up quickly , as Falcon,  leaving  the demons  behind, 
and by flying  beyond  the winds  my strength  increased...  Crying to the sky, the Falcon 
rushed  on, while the angry archer  was getting  ready to shoot  his arrow:  the Falcon  lifted 
him up fro m the highest  sky and dropped one feather."  (4.28 )
"From  Kshetrapati,  as from a friend,  we obtain  what  nourishes  our people  and our 
animals.  Such  is his benevolence,  that the Lord of Dharm a pours  sweetnes s for us like a 
cow that gives milk.  Sweet  like honey  may the plants  be for us, sweet  the sky and the 
waters,  and the space  beyond  the sky, may men and animals  work gladly , may the plough 
happily  dig its furrows.  May  the land,  rich in milk, be milked  for us one year after 
another, and m ay the far mer walk  happil y with h is oxen." (4.57 )
"Like  a thundering  storm cloud,  the warrior seeks  the thick  of the battle:  may you be 
victorious  and protected  by your strong  armour.  May  the bow give us victo ry over the 
enemy, and may the bow string  push  forward  like a woman  who desires  to embrace  her 
lover:  may it protect  us in the fight,  and hold the arrow like a mother  holds  her child  next 
to her beloved." (6.75)
"Give  us this day, o pure and cooling  Waters,  luminou s and immaculate,  that the virtuous 
ancient  people  offered  to Indra as a drink...  Bringing  purity and joy everywhere,  come 
forth,  laying a path for the Gods  and the Goddesse s. The resplendent  rays of Surya attract 
you and Indra digs a road for yo u to travel on." (7.47 )
"O Lord of the Vastu,  you who destro y all diseases  and wear  all form s, be a benevolent 
friend  for us. Protect  us from  thieves  and wild boars. May the mother  sleep  happily , may 
the father  sleep,  may the dog and the master of the house  sleep,  and all the members of 
the fa mily."  (7.55 )
From  the 10th book o r mandala:
"May  the Pitris be roused,  the great  and small ancestors  who deserve  a share  of the soma: 
may those  who have  obtained  the condition  of gentle  and virtuous  spirits  come  to our aid 
when  we call them...  By the grace  of Vishnu  I have  obtained  a progeny,  o good  Fathe rs: 
please  come  often  to sit on the sacred  straw,  to taste the pressed  juice  and the oblations. 
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Accept  our offerings  and bless  us with health  and vigor, and forgive  our shortco mings, 
that are due to our human  frailness."  (10.15) 
"May  your spirit,  that reached  Yam a the son of Vivasvan,  return to live and stay here. 
May your spirit, that passed  on to the earth  and the sky, return  to live and stay here.  May 
your spirit,  that went  away to the windy  seas,  return  to live and stay here. May  your 
spirit,  that journe yed far into the beams of light that flash  and flow,  return to live and stay 
here.  May your spirit,  that went  alone  to the high mountain s, return  to live and stay here. 
May your spirit, that went  far into every thing  that is and will be, return  to live and stay 
here." (10.58)
"Truth is the foundation  that supports  Earth, like the Sun sustains  the Sky. Dharma 
protects  the Adityas and preserves  the place  of Soma in the sky. Soma makes the Adityas 
strong  and the Earth powerful,  and therefore  it abides  in the center  of all these 
constellations...  Dressed  in beautiful  clothes,  the daughter  of Surya went  to meet her 
spouse  on a  char iot decorated  by hymns,  accom panied  by the r etinue guided  by Agni. He r 
spirit  was the nuptial  chariot  and its cover ing was paradise,  thought  was her pillow,  sight 
was the black  collyrium for her eyes, earth  and sky were  her treasure,  the winds  were  her 
wheels,  fixed  to thei r axis."  (10.85 )
"The  Purusha  has thousand  heads,  thousand  eyes and thousand  feet. He fills the universe 
every where,  although  he is ten fingers  tall. This Purusha  is everything  that has been  and 
every thing  that will be, even  greater  than the powerful  Lord  of immortality,  that grows 
with nourishm ent. All the creatures are one  fourth of his  existence,  while the th ree fourths 
are the eternal  life in the world that is not subject  to destruction...  From him, Viraja  has 
come to existence,  and again  from  Viraja  has the Purusha  appeared...  The Gods  prepared 
the sacrifice  and the sacrificial  offering  was the Purusha  himself: they nou rished  him with 
grass,  anointed  him with balm s. From  the flesh  of the sacrificial  victim,  clarified  butter 
was created,  the creatures  of the air, the wild and domestic animal s, the hymns  of the Rig 
and the Sama, and the mantras and the rituals,  from which  the Yajur was born. From the 
body  of the Purusha  came forth  the horses and the cattle  with two rows of teeth...  when 
they  divided  the flesh  of the Purusha,  how  many portions  did they  prepare ? The 
brahmanas were  his mouth,  his arms were  the kshatriyas, the legs the vaisyas, and the 
feet the sudras. The moon was born from his mind,  the sun from  his eye, Indra and Agni 
from his mouth,  Vayu from  his breath.  From his navel  came the interplanetary  space,  the 
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heavenly  planets  from his head,  earth  from his feet, and the planetary  systems from  his 
body ... I know this great Purusha, who resplends  like the sun  and t ranscends  the darkness, 
and one who knows  him in this way attains  liberation  in this very lifeti me - indeed,  there 
is no other road to liberation.  The Lord of the universe  lives  in the universe,  and he 
appears  in many  forms without  ever taking  birth...  I offer  my homage  to the eternally 
resplendent  Brah man,  who gave  the divine  power  to the Gods,  who is the Guru  of the 
Gods  and their E lder." (10.90 )
"I travel  with the Rudras  and the Vasus,  with the Adityas and all the other Gods...  I am 
the Queen,  who collects  treasures,  thoughtful,  the first of those  who deserve  worship, 
therefore  the Gods  have  established  many sacred  abodes  for me...  Even  if they do not 
know  it, every one abides  in me. Listen,  all of you, to the truth:  I announce  it myself  and I 
say words  that are pleasing  to Gods  and men. Those  who receive  my favor  beco me very 
powerful  - a wise man, a Rishi,  and a  brahmana. I am the one who bends Rudra's  bow, so 
that his arrow  can hit and kill those  who hate the Brah man,  I am the one who rises  to 
command the battle, I am the one who penet rates  earth  and sky. On top of the world  I 
create  the Father:  I have  risen  from the ocean,  and from there  I cove r all the existing 
creatures...  My breath  is strong  like the wind  and the storm,  and my powe r sustains  the 
existence  of ever ything, even be yond earth and sky." ( 10.125)
"Neither  existing  nor non-existing:  there  was no realm  of air, nor the space  beyond  it. 
What  did it cover,  and where ? Was perhaps  there the abyss of the waters ? There was no 
death,  there  was nothing immortal, there was so sign dividing  day from night.  The One, 
breathless,  breathed  by its own nature - nothing  else. And darkness:  this All was in the 
beginning,  hidden  in the undivided  Chaos.  Ever ything  was empty  and formless: the One 
was born because  of the great  power  of Heat.  Then Desire  rose, the primeval  seed and 
germ  of Spirit,  and the wise,  examining  the thoughts  of their hearts,  discovered  that there 
was affinity in the non-existent." (10.129)
"O Powerful  Agni,  who collect  everything  that is valuable  for us, who are your friends: 
please  bring us treasures  when  you are kindled  in the place  of libations.  Gather  together, 
speak  together:  may your minds be at one, like the ancient  Gods  sit unanimou sly to 
consu me the share  that has been  established  for you. In the same place,  in the same 
assembly, in the same mind happil y unite  your though ts: I present  to you a common goal, 
and honor yo u all with a general oblation." (10.191 ) 
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Here are so me extracts  from the Sri sukta:
"O Lord of the fire, we ask you to bring to us Sri, Lakshm i, that shines  like gold and 
destroys  all faults,  who wears  gold and silver  ornament s: may she come  to bless  us... I 
pray Sri, who is announced  by the roar of the elephants,  surrounded  by chariots  drawn  by 
horses,  so that she may come to me and never  abandon  me. She is happiness  personified, 
always  smiling,  full of compassion,  sitting  on the lotus  flower  and with a lotus-like 
complexion...  O Goddess  resplendent  like the sun, your power  created  the bilva tree, that 
is the king of the forest:  may its fruits  filled  with knowledge  destro y our ignorance  and 
every thing  inauspicious.  I pray that Sri, that spreads  her sweet  scent  around,  who is 
invincible  and grants  prosperit y, bless  us with her presence...  may the Lady of the waters 
come to live with us."
Yajur Veda
The Samhitas of the Yajur Veda are divided  into Krishna  ("black")  and Sukla ("white"), 
consisting  respectively in 27 and 15 sakhas or branches.  
As we have  already  mentioned,  the Krishna  Yajur Veda or Taittirya  samhita  was 
entrused  by Vyasa to Vaisa mpayana,  and by Vaisam payana  to his disciples.  One of these, 
Yajnavalkya,  dissociated  himself from  his master  and compiled  the Sukla  Yajur Veda or 
Vajasaneyi samhita  receiving its knowledge directl y fro m Surya.
The Yajur Veda contains  many mantras that are also found  in Rig Veda and the 
description  in prose  of some worship  rituals.  The name  Yajur comes from  the root yaj, 
meaning  “to worship”,  “to perform  worship  rituals".  The most famous hymns  of the 
Yajur Veda are the Sri Rudram (dedicated  to Shiva ) and the Pavamana  sukta (an 
important  hymn of purification  in honor of the soma  rasa, the juice  of the medicinal  plant 
called  soma  lata - which,  as we have  alread y mentioned,  has been  identified  by the 
Aryuvedic  texts  as Ephedra  gerardiana, the Indian  variety  of a plant  that is very 
widespread  at world level -  that has  a ver y important  role in Vedic rituals).
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First  Kanda, first Prapathaka: it describes  the sacrifices  at the full moon and the new 
moon. It speaks  of the milking  of the cows,  the preparation  of the offerings  and the 
baking  of the grains  cakes,  the building  of the altar, the offering  of oblations,  the libation 
of clarified butter and the exchange  of ladles.  
The second  Prapataka describes  the sacrifice  of the soma  rasa, that we have  alread y 
briefl y mentioned.
The third  Prapathaka describes  a special  sacrifice  offered  to Agni  and Soma, while the 
fourth  establishe s the shares  of soma  rasa reserved  for each  of the divine  guests.  The 
subsequent  Prapathakas describe  how oblations  are offered  again  in the sacrificial  fire, 
the asvamedha  yajna, the ritual  offered  to the sun, the chariot race,  the rajasuya  yajna 
and the sakamedha  yajna - all rituals  celebrated  by the kings  for the prosperit y and 
protection of  their kingdom.
The second  Kanda describes  specific  sacrificial  rituals  meant to obtain  particular 
blessings  - wealth,  victor y, increasing  herds,  progeny,  health,  elevation  to the heavenl y 
planets,  liberation  from  misfortune,  defeat  of one's  enemi es and so on. It also explains 
how to offer  oblations  to the various  Deities,  and the rules of behavior  for the officiating 
priests.
The third Kanda constitutes  a supple ment to the description  of the soma  rasa ritual,  with 
the three pressings,  the additional  cups,  the invocations,  special  oblations  and sacrifices, 
and the offerings  to be presented  to the Lord  of the Vastu  before  starting  a journey . Here 
we also find  the fam ous Pavamana  sukta (3.3).
The fourth  Kanda explains  how to prepa re the container for the fire and to kindle  the fire, 
how to offer  worship  to the fire, prepare  the arena  for the sacrifice,  build  the brick altar, 
and perform  the preliminary  rituals  offered  to Rudra.  The fifth  Kanda describes  the 
installation  of the sacred  fire, the initiation  of the author  of the sacrifice  and the 
asvamedha  yajna.
The sixth  Kanda talks  again  of the soma, of the addition  of cow milk,  of the dakshina 
offerings  and the perfor mance  of the dancers.  Finall y, we find the explanation  of the true 
meaning  of the Asvamedha  yajna  or horse  sacrifice,  where  the horse represents  the 
cosmos: "One  who knows the head  of the sacrificial  horse  acquires a head  for him self and 
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beco mes suitable  to be sacrificed.  The horse's head  is the dawn,  his eye is the sun, the 
wind  is his breath,  his ear is the moon,  his feet are the four main directions,  his hair are 
the sun rays, the bones  are the stars.  The flesh  of the horse  is the mist, his tail are the 
trees,  his mouth  is Agni,  his belly the ocean,  his anus the atmosph ere, his testicles  are the 
heaven  and earth, his  penis  is the stone to press  the soma, and his  sper m is the juice of the 
soma."
Here are so me extracts  from the Pavamana sukta : 
"Gladly  we salute  you, o Soma,  great  in wisdo m, who guided  our Fathers  in dividing  the 
treasure  among  the Gods.  O invincible  Lord, you open  the barriers:  be generous  with us. 
O drop of Soma,  we offer  you sacrifices,  may the Fathers  come to us led by Agni,  and 
may they eat the offerings  displa yed on the sacred  straw,  those  who lived  in faultless 
virtue  and now sit in the heavenly  abodes...  and also bring  to us Yam a, the Angirasas  and 
Vivasvan  - some of them  answering  to the call of Svadha  and the others  to the call of 
Svaha"
Sama  Veda
Only  1549  texts  survived  from  the Samhitas of Sama  Veda - the hymns  that are meant to 
be sung  rathe r than recited,  on musical tunes  that constitute  the basis  of classical  Indian 
music and on math ematical combinations  of the seven  basic  sounds  or notes  (Sa, Re, Ga, 
Ma, Pa, Dha  and Ni). These  hymns,  too, are meant to evoke  the memory and the 
presence  of the various  divine  mani festations,  including  Agni,  Indra  and Soma.  In fact 
many of them  are taken  from the Rig Veda but have  been  modified  with extensions, 
repetitions  and insertion  of syllables  according  to precise  schem es. Particularly 
interesting  is the great number  of hymns dedicated  to Soma  (Indu) Pava mana,  the 
personification  of the juice  of the soma plant,  praised  for its purifying  qualities,  both 
materially  and spirituall y. Wer find them  from section  4 of chapter  2, book  5 of the first 
part, to the section  3 of chapter  1 of book  1 of second  part, and then again  (after  a brief 
homage  to Agni,  Mitra  Varuna,  Indra and Indra Agni)  from section  8 to 10, then from 15 
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to the subsequent  sections  and books,  still briefl y interrupted  by prayers to the Gods,  yet 
speaking  about the soma  rasa again.
Atharva Veda
The Atharva  Veda  takes  its name from  Rishi  Atharva,  who together  with Rishi  Angira 
compiled  the greatest  part of the hymns,  especially  in books  6 and 7. Toda y only a small 
part of the original  Samhitas survive,  preserved  by the Saunaka  tradit ion, containing 
mantras and special  procedures  to face many practical  difficultie s in life. This knowledge 
is important  not only to effect a considerable  improvem ent in the quality  of life for 
people,  but also as a test to verify  the factual  qualifications  of the priest,  both in the 
pronunciation  of the mantras and in the personal  spiritual  power  and general  knowledge 
of the various Vedic science s.
A brahmana who proved  his ability by obtaining  actual  practical  results  with  the 
application  of these  procedures  earned  the respect  of the general  people  and of kings. 
Only  extremely  qualified  and educated  individuals are actually able to proper ly utilize the 
methods  of the Atharva  Veda, because  this specific  collection  only contains  the mantras 
themselv es and very brief information  on procedures  that is totall y insufficient  to achieve 
the desired  results  without additional knowledge gained  from  othe r texts.
From  the contemporary  western  perspective  we could  consider  it a manu al of good 
"magic",  dealing  with  controlling  natural  and atmospheric  calamities,  neutralizing 
environm ent pollution,  fighting  ghosts  and hostile  spirits,  and alleviating  the negative 
influence  of the planets.  A considerable  part of the text speaks  about  the treating  of 
wounds,  fractures  and many  diseases  through  the use of herbs and plants,  stopping 
bleeding  by reciting  mantras, neutralizing  poisons,  prolonging  life and even  get hair 
growing back.
The funda mental technique  is based  on the recitation  or chanting  of the mantras - sound 
diagram s that represent  and evoke  archet ypal principles,  connected  to the energies  we 
want  to contact:  for exam ple to the medicinal  powers  of the plants,  that in them selves 
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constitute  a considerable  part of the teachings  in the Ayur Veda. The active  principles  are 
alread y effective  on the medical  level,  but their  power  is increased  by invoking  the 
mystical  potenc y of the plant  in its personal  form, as a manife station  of the Deity . 
Alread y in Rig Veda we have  seen how some hymns are dedicated  to the forests,  the 
rivers  and other  "minor"  mani festation s compared  to the major Personalities  of the 
universal  administration,  like the  Adityas for exa mple.
It is important  to unde rstand  that the vision  usually  defined  as "animism" by western 
acade mia does  not constitute  a primitive,  ignorant  and superstitious  approach  to the 
mysterious  forces  of the universe,  but it rathe r constitutes  a respectful  acknowledgm ent 
of the various  form s of power  of Nature.  It is a very important  thing,  that conte mporary 
western  cultu re is just starting  to rediscover  after  having  learned  a very hard lesson 
through  the human  sufferings  connected  to the serious  deterio ration  of the environment. 
Offering  respect  and worship  to plants,  rivers  and mountains  certainl y does not exclude 
the option  of recognizing  and worshiping  the suprem e Intelligence  that at a 
transcendental  level is  the origin of  ever ything and  includes  all other mani festations.  
Quite  the contrar y: the awareness  of one's  transcendental  identity  with all other existence 
at the level  of Brah man enables  the human beings  to tune in at a vibrational  level  from 
which  they can interact  more  effectively,  cooperating  to the progress  and support  of the 
universe.  These  are the foundations  on which  we rest the knowledge  of medicine, 
naturopath y, hydrothe rapy, pranotherap y, herbal  medi cine,  psycholog y and physics 
contained  in other texts  and utilized b y the officiant  of the Atharva  Veda.
In fact, one needs  to be able to make a correct  diagnosis  of the proble m, know  the 
medicinal  prope rties of each plant,  and - why not - utilize the power  of the patient's  mind 
by applying a bland  form  of hypnosis  or suggestion  that today is called  "faith healing" or 
"placebo  effect",  by addressing  prayers and requests  to the medicinal  plants  and to the 
water  and to the personification  of the disease  as well.  In these  favorable  circum stance s, 
the mantra acts on the subtle  level  of matter,  as a vibration  that is perfectly  modulated, 
directed and supported  by the particular biom agnetic  field  of awareness.
In one of the early chapters  of the text that survived  the centuries  we find the invocation 
to the kushtha plant  (known  in the west with the botanical  name of Saussurea  costus  or 
Saussurea  lappa) to remov e fever  and diseases.  The medicinal  action  of this plant  is 
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particularl y effective  as a purifier  against  the accum ulation  of all kinds of toxins;  it 
strengthens  the liver and helps  digestion.  It is antispasm odic,  anesthetic  against  any pain 
and antiviral;  it can be used as an ointment  for burns and wounds;  it treats  fever,  colds, 
cough,  asthm a and even  leprosy (which  is called  kushtha  roga) and chole ra. It can be 
utilized  either  fresh  or as an infusion,  tincture  or powder.  Kushtha  is also a basic 
ingredient  of the preparation  bearing  the same name, also containing  various  oxidized 
metals meant to strengthen  the immune system . This  plant,  originall y from  the Himalayas 
but vastly  known  all over the ancient  world,  has so many  virtues  that it was considered 
the inti mate  companion  of the fa mous soma.
It is a perennial  herbaceous  plant,  up to 2 meters tall, very aromatic,  presently  in danger 
of extinction.  In Hebrew  language  it was called  ha ketoret or koshet, and its resinous 
scented  root constituted  one of the main offerings  burned  in the fire at Solomon's  temple; 
probabl y it was used in Egypt, too, for the same purpose.  Traditional  Chinese  medicine 
calls it pin yin and considers  it one of the 50 most important  healing plants.  The botanical 
name costus (that is purported  to mean "oriental"  in ancient  Greek)  indicates  that this 
plant  was at the center  of a flourishing  trade  between  India and the countries  of the 
Mediterranean.  
Another  plant  called  Costus (Costus  speciosus) is pushkara, from  the same family as 
ginger  and turmeric,  also traditionally  used  to treat leprosy,  skin disease s, fever,  blood 
disease s, diabetes,  edemas and respirator y diseases,  and even  snake  bites.  Another  very 
special  characteristic is  that it contains plant steroid hormon es (diosgenine).
The plant  called  laksha or arundhati (Costus  lacea), also known  as silaki,  silaci  or 
sparani, is used  for fractures  and wounds,  and also for many  disease s. It is a creeper 
growing  preferably  on the bany an trees of the varieties  asvattha (Ficus religiosa), 
plaksha  (Ficus infectoria), nyagrodha  (Ficus  indica) as well on the trees called  khadira 
(Acacia  catechu), dhava (Grislea  tomentosa) and parna (Butea frondosa).
Another  plant  mentioned  in the text is the munga or sajjina  plant  (Moringa  Oleifera), a 
medicinal  tree with long fibers,  also used to make the upavita, the sacred  thread worn by 
brahmanas as the insignia  of their social  position.  Modern  research  has shown  its 
effectiven ess in the treatment  of at least  250 disease s, as well as an extraordinar y 
nutritional  value:  3 times the amount  of iron contained  in spinach,  high percentages  of 
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potassiu m and zinc,  and good  percentages  of selenium  and magne sium , 4 times more 
Beta  carotene  than carrots, more calciu m than whole  milk and more vitamin C than 
lemons.  It is a general  disinfectant  and antioxidant,  it cures  insomnia,  strengthens  the 
immune system  and aids digestion,  metabolis m and the natural  elimination  of cholesterol 
and blood  sugar  (diabetes).  By local  application,  it repairs  the skin damag e caused  by 
allergies,  scratches,  stress  and ageing.  The characteristicall y fragrant  oil obtained  from 
the plant is  excellent for cooking, for  massage and for aro matherapy as  well.
In Chinese  medicine,  this plant  is known  as La mu, and is freely consum ed both as a 
vegetable  and as  an infusion  tea, because  it has  no negative side  effects.  
Just like the munga grass  symboliz es the purity and nourishm ent associated  with the 
functions  of the brahmanas, the other  two plants  used  to make the sacred  thread 
respectively  for the kshatriyas  and vaisyas possess  practical  qualities  that symboliz e their 
functions  in society.
The kshatriyas' sacred  thread is made with the fibers  of murva (Sansevieria  trifasciata), 
an extre mely  resistant  herb that was traditionall y used  to make bow strings.  Murva is a 
perennial  evergreen  herbaceous  plant,  growing  by propagation  on the ground  through  the 
root and produces  sharp  leaves,  shaped  like swords.  It is interesting  to note that it is not 
reproduced  by seeds  (signifying  that the royal succes sion is not necessarily  by seminal 
descent).  It endures  very well even  with very little light and water:  it needs  watering  only 
once  every  two month s. In China  it is known  as Hu weilan  or "tiger  tail",  and in Africa  it 
is used by sham ans as protection  against  evil spirits. A recent  study by NASA  has shown 
that it is extremely  effective  in improving  the quality  of air in closed  environment s, as it 
absorbs  toxic substances  such  as nitrogen oxides and  formaldeid e.
The sacred  thread  for vaisyas was traditionall y prepared  with the fibers  of the Indian 
hemp (Cannabis  sativa), one of the first cultivated plants  in histor y, that until last centur y 
was vastly  used all over the world,  including  the west.  It has been  calculated  that over 25 
thousands  types of products  can be obtained  from hemp, especiall y extraordinar y textile 
fibers,  both for clothing  and for industry . In ancient  times hemp  was used to make wicks 
for lamp s and candles,  sails for the ships,  the cloth  for the sacks  containing  the various 
goods  to carry and sell, suitcase s, mattres ses, tents  for camping,  canvas  shoes  and canvas 
for paintings:  the word canvas actuall y derives fro m cannabis. 
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Hemp cultivation  yields 10% more compared  to cotton ; the fiber  has a texture  similar  to 
flax but is more efficient  in blocking  the sun rays and therefore  it is cooler  to wear.  In 
building  construction,  hemp fibers  are used  as insulation  also to seal piping,  and as a 
component  of bricks  together  with limestone.  The extrao rdinary  resilience  of these  fibers 
make them perfect for ropes  of all types, and enabled  the construction  of an experi mental 
ultra-light  model  of car body. The fibers  can us used  as bedding  for animals  and 
mulching  for plants,  and even  as sanitary  pads and diape rs for babies.  Unlike  the pape r 
obtained  from  wood  pulp,  hemp  paper  does  not need  to be bleached  and therefore  its 
manufacture  does  not p roduce polluting dioxine.
Another  important  utilization  of hemp  is as fuel: the biodiesel  and bio alcohol  produced 
with it has a very low level  of emissions:  80% less carbon  dioxide  comp ared to normal 
diesel,  and 0% sulphur  dioxide.  With  the proper  process,  the seeds  can be used for soap 
and a  variety of detergents, paints  and biodegradable plastic.
Hemp is also an excellent  food source,  rich in vitamin s and minerals,  especially  calcium 
and iron, and gamma linoleic  acid (GLA ), that is also found  only in human milk.  At 
present  the market  in the United  States offers  many food products  made with hemp, from 
the milk  obtained  from  the seeds  (similar  to soy milk) to mixed cereals  flakes,  to nut 
butter  (the seed contains  a total of 74%  fats, of which  36% polyunsaturated),  to high-
protein  flour  (containing  30% of complet e proteins,  that have  all the amminoacid s 
required b y the human  body, like so y) and even ice  cream.
Among  bioma sses, hemp has the greatest  growth  speed  (90 days comp ared to the 25 
years requi red by trees)  and produces  up to 25 tons of dry material  per hectare  per year, 
compared  to the 2 tons of other  harvests.  It does  not requi re pesticides  or herbicides  (it 
rather  protects  the other  plants  when  it is grown  around  other  cultivations),  fertilizes  the 
soil where  it is grown  (by fixing  nitrogen  and other nutrients)  and it is very effective  to 
purif y the soil  that had been polluted even  by industrial sewage.  For this reason  it is being 
used  in Chernob yl to eliminate  the nuclear  conta mination  due to the famous disaster.  It 
also fixes  carbon  by absorbing  it from  polluted  air (carbon  dioxide)  and prevents  soil 
erosion thanks  to its long roots, and requires very  little water for i rrigation.
The contents  of active  principles  in hemp  (THC) used  in medicine  as a psychot ropic 
substance  can vary from  20% to 0.3%  according  to the variet y and the conditions  of 
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cultivation.  In the last decades  these active  principles  have  been  proven  effective  as an 
anesthetic  free from  negative  side effect s, especially  in cancer  patients,  but the plant  was 
used  for this purpose  already  in the Neolithic  in India  as well as in China,  Japan  and 
Europe (as described  by Herodotus),  in Israel  and in the middl e east and even  in the 
Americas,  where it was cultivated  and used by  the native  peoples.
The cultivation  of hemp was made compul sory in the american  colonies  in 1619  and was 
encouraged  by the United  States  gove rnment  up to the end of the second  world  war, as 
shown  in the propaganda  film Hemp  for Victory, stating  "the army  needed  ropes".  From 
1937  to 1970  the cultivation  of hemp,  cannabis  or marijuana  started  to be taxed  by the 
United  States  government,  then in 1970  a new law strictly  banned  its cultivation  and 
prohibited  even  personal  posse ssion  in the measure of a few grams, according  to a "zero 
tolerance"  policy t hat is still continuining toda y in mo st States.
Guggul (Commiphora  wightii) mentioned  in Atharva  Veda was famous in ancient 
Mediterranean  cultures  as a general  commodity (under  the name of bdellium): it is a 
gummy resin from the same family of myrrh,  used particularl y as scented  incense  (under 
the name of dhupa), but also as a medicine.  Unfortunatel y the plant  is practically  on the 
verge of  extinction, and therefore it has  becom e very rare.
The plant called  Varuna (Crataeva  nurvala) is a tree that can becom e as tall as  10 meter s; 
its bark, roots  and leaves  have  excellent  medicinal  properties  both  for internal  and 
external  use. It alleviates  rheum atism  and arthrit is (also  in case of osteo mielitis),  reduces 
the inflammation of spleen  and other  internal  organs,  purifies  the blood,  improves 
metabolis m, dissolves  and eliminate s stones,  treats  urinar y diseases,  abdo minal  pains,  as 
well as wounds,  absces ses and tumors.  It is antiseptic,  antimicrobic,  diuretic,  laxative, 
tonic, vermi fuge,  anti-amebic,  anti-elmintic,  cholagogue, anti-inflam matory. The bark has  
contraceptive properties. 
Among  the most important  medicinal  plants  we find  agasringhi (Odina  pinnata), 
asvattha (Ficus  religiosa), prisniparni (Hemionitis  cordifolia), virina (Andropogon 
muricatus), vibhitaka  (Terminalia  bellerica), tilvaka (Symplocos  racemosa), sphurgaka 
(Diospyros  embryopteris), haridru (Pinus  deodora), avaki (Blyxa  octandra), 
hemadugdha (Ficus recemosa), durva or darbha (Cyonodon dactylon or Eleusine indica), 
kusha (Imperata  cilindrica), tulasi (Ocimum  sanctum), bilva (Aegle  marmelos), 
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rudraksha (Eleocarpus  Ganitrus) and nyagrodha (Ficus indica). 
Unfortunately  some of the plants  mentioned  in the Atharva  Veda text are now unknown 
or extinct  - for exampl e the shlakshnaparin, anjanika, madyantaka and nitatni, used  to 
stimulate  hair growth. It is interesting  to note that the name Nitatni is also used to refer to 
one of the seven  stars  from  the Pleiades  constellation.  It is believed  that madyantaka 
could  be the Echinochloa  frumentacea  (presently  madir), that is known  to have  similar 
effect s.
A lotion  considered  very effective  to grow  hair was prepared  with the juice  of chaulai or 
khada  saga  (Amaranthus  caudatus), myrobalan (Prunus   cerasifera) sometimes 
mistakenly  called  myrabolan,  amalaki (Emblica  officinalis), bibhitaki (Terminalia 
bellirica), haritaki (Terminalia   chebula), arjuna (Terminalia  arjuna) and aparajita 
(Clitoria  ternatea). Alternativel y, instead  of the juice  one could  use a medic ated oil 
obtained by  boiling the roots of  these  plants in oil, at a ver y low temp erature.
Other plants  for the health and  beauty  of hair were  ghrita kumari  (Aloe vera), mandara or 
japapushpa (Hibiscus  rosa- sinensis), jatamansi (Nardostachys  jatamansi), gandharva 
hasta  (Ricinus communis ), and arishta  (Sapindus mukorossi ) also known as  "soap  tree".
The mantras of the Atharva  Veda address  the personification  of these  medicinal  herbs  as 
well as hair itself,  compared  to the herbs and plants  growing  from earth  in a sort of 
"subtle  correspondence  association"  meant to impres s the concept  of growth and health in 
the individual's  subconscious.
Another (now) mysterious  plant is balasa, used  in ancient times as analgesic  or anesthetic 
according  to the dosage,  and also effective  to drain  absces ses. Lost, too, seem s to be the 
knowledge  of the plants  called  jivala,  nagarisha,  apamarga,  sadampushpa,  sraktya, 
jivanti and pata - this latter considered effe ctive  to pro tect a war rior in battle.
The Atharva  Veda  method  to stop bleeding  is based  solel y on mantras, especially  on the 
stambhana  mantras, invocations  recited  to create  a sort of "binding"  that obstructs 
movem ent. These  mantras are used  against  hemorrhage,  but also  to slow down the hostile  
actions  of people  or animals.  Recent  studies,  as well as the popular  traditions  of other 
cultures,  seem  to confir m that hypnosis,  visualization  and even  sound  vibrations  have  an 
objective  effect  on hemo stasis. This mental  power  is naturall y within  us and plays  on the 
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emotions  and thoughts  that can also be transm itted over  a distance.  For example,  it is said 
that the snake  "hypnotizes"  the frog or the bird he has chosen  as prey; sometimes we can 
also perceive  this feeling  even  in the middle  of a crowd,  when  we feel "paraly zed" or 
"held"  by som ething  strange we  cannot explain rationall y.
The fourth  book  is particularl y dedicated  to women,  with love magic,  propitiation  for 
conception  and bi rth of  child ren, cont raceptive,  aphrodisiacs  and so on.
Joyful  and relaxed  sexual  relationships  favor  good  health  and energy  in general,  and 
constitute  an important  compon ent of daily activities  (dinachara) according  to the Vedic 
civilization,  as we have  already  seen in the Kama  sutras. Actually  ritual  sexual  contact, 
perfor med according  to precise  rules and procedures,  was considered  useful  for spiritual 
realization  because  the prolongation  and extension  of orgasm  (that can last up to 7 hours 
thanks  to the techniques  of breathing  and neuro-mu scular  control) gives  an experience  of 
overco ming  the ego - the physical  limitations  of identification  with the body . On the 
other  hand,  at a lower  and grosser  level  a mentality  that is centered  around  sexual  lust 
aggravates  identification  with the material  body  and therefore  obstructs  the attain ment  of 
liberation  (moksha), that is the suprem e purpose  of the experience  of human life. 
Unsatisf actory  or perverted  sexual  intercourse  always  has a disastrous  effect  on health 
and energy  levels,  because  it weakens  the immune system  and creates  karmic 
consequence s, both gross  and subtle.
Love  magic, also based  on mantra, is based  on the opposite  principle  to stambhana - 
instead  of "blocking", the purpose here is "attracting". Obviousl y it is not so me witchcraft 
practice  that damage s the faculty  of free will, but it strengthens  the personal  charism a of 
the individual.  The "love  potions"  described  in details  in the Kama  sutras too, are 
aphrodisiac  preparations,  also herb-based,  that stimulate  and strengthen  sensitivity  and 
sensory perception.
There  is also a list of foods  and ingredients  that favor  and stimulat e sexual  desire  - for 
example  oats,  ginger,  licorice,  aniseed,  carda mom , saffron,  roasted  mustard  seeds, 
nutmeg,  garlic and even  wate rmelon  and pomegranate.  There are also recipes  for 
stimulating  prepa rations,  such  as warm  milk  with almond  powder  and black  pepper,  or 
honey  enriched  with ginger  juice  and black  pepper.  The most famous medicinal  herb in 
this field  is asvagandha (Withania  somnifera), followed  by the gokshura or gokharu 
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(Tribulus  terre stris), rakta  chandana (Picrocarpus  santalinus), and  ananta  mula 
(Hemidesmus  Indicus) called  salsaparilla  in the West.  Another  remedy  is the pink rock 
salt from  Himal aya, known in Ayur Veda as saindhava lavanum . 
The night  hours, starting  from  2 hours  after  dinner,  are generall y considered  the most 
suitable  for intercou rse, because  they favor  kapha; however  an aggravation  of kapha can 
bring an excessive  sense  of posses sion,  while an excess  of vata causes  fear and emotional 
vulnerabilit y, and an excess  of pitta causes  anger  and frustration.  To obtain the best 
results,   the environment  should  be particularl y prepared  to give positive  stimulation  to 
all the sense s, with  good  scents,  music and pleasant  sounds,  comfortable  beds  and 
couches,  clothes  and beautiful  decorations  for the eyes and objects  pleasurable  to the 
touch.
Among  the natural  contraceptives  we find a paste  made with  flowers  of mandara 
(Hibiscus  rosasinen sis) mixed  with mola sses and rice water,  the powdered  pomegranate 
peel (Punica  granatum) which  is also used  as vermifuge,  the seeds  of wild  carrot 
(Daucus  carota, that work like the "morning  after  pill"),  satapushpa (Anethum 
graveolens), harmala (Peganum  harmala), the roots  of the papaya  tree (Carica  papaya) 
as well as its seeds  and unripe fruits,  and hing (Ferula  assafoetida) that is a close  relative 
of the famous silphium  (Ferula  narthex) of Cyrene  (present  Libya), that in ancient  times 
was considered  the most popular  birth control  method  in the Mediter ranean  region.  For 
external  use, the recom mendations  were  the oil of nim (Azadirachta  indica), the resin  of 
acacia  (Acacia  catechu) as well a variet y of preparations  based on herbs  and mineral s.
Those  who wanted  to favor  conception  used  kapikacchu  (Mucuna  pruriens), bala (Sida 
cordifolia) and various  fortif ying  preparations  described  by Ayur Veda under  the 
categories  vajikarana, rasayana  and kumarabhritya.
Among  the methods  known  in ancient  India  to modi fy the shape  of male  genitals  we can 
mention  the local  application  of buffalo  milk butte r, or a special  herbal  medicated  oil 
with extracts  of savara- kandaka, jalasuka, hastri- charma, valuka  or vajrarasa (presently 
not identified).  For female genitalia  there  was an ointment  made with  kokilaksha 
(Asteracantha  longifolia) for reducing, and a mixture  of herbs  including  the blue lotus for 
enlarging.
The extract  of ashoka (Saraca  indica) was used  to minimize the menstrual  flow  and 
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regulate  the hormonal  production  of estrogen.  Other  medicinal  plants  and mantras were 
used to facilitate  childbi rth.
The fifth and sixth  books  of Atharva  Veda are meant  for the royal order,  with  the 
consecration  of the king,  and the mantras and rituals  for administrative  success.  Equall y 
important  were  the mantras and chants  for victo ry on enemies and glory in battle,  to 
beco me invulnerable  to arrows,  and to confuse  and terrorize  the enemy. The text also 
includes  some hymns  in praise  of the powerful  battle  drum, that was one of the most 
effective  instrument s to sustain  the level  of awareness  and the warrior energ y of the 
fighters  and to confuse  the enemy.  Other  mantras were  recited  in public  to bring  peace 
and harmony  among  the subjects,  soothe  anger  and quarrel, effectively  manage 
assemblies, obtain succes s in debates  and even influence  the opinions  of others.
Here is  an exam ple:
"Unity  of intention  and unity of thoughts,  freedo m from resent ments: this is what  I bring 
you. Rejoice  in each  others,  like a cow rejoices  in her newborn  calf!  May  the son be 
devoted  to the father,  may he be in harmony  with his mother,  and may the wife speak 
gently  to the husband!  In harmony,  dedicated  to the same cause,  may there  be kind and 
affectionat e words  among  you! Like the Gods  act of common accord,  helping  each other 
and cooperating:  may you work  in this way.  Together,  let us worship  the fire, uniting  like 
the spokes  of the wheel  around  the hub...  Let there  be harmony  among  relatives,  among 
those  who belong  to the same community, and among  strangers  as well:  this is pleasing 
to the Gods."
The seventh  book  speaks  of economic  developm ent - how to build  a house  to bring  good 
energy  to those  who will live there, keep  it free from snakes  and other dangers.  In this 
case,  too, the mantras prescribed  in Atharva  Veda are meant to be connected  with the 
knowledge  elaborated  in other  Vedic  texts,  such as Vastu shastra and Artha  shastra, that 
will be described  later.
Here is  an exam ple of such mantras:
"I build  here a solid  house,  that may rest on strong  foundations,  blessed  by clarified 
butter.  May it be inhabited  by heroic invulnerable  men, wealthy  with horses and cattle.  O 
prosperit y and opulence,  o sap, o clarified  butter,  o milk,  o abode  of all happiness!  O 
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house  with a broad  roof, you support  and preserve  the purified  harvest  of grains!  To you 
may the calves  come, to you may the child ren come, to you may the cows  come,  heav y 
with milk when  they return  in the evening!  O Savitar,  Vayu, Indra,  Brihaspati!  May you 
erect  this house!  May  the Maruts  asperse  it with water  and clarified  butter, may Bhaga 
grow  roots  in the furrow  that is ploughed  for its foundations!  O cross- beam , rise now to 
your throne: o king, now keep  all enemi es far awa y!"
Similar  mantras are meant to facilitate  success  in the cultivation  of the fields,  to protect 
the harvest  and cattle,  to deviate  the course  of rivers  for irrigation  purposes,  to protect 
dwellings  and fields  from fire and wild beasts,  to find lost propert y and even  to obtain 
succes s in ga mbling.
The specific  mantra to keep  fire away speaks  of durva or darbha (Cyonodon  dactylon o 
Eleusine  indica), known  in the west as spear  grass. The benefit  of cultivating  this type of 
grass  around  houses  consists  in the fact that it covers  the ground  as a soft but not too 
thick  carpet,  not taller  than 15 centim eters,  and at the same time it prevents  the growth  of 
other  plants  thanks  to its widespread  and strong  network  of roots,  that propagates  rathe r 
quickly . For this reason  it must be uprooted  when  it appears  in the fields  where  we want 
to cultivate  wheat  and other  annual  plants,  but it is extre mely  useful  as natural  living 
mulching  on meadow s and around  the trees,  to avoid  the undesirable  develop ment  of 
other  weeds.  However,  the most important  benefit  is that such scant y growth  prevents  the 
propagation  of natural fires,  that happen  especially  when  the dried  weeds  and other  taller 
plants  are hit by some flying  sparks.  Darbha easily remains  green even  during the dry 
season  and does  not catch  fire. Further more,  it has excellent  medicinal  properties 
(especially  diuretic  and blood  purifying ) and therefore  it is considered  an auspicious 
plant, utilized also  in re ligious  rituals.
The eighth  book  of the Atharva  Veda  deals  with the purification  from  faults  and negative 
activities,  including  the imperfection s in rituals  and the stress  due to nightmares,  while 
the ninth  book  prays for the divine  protection  for the brahmanas and prescribes  how they 
must be hono red.
The king should  never  try to pressurize  a brahmana to get support  or wealth  from  him, 
and especially  he should  never  deprive  a brahmana of his cow,  that is important  as the 
source  of the ingredients  required  for the religious  rituals  - milk,  clarified  butter,  and so 
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on. Besides,  a cow  that is cared for by a  brahmana can produce  milk  even  without having 
given  birth, and enjoys  a very high qualit y of life. The protection  of cows  and brahmanas 
is one of the pillars  of Vedic  civilization,  because  it enables  all the members of societ y to 
get benefit  from the perfor mance  of the ritual  sacrifices  and from  their  teaching  of 
material  and spiritual knowledge. 
The section  of hymns  in the 10th book contains  both  prose  and poetry, including  the most 
famous (Prithivi sukta) dedicated  to Mother Ea rth. Here are so me extracts:
"Truthfulnes s, greatness,  universal  order,  power,  sacredness,  austerity , spiritual 
realization,  sacrifice:  all this sustains  the Earth. May  Mother  Earth, the mistres s of 
every thing  that was and will be, bless  us with a wide  home!  Rich  in mountain s, hills and 
great  plains,  she that sustain  the plants  of many virtues,  may Earth prosper  for herself  and 
for us, without  being  oppressed  by men!  May Earth that nourishes  the sea, the rivers  and 
all the waters,  that produces  food for all the nations  of men, that supports  all moving  and 
breathing  life, bless  us by quenching  our thirst and gifting  us with prosperity ! Earth, that 
in ancient  times gave  birth  to the first men, is the place  where  the Devas  defeated  the 
Asuras:  may she give us fortune  and glory! The broad  Earth that supports  all, the 
foundation  of existence,  she of golden  breast  that gives  shelter  to all living  creatures,  that 
sustains  Agni  and mates with the Bull Indra:  may she give us abundance  of wealth  and 
valuable  hone y, and to rrents  of m ilk and glor y!"
Among  the other  important  passage s in the subsequent  books  we can mention  the prayers 
to Prana  ("life  energy "), Kam a ("the  desire  for pleasure"),  Kala  ("the  flow of time"), and 
the explanation  of the importance  of prasada, the remnant s from the offerings  presented 
in the rituals.
The text of  the Atharva  Veda also offers  us the description  of the relationship between  the 
brahmachari  sisya (disciple)  and the guru (the teacher),  and the importance  of the act of 
engaging  in material  and spiritual education.  Here is an extract:
"The  brahmachari acts by using  both hemisph eres (of the world/ brain ) and in his actions 
the divine  archety pes find balance  and harmony.  He sustains  the heavens  and the earth, 
fills the teacher  with divine  fervor,  fills the Gods  with creative  fervor.  The ancestors,  the 
heavenly  beings  and the Gods  follow  him....  When  the Guru  receives  the brahmachari  as 
disciple,  he puts him within  his body like an embryo,  and he carries him for 3 nights 
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inside  his own belly . His birth is celebrated  by all the Gods,  who gathe r to watch  it... His 
first piece  of wood  (for the fire sacrifice)  is earth,  the second  is the sky, the third is 
atmosphere...  The Guru  shapes  the two hemisph eres of the world (the brain)  - the great 
and the deep,  the earth  and the sky - and the brahmachari protects  them  by his creative 
fervour.  Thus  the Gods  find harmony  in him...  The broad  earth  and the sky are joined  by 
the brahmachari that obtains  them  as alms, and protects  them  by his concentration  on 
spiritual  power  (tapas), totall y dedicated  to spiritual  realization  (brahman). Thus the 
brahmachari evokes  the two Agnis  in the union of the two he misphere s."
Brahmanas
As we have  alread y mentioned,  each  Samhita (collecting  of Vedic  hymns, specifically 
Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva) is accompanied  by practical  appendixes  for the rituals  and 
philosophical  elaborations,  respectively  called  Brahmana,  Aranyaka  and Upanishad.  At 
present  only 19 Brahmana (of various dim ension s) have survived: 
- The Aitareya (or Ashvalayana) Brahmana and Kaushitaki (or Sankhayana) Brahmana 
are associated  to the Rig Veda, 
- The Shatapatha  Brahmana (the largest  of all) belongs  to the Sukla  Yajur Veda and was 
compiled  by Yajnavalkya,  while  the Taittirya  Brahmana belongs  to the Krishna  Yajur 
Veda, together  with other  fragments  called  Maitrayani,  Katha,  Kapisthalakatha  and 
Vadhula A nvakhyana,
- the most important  Brahmana of the Sama  Veda is the Tandya  Mahabrahmana, 
followed  by the Sadvimsha  ("chapter  26"), Samavidhana,  Arsheya,  Devatadhyaya (or 
Daivata), Chandogya, Mantra, Samhitopanishad , Vamsa,  Jaiminiya (or Talavakara).
- the onl y Brahmana of the Atharva Veda still existing  is the Gopatha.
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The Aitareya Brahmana (from  Rig Veda) contains  40 chapters,  divided  into 8 sections  or 
Panchikas.  It explains  the rituals  of consecration  for the ceremonies  and preliminary 
rituals,  the duties  of the officiating  priests,  the obtaining  of the soma, the animal 
sacrifices,  the division  of the cups for the various  Gods,  the sacrifices  called  agnistoma, 
shodashin and atiratra, and the 12 days  ritual  called  dvadashaha. Another  ritual 
described  here is the aponaptriya, related  to the Soma  ceremonie s.
Among  the specific  texts  contained  in this Brahmana we can mention  the shastra s called 
Ajya,  Prauga,  Marutvatiya,  Nishkevalya and Ashvina,  the hymns called  Sampata, 
Valakhilya and Durohana, the story of Sunahshepa  and the story  of Kavasa  Ailusa. 
Sunahshepa,  son of Agiga rta, was given  to Harischandra  for the perfor mance  of a 
sacrifice,  and after  being  blessed  by the Gods,  he was adopted  by Visva mitra.  Kavasa 
was beginning to perfor m the Aponaptriya  ritual, when  his qualifications  were questioned 
because  of his birth, and he was sent away into the desert.  There he simply sat down  and 
compos ed the hymn  to the waters  (now  included  in Rig Veda, 10.30 ) and the river 
Sarasvati  came to surround  him with her wate rs - something  that certainl y impress ed the 
local brahmanas.
There  are also consecration  rituals  for the King  and the explanation  of the qualifications 
and duties  of the Purohita,  the royal priest.  The ritual  called  Gavam  Ayana  ("the 
departure  of the herds")  that also appears  in many  other  texts,  has nothing  to do with 
animals  but it refers  to the orbits  of the planets  and is perform ed on the occasion  of the 
winter solstice,  when the m ovem ent of the Sun in the sk y changes  direction.
The Kaushitaki  Brahmana  describes  more of the same rituals  and details  the ritual  of 
agnihotra (daily  fire sacrifice),  agnyadhana (the consecration  of the sacrificial  fire),  the 
rituals  for purnima (full moon)  and amavasya (the new moon),  chaturmasya  (the ritual 
that is performed every  4 months)  and the rituals  for the coronation  of a king. The text 
that is still preserved  in Kerala  is very similar  to the Shankhayana  Brahmana found  in 
Gujarat.
The most famous Brahmana is probably  the Satapatha ("100  lessons"),  belonging  to the 
Sukla  Yajur Veda; it survived  in two slightl y different  versions  compiled  by the two 
Rishis  Kanva  and Madh yandina.  One of the most important  hymns  is the 11.18.3, 
explaining  how the Devas  perfor med a yajna for Prajapati  ("the  Lord of the creatures",  a 
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title that can be referred  both  to Brah ma and to Vishnu) and that in turn Prajapati, pleased 
by their worship, offered  himself as oblation and sacrificial  victim.  The rituals the mselv es 
appeared  from  the body of the Yajna  Purusha,  Varaha  (the boar avatara of Vishnu):  the 
jyotistoma appeared  from the space  between  the brows  and the nose,  the pancha  maha 
yajna from  his neck,  the purodasa (stea med rice cakes)  from  his brain,  the yupa 
(sacrificial  pillar ) from  his tusks,  the sacred  kusa grass from the hair of his body , and the 
sruk (the various  ingredients  and materials  for the rituals)  from his face.  The three  sacred 
fires for the rituals  - called  Dakshinagni,  Garhapat yagni  and Ahavaniyagni  - came to 
existence  from the three co mpanions  of Varaha,  respectively Suvri tta, Kanaka and Ghora.  
In this regard  we can mention  that the Vedic  texts  speak  of 400 yajnas or yagas, 
differentiated  according  to the purpose,  the number  of officiants,  the duration  of the 
rituals,  the Deities  evoked  and the type of oblations.  Furthe r information  can be found  in 
the smriti  literatu re described  in our chapter  on the Vedangas, where  we will also speak 
about  the revival  of the Vedic  sacrifices  that can be observed  in India during these  last 
few years.
In the Krishna  Sukla  Yajur Veda we find the Taittirya  Brahmana, with  detailed 
descriptions  on various  rituals  such as the agnyadana (consecration  of the dome stic fire), 
gavamayana (winter  solstice),  vajapeya (ritual  for health  and longevit y), soma (the 
offering  of the soma to the Gods),  rajasuya (consecration  of a king), agnihotra (daily 
ritual  of the fire offering),  upahoma (minor  rituals),  asvamedha  (horse  sacrifice)  and 
purushamedha (human  sacrifice).  These  animal  and human  sacrifice s are purel y 
symbolic:  by carefull y reading  the description  and the order  of the rituals  we can realize 
that it cannot be  otherwise.
The Tandya  Mahabrahmana is also called  Panchavimsa  Brahmana  (constituted  by 25 
chapters)  or Praudha Brahmana, specifically  dealing with the qualifications  and duties  of 
the priest in charge  of chanting  the hymns in their musical  version.  It also speaks  about 
various rituals and  especially about the soma prayascitta , the purification  of the soma. 
The Gopatha  Brahmana, the only one still existing  in the Atharva  Veda, is divided  into 
two parts  - purva and uttara - constituted  respectively  by 5 and 6 chapters,  which  in turn 
are divided  into sections.  It specifically  deals  with the qualifications  of the officiating 
priest.
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Aranyakas
The Aranyakas, like the Upanishads, constitute  the philosophical  commentary to the 
Samhitas and Brahmanas of the Vedas, and expand  the deep  symbolic  meaning  of the 
rituals,  that is very difficult  to understand  with a superficial  reading,  especiall y in regard 
to those  rituals  that are considered  dangerous  when  performed  in the wrong  way. For this 
reason  they are called "rahasya  brahmanas", or t he Brahmanas of secrets.
The definition  of "aranyaka" is found  in Taittirya  Aranyaka (from  Krishna  Yajur Veda), 
and explains  that aranya is a place  where  you cannot  see the roofs  of human habitations 
because  of the scarcity  of the houses  and the presence  of many trees.  The various  texts 
take their na mes from  the Brahmana and Samhita to which they  are connected.
The Aitareya  Aranyaka, the largest  among  the surviving  texts,  consists  of 5 chapters.  The 
first chapter  speaks  of the maha  vrata and the second  of the prana  vidya ("science  of 
prana").  The third, also known  as Samhitopanishad , elaborates  on the various  ways to 
chant  the Vedic  hymns, while  the fourth  and the fifth deal with the mahanamni ("of the 
Great Na me")  and the  madhyandina yajna .
The Taittirya  Aranyaka, second  in size and importance,  includes  6 chapters  dealing  with 
the agnichayana (the care for the permanent  sacred  fire of the house),  pancha  maha 
yajna (here  mostly consisting  of the study of the scriptu res), the sandhya ("joining"  of 
day and night) ritual, the offerings  to the ancestors,  and the daily  fire sacrifice  (called 
agnihotra). 
More  important  than their Brahmana section  are the Maitraniya  Aranyaka (of the 
Krishna  Yajur Veda) and the Brihad  aranyaka (of the Sukla  Yajur Veda), particularly 
famous because  of the Upanishad to which it gives its  name.
The Sama  Veda has only one surviv ing Aranyaka, called  Talavakara or Jaiminiya, while 
from the Atharva  Veda  there  is only the Gopatha  Brahmana, sometimes considered  as its 
Aranyaka. 
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The Upan ishads
Not less important  or vast than the Puranas or Itihasas, the Upanishads  have  a greater 
wealth  of philosophical  teachings  compared  to the stories  and are individuall y shorter, 
because  they  are appendixes  to the four Vedic  samhitas ("collections"  of hymns). 
Together  with  the Bhagavad  gita  and the Vedanta sutra they  constitute  the most 
funda mental texts  on Hinduism.
There  are 108 main  Upanishads, classified  as mukhya ("mo st important"),  sannyasa ("on 
renunciation"),  yoga ("on  yoga"),  samanya ("of universal  value"),  vaishnava ("on 
Vishnu"),  shaiva ("on Shiva"), shakta ("on Shakti o r the Mother Goddess").   
The mukhya  upanishads  are: Aitareya in Rig Veda; Chandogya and Kena in Sama  Veda; 
Isa (or Isavasya) and Brihad  aranyaka in Sukla  Yajur Veda; Katha and Taittirya in 
Krishna  Yajur Veda; Prasna, Mundaka and Mandukya in Atharva Veda. 
The sannyasa  upanishads  are: Nirvana, Maitreya  (or Maitrayaniya), Sannyasa, Kundika 
and Aruneya in Sama  Veda; Yajnavalkya, Satyayani, Jabala (Yajur), Paramahamsa, 
Bhikshaka (or Bhikshuka) and Turiyatita in Sukla  Yajur Veda; Teji bindu, Avadhuta, 
Katha  rudra, Varaha and  Brahma in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Parivrata (Narada 
parivrajaka), Paramahamsa  parivajaka and Para brahma in Atharva  Veda.
The yoga  upanishads  are: Nada  bindu in Rig Veda; Yoga chudamani and Darshana in 
Sama  Veda; Hamsa, Trishika  or Trishiki  brahmana and Mandala  brahmana in Sukla 
Yajur Veda; Amrita  bindu, Amrita  nada, Kshurika, Dhyana  bindu, Brahma  vidya, Yoga 
tattva, Yoga sikha  and Yoga kundali in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Sandilya, Pashupata and 
Mahavakya in Atharva Veda.
The  samanya  upan ishads are: Kausitaki, Atma  bodha and Mugdala in Rig Veda; 
Maitreyani  or Maitreyi, Vajra suci, Maha or Mahata, Savitri in Sama  Veda; Subala, 
Mantrika  or Chulika, Niralamba, Paingala, Adhyatma and Muktika in Sukla  Yajur Veda; 
Svetasvatara, Garbha, Narayana, Sarvasara, Suka  rahasya, Skanda (Tripada  vibhuti), 
Sariraka, Ekakshara, Akshi, Pranagni  hotra in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Atma and Surya in 
Atharva Veda.
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The vaishnava  upan ishads are: Vasudeva, Avyakta, Advaya  taraka  and Tarasara in Sukla 
Yajur Veda; Kali santarana in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Nrisimha  tapani, Mahanarayana, 
Rama  rahasya, Rama  tapani, Gopala  tapani, Krishna, Hayagriva, Dattatreya  and 
Garuda in Atharva  Veda.
The shaiva  upanishads are: Akshamalika in Rig Veda; Jabala (Sama) and Rudraksha 
jabala in Sama  Veda; Pancha  brahma, Kaivalya, Kalagni  rudra, Dakshinamurti and 
Rudra  hridaya in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Atharva  sira, Atharva  sikha, Brihajjaba la, 
Sarabha, Bhasma  (or Bhasma  jabala) and Ganapati in Atharva  Veda.
The shakta  upanishads are: Tripura  sundari, Saubhagyalakshmi  and Bahuricha in Rig 
Veda; Sarasvati  rahasya in Krishna  Yajur Veda; Sita, Annapurna, Tripura  tapani, Devi 
and Bhavana in Atharva  Veda.
Other  less famous Upanishads are listed  here in alphabetical  order: Achamana,  Advaita, 
Aranya,  Aruni,  Arsheya,  Ashrama,  Atmapuja,  Baskalamantra,  Batuka,  Bilva, Brahma 
bindu,  Brahma  jijnasa,  Chakra,  Chakshu,  Chaturveda,  Chiti,  Dasasloki,  Dvaya,  Gayatri, 
Gayatri  rahasya,  Gopichandana,  Goraksha,  Guhyakali,  Guhya  shodanyasa,  Heramba, 
Kalaghni,  Kalika,  Kalimedha  adikshita,  Kamalaka,  Kama  raja kilitoddhara,  Kaivalya, 
Kathasruti,  Kanthasruti,  Kathasika,  Kathaka  siksha,  Katyayani,  Kaula,  Krishna 
uttaratapani,  Langula,  Laghu  jabala,  Linga,  Maha chakra  varana,  Mahanarayana, 
Mahavajya  vivaraha,  Mantra,  Mathamnaya,  Mrityulangala,  Narada  parivrajaka, 
Nilarudra,  Nirukta,  Parayana,  Panchabrahma,  Parabrahma,  Parama,  Pitambara, 
Pinda,  Pranava,  Rama,  Rama  krishna,  Rudra,  Sadananda,  Saunaka,  Shaktayana, 
Satachakra,  Srikrishna  purushottama  siddhanta,  Shiva,  Sodha,  Srividyamnaya, 
Srividyataraka,  Syama,  Siddhanta,  Siddhanta  sara,  Siddhanta  sikha,  Sumukhi, 
Suvarnadharma,  Svasamedhya,  Svetamritika,  Tripad  vibhuti  mahanarayana,  Tulasi, 
Turiya,  Urdhvapundra,  Vanadurga,  Vastu  sutra,  Visrama,  Vriddha  jabala,  Yajnopavita 
and Yogaraja.
Some also mention  a Radhika  Upanishad, a Chaitanyopanishad  and even  one 
Allahopanishad (that  is supposed  to speak  about  Allah),  but these  are not in the 
traditional lists.
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Bhagavad  gita, too, is sometimes considered  one of the Upanishads because  of its rich 
philosophical  content;  in this perspective  it is called  Gitopanishad. Due to obvious  space 
limitations  we will just give a summary of the most important  and famous Upanishads 
and quote  som e of their passage s.
Aitare ya Upanishad
It is part of the Aitareya  Aranyaka in the Rig Veda and is constituted  by 3 chapters 
(beginning  with chapter  4 of the second  Aranyaka), and it explains  the inner  or symbolic 
meaning  of the sacrifice  rituals  described  in the previous  chapters  of the Aranyaka. 
Particular ly famous is the maha  vakya  ("great  aphorism ") prajnanam  brahma (3.3), 
"Brah man is perfect  knowledge",  considered  the essence  of the Rig Veda. Here  are other 
extracts:
"Om! May  my words be in accordance  with my thoughts,  and may my thoughts  follow 
my words. O Resplendent,  reveal  yourself  to me. May  both (though ts and words)  bring 
the Veda (knowledge)  to me, and may what  I have  heard  remain  (in my memory). I will 
join day and night  in this study, and I will say what  is true, verbally  and mentally.  May 
the Brah man protect m e, may it protect he who speaks."  (invocation)
"In the beginning  there was only  Brahman.  The Brahman  thought,  'I will create  the 
worlds',  and created  ambhas (the "higher"  or the subtle  waters,  also known  as the ocean 
Karana "of the causes"),  marici (the space),  mara ("what is  mortal",  or the worlds that are 
subject  to the cyclic  destruction)  and apah  (the "lower"  wate rs, or the gross material 
element  of water, that is co mmon to the bodies  of all species  of life)."  (1.1.1.2 )
From  the waters  of the causal  ocean,  the Brah man created  an egg - the Virat Purusha  or 
universal  form  (also called  brahmanda, "the egg of Brah man").  The egg opened  in the 
middle  like a mouth,  and Sound  emerged,  then from Sound  Fire emerged  and so on, one 
by one from the causal  elements  the material elements  manifested,  including  the mind 
and the  various  component s of the universe. The Devas  (the archetypes of  the powers that 
constitute  the universe)  chose  the human  form  to express  their activities,  and this first 
primev al form of the unive rsal Brah man was called  Indra. In a similar way the human 
beings  are born - as we find in the explanation  by Vamad eva Rishi  in hymn 4.28 of Rig 
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veda  ("In the womb  of my mother  I contempl ated all the generations  of these  Gods. 
Surrounded  by a hund red iron fortresses,  I soared  quickly  into the sky, as a Falcon, 
leaving the  demon s behind, and while surpassing  the winds my  strength increased...").
This Brah man manifested  in the unive rse takes  the form  of Prajapati  ("the  Lord of the 
creatures"),  of the Visvedeva  ("all the Devas  of the universe"),  of the human beings  and 
all living  beings,  as conscious  and sentient  beings.  Therefore  the conscious  omnipre sent 
Spiri t is the beginning,  the middle  and the end of all life; through  this awareness  we can 
attain i mmortality.
Chandog ya Upanishad
It is the longest  of the Upanishads, and consists  of 8 chapters  attached  to the first part of 
the Chandogya  Brahmana  in the Sama  Veda, describing  ritual sacrifices.  It contains 
(6.8.7 ) the maha  vakya  considered  the essence  of Sama  Veda: tat tvam  asi, "you are That 
(Brahm an)".
It also narrates  the famous story  of Satyakam a Jabala,  a boy son of a maid servant,  who 
was recognized  as brahmana due to the sense  of truthfulness  he had demonstrated.  Othe r 
Upanishads contain  the teachings  of Satyaka ma Jabala,  but here (4.4.1 ) we find the story 
of how he entered the gurukula of Harid rumata  Gautam a. Within  the text we also find 
many explanations  on Vedic  symboli sm, especially  in regard to the fire sacrifice  and the 
mantras in relation  to the life energy in the human  body and in the senses,  and in relation 
to the Sun.
"If someone  offers  the sacrifice  to the fire without  knowing  these  (things),  it is as if he 
was removing  the blazing  embers and pouring  the clarified  butter  into the ashes...  If 
someon e knows  these  (things)  even  the act of offering  one's  food leftovers  to a chandala 
beco mes an offering  to Vaisvanara  Atman  (the sacred fire of  the Self)." (5.24.1, 4)
"One  must meditate  on the syllable  Om, that gives  origin to the Udgita (the songs  of the 
Sama  Veda). The essence  of all bodies  is the earth,  the essence  of earth is water,  the 
essence  of wate r is vegetation,  the essence  of vegetation  is the human  being,  the essenc e 
of the human being  is speech,  the essence  of word  is mantra (rik), the essence  of rik is 
Sama." (1.1.1)
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Then  the text illustrates  meditation  on sound  and prana and their  identity  with the Sun, 
that is svara and pratyasvara ("coming  and going",  i.e. cyclic)  and states  that the 
realization  of the Pranava  Omkara,  its subtle  manife station,  awards  immortality.  Then  it 
explains  the symbolic  meaning  of syllables  in vedic  definitions,  the power  of prana and 
sound,  and the subtle  element  known as  akasha ("eteric space")  that supports both.
The 4th chapter  repeats  the explanation  of creation  starting  from Brah man (Being ), that 
from One wanted to becom e many.  Thus  he created  fire, then from  fire water was created 
and from wate r the nutritious  substance s, and then these  3 divine  essence s manifested  all 
the bodies  of the beings,  when  Brah man entered  into them , in the form  of Jiva Atman. 
What  is red is fire (passion),  what  is white  is water  (goodness  or purification)  and what  is 
black  is food (earth,  ignorance),  both in fire and in the sun and in the qualities  of material 
nature in general.
The text also offers  the conversation  between  Svetaketu  and his father  Uddalaka  Aruni, 
rich with teachings  and practical  exam ples to unde rstand  the nature  of Brah man- Atman. 
We also find the mystic  etymology  of the word satyam, "truthfulnes s" or "truth":  sa 
indicates  what  is eternal,  ti indicates  what  is temporary,  and ayam is the connection 
between  the two. Then the 8th chapter  teaches  than only brahmacharya ("behaving  as 
Brah man")  enables  one to realize  Brah man,  and that the difference  between  Devas  and 
Asuras  is that Asuras identify with the mat erial body and consider it the true self.
Kena Upanishad 
It takes  its name from the first word in the first verse,  keneshitam, "by whom it is 
desired",  with reference  to the activity  of awareness.  The text is short  and divided  into 4 
parts,  of which  2 are in verse  (describing  the nirguna Brahm an, or Brahman  "without 
attributes")  and 2 in prose  (describing  the saguna Brah man,  or Brah man  "with 
attributes"). 
Here are so me extracts:
"By whom  is directed (b y desire or will ) the m ovem ent of the mind  (towards  the object of 
conte mplation)?  Who  directs  the life force  that precedes  each action  (towa rds duty)? By 
whom the act of speaking  is desired,  when  a person is expressing  hims elf? Who  is the 
resplendent  being  that directs  (the activities  of) eyes and ears?  This (Atman/  Brahman)  is 
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the ear's ear, the mind 's mind,  the word of speech,  life's  life, and the eye's eye, therefore 
those  who are intelligent  abandon  (the identification  with  the gross body) and thus 
beco me immortal...  What  man does not comprehend  by the mind,  but by which  the mind 
is pervaded,  know  that this is Brahman,  and not what  people  worship  as an object."  (1.1, 
2, 6)
"I do not think,  'I know  Brahman  well'.  I think,  'It's not that I do not know  it - I know  it 
and I do not know  it at the same time.' One who understand  this (statem ent) knows 
(Brahm an)...  It is really  known  when  it is known  internall y in each  of the states  of 
awareness,  because  in this way  one attains  immortality." (2.2, 4)
"Indeed  it was Brah man who obtained  victory  for the Devas,  and in that victo ry of 
Brah man,  the Devas  rejoiced...  And he asked,  'Who  are you?' and he answered,  'I am 
known as  the Fi re, as Jataveda.'"  (3.1, 4). 
The manifestation  "with  attributes"  of Brahman  is therefore  initiall y perceived  as Fire 
(Agni,  from  whom  Knowledge  is born), and as Indra  (the masculine  active  principle 
called  Purusha).  Meditation  (dhyana), austerit y (pratyahara), rituals  (yajna and sadhana) 
are its  feet, knowledge  (veda) is in all its limb s and truthfulness  (satyam) is its abode.
Isa Upanishad
Also  known  as Isavasya  Upanishad  from  the first word  in the text:  isavasyam  idam 
sarvam, "all this belongs  to God".  The preliminary  invocation is very famous and is often 
chanted  or sung  in bhajans: om purnam  adah  purnam  idam,  purnat  purnam  udacyate, 
purnasya  purnam  adayah,  purnam  evavasishyate, "From this (Brahman)  who is eternall y 
complete  (in itself),  all complete  (things)  emanate,  and even  after  that,  what  was 
complete  remains  complet e." 
The text is compos ed by 18 verses  only, each of them  is a true masterpiece  deserving  to 
be quoted  in full.  
"One  who properly  performs his duties  (karmani) can wish  to live for hundreds  of years, 
because  he alwa ys remains  free from the consequence s of actions.  The dark and dull 
dimension s are called  asuric  and constitute  the destination  for those  who kill the Atman. 
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Although  (the Atman)  is immovable,  it is faster  than the mind and cannot  be grasped  by 
the senses,  yet it sustains  all activities. It move s and does  not mov e, it is very far and very 
near,  it is inside  everything  and outside  everything.  One who sees all beings  in the Self 
and the  Self in all beings  is free fro m hatred, due  to this  realization." ( 1-7)
"The  face of Truth is hidden  by a golden  disc; I pray you, o Lord, remove  it so that I will 
be able to contemplate  you. May  my life energy  merge with the immortal Air, and this 
body  be turned  to ashes.  O Lord,  remem ber everything  that I have  done  (in this 
lifeti me)."  (15-16 )
Brihad Aranyaka  Upanishad
It begins  with the explanation  of the meaning  of the Vedic  sacrifice,  and states  that Vac 
(the creative  word,  the Logos)  is the origin  of the universe.  Then it explains  Dhar ma (the 
ethical  law), the four  varnas  (social categories) and the nature of  prana (life energy ). 
The second  adhyaya continues  by speaking  of the nature  of Brahm an and Atman,  the 
third speaks  of the p rocess  of death and  the destination of  the living being after death, and  
the nature  of Antary ami (the Supreme Soul in every being's  heart).  Here  (1.3.28)  we find 
the famous verse asato  ma sad gamaya,  tamaso  ma jyotir  gamaya,  mrityor  ma amritam 
gamaya, "from what  is temporary  lead me to what  is eternal,  from the darkness  lead me 
to the light,  from  death  lead me to eternal life."  This  quote  constitutes  the refrain 
(adhyaroha) of the  stutis called Pavamana. 
At verse  1.4.10  we find the famous maha  vakya considered  the essenc e of the Yajur 
Veda: aham brahmasmi , "I am  Brahman ".
Next  the text defines  the food  produced  by meditation  and sacrifices  as compo sed of 7 
parts:  2 are destined  to the Devas  (through  the rituals  of the full moon  and the black 
moon),  1 is destined  to the anim als (through  their mother's  milk), and 3 are destined  to 
oneself  (the mind, senses  and life energ y). The Devas  are Speech,  the Pitris are the Mind 
and the human  beings  are the Life Energy ; Speech  is the Mother,  the Mind  is the Father, 
and the Life Energy is the Son. To these,  there is a correspondence  of Earth, Fire and 
Sun; the Moon,  the Water and Food.
Follow  (2.1.1  - 2.3.6)  the conversation  between  Gargya (Balaki)  and Ajatasatru  (the king 
of Varanasi),  the conversation  between  Yajnavalk ya and Maitrey i (2.4.1  - 2.6.3,  4.5.1  -), 
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the conversation  between  Janaka  (king  of Videha)  and various  brahmanas, such  as 
Yajnavalkya and Gargi ( 3.1.2 - 4.4.25). 
We also find the description  of the three  states  of awareness,  and the explanation  of 
reincarnation  and the symbolism  of Gayatri  mantra.  Follows  the conversation  between 
Svetaketu  and king Pravahana  (6.2.1  - 6.2.16 ). There is also a list of the 10 grains  used 
for fire oblations:  rice, barle y, sesame, wheat,  beans,  lentils,  white  lentils,  fava beans, 
anu and priyangu; these  seeds  are crushed,  soaked  in yogurt,  and mixed with hone y and 
clarified  butte r. 
There  are suggested  rituals  to have  a son of white  complexion  (and expert  in one Veda 
only) or of golden  complexion  (and expert  in two Vedas) or of black  complexion  (and 
expert  in three  Vedas), or a daughte r expert  in all scriptures,  as well as the rituals  to be 
observed  at bi rth.
Katha Upa nishad
It consists  in 2 parts  divided  into sections  (respectivel y of 29, 25, 17, 15, 15, 18 verses) 
for a total of 119 verses, and contains  the katha or "conversation"  between  Yamaraja  and 
the young brahmana Nachiketa,  son of Auddalaki  Aruni  also known  as Vajasravasa. 
Nachiketa's  father  was perfor ming  the Visvajit  sacrifice,  that consists  in distributing  in 
charity  everything  that we posses s; the boy asked  his father  to whom  he would  donate 
him, and irritated,  his father  told him he was donating  him to Yamaraja,  the Lord of 
Death.  Nachiketa  took this statement very seriousl y and left for Yamaloka,  where  he 
discuss ed with Yam araja  about  many important  teachings,  and then he returned home 
with Ya maraja' s blessings.
The opening  invocation  of this Upanishad is a famous mantra chanted  to propitiate 
harmony  among people:  om saha  navavatu  saha  nau bhunaktu,  saha  viryam 
karavavahai,  tejasvi  navadhitamastu,  ma vidvishavahai, "May  (Brahman)  protect  us 
together,  may we obtain  strength  together,  may what  we study  give us strength,  may we 
remain free from  hostilit y." 
Here are so me extracts  from the text:
"O Nachiketa,  because  I know  well the Fire that takes  to the sky, I will speak  about  it to 
you, and you (please)  unde rstand,  by carefull y following  my words. That Fire by which 
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one attains  heaven,  and that sustains  the word, it established  in a hidden  place  (nihitam 
guhayan)... The fools  live in the midst  of ignorance  but consider  themselve s intelligent 
and enlightened,  and they keep  going  around  and around,  following  complicated  paths, 
just like blind leading  the blind." ( 1.1.14, 2.5)
"Of this (Atm an) many never  hear,  many  do not understand  it even  when  they hear about 
it, but wonderful  are those  who speak  and who hear about  it, and wonderful  is one who 
knows  it through  the guidance  of a realized  soul...  The Self that is not born and does not 
die, does  not have  an origin and does  not give origin,  it is unbo rn, eternal,  free from 
decay, and extremely  ancient. It is not touched even  by the death of the  body." (1.2.7, 18)
"One  who has not ceased  to perfor m negative  actions,  who has not control led the senses, 
who does  not concentrate  the mind, who has not becom e free from  anxiet y, cannot 
achieve  the knowledge of  the Self."  (1.2.24)
"Know  that the Self is the master of the chariot,  and the body is the chariot. Know  that 
the intelligence  is the chariot d river, and the m ind is the b ridle." (1.3.3)
"Awaken,  rise and learn  by approaching  the best (teachers).  The wise describe  this path 
as difficult  to walk on, as  sharp as  a razo r's blade." (1.3.14)
"He sees Brah man,  who understands  that Aditi,  where  all the Devas  reside,  was born as 
Hiran yagarbha,  mani fested  by the contact  with the element s and residing  in the secret 
place  within  the heart... The Purusha  that lives  in the heart  is one thumb  tall. Knowing 
that he is the Lord of the past and the future,  one does not fear to lose this awareness  any 
more."  (2.1.7, 12 )
"Fire  burns  for the fear of this (Purusha),  and so the Sun shines,  and Indra,  Vayu and 
Mrity u (death) pe rform their duties."  (2.3.3)
"When  the five senses  of perception  and the mind  attain  peace,  and intellect  stops:  that is 
the highest  state...  When  all the desires  that were  clinging  to the heart  fall off, a mortal 
beco mes immortal and attains  Brah man.  When  all the knots  in the heart  are dissolved 
even  in this very lifetime, a mortal beco mes immortal: this is the essence  of the teachings 
of all the Upanishads." (2.3.10, 14 -15)
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Taittir ya Upanishad
After  an invocation to Mitra, Varuna, Ar yaman,  Indra, Brihaspati  and Vishnu Tr ivikram a, 
the first verse  addresses  Vayu as the direct  mani festation  of Brah man,  Dharm a and Satya, 
asking  for his protection.  In fact, Vayu or Air is the focus  of the teachings  in this text, 
that deals  about  sound  and pronunciation,  and the letters composing  the mantras. The 
verses  4.1-3  of Siksha  valli ("section  on instructions")  contain  a ritual  prayer to receive 
all the required  blessings  for a teacher's  progress.  Then there is a brief description  of the 
levels  of existence,  of the co mposition  of the body  and the daily  duties.
The second  chapter,  entitled  Brahmananda  valli ("section  of spiritual  happiness")  briefl y 
speaks  about  the mani festation  of the material  element s, the importance  of respecting 
food  and the joy that come s from  spiritual  realization.  Here  is an extract:  "Knowledge 
(vijnana) is the fundam ental  ingredient  of sacrifice  (yajna) and the performance  of one's 
duties  (karmani). It is in knowledge  that the Devas  meditate  on Brah man;  by knowing  it 
without  misunderstanding s all the negative  reactions  are destro yed and one fully enjoys 
all good  things.  The Self (Atman)  is part of the Ancient  and remains in it through 
knowledge  even  when  it incarnates  in a body. The inner  Self is constituted  by pure 
happiness  (ananda)." (2.5.1 )
"To give an idea of such  happiness,  let us consider  a young man, in the prime of his 
strength, kind, learned, expert, healthy  and energetic,  who has plenty  of wealth: this could  
be the unit of measure  of human happiness.  By multiplying  it 100 times we obtain  the 
unity  of measure of a Gandharva  of the lower  rank, which  multiplied  by 100 gives  the 
measure of a Gandharva  of higher  rank.  This measure,  when  multiplied  100 times, gives 
the happiness  of a Pitar  (resident  of Pitriloka),  and this multiplied  by 100 gives  the 
happiness  of one who is born on the heavenly  planets.  A Deva  of the lowe r rank enjoys  a 
happiness  100 times greater,  but even  this must be multiplied  by 100 to get the happiness 
of a Deva  of the highe r rank.  Indra enjoys happiness  100 times greater  than the Devas', 
but Brihaspati's  happiness  is 100 times greater  than Indra's, the happiness  of the Virat is 
100 times greater  than Brihaspati's,  and 100 times greater  than this is the happiness  of 
Hiran yagarbha and a follower  of the Vedas who is free  from  desires...  The wind blows  for 
the fear of this (Purusha)  and for fear of him the Sun rises,  and Indra, Vayu and Mrity u 
(death) r ush to thei r work." (2.8.1 -5)
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The Brighu  valli contains  the conve rsation  between  Brighu  Rishi  and his father  Varuna 
on Brah man,  that is realized  through  food,  prana, eyesight,  hearing,  the mind  and the 
speech.  One who wishes  to achieve  prosperit y should  never  disrespect  food,  water  and 
fire, or one who asks  for help." (3.8.1, 3.10.1 ) 
Prasna Upanishad
It is composed  by 6 chapters,  each  containing  one question  (prasna) asked  from 
Pippalada  Rishi  by one of his disciples  Sukesha,  Satyaka ma, Garg ya, Kousalya, 
Bhargava  and Kabandhi.  These sons of illustrious  families approached  the Rishi  to obtain 
knowledge,  and in observance  of the tradition  they brought  firewood  for the fire sacrifice 
that would officialize  their acceptance  in the teacher's  school.  
The Rishi  asked  them to live in his ashrama for one year before  asking  questions,  and 
when  the time came,  Kabandhi  asked  the first question:  "Whence  come those  who take 
birth ?"
"The  Prajapati  ("Lord  of the creatu res")  created  a couple  - Anna  and Prana (food  and life 
energy ) that are the Moon  and the Sun, the two halves  of the year and the month,  night 
and day. Food has two dimension s: the subtle  and the gross.  Knowing  all this, one can 
give birth to wo rthy children."
The second  question  was asked  by Bhargava:  "How  many  are the Deities  that sustain  the 
existence  of a creature, and which one is  the mo st important?"
"Space,  air, fire, water,  earth, speech,  mind, eyesight  and hearing,  but the most important 
is the prana, the life  energ y, that incarnates the  mani festation  of all the Devas."
The third  question  was asked  by Kousalya:  "From where  this prana is originated,  how it 
enters  the body and how it resides  within it, how it leaves  it, and how it sustains  the 
physical elem ents?"
"Prana comes from the Atman,  just like a shadow  is generated  by the real object  that 
projects  it. Like  a king  instructing  his officers,  the Atman  directs  the secondary 
manifestations  of the prana - Apana,  Prana,  Samana,  Vyana  and Udana.  One who knows 
the prana becom es immortal."
The fourth  question  was asked  by Garg ya: "Which  organs  sleep  and which  remain 
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awake?  Who perceives  the dream s?"
"The  five pranas are the fires of the sacrifice  and the officiants.  Just like the sun rays at 
sunset  merge  into the sun disc and again  are emanated  at sunrise,  all the form s of 
awareness  are contained  within  the mind;  therefore  when  the senses  are inert, we say that 
a person  is sleeping.  Actuall y it is the Purusha  who is established  in the supre me and 
immutable Self.  One who beco mes aware of  it achieves  omnis cience."
The fifth question  was asked  by Satyaka ma: "What  is obtained  by meditating  on the 
pranava Omkara?"
"Trascendence  mani fested  in the pranava Omkara  is Brah man itself.  One who meditate s 
on Om as one syllable  only obtains  a further  human  birth.  The mantras of the Rig Veda 
grant a virtuous  rebirth, the mantras  of the Yajur grant birth on the Moon  level,  while  one 
who meditate s on Om as Purusha  attains  the level  of the Sun. The mantras of the Sama 
lead to the  level of Brah ma (Hiiran yagarbha )."
The sixth and last  question was  asked  by Sukesha:  "Where is the 16-limbed  Purusha? "
"Within the hu man body itself.  The 16 co mponents  of the  Purusha  are prana, faith,  space, 
air, fire, water,  earth,  organs,  mind, food,  strength,  self-control,  mantras, rituals,  worlds 
and na mes of the wor lds." 
Mundaka  Upan ishad
It has 6 chapters  and contains  the teachings  of Angira Rishi  to Saunaka, regard ing the  two 
types of knowledge  - the lower  type about  the material  universe,  and the highe r 
knowledge  about  the transcendental  Brah man,  that cannot  be described  or perceived  by 
the sense s, the m ind or intellect.
"Like  a spider  expands  and withdraws  its web,  like earth  makes the plants  grow,  and like 
the body grows  hair,  similarly  the Imperishabl e produces  the universe  from  itself. 
Knowledge  expands  Brahman,  and from  it the food originates  (mahat  tattva), from  food 
the life prana (hiranyagarbha) originates,  and from this the cosmic mind, then from this 
the 5 ele ment s, the words, and  the imm ortality that resides  in prescribed  duties." (1.1.7 -8)
"Fire  destro ys the 7 existences  of one who perform s the Agnihotra without  the proper 
knowledge  and vision,  without  the correct rituals,  withou t austerity,  withou t offering 
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homage  to those  who should  be respected,  without  honoring  the guests  and without 
worshiping  the Deity . On the other hand,  when  the ritual is performed properl y, the 7 
tongues  of fire - Kali,  Karali,  Manojava,  Sulohita,  Sudhumravarna,  Sphulingini  and 
Visvaruci  - rise to the Sun and nourish it." (1.2.3-5 )
"What  is resplendent  and subtler  than the subtle,  that sustains  all the worlds  and the 
creatures,  the unchangeable Brah man,  the liv ing force,  is the speech  and the mind.  It must 
be penetrated  by the arrow  of the soul sharpened  by meditation:  so take the bow that is 
Om, and by  focusing  your attention, beco me One with the target." ( 2.2.2-4)
"The  supre me and resplendent  covering  is Brah man,  spotless  and free from  dualit y, pure, 
the light or lights,  and it is known  by those  who know  the Atman.  In that, there  is no sun, 
moon, stars  or lightning. Eve rything radiates  of its  light." (2.2.10)
"Two  birds  have  always  been  companion s and have  simil ar name s, and live on the same 
tree. One eats the fruits  and enjoys their  many tastes,  and the other simply  watches.  On 
that tree, the individual  soul remains  entangled  and laments  his helplessne ss, but when  he 
turns  his eyes towards  the other  bird, the Lord, he is liberated  from  sufferings  by his 
glory." (3.1.1 ) 
Mandukya  Upan ishad
The shortest  of all, consists  of only 12 verses  explaining  the passage  of the living  being 
through  the states  of wakefulness  (Vaisvanara),  dream (Taijasa),  deep  sleep  (Prajna)  and 
in transcendental  consciousnes s (Turiya) in which  it is possible  to realize  the Self.  Here 
we find the maha  vakya considered  as the essence  of the Atharva  Veda: ayam  atma 
brahma, "Atm an e Brah man are the sa me".
The text of this Upanishad is often  accom panied  by the elaboration  by Gaudapada 
entitled Mandukya karika .
Svetasvatara Upanishad
It contains  6 short  chapters  with  philosophical  explanations  on Atman,  Brah man, 
Param atma, and Prakriti. The text begins  with the questions:  "What  is the cause  (of the 
existence  of the universe) ? What  is Brahman?  From  where  are we coming  (before  birth)? 
Why  do we  live? What is  our final  destination ?" 
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"Like  oil in sesam e seeds,  like butter in yogurt,  like wate r in subterranean  springs,  like 
fire in wood  - the Self is perceived  in the Self,  through  truthfulness,  austerit y and 
meditation..."  (1.15-16)
"Striving  to control one's  senses,  regulating  the activities  of the body, one must exhale 
from the nostrils  when  the body functions  slow  down...  One must focus  the attention, 
living  in a cave  or in some other  pure place  where the ground  is level  and free from 
pebbles  and the view  is pleasing,  where there is no wind,  dust,  fire, humidity  or 
distracting  noises.  In the practice  of yoga, before  the manife station  of Brahm an there will 
be the appearance  of form s similar to snow,  smoke, sun, wind,  fire, glow-wo rms, 
lightning, cr ystal and m oon."  (2.9-11 )
"You  are woman,  you are man,  you are the boy and the girl, you are the old man who 
slowly walks leaning  on the staff.  Your face  is in all directions."  (4.3)
"Knowing  what  is the origin  and the dissolution  of the universe,  the source  of all virtues 
that destro ys all faults,  the master of all qualities,  the immortal  support  of the universe  - 
situated  in ou r self,  transcendent  and separate  from  the tree of  the samsara, from time and 
space  - we want  to realize  him, the transcendental  Lord of the unive rse, worthy  of 
worship,  the supre me Lord of all Lords,  the God  of the Devas,  and the ruler of all rulers... 
Although he is  One, he fulfills  the desires of  many." (6.6 -7, 13)
Here  too (4.6, 7) we find the metaphor  of the two birds on the same tree, and the measure 
of the individual  soul as a small fraction  of the tip of a hair (5.8),  found  in Gita and in 
other Upanishads.
Kausitaki,  or Kausitaki  brah mana  Upa nishad
The conversation  between  the king Chitra  Garg yayani,  the Rishi  Kausitaki  and his son 
Svetaketu  is about  reincarnation,  the attainment  of the heavenly  planets  and Brahman. 
The teachings  of Kausitaki  are as follows  (2.1):  prana is Brahman,  and in order to realize 
it, one must leave  the mental  platfor m of aspirations.  Then we find the explanation  of the 
5 faces  of Soma Rudra  (the brahmana, the king,  the falcon,  fire and time), a meditation 
for the  protection of  one's  wife and  child ren, and  the ritual to leave one's  family.
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The third  chapter  speaks  about  king Pratardana  who obtained  a boon  from Indra,  the 
killer  of the 3-headed  Tvasti,  who delive red the Arunmukha  ascetics  to the wolves,  who 
killed Prahlada's  people in the sky, t he Pauloma s in the at mosphere  and the Kalakanjas  on 
earth.  The fourth chapter  narrates  the conversation  between  Garg ya Balaki  and Ajatasatru 
of Kashi  regarding Brahm an and the effe ct of meditation  on its various aspects.
Kaivaly a Upanishad
It consists  of 26 verses  with the conversation  between  Asvalayana  Rishi  and Brahm a - 
about  the knowledge  of Brah man and how to attain  it through  faith,  devotion,  meditation, 
the knowledge  of Vedanta ("the purpose  of knowledge")  and r enunciation.
"He is Brah ma, Shiva,  Indra, the unchangeable,  suprem e and radiant,  Vishnu,  prana, 
time, fire and the moon.  He is every thing  that was and will be, the Eternal.  One who 
knows  him transcends  death.  There is no other way to attain  liberation.  Seeing  the Atman 
in all beings,  and all beings  in the Atman,  one attains  the Suprem e Brahman:  this is the 
only way ." (8-10)
Maitri, Maitra yani or Mai traya niya Upanishad
It consists  of 7 short prapathaka (prose sections); it begins  with the conversation  between 
king Brihadratha  (who  had retired into the forest)  and Saka yana  Rishi,  that illustrates  the 
teachings  of Maitre ya. The text speaks  of the temporary  nature of the body, of the 5 
pranas, of rebirth and the 3 gunas.
Subala Upa nishad
Divided  into 10 "lessons ": 1. creation,  maint enance  and dissolution  of the universe,  2. the 
"fourth  principle",  i.e. Transcendence,  the Dahara  lotus  that is within  the heart  of the 
human being,  and the component s of the body, 3. Narayana  contains  all universal 
manifestations,  4. the nature of Paramat ma, 5. the At man in the body, 6. the path upwards 
(to the heavenl y planets),  7. samadhi, 8. the material  elements,  9. how the elements  are 
consu med at the tim e of death, 10. the knowledge of  Brahm an.
Jabala Upanishad
It consists  of 14 short p rose sections  on renunciation, repo rting the conversations  between 
Yajnavalkya and Brihaspati  (on the brahma  randhra  as Avimukta  Kurushetra), Atri Rishi 
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(on Avimukta  Shiva  residing  in the ajna chakra Vara -nasi),  his brahmachari disciples 
(the Satarudri ya hymn),  Janaka  (on sannyasa  and fire sacrifice)  and again  Atri Rishi  (it is 
the level  of awareness  and not the sacred  thread,  to determine  if one is a brahmana, 
therefore  a sannyasi does  not wear  it any more;  one may leave  his body  in a battle,  by 
fasting  to death,  by drowning,  by entering  the fire, or by walking  until  complete 
exhaustion).
Painga la Upanishad
The text consists  in a conversation  between  Yajnavalk ya and his disciple  Paingala  on the 
One without  seconds,  from whom  the creation  of the universe  mani fested.  It explains 
how Brah man incarnates  as Jiva Atman,  speaks  about  the 5 coverings  (kosha) of Atman 
(annamaya,  pranamaya,  manomaya,  jnanamaya  and anandamaya), of the 5 states  of 
awareness  (wakefulnes s, dream , deep  sleep,  unconsciousne ss and death),  the mahavakyas 
(tat tvam  asi, so 'ham,  aham  brahmasmi), of the metaphor  of the chariot  representing  the 
body , of the last stage  of sannyasa, of the benefits  accrued  from the study of the 
Upanishads, and on the  meditation  on Vishnu's  omnipresen ce.
Vajrasucik a Upanishad
The title ("diamond  needle")  refers  to piercing  ignorance,  especially  about  the foolish 
prejudice  on how to identify  a brahmana. The position  of brahmana is not due to the 
material  body, that is made of the same elements  in all human beings,  or the color of the 
skin,  or the family of origin  - Rishyasringa  was born from  a female deer,  Kausika  from  a 
reed,  Jambuka  from  a jackal,  Valmiki  from an anthill,  Vyasa from a girl of a fisherm en 
tribe, Vasistha  from the Apsara  Urvasi  and Agastya fro m a pot. 
Not even  learning  or charit y are a guarantee  for the qualification  of a brahmana: only the 
direct  realization  of Brahman,  demon strated  by overcoming  material identification  and 
attach ment s, by truthfulness  and other divine qualities.
Kali santarana Upanishad
This very short  text reports Narada's  question  to Brah ma: "How  can one overcom e the 
age of Kali? " and his answer:  "Simply  by chanting  the name  of Narayana:  Hare  Krishna 
Hare  Krishna  Krishna  Krishna  Hare  Hare, Hare  Ram a, Hare  Rama, Rama Ram a, Hare 
Hare.  The recitation  of these  16 names can destroy  all the inauspicious  effects of Kali 
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yuga: there is  no bette r method  in all the Vedas. 
They are like the sun that shines  brigh tly after  the clouds  have  dissolved.  There are no 
precise  rules  to practice  this method.  Anyone who chants  these  names,  in a pure  or 
impure  state,  become s immersed in the consciousnes s of the Brahman  and is purified 
from all faulty  or impure  action,  transcending  all temporary  duties and attaining 
liberation."
Krishna Upanishad
This very short  prose  text narrates  how the Rishis  who met Rama wished  they could  take 
birth  as gopis during  the avatara of Krishna  in Gokula.  All the defects  (such  as greed, 
anger  etc) appeared  as Asuras,  while  the Upanishads and the other  vedic  texts  appeared 
as gopis (cowherd  girls),  and the divine qualities  appeared  as companions  of the Lord, 
both m ovable  and imm ovable.
Gopala ta pani Upanishad
In the first chapter  (consisting  of 54 verses)  Brah ma speaks  about  Krishna,  who is also 
called  Govinda  and Gopijanavallabha,  and explains  the mantra Svaha, the Kama  Gayatri 
and the Ananga  Gayatri. He describes  Krishna  as a cowherd  boy with  a black 
complexion  similar  to a monsoon  cloud,  who dressed  in lightn ing yellow clothes  and is 
decorated  by a garland  of forest  flowers.  He is standing  on a red lotus  flower  under  a 
desire  tree, surrounded  by cowherd  girls and boys, and surabhi cows.  Brahma  also 
explains  how the Kama  Gayatri is the origin  of creation,  and offers  his prayers to 
Krishna.  
In the second  chapter  (118 verses)  we find the conversation  between  Krishna  and the 
gopis led by Gandharvi  (Radha) and the gopis' visit to the ashrama of Durvasa  Rishi,  and 
the ensuing  conversation. The text ends  with a homag e to all the Devas.
Narada parivrajaka  Upanishad
The conversation  between  Narada  and Saunaka  at Naimi sharanya  deals  with  the 40 
samska ras, 4 ashramas, 10 dharmi c virtues and especially  with  the rigid  rules of 
sannyasa. 
For example,  a sannyasi can never  insult  anyone (with  attitudes  or words  or actions)  but 
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must tolerate  all insults,  he cannot  tell lies, he can only posse ss very few personal  items 
(a loincloth,  a shawl  obtained  by stitching  some rags together,  a container  for water  and a 
staff that symbolize s his state) and nothing else.  
He must alwa ys stay alone  (he cannot  live in a city, a village,  an ashrama or even  with 
one companion),  he must travel  alone  without  attracting  attention,  and he must 
completely  reject  the identification  with the body and  the care  and pleasures  of the body - 
which  he must consider  as a corpse.  This includes  the prohibit ion of using  oils and 
ointments,  of shaving  and cutting  and combing  hair, as well as the prohibit ion of using 
ornam ents, nice clothing etc. 
He must not converse  with  anyone,  must be insensitive  to phys ical attraction,  must 
always  keep  his eyes downcast,  not looking  further  than 4 meters  (16 cubits)  in front  of 
himsel f. Besides,  he must only eat what  he receives  in charity by begging  alms once  a 
day, after lunch  time, from  a house  of well-behaved  people.  He must  eat while  standing 
or walking, without attention for the taste  of what he  consum es. 
He must  avoid all entertainment  (dance,  theater etc), gambling,  the company  of wo men or 
of people  he used  to know  in the past,  attractive  foods,  love and hatred,  intoxicating 
substance s, discussion s about  women,  long journe ys, frequent  fasting,  pilgrimage s, gifts 
of all kinds  (except  the food  that is strictly  necessary)  and attachm ent to acade mic 
scholarship.  
He stops  wearing  the sacred  thread  and cuts off his sikha (the tuft of hair on the back  of 
the head,  that is characteristic  of brahmanas), he cannot  have  a following  of disciples,  he 
cannot  attend  ceremonie s or functions  of any kind,  or belong  to any organization  or 
philosophical/  religious  school.  He must  avoid  honors  and invitations,  because  these 
consu me the benefits  of his austerities.  
He must  not sleep  on a bed, wear  white  clothes,  sleep  during  the day or travel  in a coach. 
He must never  answer  those  who ask about  his name,  family or home, birthplace,  age, or 
the vows  he observes.  
He cannot  practice  medicine  or distribute  blessings,  correct the behavior  of other people, 
invite  others,  ask for gifts,  or visit a village  for more than one day (except  during  the 
rainy season),  travel  by night or at midd ay or at dusk,  swim across  a river, climb  on a tree 
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(to pick the fruits), or pu rchase  or sell any thing. 
Those  who want  to engage  in the study  of Transcendence  may establish  them selve s in 
some isolated  place,  preferably  not acces sible  to the general  people,  and live under  a tree 
or in som e abandoned  house,  and subsist  on fruits,  roots,  leaves and  water.
For a f urther and deeper study  of the Upanishads
Due to space  limitations,  we have only  given a brief  sum mary and a few  extracts  from the 
most famous Upanishads - which  cannot  be considered  as a complete  study on such 
funda mental texts  of Vedic  knowledge  and wisdo m. We could  call this volume a 
“beginner's”  introducto ry course  on the im mense wealth  of Vedic  knowledge.
Those  who are interested  in expanding  their  knowledge  and understanding  on this 
important  subject  are invited  to consult  the upco ming  publications  produced  by the same 
author,  and that are totall y dedicated  to the study  of the Upanishads as the “intermediat e” 
and “advanced”  levels  of anal ysis.
The “intermediate ” volum e, of about  700 pages  (alread y completed  in Italian  language 
and published  in Italy), is entitled  The Upanishads  in the third  millennium, and gives  a 
concise,  clear,  easy to read translation  of all the main Upanishads as listed  on pages  187 
and 188.
The “advanced”  work  on the Upanishads  is ongoing  and will require  several  volumes as 
it includes  the original  Sanskrit  text with transliteration  and word  for word  translation,  as 
it has  been done for a  similar  edition of  Bhagavad gita and for other texts.
Research  is under wa y to t race the mo st authoritative o riginal m anuscripts.
Anyone who would  like to cooperate  to this historical  mission is invited to contact  the 
author,  Parama  Karuna  Devi,  at the Jagannatha  Vallabha  Vedic  Research  Institute,  and 
co-author the wo rk or be duly  acknowledged  in the credits. 
We take the opportunit y to invite all Vedic  scholars  and Self- realized  individuals  to avail 
themselv es of the facilities  offered  by our Jagannatha  Vallabha  Vedic  Research  Institute, 
and get  their work published in their nam e and circulated in a cooperative way.
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Mahabharata  
and Bhagavad  gita
We have  seen that Vyasa,  worried by the decline  in the intellectual  and moral faculties  of 
the human  beings,  proceeded  to compile  collections  of Vedic  hymns  and rituals  and to 
write  explanations  to help people  understanding  them. The texts  resulting  from the work 
of Vyasa and his disciples  were  still difficult  to interpret,  and therefore  they were  meant 
to be studied  by the most intelligent  and reflective  people  in societ y, especially 
brahmanas, and in some measure  also by the kshatriyas and vaisyas, who are responsible 
for the material  and spiritual  progress  of the entire  society.  Thus, something  had to be 
done  for the sudras, those  who do not have  special  intellectual  capacities,  and are not 
attracted  by austerity  and meditation.  Besides,  Vyasa knew  that with the progression  of 
Kali yuga even  the people  who were  usuall y qualified  as "twice  born"  would  becom e 
degraded  and that at some point  the almost  totality of the people  would  beco me unable  to 
understand  the deep symbolis m of the Vedic  hymns and sacrifice  rituals.
Therefore  he composed  that part of Vedic  literature  that could  becom e particularl y 
popular  also among  the simple-minded  people,  and that could  carry a great  quantit y of 
spiritual,  philosophical,  theological  and moral  teachings  within  a format of thrilling 
adventures.
These  scriptures  are called  Puranas ("ancient  stories")  and Itihasas  ("stories"  or "epic 
poems") and contain  an extraord inary  mixture  of adventure  stories,  historical  facts,  epic 
poetr y and allegories,  into which  the writer has woven  a series  of philosophical  and 
theological  dialogues  between  the protagonists  of the stories  - some of whom are divine 
manifestations  or avataras.
Due to the wealth  of knowledge  they contain,  these  texts  are also called  "the fifth Veda", 
for example  by the Chandogya  Upanisad (7.1.4)  and Bhagavata  Purana (1.4.20 ), and 
have  been  recognized  as integ ral parts  of Vedic  literature.  In his commentary to the 
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Vedanta sutra (2.1.6) Madhvacharya writes, "Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, Atharva 
Veda, Mahabharata, Pancharatra and the original  Ramayana, as well as the Puranas, are 
all considered  Vedic scriptures."
The texts  known  as Itihasas ("stor ies")  - including  Mahabharata and Ramayana - are 
sometimes collectivel y called  Itivritta ("chronicles"),  Akhyayika ("tales")  or Udaharana 
("exa mples "), are also considered  elabo rations  and commentaries  to the core of Vedic 
knowledge.  One of these  collections  that has become  particula rly famous is the 
Panchatantra (not to be confused  with the Pancharatra, that is a smriti text on ritual 
procedures), a series  of educational tales  told b y a wise brahmana to the y oung p rinces  he 
was tutoring.
The most important  text of this "fifth  Veda" is Bhagavad  gita, which  is part of the epic 
Mahabharata (from  chapter  25 to chapter  42 of the volume entitled Bishma  parva): all 
the great acharyas such as Shankara,  Ram anuja  and Madhva  have  written  commentarie s 
on this  fundam ental  text of  Hinduism . 
As we have  already  mentioned,  it is one of the prasthana  traya, "the 3 starting  points" 
from which  one should  beging  to study  Vedic  knowledge  - the other  2 being  the 
Upanishads and Vedanta sutra or Brahma sutra).
In fact, we can say that more  commentarie s have  been  written  on Bhagavad  gita than on 
any other  philosophical  or litera ry work  in history . Famou s is also the glorification  of 
Gita (Gita mahatmya) written by Adi Shankarachar ya. Gita has shaped  the life of India 
on the social,  ethical,  cultural  and political  levels,  contributing  to the development  of 
generations  of thinkers,  philosophers,  theologians,  educationists,  scientists  and writers  in 
the West,  too.
To better  unde rstand  Bhagavad  gita we should  study  it in its context,  the Mahabharata, 
that is the most voluminou s epic poem  in world literarure.  With  almo st 2 million s words, 
part in verses  and part in prose,  is about  4 times longer  than Ramayana and 10 times 
larger than Iliad and Odyssey combined.  
The only compl ete translation  of Mahabharata in English  is the one produced  by Kisari 
Mohan  Ganguli  between  1883  and 1896,  but there are numerou s summaries, of which the 
most famous was written  by Rajagopalachari.  Innumerable  dance  and drama  works, 
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especially  in the east (including  Bali,  Thailand  etc) are inspired  by the  stories  of this epic, 
the most important  being  the Yakshagana  (a dance-dram a style  from  Karnataka)  and 
Kathakali  (a dance-dra ma style from  Kerala). 
In the West,  the Mahabharata has beco me famous especially  through  the rendition  by 
Peter Brook, a 9 hour play  that was  staged for the  first time  in 1985 at Avignon in France, 
and then  turned into a 5 hour movie  in 1989.
In this chapter  we will try to give a clear  and complete  summary, that will enable  the 
readers to understand  the ideological d ynami cs of the story .
The original  text, written  by Ganesha  under  Vyasa's  dictation,  was given  by Vyasa  (also 
called  Krishna  Dvaipa yana)  to his son Sukadeva  and to his disciples  Vaisam payana  and 
Romahar shana  Suta.  Romahar shana  narrated  it to the Rishis  in Naimi sharanya  (a forest 
that was in the localit y of Sitapur,  Uttar Pradesh)  headed  by Saunaka  Rishi,  during a 
sacrifice  ritual  that was meant  to last for 1000  years. Suta  gave  the text to his son 
Ugrasrava,  who had originall y heard  it from  Vaisam payana  in the assembly of Maharaja 
Janamejaya, Arjuna's  grandson.
The core of the story, called  Jaya and consisting  of 24,000  verses,  is the dialogue 
between  the regent  king Dhritarastra  and his advisor  and charioteer  Sanja ya, on what  is 
happening  on the battlefield  of Kurukshetra.  According  to the Mahabharata itself 
(1.1.61 ) and the Asvalayana  Grihasutra  (3.4.4),  the other  verses  have  been  added  later. 
Some interp ret verse  1.1.81  to mean that Vyasa's  original  Jaya only had 8800  verses 
(from  the arrival of the armie s at Kurukshetra  to the end of the battle)  while  the version 
recited  by Vaisa mpayana,  called  Bharata, was 24,000  verses and the final version,  called 
Mahabharata and narrated by  Ugrasrava Sauti, is  the one with 110,000 ve rses. The text is 
divided  into 18 Parvas or "books",  to which  more minor  Parvas were  added  for a total of 
100 (mentioned  in verse  1.2.70).  Often,  as an appendix  to the Mahabharata  we find the 
famous text Hari  vamsa, that describes  Krishna's  dynast y.
The int roductory  verse to the original core of the  Mahabharata  recites:
narayanam  namaskritya  naram  caiva narottamam
devim sarasvatim  vyasam  tato jayam  udirayet
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"Before  enunciating  this Jaya we offer  our homage  to Nara yana,  to Nara  (the greatest  of 
human beings),  to Sarasvati  Devi and Vy asa."
The most elaborate  and complete  text of the Mahabharata begins  with a "prequel"  on the 
ancestors  of the Pandavas,  the relatives  and friends  of Krishna.  It is important  to 
understand  that the Pandavas  are not ordinar y people,  but they are direct mani festation s 
of divine  principles,  descended  to this planet  to assist  Krishna's  mission,  that is described 
in detail in the Bhagavata purana  - to which the Mahabharata is directly  connected.  
The adventures  of these  characters  can be read at many  levels,  from the deepest 
symboli sm revealing  the stages  of the individual's  spiritual  realization  and the blueprint 
of the cosm ic mani festation,  to the simplest  and most immediate level  showing  how 
adhar mic motivations,  material  attachm ents,  personalit y defects  and selfish  choices 
produce  disastrous  results  both individuall y and sociall y, while  faithfulne ss to dharma, 
detach ment  and a prope r sense  of duty enable  us to prope rly perfor m our work in this 
world.
Besides,  just like the Pandavas  were  comforted  in their tribulations  by the Rishis  telling 
them the stories  of great personalities  that bravely  faced  difficultie s and sufferings,  we 
can also find  solace  and inspiration in thei r story .
We will now  give a short sum mary of the  text.
The Adi Parva ("the book  of the beginning")  starts  with the assem bly of king Saunaka 
Kulapati,  where  the Rishis  engaged  in the sacrifice  are sitting  together  to hear edifying 
stories  about  the great  personalities  of the past.  Specifically,  the son of Rom aharshana 
Suta speaks  of a similar  assem bly, called  by king Janamejaya (Abhi manyu's  son),  where 
the story  of the Pandavas  was told. There are also so me other short and deepl y symbolical 
stories,  such  as those  of king Pausya,  Rishi  Puloma and Astika  (respectivel y occupying 
the Pausya Parva, Puloma Parva and Astika Parva).
The Adi-vamsa-vatarana  Parva ("the book  of the beginning  of the dynasty" ) narrates  that 
according  to the pledge  given by his father  Pratip,  emperor  Santanu  married  Goddess 
Ganga,  the personification  of the sacred  river,  generating  an extraordina ry son named 
Devavrata,  who  was later  known  as Bhishm a. Because  he was unable  to deeply 
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understand  the divine  motives  and accept  them  without  discussion,  Santanu  lost his 
extraordina ry wife and after several  years of unhappy  solitary  life he met a beautiful  girl, 
Satyavati  (who  had alread y beco me the mother  of Vyasa,  the author  of the 
Mahabharata), belonging to a com munity of fisher men on rive r Yamuna.  
Satyavati's  father  was flattered  by the emperor's  interest,  and anxious  to procure  the 
greatest  possible  advantage  to his own family, gave  his consent  to the marriage  only on 
the condition  that Satyavati's  sons would  beco me the legitimate  heirs instead  of the eldest 
son Bhishm a. 
The young  prince saw his father  tortu red by inner conflicts,  and out of love for him he 
decided  to renounce  the imperial  throne  himself, and even  pledged  to remain  a lifelong 
celibate  so that there woul  be no descendents  of his who could  claim  a right  to the throne 
in the future.  This terrible  sacrifice  (bhishma precisely  means  "terrible")  did not just 
damage  Bhishm a's personal  life, but also put the kingdom  in great peril;  therefore  it 
constituted  the first step towards  the disastrous  series  of events  that led to the final battle 
meant to eliminate  the excess  of the adhar mic military  forces  on the planet  and to 
inaugurate  the age of quarrel  and hypocr isy called  Kali yuga ("the black  age").  Thus the 
origin  of all such disasters  can clear ly be traced  to the greed  and arrogance  of Satyavati's 
father,  to Santanu's  lust and to Bhism a's material  attach ment  towards  his father,  because 
of which  he sacrificed  the future  of the kingdo m. These are the real causes  that created 
the unstable  situation in the succes sion to the throne.
Satyavati's  sons,  Citrangada  and Vicit ravir ya, did not have  the qualities  required for a 
king and were  unable  to rule the kingdom.  Citrangada  died very young  without  leaving 
any sons,  and Vicit ravir ya ascended  the throne  but he was so weak  and impotent  that the 
family elders  sent his stepbrother  Bhish ma in his stead  to participate  to the svayamvara 
(the traditional  marriage  tournament  among  the suitors,  that allowed  the kshatriya girls to 
choose  a suitable  husband)  of the princesse s of Kasi  (Bena res) Amba,  Ambika  and 
Ambalika.  
Bhish ma was a powerful  warrio r and had no difficulties  in winning  the hand  of all three 
girls,  but unfortunately  the eldest  sister  - Amba - was not happ y to learn  that she was 
going  to marry Bhishm a's stepbrother  and not Bhish ma himself. So she decided  to step 
back  from the marriage  and as Bhish ma allowed her to do whatever  she wanted,  she went 
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to propose  marriage  to Shalva,  another  great warrior that had taken  part in the 
svayamvara but had been defeated.
Shalva's  hurt pride prevented  him to accept  the proposal  and Amba was frustrated  in her 
plans.  She decided  she would  then propose  marriage  to Bhish ma, who after all had won 
her hand in the tournament  in front of  all the warriors, but Bhishm a had taken the lifelong 
celibacy  vow.  Furious,  Amba swore  to avenge  the outrage and to have  Bhishm a killed. 
One after the other, all the great warr iors approached by Amba for that purpose refused  to 
engage  in such  an impos sible  venture,  because  everyone  considered  Bhish ma totall y 
invincible.  In the end, Amba decided  to take care of her business  herself  and created  a 
new male  identit y for herself,  becoming  the adopted  son of king Drupada  and getting 
personally t rained in co mbat  with the sole  purpose of  killing Bhish ma on the battlefield.
The other 2 p rincesse s, Ambika  and A mbalika,  were still childless  when Vicitravi rya died 
prem aturely of "weaknes s". Then Satyavati decided  to resort to an old tradition, by which 
the brother  of a deceased  king could  intervene  personally  to give a son to his sister  in law 
- and she  called her son Vyasadeva  to the  court.
Ambika' s son Dhritarastra was born first,  but he  was blind, and therefore  he was excluded 
from the succes sion as his handicap  prevented  him to effectively  take part in the 
protection  of the subjects.  Ambalika 's son Pandu  was not very strong  eithe r; the name 
pandu means "pale"  and is used  in Ayurvedic  medicine  to describe  the characteristic 
complexion  of those  who suffer  from a liver condition. 
Vyasa  was therefore  asked  to beget  another  son, but the princesses  had been  unhapp y 
about  the proposal  from  the very start, and now they refused  to cooperate  any m ore. They 
sent their  hand maiden  instead,  and she gave  birth  to Vidura,  who was perfectly  health y 
and virtuous  and later became mahamantri ("prime minister")  of the kingdo m, although 
he never personally occupied the throne.
Pandu  was officially  crowned  the king,  but after a short  time he retired to the forest  with 
his 2 wives  Kunti  and Madri,  to perform  austerities  and atone  for a hunting  accident,  in 
which  he had inadvertently  killed Kindam a Rishi  while  the Rishi  was engaged  in sexual 
activities  with his own wife,  within  the privacy  of a thick grove.  During  his stay in the 
forest,  Pandu  had 5 sons,  that became known  as the "five  Pandavas".  The birth  of these 
boys was  truly extrao rdinary .
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Kinda ma Rishi  had cursed  Pandu  with instant  death  as soon  as he would  begin  sexual 
intercourse,  so it was impos sible  for him to beget  an heir to the kingdom.  In that 
circum stance,  Kunti  revealed  that some years earlier  she had received  a special  mantra 
from Durvasa  Rishi,  by which  she could  call a Deva  and get a son from him. With 
Pandu's  permission,  Kunt i evoked  Yam a (the Deva  of death  and justice),  Vayu (the Deva 
of wind) and Indra (the Deva  of lightning and rains,  the king of the higher planets)  giving 
birth  respectively  to Yudhisthira,  Bhima and Arjuna.  Pandu's  second  wife  (Madri ) 
borrowed  the mantra from Kunti  and used it to call the Asvini  kumaras  (the 2 Devas  who 
are the heavenly ph ysicians) who  becam e the fathers  of Nakula and Sahadeva.
However,  Kunti  chose  not to reveal  that before  her marriage  she had already  used  the 
mantra out of sheer  curiosity,  innocently  evoking  Surya (the Deva  of the sun) and 
unexpectedly  getting  a son from him - Karna  - whom  she had immediately  abandoned  to 
the waters  of the river.  The baby  had been  found  by Adhiratha,  a charioteer  belonging  to 
the lowest  rank  of the kshatriyas, who together  with  his wife  Radha  had raised  him 
modestly  but with l ots of affe ction  as their own son.
When  Pandu  and Madri  died,  Kunti  and the 5 boys  returned  to the capital,  where  the 
regent  Dhrita rastra  yielded  to the pressure  of the brahmanas and the elders in the State 
assembly, and consecrated  Yudhisthira  as yuvaraja, the official  heir to the throne. 
Besides  being  the eldest  among  all the brothers  and cousins,  Yudhisthira  was also in the 
direct line of  succession  from  his father Pandu, who  had al ready been crowned the king. 
Dhritarastra  married  princess  Gandhar i and begot  his own child ren: 100 sons headed  by 
Duryodhana,  Duhsasana,  Vikarna  and Sukarna,  and a daughter  named Duhsala.  Gandhari 
had been  happ y at the idea of becom ing the queen  of Hastinapura  and was shocked  when 
she learned  that her future  husband  was blind,  but because  she was a real princess  she 
decided  to sacrifice  herself  for the good of  the kingdom.  To better unde rstand  and support 
her husband,  Gandhari  volun tarily  renounced  her eyesight  and alwa ys wore a thick 
bandage  over  her own eyes  - something  that unfortunately  must have  created  some 
emotional  reactions  both in her and in her brothe r Sakuni,  who had accomp anied  her to 
her new home. This is shown  by the fact that when  she was infor med about  the birth  of 
Kunti's  first son, Gandhari  - who was still pregnant  - vented  her uncontro llable  anger 
against  her own  unborn  child,  hitting  her own  belly and causing  a miscarriage. 
Vyasadeva  was called  to save the situation:  he collected  the immature fetus  and divided  it 
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into 100 clones,  and put each  one of them in a container  to develop  artificially  till 
maturity.
Instigated  especially  by uncle  Sakuni,  Duryodhana  grew up hating  his cousins,  and 
therefore  organized  many attempt s at eliminating  them.  Unfortunatel y Dhritarastra  and 
Gandhari  allowed  him to continue  in his evil schem es because  they hoped  that their own 
temporary  position  at the top of the government  could  becom e permanent  when 
Duryodhana would ascend  to the throne. 
Duryodhana's  rage was directed  particularl y against  Bhim a, who was physicall y very 
strong  and therefore  regular ly won  all the fights  and wrestling  matche s. The first 
assassination  attempt was against  him:  during  a picnic  on the river Ganges  Bhim a was 
fed a poisoned  cake,  and when  the boy lost consciousne ss, he was tied up with ropes  and 
thrown  into the water,  so that the poisonous  snakes  living  in that tract of the river would 
finish  him off. However,  the snakes'  bites  had the opposite  effect,  awakening  Bhima from 
the slum ber induced  by the narcotic.  So Bhima returned  safely  to the capital,  while 
Duryodhana  was torn between  the rage for his own failure  and the fear that Bhim a would 
realize what  had happened and take  revenge.  
In the subsequent  years Duryodhana  and his brothe rs were forced to live side  by side  with 
Pandu's  sons,  so they tried to distinguish  them selve s in some way from  the cousins  by 
taking  the name of Kauravas  ("descendents  of Kuru",  the great  ancestor  of Santanu ) as 
opposed  to the Pandavas  ("sons  of Pandu"),  a definition  that they considered  demeaning 
in regard to he reditary  rights. 
The great Drona,  a brahmana who was very expert  in military  science s, settled  at court to 
beco me the tutor of the princes,  and his personal  motivations  created  new seeds  of 
tragedies.  In fact Drona  was an excellent  martial  arts teacher,  but contrar ily to what  is 
expected  from a brahmana, he had an arrogant  and revengeful  nature  that he chose  not to 
correct.  During his childhood  days in the Gurukula  he had becom e friends  with another 
student,  Drupada,  the heir to the throne  of Panchala.  Later,  after his marriage  with Kripi 
and the birth of their son Asvattham a, Drona  found  himself in financial  difficulties  and 
went  to see his old school  mate Drupada  and ask for his help.  However,  Drupada  had 
recently  becom e king and was still inebriated  by his new position,  so he treated  him 
offen sively.  Furious,  Drona  swore  to take revenge  and decided  to train one extraordinar y 
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student  who would  humiliate  Drupada  - and for this, he first needed  to beco me the 
military  Guru of the most powerful  royal family  of his times, the Kuru  dynasty.  After 
securing  that position,  Drona  rejected  all other students,  an act that produced  further 
negative  reactions,  as in the case  of Karna.
Together  with the 5 Pandavas,  Karna  is one of the main  characters  of the Mahabharata. 
As we have  seen,  he was actually  their  elder  brother  and as a direct  mani festation  of 
Surya, the Deva  of the Sun, he was naturally a very powerful  warrior, but as his family's 
position  in society  did not afford  him to enjoy the advantages  and opportun ities of his 
true birth, he was unable  to develop  his real potential  and he grew  up torn apart by inner 
conflicts.  Karna  was keen  to becom e a warrior and approached  Drona  for training,  but he 
was rejected,  so he went  to see another  exceptional  teacher  of martial  arts: Parasuram a 
the descendent  of Brighu, who was  still present on the planet  after com pleting  his m ission 
of avatara. 
Knowing  that Parasuram a did not like kshatriyas, Karna  introduced  himself as a 
brahmana who was interested  to teach  the military  arts, and he was accepted  as a 
disciple.  The cove r up did not last long:  Karna's actual  qualities  and behavior  manife sted 
beyond any doubt  during  his training,  and Karna was kicked  away  and cursed,  too. One 
day Parasuram a was sleeping,  his head  resting  on his student's  legs,  and it so happened 
that an insect  crawled  on Karna's  leg and started  biting  into it. Karna bravely tolerated  the 
pain because  he did not want  to disturb  his teacher's  sleep,  but the bite started  bleeding 
and Parasuram a woke  up. When  he saw what  had happened,  Parasura ma realized  that no 
brahmana would  have  been  able to tolerate  that pain with such determination,  and knew 
that Karna  was actuall y a kshatriya, more interested  in fighting  than in teaching. 
Offended  by Karna's  lie, that violated  the fundam ental  dharmic principle  of truthfulness, 
Parasuram a cursed  him to forget  all the teachings  he had received,  and at the time when 
he would  need  them  the most. This  curse  would take effect  in the most crucial  moment of 
Karna's  life, when he finally faced  Arjuna on the battlefield.  
Arjuna  was Drona's  favorite  pupil  and becam e very expert  in the science  of weapons, 
including  the Agneyastra  and Varunastra,  based  on the control  of the elem ents of fire and 
water.  Pleased  by his student's  progress,  Drona  asked  Arjuna  to repay  him for the 
teachings  he had received,  and as guru  dakshina he ordered him to defeat  king Drupada 
and bring  him to his presence  as a prisoner.  Arjuna  carried  out the task,  but showing  the 
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utmost  respect  and courtesy  to Draupada,  so much that the king wished  to have  Arjuna  as 
his son in law. Brooding  revenge  against  Drona,  Drupada  returned  home and started  a 
sacrifice  ritual  for the birth  of Dhristad yumna and Draupadi  - one destined  to kill Drona 
and the  other to m arryArjuna.
The Jatugriha  Parva ("the  book  of the shellac  house")  continues  by describing  how 
Duryodhana,  Sakuni  and Duhsasana  devised  a new plan to assas sinate  their cousins. 
Sakuni  hired the architect  Purochana  and sent him to Varanavata  to build  a royal 
residence  for the summer holidays  of the Pandavas,  a house  that was to be made with 
highly  flammable materials.  
Vidura  came  to know  about  the conspirac y and alerted  the Pandavas,  who dug a tunnel 
under  the house  and then took the initiative  to torch the house  before  Duryodhana's  agent 
had the time to do so. The tunnel  surfaced  at a certain  distance  on the Ganges  bank, 
where  a boatman at Vidu ra's service  ferried  the brothers  and their mother  Kunti  to a safe 
place.  So while at Hastinapura  everyone  believed  they were  dead,  the Pandavas  remained 
hidden in the forests.
The Hidimba -vadha  Parva ("the book  of Hidimba's  killing" ) describes  how,  in the place 
known  as Hidimb avana,  the Pandavas  were  attacked  by the rakshasa Hidimba,  who was 
defeated  and killed by Bhima.  Hidimba' s sister  Hidimbi  fell in love with Bhima  and 
asked  him for a son: thus was born brave  Ghatotkacha,  the half-blood  rakshasa who will 
help his  father and uncles  in m any adventures  and fight on their side at Kurukshetra. 
Finally  the Pandavas  arrived  at the village  of Ekachakra,  where  they stayed  in the house 
of a local  brahmana  and saved  his life by killing  another  rakshasa, Bakasura,  who used 
to demand  human sacrifices  from the people  who lived  in that area.  This episode  is the 
central story  of the Baka-vadha Parva  ("the book of  the kill ing of  Baka).
In the next book,  the Chaitraratha  Parva ("the  book  of Citraratha"),  Arjuna  meet s and 
duels  Citraratha,  the Gandharvas'  king,  defeating  him. Besides,  the Pandavas  learned 
about  the imminent svayamvara of princess  Draupadi,  the daughter  of Drupada  king of 
Panchala.  After  their  brahmana host had narrated  the miraculous  circum stance s of the 
birth of Draupadi  and her brother Dhristadyumna,  the Pandava  journey ed to the capital  of 
the Panchala  kingdom.
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In the book entitled  Svayamvara  Parva ("the wedding tournament")  the Pandavas  becam e 
the guests  of a potter.  The tournam ent consisted  in a classic  archer y test - with a huge 
steel horn bow, ver y difficult  even to lift - and was accom panied  by much  celebration and 
entertain ment,  and great  distributions  of food and gifts especiall y to the brahmanas. On 
that occasion  Duryodhana  officially  promoted  Karna  to the position  of kshatriya of royal 
rank,  appoint ing him as the ruler of the kingdo m of Anga  (present  Bengal)  so that he 
could  take part in the tournam ent, which  was restricted  to the royal princes.  Disguised  as 
a brahmana, Arjuna  asked  the king for the permission to attempt the test claiming  that he 
was motivat ed by sheer  curiosity , but he won the archery  test by hitting  the extremely 
difficult  target:  the eye of an artificial  fish mounted  on a wheel  rotating  on the ceiling, 
that could be  aimed  at onl y by looking at i ts reflection into an oil container on the floor.
The princes  attending  the event,  including  Duryodhana,  Karna,  Salya and Sakuni, 
protested  because  the princess  was not supposed  to marry a brahmana, but Arjuna  and 
his brothe rs easily  opposed  and defeated  all the warrio rs. Arriving  back  at the potte r's 
house,  Arjuna  called  his mother  out, saying  that he had won a great  treasure,  and even 
before  asking  what  kind of treasure  it was, Kunti  told him he would  have  to share  it with 
his brothe rs. Perplexed,  Arjuna  introduced  his new bride to mother  and after  a 
consultation  with Drupada,  Vyasa and Dhristadh yumna,  it was decided  that Draupadi 
could  be the wife of all the 5 brothe rs, as long as she lived  with one of them at the time: 
this is the contents  of the Vaivahika P arva ("the m arriage"). 
The rumor  of the extraordinar y events  at Draupadi's  svayamvara traveled  fast,  and soon  it 
was clear  to every body  that the Pandavas  were  still alive.  In the potte r's house  the 
Pandavas  met their  other  cousins  Krishna  and Balara ma, the sons of Vasudeva,  Kunti's 
brother, who had r ushed  to congratulate them.  
In the Vidura  gamana  Parva ("Vidu ra's journe y") Dhritarastra  sent a message to the 
Pandavas  inviting  them  to return  to the capital  and promi sing to give them half the 
kingdo m, but when  the 5 brothers  arrived  at court, they were  allotted  a small unhabited 
area within the thick Khandava  forest.  
The section  entitled Arjuna  vanavasa  Parva ("Arjuna  goes  to the forest")  narrates  how 
one day A rjuna was  forced  by the ci rcumstances  to enter the r oom where Yudhisthira was  
intim ately  staying  with  Draupadi,  and according  to the rules that the Pandavas  had 
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established  for them selves,  he left for a pilgrimag e to atone  for his violation.  After 
visiting  Prabhasa  kshetra  (also known  as Somanatha)  Arjuna  went  to Dvaraka  and fell in 
love with Subhadra,  the sister  of Krishna  and Balaram a. In the section  Subhadra  harana 
Parva ("the  abduction  of Subhad ra") Krishna  helps  Arjuna  and Subhadra  to elope 
together, because  Balara ma was against  their marriage.
In the next section,  entitled  Haranaharana  Parva ("the abduction  that was not a real 
abduction")  Krishna  gave  a speech  in the assembly of the Yadus  to pacify  their anger  for 
the abduction,  and stated  that women cannot  be given  in marriage  against  their own will. 
In the Khandava-daha  Parva ("the  burning  of the Khandava  forest")  Krishna  helped 
Arjuna  to call Agni,  who happil y ate all the trees  and plants  of the forest,  including  a 
great  quantit y of medicinal  herbs.  The king of the heavenl y planets  Indra sent torrential 
rains  to save his friend  Takshaka  (the king of snakes  who lived  in the forest)  and was 
amazed  to see that Arjuna  repelled  the rain with an equivalent  shower  of arrows.  To 
pacify Arjuna, I ndra offered  him the Gandiva  bow, a quive r of extrao rdinary  arrows  and a 
very special  chariot.  He also promis ed him some divine  weapons,  but he would  deliver 
them only  after  Arjuna had  secured the Pasupata  astra fro m Shiva.
The  Sabha parva ("the  parliament ") describes  how  Khandavaprastha  becam e the 
prosperous  Indraprastha  and many residents  of the old capital  were happy  to move into 
the new city of the Pandavas,  thus leaving  the corrupt tyrant Duryodhana.  During the 
forest  fire, Arjuna  had also saved  Maya Danava  (the architect  of the Daityas)  and Maya 
Danava  gratefully  accepted  to build  for the Pandavas  a splendid  city and a wonderful 
royal palace,  that included  a special  hall for the government  assem blies.
In the section  called  Sabhakriya  Parva ("the  building  of the assem bly hall") we see Maya 
Danava  engaged  in the construction  work,  and gifting  Arjuna  with  a war conch  and 
Bhima with  a special  mace. The Lokapala  Sabhakhayana  Parva ("the  government 
assembly for the protection  of the people")  describes  the parliament  of the Pandavas,  that 
counted  among  its members also many Gandharvas  residents  of the higher  planets.  The 
great  Rishi  Narada,  who is expert  in all the branches  of knowledge,  went  to visit the 
Pandavas  in their new capital  and after discussing  with them  about  various  topics  on the 
manage ment of the kingdom,  reminded  Yudhisthira  that Pandu  had planned  to perform 
the Rajasuya  sacrifice  for the glor y of their d ynast y.
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The section  Rajasuyarambha  Parva ("the beginning  of the Rajasuya")  shows  the 
preparation  for the great ceremony  aimed at establishing  the suprem acy of the Pandava 
governm ent. The main  opponent  to be defeated  was Jarasandha,  the evil king  of 
Magadha,  who had imprison ed a great  number  of kshatriyas to demonstrate  his political 
supre macy.  He had also subjugated  many other kings  such  as Dantavakra,  Karusha, 
Karava and  Meghavahana,  who had beco me his vassals.  
Jarasandha,  father  in law of the Kam sa that had persecuted  Krishna  and all his family for 
a long time, had been  raised by a Raksha si named Jara and could  not be killed  in a fight. 
He had already  attacked  Mathura  many times, so that in the end Krishna  had to move  the 
entire  population  to the new city of Dvaraka  to protect  them  from  the constant 
aggressions.  Disguised  as brahmanas, the 5 Pandavas  and Krishna  went  to Jarasandha' s 
capital  to challenge  him to a fight,  and thanks  to Krishna's  advice,  Bhima found  the way 
to kill Jarasandha.  The kings  were  released  from  their imprisonm ent and happil y pledged 
allegiance  to Yudhishira:  the Rajasuya  yajna could  then be performed  right away.  This is 
the contents  of the Jarasandha  vada  Parva, "the killing  of Jarasandha",  followed  by the 
Rajasuyika Parva , "the Rajasuya".
At the inauguration  of the Rajasuya  sacrifice,  Sahadeva  performed the agra  puja, the 
offering  of the "first  honors"  to Krishna,  and on that occasion  an old enemy  of Krishna, 
his distant  cousin  Sisupala  the king of Cedi,  rose in the assembly to protest,  repeatedly 
insulting  Krishna  and accusing  him of having  conspired  to kill Jarasandha  and Kam sa, 
kidnapped  Rukmini and committed a series  of other  actions  that he considered  immoral. 
To keep  the promise  that he had made to Sisupala's  moth er, Krishna  tolerated  quietly  for 
some time, but finally  he silenced  him by cutting  his head  off with  the Suda rshana 
chakra, as  we read in the Sisupala  vadha P arva, "the killing of Sisupala".  
The third  main book  of the Mahabharata is entitled  Vana  Parva ("the book  of the 
forest") and also contains  the sections  called  Aranyaka  ("in the forest"), Kirmira  vadha 
"the killing  of Kirmira"), Arjuna  abhigamana  ("Arjuna's  depa rture"), Kairata  ("the 
Kirata"), Indraloka  gamana  ("the  journe y to Indraloka"), Nalopakhyana  ("the story of 
Nala"), Tirtha-yatra  ("the pilgrim age"), Markandeya  samasya  ("the meeting  with 
Markandeya"), Draupadi  Satyabhama samvada  ("the conversation  between  Draupadi and 
Satyabha ma"), Ghosha  yatra  ("the  inspection  journey" ), Draupadi  harana  ("the 
abduction  of Draupadi"), Pativrata mahatmya ("the  glory of the women who love their 
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husbands")  and Aranya ("the forest").  
Duryodhana  and the other  Kurus  had been  invited  to take part in the celebrations,  and 
although  they had been  given  tasks  and responsibilities  as they were  members of the 
dynasty  celebrating  the sacrifice,  they still had quite  some free time. While  he was 
enviously walking around to examine  the palace,  the Kuru prince  mistook  a very polished 
floor  for a big water  basin  and lifted  his dhoti to avoid  getting  wet, and soon  afterwards 
made the opposite  mistake,  fumbling  and falling  into the water  where he believed  there 
was a solid  floor.  Humiliated  by the general  laughte rs and by the ironic  comments of 
Draupadi, Dur yodhana quickly  returned to his palace,  thinking of  revenge.
Sakuni  was a very expert  gambler,  and had some fixed  dice that he could  manipulate  at 
will.  Under  the pretext  of inaugurating  a new hall in the palace,  Duryodhana  got 
permi ssion  from  his father  to organize  a dice game against  Yudhisthira,  and with a series 
of insults  and challenges  he forced  his cousin  to gamble  everything  he had, including  his 
own freedo m and the freedo m of his brothers  and wife.  Elated,  Duryodhana  sent for 
Draupadi  to turn her into his maid servant,  and when  the minister  Pratikami  came back 
without  Draupadi,  he sent Duhsasana  into Gandhari's  apart ments,  where  Draupadi  had 
gone  to plead  for help:  thus the queen  of the Pandavas  was dragged  by her hair down  to 
the assem bly hall. Only  one of the Kurus,  Vika rna, stood  up to defend  Draupadi,  saying 
that because  Yudhishtira  had already  lost his own freedom  before  losing  his wife's,  he 
had no right  to decide  for her. Besides,  Yudhisthira  had not consulted  his brothe rs, who 
also had a say in their own freedom  and in Draupadi's.  Furthermore,  Sakuni  had violated 
the rule by which  each player must  choose  the stake  freely. When  Vidura  and the other 
elders  also supported  Vikarna's  speech  and declared  the game invalid,  Karna stood  up 
and said than in any case the Pandavas  had lost everything they owned,  including  their 
expensive  attire:  Duryodhana  was therefore  entitled  to collect  their clothing.  Duhsasana 
grabbed  Draupadi's  sari to disrobe  her, but miraculously  the cloth  kept expanding,  so that 
the queen  still had sufficient  material  to cover herself.
Puzzled  by the extraordinar y event  and scared  by Bhim a's oaths  of revenge,  Dhrita rastra 
pacified  Draupadi  and annuled  the game, giving  the Pandavas  permi ssion  to return  home 
to Indraprastha.  Duryodhana  protested  and called  his cousins  back  for anothe r game: the 
stake  was a 12 year exile  in the forest,  plus an additional  year to be spent  incognito. 
Playing a second  time against  the fixed  dice,  Yudhisthira  was defeated  and the 5 brothers 
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left in exile with thei r wife,  while Kunti rem ained  at Hastinapura  with Vidu ra.
Acco mpanied  by Dhaumya  and by a great number  of subjects,  the Pandavas  reached 
Praman akoti  tirtha  on the Ganges  bank,  where they asked  the crowd  to go back  to their 
homes.  Many,  especiall y the brahmanas, decided  to spend  the night  there  anyway, and 
the next morning  Yudhisthira  was worried  thinking  of how he would  be able to feed all 
his guests.  On the advice  of Dhaumya  (the Pandavas'  court  priest)  the king worshiped 
Surya and obtained  an "inexhaustible  pot"  (akshaya  patra), a coppe r casserole  that once a 
day supplied  unlimited  quantities  of food,  stopping  only  when  Draupadi  herself  had 
finished  eating.  After  breakfast  the Pandavas  resum ed their journey  and reached 
Kamyavana.
In the meantim e in the capital  Dhritarastra  was musing on the threats  uttered  by Bhima, 
who had said he would  tear Duhsasana  apart  to drink his blood  and remove  his arms that 
had violently  dragged  Draupadi,  and he would  shatter  Duryodhana's  legs that had been 
shown  to D raupadi  with heav y sexual  allusions.
The old regent  sent for Vidura  hoping  for some comfort, but he got the exactly  opposite 
effect,  because  his brother  openl y reprimanded  him. Irritated,  Dhritarastra  told Vidura  to 
go away  and Vidu ra left the capital  to go and stay with the Pandavas  in the forest.  Karna, 
too, tracked  the Pandavas  with the intention  of assassinating  them, but he was dissuaded 
by Vyasa, who went to talk to hi m while he was  going into the forest.
On the third  day of their stay at Kamyavana,  the Pandavas  killed  the Raksha sa Kirmira, 
that had attacked  them. Later on Krishna  came to see them,  accompanied  by many 
Yadus.  Draupadi  vented  her feelings,  bursting  into tears  and telling  Krishna  about  the 
offen ses and the violence  they had suffered:  Krishna  comforted  her promi sing that 
Duryodhana  and his allies  would  all be killed by the Pandavas,  and that he would  help 
them in all possible  ways. "If I had been  there,  I would have  prevented  that shameful dice 
game,"  he told he r, "but  I was in Dvaraka fighting off  Salva's  attacks."
Subhadra  and Abhi manyu  left with Krishna  to go and stay in Dvaraka,  while  the sons of 
Draupadi  went  with  Dhristadyumn a to Panchala,  and then the Pandavas  moved to 
Dvaitavana  on the bank of  the Sa rasvati  river to live in the co mpany of  the Rishis,  such  as 
Markandeya Rishi.
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During  that period  Vyasa went  to see them  to discuss  about  the preparations  for the war 
that would  inevitably  come; he told them that Dury odhana  had already  secured  the 
military  support  of Bhurisrava,  Asvattham a, Karna,  Jayadratha,  Bhishm a and Drona,  and 
remind ed Arjuna  that he still had to get weapons  from  Indra and the Pasupata  astra  from 
Shiva.  Vyasa taught  Arjuna  the pratismriti  vidya, that enabled  him to evoke  Indra,  and 
while  the other  Pandavas  returned  to Kamyavana,  Arjuna  left for the Himalayas  to 
propitiate Shiva.
When  he arrived  in that region,  Arjuna  was attacked  by a wild boar and was going  to 
shoot  it with an arrow,  when  a hunter  from a Kirata  tribe  (a mongolian  ethnic  group) 
stopped  him, saying that he had been  pursuing  the animal  first. Both  arrows  - the hunter's 
and Arjuna's  - hit the boar  simultaneou sly, and the two started  to fight.  Arjuna  was 
amazed  by the military  skills  of the hunter,  and during  a pause  in the fight  he offered  a 
flower  garland  to the image  of Shiva  he used  to worship,  to ask for divine  help. 
Immediately the garland  appeared  on the hunter's  neck  and Arjuna  realized  the hunter 
was Shiva  himself, who had come to test him. Shiva was pleased  by Arjuna's  humility 
and devotion,  and gifted  him with  his Pasupata  astra,  also restoring  Arjuna's  other 
weapons  that had been  destro yed in the fight.
Since  Indra's  condition  had been  fulfilled,  Arjuna went  to Indra's  capital  Amaravati  at 
Indraloka  and remained  there for 5 years, also learning  the art of dancing  from Citrasena, 
one of the Gandhava  chiefs.  One of the most beautiful  and famous Apsaras,  Urvasi, 
became attracted  by Arjuna  but he rejected  her, treating  her with the respect  one shows  to 
one's  own mother;  irritated  and frustrated  in her desire,  Urvasi  cursed  Arjuna  to lose his 
virili ty - a curse  that I ndra modi fied by reducing its  effect  to one yea r only .
As they had not heard  from  Arjuna  for a long time,  the Pandavas  started  to get worried, 
but Brihadasva  Rishi  went  to see them  and reassured  them,  also telling  the story  of Nala 
and Dam ayanti,  illustrating  how patience  and loyalty to dharma finally  bring  succes s in 
spite  of the many difficultie s that one may face in life. Narada,  too, went  to see them  and 
suggested  they perform a pilgrim age. Another  illustrious  visitor,  Lomasa Rishi,  told them 
that he had recentl y seen Arjuna at Indraloka  happil y engaged  to acqui re new weapons. 
Acco mpanied  by Lomasa and Dhau mya,  the Pandavas  left for a long journey,  visiting 
Naimisharanya,  Gaya  (in present  Bihar),  Gangasagara  (the Ganges  delta  in the bay of 
Bengal),  the Vaita rani river and Prabhasa  (Soman atha)  and listening  to the stories  of the 
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great  personalities  connected  to those  places.  When  they reached  the Himalayas  they met 
Ghatotkacha,  who helped the m climb the Gandha madan a hill to visit the ashrama of Nara 
and Narayana Rishi.  
One day Draupadi  found  a saugandhika lotus  flower  and asked  Bhima to bring her more; 
Bhima followed  the intense  scent  of the flowers,  but on his way he found  a big ape who 
was resting  stretched  in the middle  of the path.  That monkey  was actuall y Hanu man,  also 
son of Vayu like Bhim a: pleased  by the kind and respectful  behavior of Bhima, Hanum an 
blessed  him and promised  he would  join the Pandavas  to help them in the upcoming 
battle.
During  their journe y, the Pandavas  met Markandeya  Rishi  again  and heard  from him the 
story  of the Fish avatara and the victor y of Subramanya  on Mahisasura.  
The inspection  mentioned  in the Ghosha  yatra  Parva refers  to another  unsucces sful plan 
hatched  by Duryodhana.  With  the purpose  of humiliating  the Pandavas,  prince 
Duryodhana  organized  a grand  display  of his opulence  for an official  journey with the 
pretext  of inspecting  the king's  cows  that were  grazing  on the pastures  at Dvaitavana,  not 
far from the place  where  the Pandavas  lived.  In this exercise  Duryodhana  brought  all his 
family  and friends  and engaged  all the royal retinue,  including  bejeweled  wives  and 
servants  carrying a lot of luggage. Unfortunately, the courtisans  set up camp  in a spot  that 
had already  been  chosen  by Citrasena,  chief  of the Gandharvas,  who easily defeated 
Duryodhana's  small army and captured  both Duryodhana  and Karna.  Informed about  the 
events,  Yudhisthi ra sent Arjuna  and Bhima to rescue  their cousins  and Citrasena,  who 
had recognized  Arjuna  (his former dance  student  on Indraloka)  was glad to deliver  the 
prisoners  to him. Doubly  humiliated,  Duryodhana  had to tolerate  Yudhisthira's 
reprimand,  and he was  scolded by  Bhish ma too when  he returned to the capital.
In a fresh  attempt  at revenge,  Duryodhana  took advantage  of the visit of the irritable 
Rishi  Durvasa  and sent him to "test"  the Pandavas  in the forest;  Dury odhana  reasoned 
that if Durvasa  had arrived  there  after the miraculous  pot had finished  its daily  work,  the 
Pandavas  would have to suf fer the wrath of the Rishi  who could not be fed.  
In that difficult  situation  Krishna  arrived  and to the greater  perplexity  of Draupadi,  he 
asked  for food  himsel f. However,  there  was a highe r purpose  to that strange  playful 
request:  when  Draupadi  gave  him the empty pot, Krishna  scratched  a bit of vegetables 
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that was stuck  to the bottom  and immediately  ate it. Precisely  at that time, Durvasa  and 
all his followers,  who were bathing  in the river before  lunch,  had a strange  feeling  almo st 
as if they had just finished  eating  a huge  meal.  It had been  created  by Krishna's  illusor y 
power,  but still they realized  they would  not be able to eat even  a morsel  of food,  and 
decided  to just leave quietly .
Another  day, Draupadi  was attacked  by Jayadratha  (king  of Sindhu  and husband  of 
Duhsala,  Duryodhana's  sister),  but the Pandavas  immediately  rescued  her. The episode 
offered  the opportunit y for a new conversation  between  Yudhisthira  and Markande ya 
Rishi  to glorify women who were  extraordina rily faithful  to their husband  - such as Sita 
the wife  of Ram a and Savitri the wife  of Saty avan.
Another  famous episode  in this section  is the meeting  between  Yudhisthira  and 
Yamaraja.  The Pandavas  were  approached  by a brahmana who had lost his aranis (the 
wooden  sticks  used  to light  the fire),  taken  away  by a deer.  Pursuing  the animal, the 
Pandavas  arrived  at a lake and decided  to rest. The Yaksha  who was the owner  of that 
land de manded  adequate answers  to his  questions  before allowing the m to take any wate r. 
As no one of his brothers  had returned  from the lake with the water,  Yudhisthira  himsel f 
finally  went  there  and rescued  his brothers  by correctly  answering  the following 
questions:
* how can  one becom e knowledgeable?  (by stud ying the shastra)
* what is  heavier ( in the sense  of "i mportant")  than earth ? (mother)
* what is  higher ( in the sense  of "noble") than sky ? (father )
* what supports  the sun?  (truth )
* what  knowledge  does  the kshatriya need  to perform his duty? (the knowledge  of 
weapons)
* what is  more  numerous  than the blades  of grass ? (thoughts)
* what is  faster  than the wind ? (the mind)
* what is  the best  type of wealth?  (the knowledge  of scriptures)
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* what loss  is not cause  of sorrow ? (the loss  of anger)
* what defines  a brahmana? (sattvic  life)
* what  is the most amazing  thing? (people  see every body  dies,  yet they never  really 
expect  they will die, too )
* what are people  look ing for  in life? (happiness)
* what is  the highest value?  (compa ssion)
Pleased,  the Yaksha  revealed  his true identity  as Yam a and blessed  Yudhisthira 
forecasting  his victo ry in the war.
Indra, too, wanted  to help his son Arjuna;  he went  to Karna  and asked  him in charity  the 
armor  (kavacha) and the ear-rings  (kundala) that protected  his life. Although  he had been 
warned  in a dream by his father  Surya, Karna decided  to comply  with Indra's  request  and 
he asked  for the Shakti weapon in exchange.  Indra agreed, but warned him that it was just 
a loan,  and he would be able to use  that weapon once  only.
The fourth  main book,  the Virata  Parva, also has 4 minor  books  about  the year of 
incognito  exile  spent  by the Pandavas  at the court  of king Virata of Matsya  desa.  Arjuna 
wrapped  all their  weapons  in a large  bunch  and hid them  on a sami tree near a 
crematorium , shaping  the bunch  in such  a way that it looked  like a dead  anim al body . 
Then  Yudhisthira  took the identit y of Kanka,  a brahmana  expert  in the scriptu res and 
passionate  about  dice games, Bhim a becam e Ballava  and was hired as chief  cook.  Arjuna 
put Urvasi's  curse  to a good  use by beco ming  the transexual  Brihannala  and taught 
dancing  to princess  Uttara  and her maidens  in the women 's apartments.  Under  the name 
of Granthika,  Nakula  became superintendent  to the horses'  stables,  and Sahadeva  as 
Tantripala  took care of the cows.  Draupadi  took the name of Sairandhr i and becam e the 
lady in waiting  for queen  Sudesna.  About  3 months  later,  Virata organized  a wrestling 
tournam ent and Bhima earned everyone's  admiration  by answering  the challenge  of a 
visiting wrestler, Ju muta,  and defeating  him in the nam e of the king.
Trouble  arrived  when  Kichaka,  commander in chief  of Virata's  army and brother  to the 
queen,  becam e attracted  by Draupadi's  beaut y and tried to take advantage  of her with the 
complicity  of the queen  herself,  who ordered  her lady in waiting  to go to Kichaka's  room 
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on the pretext  of an errand.  Draupadi  appealed  to Virata's  assembly for protection,  but 
without  any result;  from  their  part, the Pandavas  could  not risk being  recognized.  That 
night, Draupadi  lured the general to a hall in the palace where Bhi ma, disguised  in female 
attire,  could  kill him secretl y. On the next day, Draupadi  said that Kichaka  had been 
killed  by her Gandharva  husbands.  Terrified,  the queen  wanted  to ban Draupadi  from the 
kingdo m, but Draupadi asked  for 3 more  days before  leaving.
The news  of those  strange  events  reached  Duryodhana's  spies,  and the Kuru  prince 
organized  a surprise  attack  against  Virata aimed  at forcing  the Pandavas  out in the open, 
which  would  send them into another  long period of exile.  Duryodhana'  ally, Sushar ma of 
Trigarta,  attacked  Virata's  herds from south-est  and captured  the king who had gone  to 
defend  the cows.  Ballava  immediately  went  to the rescue,  so when  Duryodhana  attacked 
the capital  from  the north side,  the only warrior left in the palace  was young  prince 
Uttarakum ara. Brihannala  volunteered  to accompany  him as a charioteer,  and when  the 
prince  panicked  on the battlefield,  Brihannala  revealed  his identity  as Arjuna,  recovered 
his weapons  from  the sami tree and handing  the reins  to Uttaraku mara,  fought  the 
aggressors  back.  
Duryodhana,  however,  had made a mistake  in his calculations  and he was distraught  and 
frustrated  to learn that the incognito  year had just finished  when  the Pandavas  had been 
tracked.  The Kauravas  were not in agree ment  about  the strateg y to be followed  at that 
point;  after  a discussion  where  insults  were  exchanged,  half of the army  with the great 
generals  - Karna,  Drona,  Kripachar ya, Bhishm a and Asvattham a - stayed  to face Arjuna, 
while  one fourth  of the army  went  to guard  the cows  and the rest returned to the capital 
with Duryodhana.  Arjuna  did not stop to fight  against  the great  generals,  but rescued  the 
cows  and then  pursued  Duryodhana,  challenging  him to a fight.  Arjuna  shot the 
Sammohana weapon,  by which  all the warriors becam e unconscious,  and with 
Uttarakum ara's help he collected all their shawls  as a trophy . 
Because  the Pandavas  had not yet revealed  their true identities  to Virata,  the king 
attributed  the success  of the military  expedition  to the young prince,  and when  Kanka 
praised  Brihannala,  the king threw the dice into his face in anger.  Sairindh ri rushed  in to 
collect  Kanka's  blood  before  it hit the ground,  saying  that in that way she had saved  the 
kingdo m from  a great disgrace.  When  he learned  that the 5 strange  personalities  at his 
service  were  actuall y the Pandavas,  and hearing  the true story of the battle  from 
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Uttarakum ara, Virata  felt asham ed and tried to atone  for his offensive  behavior  by 
offering  them  his own kingdom  and the hand  of his daughter.  Yudhisthira  accepted  the 
alliance  of the Matsya  kingdom  for the imminent war, and Arjuna  suggested  that his own 
son Abhi manyu  would  be a more  suitable  husband  for the young Uttara,  whom he had 
come to love  as a daughter.
The Udyoga  Parva ("the book  of attempt s") is about  the efforts  of the Kauravas  and the 
Pandavas  to get ready  for the imminent war. Krishna  attended  the marriage  between 
Uttara and Abhi manyu, and spoke to the various  kings  in attendance, officially requesting 
alliance  pledges,  while  Balaram a intervened  to give a last chance  to Duryodhana,  and the 
purohit (royal priest) of Drupada was  sent as a m essenger,  too. 
Krishna  returned to Dvaraka  and there in the same day he received  the visit of both 
Duryodhana  and Arjuna:  on that occasion  Duryodhana  was the first to enter  the room 
where  Krishna  was sleeping,  and sat near the head  of the bed, while  Arjuna  respectfully 
remained  at the foot  of the  bed. 
Krishna  woke  up and seeing  Arjuna,  invited  him to present  his request,  but Duryodhana 
protested,  saying  he had come first and therefore  he had priorit y in presenting  his request 
for alliance  in the war. Krishna  solved  the proble m by offering  them  to choose  between 
his large  army and his own personal  presence;  however  he would  just act as advisor  and 
not as a warrior and he would  abstain  from  fighting.  Arjuna  chose  to have  Krishna  at his 
side as his charioteer,  and Duryodhana  was very happy  to get the army. On the other 
hand,  Balara ma completely  withdrew  from  the scene  and left for a pilgr image  until the 
end of  the war.
King  Salya of Madra  desa,  brother  of Madri  (Pandu's  second  wife)  went  to Upaplavya 
camp to offer  his alliance  to the Pandavas,  but Duryodhana  rushed  to the spot and 
organized  a grand  welco me for Salya and his army, pretending  to be in charge  of the 
camp. Pleased,  Salya offered  a boon  to the camp  organizer  and Duryodhana  immediately 
asked  for his alliance  in the war. Aghast,  Salya went  to Yudhisthira  to consult  with him, 
and it was decided  that Salya would  take Duryodhana's  side in the army  but he would  do 
his best to discourage  Karna du ring the battle.
There  were  many  other  discus sions:  in the assem bly of the Kauravas,  Bhish ma was 
favorable  to returning  the kingdom  to the Pandavas,  while  Karna  proposed  that they 
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should  be sent into exile  for anothe r 12 years. Dhritarastra  suggested  that the Pandavas 
should  be offered  the choice  between  going  into the forest  and moving  to Dvaraka  with 
Krishna.  Sanja ya and Vidura  went  privatel y to Dhritarastra  reminding  him of his 
responsibilities,  and since  that was not enough, they asked  the great  sannyasi Sanat sujata 
to talk to him  and convince  him to change  his ways, as  we read in the Sanat sujata Parva .
In the meantim e in the Pandava's  camp, Krishna  decided  to personall y go as a messenger 
to the Kurus'  capital:  the journe y is described  in the section  entitled  Bhagavat  Yana, "the 
Lord's mission".  After  dining  and spending  the night in Vidura's  house  instead  of 
attending  the official  banquet  organized  by Dhritarastra,  Krishna  went  to the Kurus' 
assembly for a last attempt at reconciliation.  Duryodhana  declared  that he would  not give 
the Pandavas  even  the smallest  piece of  land and stormed  out angri ly. 
Dhritarastra  commented that it was impos sible  for him to intervene  in any way to change 
Duryodhana's  decision,  and Krishna  replied  that sometimes to save a dynast y one has to 
sacrifice  a member of the family. Krishna  suggested  that the war could  still be avoided  by 
delivering  Duryodhana,  Sakuni,  Karna  and Duhsasana  as prisoners  in the hands  of 
Yudhisthira,  and Duryodhana  was infor med by his spies.  Furious,  the prince  went  to 
consult  with his supporters  and started  to organize  Krishna's  arrest.  Laughing,  Krshna 
showed  his universal  form  to Dhritarastra,  Drona,  Bhish ma, Vidura  and Sanja ya before 
leaving  the assem bly, and declared  that now the Kauravas  were  the only ones responsible 
for the  consequences  of their own choices.
Before  returning  to the Pandavas,  Krishna  went  to Karna to reveal  him the secret  of his 
birth  and convince  him to join his brothers,  but Karna  could  not betra y his loyalty 
towards  those  who had always  supported  him. Vidura  and Kunti  too tried to convince 
Karna,  supported  by Surya's personal  witness,  but to no avail:  all Karna  could  do was to 
promi se to only  kill Arjuna, so that Kunti would still be left  with 5 sons.
The last envoy  was the king of Uluka  (from  whose  name  the Uluka  Dutagamana  Parva, 
or "the book  of Uluka's  mission"),  who had beco me a vassal  of Yudhisthira  during 
Arjuna's  dig-vijaya. This king of Uluka,  named Vrihanta,  should  not be confused  with 
Uluka the  son of  Sakuni.
When  all the attempts  at reconciliation  had failed,  the armies  assemblied at Kurukshetra, 
a famous holy place  about  160 km from the capital  of the Indian  nation  (anciently  known 
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as Hastinapura).  The ancient  circle  of 128 km includes  a great  number  of temple s and 
sacred  lakes  that were  pilgrim age places  even  before  Krishna's  appearance,  since  the 
avatara Parasuram a had gone  there  to bathe  for purification  after his military  camp aign 
against  the kshatriyas  that had revolted  against  Dhar ma. According  to the Matsya  purana 
this was the most sacred  region  in Dvapara  yuga and one of the 16 mahajanapadas 
("mo st important  places") in Ja mbudvip a (planet E arth).
The precise  place  of the ancient  battle  is known  as the place  presently  called  Jyotisar, 
near Thanesar,  Kurukshetra  district,  in the Indian  State  of Hary ana, but the time of the 
battle  is very controve rsial.  Based  on the planetary  references  quoted  in the text of the 
Mahabharata itself,  and particula rly on the rare event  of the 3 subsequent  eclipses  in one 
single  month,  various  scholars  have  proposed  different  dates.  According  to S. 
Balakrishna  the date is 2559  BCE,  while  according  to I. N. Iyengar  is 1478  BCE, 
according  to B. N. Achar  is 3067,  according  to P. V. Holey  is precisel y 13th Nove mber 
3143,  while  according  to P. V. Vartak  it is 16th October  5561  and for K. Sadananda  the 
22 Nove mber  3067 - alwa ys before the Current E ra. 
Trad itionally  the hindu  lunar  calendar  celebrates  the "appearance"  of Bhagavad  gita on 
the day of Margasirsa  sukla  trayodasi,  that may fall at the end of October,  in Novem ber 
or even  in early Decem ber, according  to the coincidences  with the solar  calendar;  the 
difference s of opinion  on the precise  year are due to the fact that the planetar y positions 
described  in the text have  occur red several  times in history . Conventional  historians  and 
archeologists  tend  to shift  the Kurukshetra  battle  towards  1500  BCE,  if not later. 
Unfortunately  the dating  of historical  events  in India  is subject  to the confusion  created 
by the conventional  western  acade mia, that tends  to reject  the idea of an antiquit y greater 
of that afforded  by the conventional  calculation  on the developm ent of the ancient 
civilizations  and the passage  from  a "pre-history " where  all human  beings  were 
uncivilized  to a "histor y" where  mankind  started  to develop  culturall y, and more 
precisely  in regard  to Indian  history  from  the supposed  dates  of the so-called  "aryan 
invasion".
Another  ideological  obstacle  is the disbelief  of conventional  historians  towards  the lists 
of kings  included  in the vedic  scriptu res. They calculate  that there  were  18 dynasties  over 
26 generations  (and thus about 1050  years) between  the birth of Maharaja  Parikshit  or his 
grand-g randchild  Adhisim akrishna  and the crowning  of Mahapadm a Nanda,  that 
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historians  set in 382 BCE.  Of course  this calculation  is based  on only 18 years for each 
reign, which is  a ve ry low esti mate.
Vedic  Tradition  does  not give much importance  to precise  histor ical dates,  if not to 
connect  the circumstances  of a particular  event  with cyclic factors,  as for example  the 
beginning  of Kali yuga or the occur rence  of particular  positions  of the planets  and the 
stars  influencing  the events  on earth.  More  relevant  factors  are those  referring  to the 
political and m ilitary situation  of the various  kingdo ms and dynasties  of the tim es, that all 
participated  to the battle  with the only exception  of Rukmi  (the brother  of Rukmini wife 
of Krishna)  whose alliance  was rejected  by both sides.
In the Pandavas'  army,  besides  the 5 brothe rs and their  5 sons from  Draupadi,  we also 
find Abhi manyu  (the 16 year old son of Subhadra  and Arjuna),  Iravan  (son of the Nagini 
Ulupi  and Arjuna) and Ghatotkacha  (son  of the Rakshasi  Hidimbi  and Bhim a). There was 
the entire  family  of Draupadi  - Drupada  king of Panchala,  Dhrstadyumna  the son of 
Drupada  specifically  born for that war, Sikhandi(ni ) the adopted  son of Drupada,  and the 
other  sons of Draupada  named  Dhristaketu,  Yudha manyu,  Satyajit and Uttam auja.  There 
was king Virata  of Matsya  desa with  his sons Sveta,  Uttara  and Sankha,  Kuntibhoja 
(Kunti's  adoptive  father)  and his son Purujit,  Dhristaketu  son of Sisupala  and king of 
Cedi,  Sahadeva  son of Jarasandha  and king of Magadha,  and Satyak i and Cekitana  of the 
Yadavas.  
On the Pandavas'  side there  was also the king of Kasi (Varanasi)  who was a vassal  of the 
kingdo m of Koshala  (Ayodhy a), Sarangadhvaja  the king  of Pand ya (with capital  at 
Madurai,  south  of the present  Tamil  Nadu,  from  river Kaveri  to Kanyaku mari),  the king 
of Telinga  or Telangana  (presently  Tamil  Nadu)  and 5 princes  of Kekaya,  headed  by the 
eldest  Brihadkshatra,  who had been  exiled  from their kingdom.  There were  also the 
generals  of Param a Kamboja  (present  Tajikistan)  who did not have  a king;  they belonged 
to the "external"  territories or Bahlikas  that did not follow  the Vedic  system  (Kirata, 
Gandhara, Barbara,  Yavana, Saka, etc).
The Pandavas'  army  had 7 akshauhinis or batallions  for a total of  1,530,900 war riors, plus 
a non-specified  number  of non-organized  troops  coming  from the barbarians'  provinces. 
One akshauhini consists  of 21,870  war chariots,  21,870  war elephants,  65,610  horses and 
109,350 foot  soldiers. 
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In the army  of Duryodhana,  that commanded 11 akshauhinis (2,405,708  warrio rs) there 
were  also his 99 brothers  with their  sons.  There was the old and extremely  powerful 
warrio r Bhishm a, his uncle  Bahlika  (Santanu's  brother),  Somadatta  son of Bahlika  and 
Bhurisrava  son of Somadatta.  There were  the acharya Drona and his son Asvattham a, 
and Kripachar ya the brother  of Drona's  wife.  Sakuni  (brothe r of Gandhari  the mother  of 
Duryodhana)  was there with his son Uluka  and several  other  relatives  from the Gandhara 
kingdo m, and there  was also Sudakshina  of Kamboja  (brother  of Duryodhana's  wife).  All 
Duryodhana's  friends  were  there,  beginning  with Jayadratha  the king of Panjab,  Sindhu, 
Sauvira  (Abhira ) and Sibi (this is why he was also called  Saibya ), Bhagadatta  the king of 
Pragj yotisha  with  his terrifying war elephants,  Susharm a of Trigarta with his brothers  and 
their  sons,  Brihadbala  and Vatsaraja  of Kosala,  king  Nila of Mahish mati, the other 
Kekaya  princes  that were  the rivals  of Brihadkshatra,  and Vinda  and Anuvinda  of Avanti 
in Madh yadesa.  King  Salya of Madra,  brother of Madri,  had been  forced  to join the 
Kauravas,  while  Kritava rma and his son Matrikavat  had been  instructed  by Krishna  to 
fight  in favor  of Duryodhana  leading  Krishna's  personal  army,  called  Nara yani sena and 
consisting  of 1 million  cowherd  men coming  from Mathura.  Among  the other  supporte rs 
of Duryodhanas  there  were  the Raksha sas called  Alambusha  and Alayudha,  the tribal 
king of Kalinga,  and several  chieftains  of the barbarians'  territories, such  as Kamboja, 
Yavana,  Saka, Mahishaka,  Tushara, Dravida, Usinara,  Pulinda  and Kolisarpa. 
Karna  king of Anga,  his son Vrishasena  and the other  sons of Adiratha  took part in the 
battle only  after  Bhishm a's fall.
The rules of the kshatriyas' chivalry  code  would  be gradually  broken  in the course  of the 
war, thus marking  the beginning  of the sad period of the Kali yuga. According  to the 
rules  of the dharma  yuddha ("battle  according  to the ethical  principles")  the fight  cannot 
begin  before  sunrise  or continue  after sunset.  Each  warrior can only engage  a warrior of 
equal  strength, both i n skills  and in weaponry . It is not allowed to use  force against  a non-
fighter  (hum an or animal)  or against  anyone  who has no weapons,  has surrendered  or lost 
consciousne ss, or is looking i n a different  direction.
The Bhishma  Parva ("the book  of Bhishm a") is the first section  of the epic's  core that we 
mentioned  at the beginning  of the chapter.  Before  the start of the great battle,  Vyasa went 
to meet Dhritarastra  and offered  him the blessing  of becoming  able to see what  was 
happening  at Kurukshetra;  when  Dhritarastra  refused  to accept  it, saying  that he did not 
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want  to risk seeing  the death of his own sons,  Vyasa gave  this gift to Sanja ya. In this way 
Sanjaya was able  to describe  to Dhr itarastra all the  events of  the war.
The description  starts  with the list of the various  armie s coming  from all regions  of the 
earth  and a study  of their  kingdom s in the sections  entitled Jambu-khanda  Nirmana 
Parva and Bhumi  Parva, respectively  regarding  the region  of Jambudvipa  and Earth  in 
general (called Bhu mi).
After  describing  the two armie s, Sanja ya watched  Arjuna,  who was distraught  at the idea 
that the imminent battle  would  see all those  people  killing  each  others,  although  they 
were  brothers,  sons,  friends,  allies,  teachers,  relatives  and parents.  Beside s, an enormou s 
number  of kings and warriors would  die, thus depriving  their kingdo ms of the necessary 
protection in future. 
The battle  could  not be avoided  and was meant to protect  the kingdo m from  bad rulers, 
but the demise  of so many men would  throw  their familie s and kingdoms  in a situation  of 
great  difficulty  and suffering,  and for people  it would  beco me harder  to live in an ethical 
way and p rogress  at individual and collective levels.  
Faced  with such a difficult  dilemma, Arjuna  wondered  what  was the purpose  of life, the 
supre me principle that a hu man being should follow  in his  actions.
Krishna  comforted  and instructed  Arjuna  revealing  to him the science  of yoga in 
Bhagavad Gita ("the Lord's song"),  consisting  of 700 verses  divided into 18 chapters:
1. Arjuna visada  yoga: the y oga of  Arjuna's  sorrow
2. Sankhya  yoga: the y oga of  anal ysis and enum eration
3. Karma  yoga: the yo ga of  action
4. Jnana yoga: the y oga of  knowledge
5. Sannyasa  yoga: the yo ga of  renunciation
6. Dhyana  yoga: the y oga of  meditation
7. Vijnana yoga: the y oga of  applied knowledge
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8. Taraka  brahma yoga: the y oga of  liberating spiritual consciousnes s
9. Raja guhya yoga : the yo ga of  the supre me secret
10. Vibhuti yoga: the y oga of  powe rs
11. Visva rupa  darsana  yoga: the yo ga of  conte mplation  of the unive rsal form
12. Bhakti yoga: the y oga of  devotion
13. Prakriti-purusha-viveka  yoga: the yoga of unde rstanding  nature  as distinct  from  the 
personal  principle
14. Guna traya  vibhaga yoga: the yo ga of  distinguishing  between the 3 gunas
15. Purushottama  yoga: the y oga of  the Supreme Person
16. Daivasura  sampad  vibhaga  yoga: the yoga of distinguishing  between  the divine  and 
demoniac  character istics
17. Sraddha  traya vibhaga yoga : the y oga of  distinguishing  between  the 3 form s of faith
18. Moksha  yoga: the y oga of  liberation
Here are so me verses  from  Bhagavad gita: 
"The embodied  soul who lives in this body (passes  from one form  to the other ) as from 
childhood to yo uth to old age,  and similarly at the end  of this body  (he passes  on). A wise 
person  is not confused  by this (passage).  Just like a man abandons  clothes  that have 
beco me torn or worn  out and acqui res other and new clothes,  in the same way one leaves 
the damaged  body and accepts  another new body . Through  Buddhi  Yoga one can beco me 
free alread y in this life from both bad and good  (actions/reactions).  Therefore  you should 
engage  in yoga, the best  way to deal with actions."  (2.13, 22, 50)
"The  Prajapati  originally  manife sted the praja (creatu res) togethe r with the yajna (the 
sacred  action)  and said,  ‘By these  (sacred  actions)  you will beco me more  and more 
prosperous;  these  (sacred  actions)  will supply you with whatever  you desire.  The Devas 
will be pleased/fed  by you through  these  (sacred  actions),  and they (the Devas)  will 
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bless/f eed you (in return); in this way both sides  will recip rocate  in a positive  way and 
you all will attain  the highest  benefit.  Satisfied  by yajna (sacred  action),  the Devas  will 
give you whatever  pleasures  you desire.  One who eats what  is given  by them  without 
offering  anything in retu rn is just a thief."  (3.10, 11, 12)
"A Yogi  should  constantly  practice  (meditation)  on the Self by living  alone  in a secluded 
place,  carefull y keeping  the mind  and the consciousnes s under  control, free from 
expectations  and fro m attach ment s (to material  acquisitions)." (6.10 )
"This  knowledge  is supreme  and deep,  the purest and most sublim e knowledge,  and is 
understood  through direct experience.  It is eternal and in accordance  with dharma, and its 
application brings happiness."  (9.2)
"Humility,  freedo m from  arrogance  and hostilit y, tolerance,  simplicity,  the personal 
relationship  with the spiritual  teacher,  cleanliness,  steadiness,  self-control,  renunciation, 
the absence  of false  (bodil y) identification,  the perception  of suffering  in the cycle of 
deaths  and births,  detach ment  from  home  and family, equani mity  in favorable  and 
unfavorable  circum stance s, constant  dedication  to spiritual  life, the desire  to live in a 
quiet  and isolated  place,  detach ment  from the mass of people,  the unde rstanding  of the 
importance  of spiritual  realization  and the effort  to unde rstand  Reality:  all this is 
knowledge,  and the rest is nothing but ignorance." (13.8-12 )
The text of Bhagavad  gita ends showing  Arjuna  in a balanced  state of mind,  determined 
to perform  his duty, but when  Arjuna  had beco me free from his doubts,  it was 
Yudhisthira's  turn to do something  that amazed  the warriors  assem bled for the battle. 
Casting  off his weapons  and armor,  he descended  from his chariot  and walked  towa rds 
the Kurus'  line to offer  his homage to the elders  of the family and his teachers,  and ask 
their permission  to engage  in the battle.  After  receiving  the blessings  of Bhish ma, Drona, 
Kripa and Saly a, Yudhisthira returned to his chariot and the battle finally started.
The vyuha chosen  by Dhristadh yumna (com mander in chief  of the Pandavas'  army)  was 
the one called  Vajra, "lightning"  or "diamond",  as a response  to the Garuda  vyuha, "the 
eagle"  of the Kauravas.  In the Vajra  vyuha the speed  of attack  is particularl y important 
and therefore  the first line utilizes  short -range  weapons,  while  the archers  are in the 
second  line. In the Garuda  vyuha the kings  march ahead,  the horsem en protect  the wings 
and the elephants  constitute  the external  perimeter  of the body . Bhishm a was on his 
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chariot  in the middle  of the battle  formation,  as if riding  an eagle.  Arjuna's  son 
Abhi manyu,  who was only 16 years old, penetrated  the Kurus'  formation  and attacked 
Bhish ma, while  Salya was engaged  against  Virata's  sons - Uttara  and Sveta  - who were 
finally killed also with Bhish ma's help.
On the second  day of the battle,  the Pandavas  arranged  their forces  in the Krauncha 
vyuha ("heron")  with  Draupada  at the head  and Yudhisthira  at the tail. Like on the 
previous  day, the Kauravas  were  facing  west and the Pandavas  east. The Kauravas,  too, 
used the same form ation,  with Bhurisrava  and Salya on the left wing  and Somadatta  and 
Kamboja  on the right wing.  Arjuna  realized  that the priority was to stop Bhishm a and 
launched  an attack,  but Bhish ma was well protected  and the clash  went  on for many 
hours.  In the meantim e Drona  and Dhristad yumna were  engaged  in a similar  duel;  at 
some point  Bhim a rushed  to help  Dhristadyumna,  whose  bow  had been  broken. 
Duryodhana  sent the army of the Kalinga  king to attack  Bhim a, but almost  all these 
soldiers  were  killed.  Satyaki was finall y able to eliminate  Bhish ma's charioteer,  and the 
uncontrolled horses  dragged  him away from  the battlefield.
On the third  day Bhish ma again  arrayed the Garuda  vyuha but riding  at its head,  while 
the Pandavas'  army was arranged  in the Chandrakala  vyuha  ("moon  sickle"),  with Bhima 
and Arjuna  respectively  at the right  and left points.  The Kauravas  focused  their  attack 
against  Arjuna,  who fought  back  by creating  a fortification  of arrows.  Abhi manyu  and 
Satyaki engaged  Sakuni  and his Gandhara  army, while  Bhima and his son Ghatotkacha 
attacked  Duryodhana  at the rear; when  Duryodhana  was hit and lost consciousne ss, his 
charioteer  carried  him away from  the battle  and his soldiers  dispersed.  When  he awoke, 
Duryodhana  rushed  back  into the fight,  venting  his anger  against  Bhish ma and accusing 
him of not putting sufficient  effort  against  the Pandavas.  Smitten  by the unjust  remark, 
Bhish ma renewed his  attacks,  while A rjuna was  still reluctant to fight  against hi m.
On the fourth  day many  of Dury odhana's  brothe rs attacked  Abhi manyu,  and Arjuna  and 
Bhima went  to help him. Bhima jump ed to the ground  and held his mace up to face a 
horde  of war elephants,  and in the battle  he killed  8 of Duryodhana's  brothers,  but was hit 
in the chest  by an arrow.  Ghatotkacha  rushed  to his rescue  and defeated  Bhagadatta.  At 
the end of the day Dury odhana  again  complained  with Bhishm a, but Bhishm a replied  that 
the Pandavas  could not be defeated  because  they were lo yal to dharma.
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On the fifth day the Kauravas  took the Makara  vyuha ("crocodile  formation")  and the 
Pandavas  the Syena  vyuha ("hawk  form ation").  Satyaki and his 10 sons were  attacked  by 
Bhurisrava;  only Satyak i survived,  rescued  by Bhima. Bhish ma arrived  to engage  Bhim a, 
but he withdrew  when  Sikhandi  arrived.  There was also a clash  between  Arjuna  and 
Asvattha ma.
On the sixth  day the Pandavas  took the Makara  vyuha  and the Kauravas  the Krauncha 
vyuha, headed  by Dhristadyumn a and Drona  respectively.  Duryodhana  was seriously 
wounded  in a clash  with Bhima and in the night  he had to be medicated  by Bhishm a. On 
the seventh  day the Mandala  vyuha ("orbi t") of the Kauravas  was opposed  to the 
Pandavas'  Vajra vyuha. Drishtad yumna  defeated  Duryodhana,  Yudhisthira  defeated 
Sruta yu and Sahadeva  defeated  Salya, while  Drona prevailed  on Virata, Bhurisrava  on 
Dhristaketu,  and Bhagadatta  on Ghatotkacha.  Bhagadatta,  the king  of Pragj yotisha 
(present  Assam ), was famous for his army of elephants  headed  by a gigantic  pachiderm 
named Supratika.
On the eighth  day the Kauravas  used the Urmi  vyuha ("ocean  waves  form ation")  and the 
Pandavas  the Sringata  vyuha  ("horns formation").   Bhima killed  8 more  of Duryodhana's 
brothers,  while  Alambusha  killed  Iravan,  the son of Arjuna  and the Nagini  Ulup i, who 
had killed  6 sons of Sakuni  and defeated  Sakuni  hims elf. As soon  as he heard  about 
Iravan's  death,  Ghatotkacha  started  slaughtering  the Kaurava  army and engaged  in a fight 
with Bhagadatta  who had come to face him. Helped  by Bhim a and Arjuna,  Ghatotkacha 
fought  back  the enemi es. That night  Dury odhana  complained  again  and told Bhish ma he 
had to m ake som e more efforts.
On the ninth  day the Kauravas  arranged the Sarvatobhadra  vyuha ("good  on all sides")  to 
protect  Bhish ma. Abhim anyu  defeated  Alambusha  but was attacked  by Bhish ma. Arjuna 
fought  against  Drona:  to his Vayuvastra  ("wind  weapon")  Drona  opposed  the Sailastra 
("stone  weapon").  Krishna  encouraged  Arjuna  to kill Bhishm a, but without  much 
succes s; at some point  Krishna  becam e angry and personally  rushed  against  Bhishm a, 
armed with a chariot wheel, but he was  stopped  by Arjuna who  reminded  him his promise 
of not engaging in the battle.
Then  Krishna  suggested  that they should  go and ask Bhish ma himself how the Pandavas 
would  be able to defeat  him:  Bhish ma simply  replied  that he would  not fight  against  a 
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woman.  Thus  on the tenth  day of the battle,  the Pandavas  put Sikhandi/Sikhandini  at the 
head  of their formation,  and behind  him (her) Arjuna started  to shoot  arrows  at Bhish ma. 
Finally  the great  warrior fell, his body pierced  by so many arrows  that it did not even 
touch the ground.
The fight  halted  and both Kauravas  and Pandavas  gathered  around  Bhish ma to offer  their 
homage  to the great fallen  hero.  Bhishm a asked  Arjuna  for some water  and a head  rest, 
and Arjuna  complied  by shooting  some arrows  into the ground  and evoking  Mother 
Ganges.  Bhish ma had the power  to choose  the moment of his own death  and had 
promi sed Santanu  that he would  not die without  ensuring  the protection  of Hastinapura, 
therefore  he remained  in that position  until the end of the war, while  the fight  moved  to 
another  area to avoid  disturbing  him. That night,  when  everybod y returned  to their tents, 
Karna  went  to see Bhish ma to apologize  for his past enmity  and offer  his homage, and 
Bhish ma reminded  him that he was son of Kunti.  Tormented  at that thought,  Karna 
begged  Bhishm a not to reveal  that secret  to anyone,  and Bhish ma promi sed he would 
only tell Dur yodhana, to m ake him realize the extent of  Karna's  affection  and loya lty.
The Drona  Parva begins  the evening  of the tenth day of the war, with the consecration  of 
Drona as  com mander in chief of  the Kaurava army  (Dronabhisheka) on Karna's  request.  
On the eleventh  day the Kauravas  were  arranged  in the Sakata  vyuha ("cart form ation") 
and the Pandavas  in the Krauncha  vyuha ("heron form ation")  with Karna and Arjuna 
respectively  at the head  of the two armie s. Drona  organized  a plan to capture  Yudhisthira 
as a hostage,  but the attempt failed  thanks  to Arjuna's  intervention.  That night  Drona  and 
Duryodhana  spoke  in the assem bly on how to neutralize  Arjuna,  and Sushar ma the king 
of Trigarta swore in front of the fire that he  was deter mined  to kill Arjuna even at  the cost 
of his own life. Susharm a was tied by a blood pact(samsaptaka) to his 3 brothers  and 35 
sons,  and all of them  engaged  in battle  against  Arjuna,  while  Drona  tried to capture 
Yudhisthira.  Karna  engaged  in a fight  against  Virata,  Bhim a defeated  Salya  in a mace 
duel,  Vrishasena  (the son of Karna)  fought  against  Satanika  (the son of Nakula)  and 
Abhi manyu had  several duels,  too. 
On the 12th day the Samsaptakas  (Sushar ma and his family)  rode at the head  of the 
Chandrakala  vyuha ("half  moon formation")  to attack  Arjuna,  and Arjuna  engaged  them 
in battle,  entrusting  Saty ajit (Drupada's  brother ) with  the protection of Yudhisthi ra. While 
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Arjuna  launched  his Vayuvastra,  Drona  attacked  Yudhisthira,  defeating  the army  of 
Drupada  and killing  Satyajit, Satanika,  Kshem a, Dridhasena  and Vasudana.  Yudhisthira 
barely escaped  while  Bhim a, Abhimanyu  and Satyaki were busy fighting  off the attack  of 
Bhagadatta  and his elephants.  The 3 Pandava  warriors lost their chariots  but survived  the 
attack;  Bhima  sneaked  under  the elephant  Supratika,  that started  wheeling  around  trying 
to catch  him. Fearing  that Bhim a had been  killed,  Yudhisthira  launched  Drupada's  army 
to the rescue,  but Bhagadatta  killed  Dasarna  and Ruciparva.  Yudhisthira  too intervened 
but without  succes s and finally  Arjuna  arrived  and knocked  off Bhagadatta's  weapons; 
Bhagadatta  evoked  the Vaishnavastra  against  Arjuna,  but Krishna  stood  up and absorbed 
the missile into his own chest.  Finally  Arjuna  killed  Bhagadatta  and his elephant,  then he 
turned  to face Sakuni's  brothers  Vrishala  and Achala,  downing  them both with a single 
arrow.  Sakuni  rushed  on, but he was defeated  by Arjuna.  Finally  there  was a duel 
between  Arjuna  and Karna  - Karna  shot the Agne yastra  ("fire  weapon")  and Arjuna 
replied with the Varunastra ("water weapon"). 
On the 13th day the Samsaptakas  engaged  Arjuna  in the north  corner of the battlefield, 
while  Drona  advanced  against  Yudhisthi ra. The other Pandavas  were busy trying to break 
Drona's  Chakra  vyuha ("disc  formation"),  but that secret  was only known  to very few 
people:  Krishna  and his son Pradyumna,  and Arjuna  and his son Abhi manyu  - who only 
knew  how to get inside, but not how to get out. 
In the section  entitled Abhimanyu-vadha  Parva ("the killing of Abhimanyu")  Yudhisthira 
asked  Arjuna's  son to help them,  promi sing they would  all immediately  follow  him. 
Abhi manyu  broke  into the middle  of the enemy  form ation,  fighting  valiantly  and killing 
the son of Asm aka and the brother  of Salya, and sending  Salya himsel f unconscious.  The 
Pandavas  tried to follow  him but their path was obstructed  by Jayad ratha,  who closed  the 
formation  again.  Abhimanyu  was then surrounded:  Karna  hit him from  the back  breaking 
his bow,  Kritavar ma killed  his horses, Kripachar ya killed  the two charioteers,  and Drona 
destroyed  his sword.  When  Abhimanyu  remained  disarmed and defensele ss, he was 
simultaneou sly attacked  by all the great generals  - Drona,  Kripa,  Karna,  Asvattha ma, 
Kritvarma  and Brihadbala  - plus a great  number  of other  warriors.  Abhim anyu  fought 
very  bravely : he killed  Brihadbala  (king  of Koshala),  Asvaketu  (son of the king  of 
Magadha)  and Lakshm ana the son of Duryodhana.  He fought  off the attack  from 
Duhsasana,  broke  Karna's  bow,  killed  Vatsatiya,  Satyasrava,  Rukm aratha  and 
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Vrindaraka,  but in the end he had to succu mb to the numb er of his assailants.  Finally  the 
son of Duhsasana  smashed his head  with  the mace, finishing  him off. One of 
Duryodhana's  brothers,  Yuyutsu,  was so disgusted  by this behavior  shown  by the 
Kauravas  that he abandoned  the war.
Arjuna  returned to the camp after  defeating  the Samsaptaka s; when  he was informed 
about  Abhimanyu's  death,  he was overwhelmed  by the pain and swore  that he would  kill 
Jayadratha  before  the sunset  of the next day - failing  which,  he would  commit suicide. 
Duryodhana's  spies  infor med the Kauravas,  who set Jayadratha's  protection  as their  top 
priority.
On the 14th day the Kauravas  created  a combined  form ation  compo sed by the Sakata 
vyuha ("the cart") in front,  the Padma vyuha ("the  lotus")  in the back,  and the Suci mukha 
("the  needle")  in the middle  of the Padma  vyuha to protect  Jayadratha.  Arjuna  easily 
penetrated  the Sakata  vyuha defended  by Durmarshan a (one of Dury odhana's  brothe rs) 
and defeated  Duhsasana  and his elephants.  Krishna  advised  Arjuna  not to stop to fight 
against  Drona but to find Jayadratha first. Kritavar ma, Sudakshina and Srutayuddha faced 
Arjuna  to stop him and Drona  joined  them, but Arjuna shot a Brah mastra and wiped  them 
away.  Sruta yuddha  threw  his mace  against  Krishna  but the weapon  bounced  back  and 
killed  him instead.  Arjuna  penetrated  more  deeply  into the enemy formation,  and killed 
Sruta yu and Ac yutay u. 
Duryodhana  procured  a mantra armor  from Drona  and stood  in front  of Jayadratha  to 
protect  him,  but Arjuna  launched  the Manavastra  ("the  mind  weapon").  To defend 
Jayadratha  then came 8 maharathis ("great chariots",  meaning  generals  that could  each 
engage  1000 warriors simultaneou sly), supported by many  military  divisions.  On that day 
Arjuna  and Satyaki alone  killed  7 akshauhinis of the Kaurava  army  in order to 
accomplish their mis sion.  
In the meantim e Drona was still trying to take Yudhisthira  prisoner,  and the fight  becam e 
furious  on both  sides.  Ghatotkacha  killed  Alambush a, Drona  killed  Brihatkshatra, 
Dristaketu  (the son of Sisupala),  Sahadeva  (the son of Jarasandha)  and Kshatradhar ma 
(the son of Dhristadyumna).  Yudhisthira  was worried  about  Arjuna  and sent first Satyaki 
and then Bhima  to help.  Satyaki faced  Kritava rma, Drona,  Dury odhana  and his brothers 
including  Duhsasana,  but although  he defeated  Duhsasana,  he did not kill him because  he 
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wanted  to leave  him for Bhim a. Karna  tried  to stop Bhima, helped  by Duryodhana's 
brothers, but Bhim a killed 32 of them;  in the end Karna defeated  Bhima, but honoring the  
promi se he made  to Kunti he did not ki ll him.
Satyaki kept  advancing  and had almo st reached  Arjuna,  but he was stopped  by 
Bhurisrava:  he fell and was about  to be beheaded,  when  Krishna  told Arjuna  to intervene 
to stop that action,  that was against  the rules.  Arjuna  shot an arrow,  cutting  off 
Bhurisrava's  hand:  Bhurisrava  complained  about  the unannounced  attack,  but Arjuna 
remind ed him how Abhim anyu  had been  killed and Bhurisrava,  recognizing  his fault, 
stopped  fighting  and sat in meditation.  Satyaki rushed  against  him and beheaded  him 
before  anyone  could  stop him, then he attacked  Karna  to distract  him from protecting 
Jayadratha.
The sun was going  to set and Jayadratha  was still protected  by a great  number  of 
warrio rs, therefore  Krishna  launched  his Sudarshana  disc to cover  the sun: darkness  fell 
and Jayad ratha,  thinking  that night  had come, finall y felt safe.  Then on Krishna's  order, 
Arjuna  shot the Pasupata  astra  he had received  from Shiva:  Jayad ratha's  head  was cut off 
and flew  away.  Following  Krishna's  instructions,  Arjuna  shot a series  of arrows  that 
bounced  Jayadratha's  head  far away and off the ground,  to the place  where 
Vriddhakshatra,  Jayad ratha's  father,  was sitting  in meditation  for the evening  rituals  in 
the Kauravas'  encampment. Thus the head  fell on to Vriddhakshatra's  lap, and when  he 
stood  up it rolled  to the ground:  the curse aimed at anyone  who would  make Jayad ratha's 
head  fall to the ground  rebounded  on the same person  who had pronounced  it, and it was 
Vriddhakshatra's  head to burst into one thousand  pieces.  
Krishna  recalled  the Suda rshana  and the sun shone  again  before  setting,  and Arjuna 
recalled  the Pasupata  astra.  Duryodhana  panicked and Drona agreed  to continue  the battle 
in spite  of the night fall.  Bhim a killed Bahlika  and 12 more  of Dur yodhana's  brothers,  and 
Satyaki killed Som adatta.
Karna  launched  a powerful  attack  but Krishna  prevented  Arjuna  from  facing  him, 
sending  Ghatotkacha  to fight  him back:  the young Rakshasa  killed  the horses  of Karna's 
chariot  and the Rakshasa  Halayudha  who protected  him. Karna realized  he was in serious 
danger  and was forced  to use the Shakti  weapon  he had received  from Indra and was 
keeping  aside with the purpose  of killing A rjuna.
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On his part, Ghatotkacha  realized  he would  not be able to repel  the Shakti.  He accepted 
his imminent death,  but he wanted  to do as much damage as possible  to the Kauravas 
with his  own demi se, so he expanded  his body to such  a size that when  he fell, he  crushed 
and killed over 400 thousand  warrio rs. The death  of brave Ghatotkacha gave great pain to 
the Pandavas  and gladdened  Duryodhana,  who finall y allowed  the fight  to stop.  The 
warrio rs lay down  to rest on the battlefield  without  returning  to the camp,  and 
Duryodhana  took the opportunit y to go and accuse  Drona  of favoring  the Pandavas  - the 
same accusation  he had repeatedly  thrown at Bhish ma. 
At that time Drona  realized  how his life and his choices  had been  dictacted  by the wrong 
motivations,  and becam e disgusted  with  himself. Here  end the two sections  entitled 
Jayadratha  vadha and Ghatotkacha  vadha.
The next section,  entitled  Drona  vadha ("the  killing  of Drona")  is the most important 
among  the books  dealing  with the war. Almost  all the warrio rs on both sides  are killed 
here.  Duryodhana  divided  the Kaurava  army  in two parts,  personally  leading  one and 
leaving  Drona  in charge  of the other.  On the 15th day of the battle Duryodhana  and 
Satyaki, who used to be good  friends,  faced  each other  in a duel,  both weeping  on their 
shattered  relationship.  Satyaki defeated  Duryodhana  but left the camp  and did not fight 
against  him any more.
Drona  raged  on, killing  Virata, Drupada  and his 3 grandsons,  reawakening  the desire  for 
revenge  in Dhristad yumna,  who had taken  birth specifically  to kill Drona.  But how to 
defeat  the great warrio r?
Krishna  suggested  to weaken  Drona's  deter mination  by leading  him to believe  that his 
son Asvattham a was dead.  The Pandavas  were  hesitating  to tell a lie but Krishna  insisted, 
asking  Bhim a to kill a war elephant  that was named Asvattha ma, and to announce  his 
death  loudl y. The Sapta Rishis  ("seven  Rishi")  appeared  on the battlefield  and asked 
Drona  to withdraw  from the battle,  because  his behavio r was not befitting  a brahmana, 
but Drona  did not listen  to them. He rather  approached  Yudhisthira  to ask him 
confir mation  about  Asvattham a's death,  because  he knew  that Yudhisthira  had never 
violated  the principle  of truthfulness.  On Krishna's  order,  Yudhisthira  repeated  loudly , 
"Asvattha ma is dead", and then murmured, naro va kunjaro  va, "whether he was a human 
being  or an elephant".  Seeing  that Drona  was distraught,  Dhristadyumn a took the 
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opportunit y to attack  him; Drona defended  himself with the Vaitas mika  astra,  a weapon 
that is used  at close  range,  but Dhristadyumna  was protected  by Satyak i. Then Bhima 
turned  against  Drona,  reminding  him of his bad choices  and telling  him that his son's 
death  had destro yed all his reasons  to continue  living.  Drona  recognized  the truth  of that 
statement and taking  leave  from  Duryodhana,  Karna and Kripa, dropped  his weapons  and 
sat down  to prepare  for death.  Finall y Dhristad yumna beheaded  him with his sword  and 
Drona died. Arjuna felt  deep sorrow for that death.
When  he heard  about  the circu mstanc es of his father's  death,  Asvattha ma launched  the 
Naray anastra,  a mystic  weapon  that creates  thousands  of arrows  with a burning  tip, and 
fiery  metal  discs.  Krishna  told Yudhisthira  that all the warriors  needed  to offer  their 
homage  to that weapon  by lowering  their own weapons;  only Bhim a did not comply, 
saying  that since  the Nara yanastra  had been  conta minated  by Asvattham a it did not 
deserve  to be respected.  However,  he was saved  by Krishna  and Arjuna.  Then Arjuna 
challenged  Asvattha ma to a duel - Asvattha ma launched  the Agneyastra  and Arjuna 
fought  him back  using  the Brahm astra.  At that time Vyasa  appeared  on the battlefield  to 
infor m Asvattham a he would  never  be able to kill Arjuna  and Krishna,  who are directl y 
Nara and Narayana.
The next  book, entitled Karna  Parva, is not accom panied  by other sections.  After Drona's 
death,  Karna becam e the commander in chief  of whatever  was left of the Kaurava army; 
on the 16th day the battle  becam e a confused  fight  among  the survivors,  and there was no 
military strateg y or arrangem ents any more.  
Karna  defeated  Nakula  but he let him go unscathed,  to the great  surprise  of Duryodhana, 
who abstained  from reproaching  him anyway.  Tormented  by his own inner  conflicts, 
Karna  went  to Duryodhana  in the middle  of the night  and asked  him to give him an 
exceptional  charioteer,  so that he would  be abe to kill Arjuna.  When  Duryodhana 
assigned  him king Salya, Salya was outraged,  but as a clever  politician  Duryodhana  was 
able to pacify  him with prayers and glorifications,  and with the idea that he wanted  to 
give Karna  a charioteer  that was even  more powerful  than Krishna.  Salya agreed to take 
that position,  on the condition  that Karna strictl y avoided  any stupid  behavior, 
recrimination s, boasting,  or blaming.
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Thus  in the 17th day Karna  dueled  with Arjuna,  while  Salya - loyal to the promis e to 
Yudhisthira  - kept sabotaging  and hurting his feelings,  so much that finally Karna  begged 
him to stop talking. In the presence  of Karna, Bhi ma attacked Duhsasana  and s mashed his 
chariot  with the mace,  then he grabbed  him tearing  his right arm from  the shoulder, 
ripped  his chest  open  and put his mouth  to the blood  that gushed  forth.  Collecting  some 
of that blood,  he carried it to Draupadi  according  to the promise  he had made  her when 
she had been  humiliated  in the Kuru  assembly: that she would  have  Duhsasana' s blood  to 
wash  her untied hai r to purif y it.
Bhima then returned  to busy  hims elf with the warriors  that were  still around  Karna  to 
protect  him - 10 of Duryodhana's  brothers  and Vrishasena  the son of Karna,  and killed 
them all.
When  challenged  by Yudhisthira  and Sahadeva,  Karna  defeated  them  but let them  go, to 
keep  the promise  to Kunti.  Bhim a, too, attacked  Karna  hitting  him with such a powerful 
arrow that Karna lost his consciousne ss, but refrained from  further revenge because  Saly a 
told him that Karna's  destin y was in Arjuna's  hands.  So Bhim a turned  against  6 more  of 
Duryodhana's  brothe rs that had arrived  on the scene,  and killed them. Again  Yudhisthira 
came forward  to face Karna  and again  he had to retire,  wounded  and bleeding,  and went 
to lie down at the ca mp, his entire bod y in pain. 
Worried  by Yudhisthira's  absence,  Arjuna  and Krishna  went  to look  for him, and 
Yudhisthira  greeted  them happil y, thinking  they had come to announce  Karna's  death. 
When  he learned  that Arjuna  had not killed  him yet, Yudhisthira  became so angry that he 
was going to attack  Arjuna  himsel f, but he was stopped  by Krishna.  Shocked  at the pain 
and despair  shown  by Yudhishira,  Arjuna  swore  that he would  immediately  kill Karna. A 
terrifying  fight  ensued,  with extrem ely powerful  mystic  weapons.  Arjuna  launched  the 
Agneyastra  and Karna  neutralized  it with  the Varunastra.  To dissipate  the vapors 
produced  by the clash  of the two weapons,  Arjuna  launched  the Vayuvastra,  then he shot 
his Aind rastra  showering the enemy  with ar rows.  
Then  Karna  launched  the Bhargavastra  he had received  from  Parasuram a, causing  even 
greater  destruction.  Encou raged  by Bhim a and Krishna,  Arjuna  launched  the nuclear 
weapon  called  Brah mastra,  but it was neutralized by  Karna. Karna broke Arjuna's  bow 11 
times,  and each  time  Arjuna  replaced  it at incredible  speed.  When  Karna aimed at 
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Arjuna's  neck  to launch  the Nagastra,  Salya distracted  him saying  that he should  have 
aimed for the chest  and the shot missed, also because  Krishna  had the horses kneel  down, 
sinking  the chario t several  inches  into t he ground.
Suddenly , when  Karna  was getting  ready to launch  the Brah mastra, the left wheel  of his 
chariot  got stuck  in the mud:  Karna  lost his concentration  and became confused,  just as 
Parasuram a had predicted.  Depressed,  Karna descended  the chariot  to fix the wheel  and 
asked  Arjuna  for a truce,  appealing  to the rule by which  a disar med enemy  cannot  be 
attacked.  Krishna  reminded  him that no relief was granted  to young Abhi manyu  in even 
worse  circum stance s, and enumerated  the long list of adharmic  actions  that Karna  had 
committed to support  Duryodhana.  Karna  bent his head  in shame and resumed the 
fighting,  trying at the same time to get the chariot  out of the mud.  Throwing  the Anjalika, 
Arjuna  was able to cut off Karna's  head  with an arrow,  and at the death  of the great 
warrio r all fighting  stopped to honor him.  
That night Duryodhana,  tormented  by the  death  of his most loyal friend,  went  to Bhish ma 
asking  for comfort,  and thus he came to know  the secret  of Karna's birth. Overwhelmed, 
Duryodhana  chose  to die in battle as soon  as possible  to be reunited  with his beloved 
Karna.
The Salya  Parva describes  the last day of the battle,  when  the command of the army  was 
given  to Salya. On this day Nakula  killed  3 more of the sons  of Karna  - Citrasena, 
Sushena  and Satyasena,  while  Yudhisthira  killed  Druma sena  and Chandrasena,  and 
finally  Salya himself, using  his Shakti  weapon  dedicated  to Kartike ya. Satyaki killed 
Salva  and Duryodhana  killed Cekitana.  Sahadeva  fulfilled  his promi se to kill Sakuni  and 
his son, and Bhim a killed  the last of Duryodhana's  brothe rs. Also  all 29 of Dury odhana's 
sons had died,  and he realized  that the war was finall y lost. Of the 11 akshauhinis he had 
at the beginning  of the war, only 4 warriors  were  left: himsel f, Asvattham a, Kripa  and 
Kritavarma.  
Filled  with despair,  Duryodhana  fled to take shelter  into a lake,  and on his way he gave 
Sanjaya  a last message for Dhritarastra  and Gandhar i, begging  forgiveness  for his bad 
actions  and offering  his respects.  When  his three  generals  came to look  for him,  he 
replied  he was very  tired and he needed  resting.  Yudhisthira  was informed of the 
situation  and went  to the lake,  but Duryodhana  told him he had no more interest for the 
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kingdo m after his family's  death,  and he was giving  it to him gladl y. Yudhisthira  derided 
him
Balara ma, who had just returned  from  his pilgrimage,  arrived  on the battlefield  and under 
his supervision there was  a mace duel  between Dur yodhana and Bhi ma - as he had sworn, 
Bhima broke  Dury odhana's  legs and crushed  his groin  as well (which  was against  the 
rules), leaving hi m to bleed to death. Dury odhana turned against  Krishna,  accusing  him to 
have  killed Drona and Karna in a manner  that was against  the rules, and Krishna  replied 
accordingly . Saddened,  Balaram a returned to Dvaraka.
Duryodhana's  fall marked  the end of the war: Krishna  blew  his conchshell,  announcing 
that the fighting  was over.  Then Krishna  asked  Arjuna  to get out of the chariot  with his 
weapons,  and finally  he descended  the chariot  himself: to the great  amazem ent of 
every one, Hanu man' s effigy  disappeared  from the flag and the chariot  was consum ed by 
flames. Krishna  explained  that the many  divine  weapons  that had hit the chariot  had been 
kept at bay by his presence,  but now the war was over,  and the chariot  could  be 
destroyed.
That  night  Asvattham a, Kripachary a and Kritavarm a went  to Duryodhana  to ask for 
instructions.  The dying prince  appointed  Asvattham a as chief  commander of the army 
and Asvattham a swore  to avenge  him and his own father  as well.  The three generals 
sneaked  into the Pandavas'  camp while  everybod y there was asleep,  and cut the throats  of 
the five sons of Draupadi  (believing  them to be the 5 Pandavas),  then they also killed 
Dhristad yumna,  Shikhandi,  Udha manyu  and Uttam auja before  they could  wake  up, as 
described  in the section called  Sauptika P arva ("the sleepers"). 
The next morning,  of the two immense armie s only 12 warriors were  still alive:  the five 
Pandavas,  Krishna,  Satyaki and Kritavarm a, Asvattha ma, Kripacharya,  Vrishakethu  (son 
of Karna ) and Yuyutsu  (a brother  of Duryodhana  who had retired from the war at an 
earlier  stage).  Bhima, Arjuna  and Krishna  were  informed  about  the slaughter  by 
Dhristad yumna' s chariotee r and pursued  Asvattha ma, who launched  the weapon  Brahma 
sira, and Arjuna  responded  with the same type of weapon.  Vyasa and Narada  personall y 
intervened  to withhold  the two weapons,  that would  have  caused  a disaster  of planetar y 
level  if they clashed.  Then they asked  the two fighters  to withdraw  the weapons,  but 
Asvattha ma could  not do so, and was only able to direct it against  the last descendant  of 
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the Pandavas,  Parikshit,  who was still in the womb of his mother  Uttara. Krishna 
intervened saving  the unbo rn child, and  Asvattham a was exiled fro m the kingdo m. 
The Stri Parva ("the  book  of women ") and the 2 added  sections  called  Jalapradanika and 
Stri-vilapa  describe  how Gandhari,  Kunti  and the other  women  (stri) of the two clans 
arrived  on the battlefield  to mourn  the fallen  warriors.  Vyasa and Vidura  went  to 
Dhritarastra  to comfort him, and the old regent  left the palace  to go to the battlefield.  The 
Pandavas  approached  him to offer  their respects,  but when  Dhritarastra  said he wanted  to 
embrace  his son's  killer  to show  his forgiveness,  Krishna  quickly  pushed  Bhim a aside, 
replacing  him with  a life-size  iron statue  that Duryodhana  had used  for his fighting 
training. T he statue  was shattered in Dhrita rastra's  fierce grasp.
Gandhari  had lost all her children  and blamed Krishna  for the Pandava's  victor y, so she 
cursed  him to lose his entire  family,  too. This curse came to pass many years later,  when 
in Dvaraka  the young  Yadu  princes  provoked  the brahmanas' anger  with  a foolish 
disrespectful  prank.
While  the Pandavas  were  perfor ming  the funeral  rites for the warriors  who had died in 
the battle,  Kunti  told Yudhisthira  he had to offer  oblations  for Karna's  too, and revealed 
the secret  of his birth. Shocked  and saddened,  Yudhisthira becam e angry with his mother, 
who by  keeping  silent had co mmitted a terr ible injustice  and especially had caused  a huge 
damage  to the kingdom.  So strong  were  his anger  and his pain,  that Yudhisthira  retired  to 
the bank  of the Ganges  refusing  to re turn to the capital, and only  one month  later he could 
be convinced  by Vyasa and Narada for the good of  the kingdom  and its subjects.
After  appointing Bhima  as yuvaraja ("junio r king",  the prince designed  to beco me king in 
case of emergency),  Arjuna  as chief  commander of the army and ambassador,  Vidura  as 
home minister,  Nakula  and Sahadeva  as directors  of security  and provisions  and Sanjaya 
as treasurer,  Yudhisthira finall y ascended  the throne.
The time  had come for Bhish ma to leave  his body , and the Pandavas  went  to the 
battlefield  to offer  their homage,  while he was  still l ying on the a rrow bed. 
In the Santi  Parva ("the book  of peace")  and Anusasana  Parva  ("the book  of the last 
instructions)  Bhish ma dissolved  Yudhisthira's  guilty feelings,  then on Krishna's  request 
he gave  the Pandavas  many  teachings  in the various  fields  of knowledge  and especially 
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on Dhar ma, on the duties  of the king (raja dharma), on the extrao rdinary  and temporary 
measures  to be taken  in cases  of emergency  and danger(apaddharma), on the ultimate 
purpose  of life and on liberation  (moksha  dharma), as well as on the varnas  and 
ashramas, on food restrictions,  charity, non-violence and truthfulness.  
After  speeches  by Brihaspati  and Narada,  Krishna  narrated  the glories of Shiva  and 
recited  the Shiva sahasra  nama  ("the  1000  names of Shiva").  In turn, Bhish ma recited  the 
Vishnu  sahasra  nama  ("the  1000  names of Vishnu")  offering  homage  to Krishna.  At last 
Bhish ma expressed  his wish  to finall y leave  his body , and after  offering  his worship  to 
Krishna  and contemplating  his universal  form, he died.  The Pandavas  perfor med his 
funeral  rituals  and then returned  to the capital.  These  two books  constitute  the most 
voluminous  part of the Mahabharata.
Arjuna  adopted  his nephew  Vrishaketu  and took him along  in the campaign  preceding  the 
Asva medha yajna performed by Yudhisthi ra to bring back  order  and peace  in the 
kingdo m at his coronation  - as we see in the Asvamedha  Parva, that also contains  the 
Anugita  ("the  repeated  song"),  that is a repetition  of the teachings  of Bhagavad  gita by 
Krishna.  Before  leaving  for Dvaraka,  Krishna  attended  the ceremonie s for the birth of 
baby  Parikshit.
The Ashramavasa  Parva ("the book  of living in the ashrama") begins  15 years later. 
Vidura  felt that his life was going  to end and he went  to see Kunti,  Gandhari  and 
Dhritarastra,  who had been  living  in the palace,  hono red by the Pandavas,  and convinced 
them to leave  the capital  to retire to Satay upa in the region  of Kurukshetra  and build  a 
small ashrama to perform austerities  until the end of their days.  The last instruction  that 
Dhritarastra  gave  to his loyal assistant  Sanjay a was to settle  in a sacred  place  on the 
Himalayas.  This book  is accompanied  by the sections  Putradarsana ("the apparition  of 
the son")  and Naradagamana ("Na rada's  visit")  in which  Duryodhana's  ghost  appeared  to 
his parents  and Narada  Rishi  offered  teachings  about  detach ment  from the material 
world. 
In the brief Mausala  Parva ("the book  of maces") we read that Krishna  and the Yadavas 
went  to Prabhasa  kshetra  (Somanatha)  in a pilgrimag e to offer  the yearly worship  to 
Shiva,  and that in the ensuing  celebrations  they consum ed rice wine.  In his drunkenness, 
Satyaki started  a fight  with  Kritava rma as he remem bered the killing  of Draupadi's 
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children,  and Kritavarma  responded  by mentioning  Bhurisrava.  Satyaki  jumped  on 
Kritavarma  and cut his head  off - in the furious  fight  that ensued,  almost  all the Yadus 
killed  one another  using  the large bamboo  canes  that had grown  on the beach  due to a 
curse.  Krishna  and Balara ma did not take part in the fight,  but Balaram a sat in meditation 
and left his body, while  Krishna  was shot in the foot by a hunter  who thought  he had 
spotted  a deer.  Before  dying,  Krishna  sent Daruka to Arjuna  with a message warn ing him 
about  the imminent destruction  of Dvaraka,  that would  be covered  by the ocean  waters, 
and asked  him to mov e the survivors to the Kuru capital.
Yudhisthira  had reigned  for 36 years when  he heard  the news  of Krishna's  disappearance 
and the destruction  of the Yadu  dynast y. He left the kingdom  to his grandson  Parikshit 
and crowned  Vajra,  Krishna's  grandson,  as king of Indraprastha,  where  all the surviv ing 
Yadus  were settled.  Yuyutsu was put in charge  of admini strative  responsabilities  and 
Subhadra remained  with her g randson  Parikshit.  
Together  with his brothers  and Draupadi,  Yudhisthira  left for his last pilgrimag e to the 
Himalaya,  described  in the Mahaprasthanika  Parva ("the book  of the great  journe y"). 
One by one the Pandavas  fell on the way and finall y Indra descended  with his chariot  to 
take Yudhisthi ra to the heavenl y planets  in his very mortal  body  due to his loyalty to 
Dhar ma, as it is written in the Svargarohanika  Parva ("the attain ment  of heaven"). 
Maharaja  Parikshit,  son of Abhimanyu  and grandson  of Arjuna,  reigned  for many years 
and witnessed  the advent  of the Kali yuga, as we see also in the first canto  of the 
Bhagavata purana . 
Because  of the curse  of a young  and arrogant  brahmana, Parikshit  was killed  by the 
Takshaka  snake,  and upon  ascending  the throne  his son Janamejaya began  a great 
sacrifice  aimed at destroy ing all the snakes  in the world. On the occasion  of that 
ceremony, Janam ejaya  was told the story of his ancestors  - an event  that brings  us back to 
the beginning of  the text of  the  Mahabharata.
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Ramayana
The other  famous epic poem of Vedic  tradit ion is Ramayana. The word  ayana means 
"path,  story , move ment, progress,  activities",  and rama refers  to Ram achandra,  the 
avatara of Vishnu  that defeated  the rakshasa tyrant Ravana.  
The story of Ram a is extremely  popular  and has been  celebrated  for thousands  of years in 
innumerable  figurative  and dramatic  art works in the tradition  of many asiatic  countries, 
as for exa mple  in Angkor Vat in Ca mbodia  and in Bali. 
As we have  seen,  Mahabharata and especially  Bhagavad  gita focus  around  Krishna,  the 
avatara of Vishnu  that descended  a short  time before  the beginning  of Kali yuga, to 
relieve the burden of the Ea rth and establish  the foundations  for the religious  principles in 
this age of hypocris y and quarrel.  The present  compilation  of the Vedas has been 
prepared  precisely  in consideration  of such  mission,  and we will see the apotheosis  of 
Krishna  particula rly in the Bhagavata  purana (also  called  Srimad  Bhagavatam). 
However,  we should  not forget  that the Kali yuga started  "only" about  5 thousand  years 
ago, and that before  the present  compilation  of the Vedas there  was alread y a wide  corpus 
of knowledge  and spiritual -religious  tradition,  of which  the present  Vedic  literature  is 
merely the continuation.
Before  the appearance  of Krishna  described  in the Bhagavata  purana, the importance  of 
Vishnu  in the scriptural  and devotional  Tradition  was focused  on Nara yana  (the eternal 
principle  that transcends  the cycle of creation,  maintenanc e and destruction  of the 
cosmos) and his most  famous avataras: Varaha,  Nrisimha,  Vam ana and especially  Ram a, 
the m ost recent  and "hum an" among  these  divine figures.  
Rama is also called  maryada  purushottama, "the perfect  human being",  or dharma 
purusha, "human incarnation  of Dharma ", a man who,  by his exam ple, could  inspire  the 
lives  of people  and especially  of the kings,  the leaders  of society  that by their behavior 
establish  the model that will be followed  by the general  public.  Even more  than Krishna, 
Rama inspires  devotion  and admiration  in a great  variet y of people,  also due to his 
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association  with the extrao rdinary  personality  of Hanu man - manifestation  of Shiva  and 
Vayu  - that mani fests the extraordina ry concept  of a divine personalit y that takes  the 
position  of a devotee.  Ram achandra  himsel f expresse s love and devotion  in his worship 
to Shiva, and in turn Shiva  takes  the form of Hanu man to serve  Rama with love and 
devotion.
Devotion  to Rama is even  more  relevant  than devotion  to Krishna  or Vishnu,  especially 
in regard to the Hindu Resurgence  that we have been  observing in the last few  decades.  
There  has been  an international  sensation  about  the episode  of the destruction  of 
"Ayodh ya mosque",  more precisely  called  Babri  Masjid  ("the  mosque of Babur")  on 6th 
Dece mber  1992, b y a pa rticularly  determined  group of  devotees  of Ram a. 
The mo sque had been built in 1528 b y the Mogul e mperor  Babur for the declared purpose  
of preventing  the Hindus  from rebuilding  the very ancient  templ e that rose precisely  over 
the birth  place  of Ram a (janma  bhumi) and that Babur  himsel f had demolished,  recycling 
some of the stones  for the new islami c structu re. This is a system that has been  regula rly 
applied  in all the territo ries conquered  by the Muslim s (and  by the Christians,  too, 
especially  in the first centur ies of their histor y). Its rationale  is the complete  destruction 
of the ancient  "pagan"  holy places  and even  down  to their  memory, preventing  any 
reconstruction  and continuation  of the previous  tradition:  this was done  by forcibly 
occupying  a sacred  place  that had a precise  geog raphical  importance  and could  not be 
duplicated  anywhere else. 
This Babri  masjid  never  had any other  religious  meaning  for Muslim s, so much  that in 
1992  the mosque  was not attended  by anyone  and was practicall y already  in ruins,  as we 
can see fro m the photos taken by  the participants  to the rally.
Unfortunately,  the attempt  by Hindu  activists  to reclai m one of the most sacred  places  of 
their  faith  and to rebuild  the original  temple  to Ram a has failed  because  of the islami c 
propaganda  at international  level  against  the "violent  Hindu  funda ment alists"  and of the 
ideological  structure  of the Indian government.  The Indian  Constitution  gives  greater 
power  and facilities  to Musli ms and Christian  than to Hindus,  who are supposed  to be the 
majority  of the population.  In fact, the first waves  of Hindu  devotees  that went  to pay 
their homag e to the sacred  land have  been  "punished"  with the Godhra  attack,  in which  a 
train with a group  of Hindu  pilgr ims - 55 among  men,  women  and children  - was set on 
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fire and left to burn completely  in the middle  of the railwa y station,  under  the eyes of the 
police  that refused  to intervene,  because  that by preventing  or stopping  the attack  they 
would "disturb co mmunal harmony".
Because  Ram a appeared  long before  Krishna,  the epic poem  (itihasa) that narrates  his 
adventures,  the Ramayana, was written not by Vyasa  but by Valmiki  Rishi,  whose 
personal  story  is anothe r small artwork  of didactic  symboli sm, and an integral  part of the 
text of the Ramayana as well.  Valmiki  was a conte mporary  of Rama, and as we will see 
later, on he beca me the tuto r of the twins Lava and Kusha,  the sons  of Ram a. 
Of course  neither  Vyasa nor Valmiki  should  be considered  ordinar y persons,  but 
precisely  for this reason,  the fact that they chose  such  peculiar  circumstan ces for their 
birth  should  not be underestim ated.  Just like Vyasa (the compiler  of all the Vedas, 
Mahabharata and Puranas) was born from the extra-marital  union  of a woman from  the 
fisher men community,  Valmiki  (that  was originally  named  Valya  Koli)  was born  in a 
family of robbers,  who earned  their livelihood  (so to speak)  by hunting  and robbing  the 
travelers.  One  day he happened  to meet the great Narada  Rishi,  direct  son of Brah ma, and 
as his habit  was,  he ordered  him to hand  over whatever  possession s he had. Narada's 
wealth  consisted  in spiri tual knowledge, and this is  precisely what he  gave the robbe r.
The meeting  with Narada  is not casual,  either,  but on the contrar y, it is instrumental  to 
explain  other  very important  teachings.  The core of Narada's  teachings  to his new 
disciple  is a brief version  of the story  of Ram a, constituted  by 100 verses  and known  as 
Sankshepa  Ramayana. Then Valya  Koli engaged  in great  austerities  to purify himself 
from the consequence s of his past bad actions,  meditating  day and night  on the name of 
Rama and remaining  so still that termites  built one of their tall nests  around  his body, as 
indicated  by the name  valmiki, "the one of  the termites ' nest".  
One day Valmiki,  who is known as  the adi kavi ("the first  poet" ) went  to the Tamasa river 
to take bath,  and noticed  two krauncha (heron ) birds playing near a tree; while  the birds 
were  engaged  in mating,  a hunter's  arrow  hit the male bird, killing him, and the female 
bird started to cr y. 
The Rishi  cursed the hunter,  spontaneously  composing  the first poetic  verse  (sloka) of 
Indian lite rature, that expressed  sadnes s (soka):
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ma nishada  pratishtam  tvam agamah sasvataih  samah
yat krauncha  mithunadekam  avadhih kama -mohitam
"O wild hunter,  you will not have  peace  for endless  years, because  you killed  this heron 
while he  was engaged  in love making."
Later  Lord Brahma  went  to visit the Rishi  and revealed  to him that the verse  could  also 
have  anothe r meaning:
"O Sri Vishnu,  sitting  with Lakshmi!  Your  fame is eternal  in all ages,  because  you killed 
that rapacious  bird Ravana,  always im mersed in lust."
Inspired,  Valmiki  composed  a great quantit y of verses  on the same anustup metric and 
taught  them  directl y to Lava  and Kusha,  the two sons of Ram a that had grown  up under 
his tutelage.  The original  text in verses,  especially  the Sundara  khanda, constituted  by 68 
chapters,  is still recited in special  private o r public functions.  
Just like Valmiki  is known  as the adi kavi, his Ramayana is called  mahakavya ("great 
poem"), also because  it includes  a great variet y of senti ment s or rasas,  defined  by Vedic 
asthetics  as sringara (erotic  romantici sm), vatsalya (motherly  and fatherl y affection), 
sakhya (friendship),  dasya (service ), virya (herois m in battle),  adbhuta (amazem ent), 
karuna (kindness  or compas sion),  hasya (humor),  bhayanaka (fear),  raudra (ange r), 
bibhatsa (disgust)  and santa (peacefulnes s). A good  literar y work  should  be able to 
inspire  such  senti ment s in its readers  or spectators  through  the dialogues  and the 
description of  the circum stance s.
We can see for exam ple the expression  of the sringara  rasa in the meeting  between 
Rama and Sita, during  their life in the forest  and in the pain of separation.  The rasas of 
the other  relationships  (vatsalya,  sakhya and dasya) can be observed  in the interaction 
between  the various  characters,  and the virya  rasa is obvious  in the many scenes  of battle 
and courage. Valmiki  is also considered  the author  of the famous Yoga vasistha, relating 
the conversation  between  Ram a and the Rishi  Vasistha,  who was the royal priest in the 
palace  of king Dasaratha  father  of Ra ma.
It is important  to warn the readers  against  a superficial  interpretation  of the text and the 
story , that at times has been  distorted  by hostile  or ignorant commentators  to present  it as 
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a justification  for behavio rs that are actuall y contra ry to Dhar ma - such  as the 
mistreat ment of wom en, blind obedience  to parents,  passive  resignation  of women  in the 
face of injustice  and cruelty , acceptance  of unjust  social  conventions,  and so on. Many 
believe  that the original  text of the Ramayana might  have  been  considerabl y modi fied, 
especially  with  the addition  of the first and the last parts,  that are obviously  quite 
different  from the rest, certainly  in regard  to the literary style and in some measure  even 
in regard to the ideological structure.
The method  prescribed  by the Vedic  tradition  in such  cases  consists  in studying  each 
single  passage  in the light  of the basic  ideology , honestly  trying to understand  in which 
way such  passage  can be viewed  in relationship  with the rest, and choosing  that 
interp retation  that best follows  the fundam ental  principles.  We will precisely  use this 
method  in our anal ysis of the story.
Due to space  limitation s, we will not go deepl y into the symbolic  and initiatic meanings 
of the story of Ram a, that like the Mahabharata and many ancient  poem s at global  level 
(including  Homer's  Odyssey, for example)  mani fested a reflection  of the inner  journe y of 
the human being,  who must reclaim  his legitim ate position  after  a period  of exile  and a 
battle.  This symbolic  level  does  not invalidate  the factual  historicit y of the described 
events,  because  the divine  Personalit y plays on the sacred  script  already  written  at the 
level  of the supre me existence,  and directs  it in full awareness,  although  sometimes 
appearances  may lead  us to think otherwise.
Not everybod y is able to understand  deep  teachings.  There  are even  many persons, 
among  those  who have  been  born  in India from  families that consider  themselves 
traditionall y Hindu  or even  brahmanas, that believe  that Hanuman  and the Vanaras  were 
merely  monkeys,  and still today they offer  gifts and worship  to ordinar y monkeys, 
causing  huge  hygienic  and safety  proble ms and especially  contribut ing to create  a very 
bad public i mage  based on their degraded and distorted view of  the scriptures.
The first book  of the Ramayana, entitled  Bala  kanda ("childhood" ) begins  with  the 
description  of the birthplace  of Rama, Ayodhy a (literally  "that  cannot  be defeated  in 
war")  located  on the river  Sarayu  ("of the lake",  because  it is an emissary  of the Manasa 
Sarovara  on the Himalaya)  north of the river  Ganges  (present  Uttar  Pradesh)  and capital 
of the Kosala  kingdo m, that was spread  on most of the subcontinent.  Still in the times of 
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the Mahabharata, thousands  of years after the events  of the Ramayana, the kingdo m of 
Koshala  had five provinces:  the original  Koshala  with the capital  Ayodh ya, the Dakshina 
("south")  Koshala  (Madhy a Pradesh,  central  India ), the Uttara  ("north")  Koshala  that has 
been  ruled by Lava  son of Rama with capital  at Sravasti,  the Purva  ("east")  Koshala  that 
had been  ruled by Kusha  son of Rama with  capital  at Kusavati,  and the Paschi ma 
("west") Koshala  compos ed by a nu mber  of smaller kingdoms.
Prince  Rama was born in the royal Suryavam sa ("Sun  dynasty" ) and among  his ancestors 
there  were  famous kings  such as Ikshvaku  (son of Vaivasvata  Manu,  son of Surya) who 
personally  built the city at the beginning  of the creation  of the unive rse), Sagara  and his 
descendents  down  to Bhagiratha,  Raghu  (from  whose  name  derived  other famous name s 
of Ramachandra,  such  as Raghava,  Raghunatha,  etc), Nahusha  and Yaya ti. The text 
describes  Ayodh ya as a great  city 12 yojana (200 km) long and 3 yojana (50 km) wide, 
with huge  fortifications  and broad avenues,  large  gardens  and parks,  7-stor y palaces,  a 
great  number  of musicians  and dancers  and all comforts and arrangement s, including 
facilities  for many  domestic  animals  of various  types such  as cows,  elephants,  horses, 
camels etc.
The father  of Rama, by the name  of Maharaja  Dasaratha,  had three wives:  Kausalya,  a 
woman of religious  tempera ment, Kaike yi, of warrior-like tempera ment, and Sumitra,  of 
a peaceful  and simple  mind. As after  many  years he had not obtained  a progen y yet, 
Dasaratha  consulted  Vasistha,  the royal priest,  and decided  to perform  the traditional 
Asva medha yajna and the Putra kamesti yajna,  specifically  meant  to favor  the birth of a 
heir; the rituals  required  a main officiating  priest,  and Dasaratha  invited Rishyasringa,  a 
very powe rful Rishi  who had been  born and raised  in total isolation  in the forest  as the 
son of Vibhandaka,  son of Kashyapa.  Rishyasringa  left his hermitag e to visit king 
Romapad a of Anga, who needed  his presence  to neut ralize  a long d raught in his  kingdom. 
Subsequently, the Rishi  had married  Santa, the daughter of  Rom apada.
The Devas  evoked  by Dasaratha's  ritual sat to discuss  the problem  of the arrogance  and 
violence  displayed  by Ravana,  the king of the Rakshasa s. Because  of a special  blessing, 
Ravana  was confident  that he would not be defeated  by Rakshas as, Devas,  Gandharvas  or 
other  celestial  beings;  however  he did not anticipate  the need  to guard  himself from 
human beings,  because  he considered  them  too weak.
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Thus  Vishnu  decided  to descend  to Earth as a hum an being  in the family of Dasaratha.  At 
the end of the ceremony,  a divine  being  appeared  from the fire altar,  holding  a pot of 
payasa (sweet  rice and m ilk pudding) and  told Dasaratha  to distribute it among  his wives. 
The king offered  the pudding  first to his eldest  queen  Kaushalya,  who drank half of it 
with the purpose  of begetting  a heir that was worthy of the throne.  Then the pot was 
given  to Sumitra,  the sweet  and peaceful  queen,  who drank  half of what  was left, and 
then to Kaikeyi,  the young  and impul sive queen,  who drank  half of what  was left. Finally 
Sumitra  consu med the rest. So Kaushalya  became the mother  of Rama, Kaikeyi  became 
the m other  of Bharata, and Sumitra  beca me the m other  of Lakshm ana and Sat rughna.  The 
four brothers  are compared  to the quadruple  emanation  (catur  vyuha) of Nara yana: 
Vasudeva,  Sankarshana,  Pradyumna  and Ani ruddha.  
When  Rama had completed  his 15th year, his father  the king was visited  by Visvam itra 
Rishi.  After  welco ming  the great Rishi  with all honors  and granting  him whatever  he 
might have  desired,  Dasaratha  was horrified  to hear that the purpose  of that visit was to 
ask the personal  intervention  of young prince  Ram a to protect  a sacrifice  cerem ony that 
Visva mitra  was performing  and that was regula rly interrupted  and spoiled  by two 
powerful  Rakshas as named Maricha  and Subahu.  After  proposing  alternative  solutions 
that were  not accepted  by Visva mitra  as adequate,  Dasaratha  followed  Vasistha's  advice 
and consented  to send  Ram a, on the condition  that he was accomp anied  by his loyal 
brother  Lakshm ana. Visvam itra and the two princes  left the capital  and on the evening  of 
their first day of traveling  they camped on the bank  of the Sarayu river,  where  the Rishi 
taught  Ram a and Lakshmana the secret  mantras Bala and Atibala,  that give the power  to 
conquer  hunge r, thirst and fatigue,  as well as all diseases.  After  another  day's  journey, 
they spent  the night  at Kam ashra ma, a village  of Rishis  located  in Anga  desa (the present 
West  Bengal)  at the confluence s between  Sarayu and Ganges.  In that place Shiva  had 
engaged  in long austerities  and had incine rated  Kam adeva  (the Deva  of erotic  love,  also 
called  Manm atha),  who had dared to hit him  with his flower arrows.
Visva mitra  explained  that in that forest  lived  a terrible  Yakshi  named  Tataka,  daughter  of 
Suketu  and wife of Sunda,  who had been  cursed  by Agast ya to beco me a Rakshasi  and 
could  take any form.  Once  the forest  had been  a thickl y populated,  prosperous  and happy 
kingdo m, known  as Malada  and Karusha,  blessed  by the waters  of all the sacred  rivers 
used  by the Devas  for the purification  ritual  performed  for Indra after  killing Vritra. 
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Rama hesitated  to kill a woman,  but Visvam itra explained  to him that it was not an 
ordinar y woman,  but a blood  thirsty monst er, that had to be eliminated  for the good  of 
innocent creatures. Thus Rama fought  against  Tataka, who was extraordinaril y strong and 
powerful,  and killed he r, restoring peace  and jo y to that reg ion.
Visva mitra  was very pleased  with Ram a's behavior,  so he gave  Rama the knowledge  of 
the mystic  weapons,  including  the chakras ("discs")  of Dhar ma, Kala  and Vishnu,  the 
trishula ("trident")  of Shiva,  the Brahm a sira ("head  of Brahm a"), the Haya sira ("head  of 
Hayag riva"),  the Krauncha  ("heron"),  the Aishika  ("straw  blade")  and the Brahma stra 
("the  arrow of Brah ma"),  the two Shaktis  ("powers")  of Vishnu  and Shiva respectively, 
the gadas ("mace s") called  Modaki  ("that  beats")  and Shikari  ("the  tower" ), the pasas 
("ropes")  called  Dhar ma, Kala  and Varuna  presided  respectively  by Yamaraja,  by 
Bhairava  and by the Deva  of the oceans,  the ashanis ("missiles") called  Suksha 
("drying" ) and Ardra  ("dampen er"),  the astras ("arrows")  of Pinaka  (Shiva)  and 
Naray ana, and those  of Agni  (called  Shika ri, "the tower")  and Vayu (called  Pratham a, 
"that  blows").  Besides  these  divine  weapons,  he gave  Ram a also the terrible  weapons 
called  Kankala  Musala  ("the  beater"),  Kapala  ("the  skull")  and Kankana  ("golden"),  the 
weapon  of the Vidyadha ras and the Pisachas,  those  of the Gandharvas  called  Mohana 
("that  confuses "), Prasvapana  ("that  makes sleepy" ), Manava  ("of the human  beings")  and 
Prasam ana ("that  calm s the enemy's  anger" ) and the sword  Nanda,  as well as the astras 
("arrows")  called  Varshana  ("that  brings  rain"),  Soshana  ("that  dries  up"),  Santapana 
("that  moistens "), Vilapana  ("that  makes cry"), Tama sa ("that  brings  darkness"), 
Mayam aya ("that  dissipates  the effects  of magic"),  Tejaprabha  ("that  radiates"),  Sisira 
("that  cools"),  and many others. On Ram a's request,  Visvam itra also taught  him how to 
neutralize and call  back each one  of those  weapons.
Proceeding  with their journe y they reached  Siddhashra ma, the residence  of Visva mitra,  a 
place  that once  belonged  to Vam ana and where  Kasyapa  Rishi,  father  of Indra and the 
other Adit yas, had engaged in austerity  with the purpose  of obtaining Vishnu  as a son.  On 
this occasion,  Visvam itra narrated  the story of  the avatara Vam ana, who  appeared  to take 
away  from  Mahabali  all the regions  that the Danava  king had conquered  by defeating 
Indra.
After  reaching  his home, Visva mitra  started  the ritual,  while  Rama and Lakshm ana kept 
vigil  constantl y, day and night.  On the seventh  and last day came the two Rakshasa s, 
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ready  to bring  a rain of blood:  Ram a threw  Maricha  very far, beyond  the ocean,  and he 
killed Subhahu. Finall y Visvam itra was able to co mplete  his rituals  success fully.
Then  Visva mitra  went  with Rama and Lakshm ana to Mithila,  the capital  of king Janaka, 
to show  them  the famous bow of Shiva.  During the journe y Visva mitra  narrated  many 
things,  including  the story of his own ancestor  Kusha,  his son Kushanabha  and his son 
Gadhi, who  was the father  of Visva mitra  and Kaushiki (who later becam e a sacred  river).
After  crossing  the Sona  river,  they reached  the Ganges.  There,  on Rama's request, 
Visva mitra  narrated the birth of Kartike ya, risen fro m the fire  and the sacred  wate rs of the 
Ganges,  and breast-fed  by the stars.  Then he told how the divine sacred  river had 
descended  to the earth,  thanks  to the merits of Sagara,  the ancestor  of Rama, and his 
descendants  Amsuman, Dilipa  and Baghiratha,  and how,  while  dropping  from  the 
heavenly  planets,  the Ganges  fell on Shiva's  head  and formed  the lake Bindu  sarovara, 
from which  it flows  forth  in seven  strea ms.
From  the north bank  of the Ganges  it was possible  to see the city of Vishala,  and 
Visva mitra  told its story  to the princes  - from  the times when  Devas  and Asuras  had 
churned  the ocean  of milk to obtain  the nectar,  and Shiva  had drunk  the poison  produced 
by its impurities.  Later  on in the same place Diti, the mother  of the Asuras,  decided  to 
take revenge  against  Indra who had killed  all her child ren; she took a vow to beget  a son 
who would  be the enemy  of the king of the heavenly planets.  Indra was able  to sneak  into 
Diti's  womb and cut the embryo  into seven  parts - but those  were  born  as the seven 
Maruts,  who became favorable  to Indra as technically  he had becom e their  "brother"  as 
had shared  the same womb.  After  spending  the night  in the city as guests  of king Sumati, 
Visva mitra,  Rama and Lakshm ana left again  on the next morning.
At the outskirts  of Mithila,  Rama noticed  a very beautiful  ashrama that was completely 
deserted.  Visva mitra  told him the story  of that place:  it was the residence  of Gautama 
Rishi,  one of the famous seven  Rishis,  descendent  of Angi rasa.  His wife Ahalya  was 
manasa  putri ("daughter  of the mind")  of Brahma  and mother  of Satananda,  the Purohit 
of king Janaka  of Mithila,  as well as  of Vam adeva  and Nodha.
A long time before,  Indra had been  fascinated  by Ahal ya, the wife of Gauta ma, and had 
approached  her taking  the appearance  of Gautama  while  the Rishi  was absent.  Ahalya 
recognized  Indra,  but because  she felt flattered  by the attentions  of the king  of the 
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heavenly  planets,  she had intercourse  with him. While  he was returning  to the ashrama, 
Gauta ma saw Indra  sneaking  away and cursed  him to lose his virili ty. Furthermore, 
Gauta ma decreed  that Ahalya  would  remain  invisible,  living  on air only, until  the day 
when  Ram a would  reach  the ashrama. Visva mitra  encouraged  Ram a and Lakshmana  to 
enter  the ashrama, and Ahalya  was happil y reunited  to her husband  after  her purifying 
austerity .
At Mithila,  king Janaka  welcomed  Visvam itra and the two princes  with all hono rs, and on 
that occasion  Janaka's  guru, Satananda  (son of Gautam a and Ahalya ) narrated the story of 
Visva mitra,  who had been  a great kshatriya but had earned  the position  and fame of a 
great  Rishi  and brahmana  by his intense  austerities.  One day he had been  traveling  with 
his army, and arrived at the ashrama of Vasistha  Rishi  (king Dasaratha's  guru). The Rishi 
kindly  welco med his visitors  and immediately  offered  a sumptuous  feast  to all of them. 
Amazed,  Visvam itra asked  how Vasistha  had been  able to get so many provisions,  and 
the Rishi  revealed  that his kamadhenu ("cow  that fulfills  all desires")  named  Sabala  had 
the power  to suppl y anything  one desired.  Visvam itra thought  that such  a wonderful 
treasure  would  be very useful  for a king,  and asked  Vasistha  to give him the cow. 
Vasistha  loved  Sabala  like a sister  and refused  to give her away . Visvam itra insisted,  and 
in the end he ordered his men to seize the cow and take her away by force. Then the  Rishi 
asked  Sabala  to create  an army, that destroyed  all the forces  of Visva mitra  and also killed 
his 100 sons.
Humiliated,  Visvam itra went  away  to engage  in austerities,  praying  Shiva  for help; 
finally  he received  divine weapons  from  him and he returned  to Vasistha' s ashrama 
deter mined  to destroy  it completely.  All the residents  fled away but Vasistha  stood  his 
brahma-danda ("sacred  staff")  into the ground,  and it neutralized  Visva mitra' s weapons, 
absorbing his  brahmastra and radiating a great light. 
Defeated  again,  Visvam itra realized  that the power  of a brahmana is greater  than the 
power of  a kshatriya and decided to beco me a brahmana.
After  more austerities,  Visvam itra was recognized  by Brahma  as raja-rishi, but he was 
not satisfied  yet. One day he was approached  by a famous king of the solar  dynasty, 
named Trishanku,  who had fallen  into disgrace.  Trishanku  was so attached  to his body 
that he had decided  to ascend  the heavenl y planets  withou t leaving  his earthly  body, but 
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his guru Vasistha  had refused  to help him to fulfill  that absurd  desire.  Frustrated, 
Trishanku  had approached Vasistha' s sons,  but without succes s, and when  he had dared to 
say that he would  find some other  officiating  priest,  he had received  a curse  that 
transform ed his body  for the worse.  Kicked  out from  the palace  by his own guards,  who 
were unable  to recognize  him,  Trishanku  had gone to search  for Visva mitra.
Moved  by the story of Trishanku's  sufferings,  Visva mitra  decided  to help him and started 
the ritual  that would  raise  him to the heavenly  planets  in that same body. All the Rishis 
participated  to the rituals  because  they feared  Visvam itra's  famous anger  - except 
Vasistha' s sons,  who by mocking  the rituals  earned  a special  curse by which  they would 
die and  be reborn for seven  time s in a wild tribe of  dog-eaters.
When  the time came to evoke  the Devas  to come to the sacrifice,  no Deva  showed  up. 
Angered,  Visvam itra transferred  all his religious  merits to Trishanku  to raise him up to 
Svarga  even  without  the Deva's  approval.  Ever ybod y was amazed  to see Trishanku  rising 
into the sky, up to Indraloka  - but then Indra resented  that invasion  and cast him down 
again  to earth,  while  poor  Trishanku  cried to Visva mitra  for help.  The powerful  Rishi 
stopped  his fall and Trishanku  remained  suspended  mid air like a star, then Visvam itra 
started  to create  a new solar  system  just for him, with a new Indra and a new group  of 
Devas.  Scared,  Indra and the Devas  hastened  to make peace  with  Visva mitra  and 
consented  to let Trishanku  remain  where  he was, with the new stars and planets  that had 
been  created  already.
Then  Satananda  narrated  the episode  of Sunashepa,  to whom Visva mitra  had given  a 
mantra  to stop death.  Later  Visva mitra  had a relationship  with the Apsara  Menaka,  who 
remained  with him  for 10 years. After purif ying himself again  with long austerities  on the 
Himalaya,  Visva mitra  was recognized  by Brah ma as maha -rishi. Worried about  the 
power  that Visva mitra  was accumulating,  Indra  decided  to break  his austerities  and sent 
the Apsara  Ram bha to seduce  him; however  the Rishi  could  see through  the trick and in 
anger  he turned  the celestial  dancer  into stone.  Repenting  for his impulsive  action  and 
realizing  that he still had a lot of work  to do on himself, Visva mitra  resum ed his 
austerities  at Pushkara,  and at last he was recognized  as brahma  rishi by Brah ma and 
Vasistha.
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After  spending  the night  in the king's  palace,  Visva mitra  asked  Janaka  to show  the great 
bow of Shiva  to the two princes.  The king explained  that the bow had been  given  by 
Shiva  to his ancestor  Devarata,  the sixth  of the dynasty. Then Janaka  narrated  the story of 
the appearance  of Sita, his daughter,  who was born from  the earth : during the preliminary 
rituals  for his sacrifice  to obtain  a progen y, Janaka  had found  the little girl in a furrow  in 
the field  that he was ploughing  according  to the rites. Now  Sita had becom e a woman, 
and for his svayamvara Janaka  had requested  the stringing  of that bow,  but for one entire 
year all the great warriors had been  unable even  to lift the bow.  Ram a took the bow in his 
hand,  bent it to tie the string,  and pulled  it with such  strength  that the powe rful bow 
cracked  into two pieces.  Thus  it was decided  that Sita would  becom e the wife of Rama. 
King  Janaka  sent ambassadors  to the city of Ayodhy a to infor m Dasaratha  about  the 
happy  news,  and the royal family of Dasaratha  arrived  at Mithila  with a great retinue.  In 
the presence  of many great Rishis  and of the sacrificial  fire, Rama married  Sita while  his 
brothers  married  the other  princesses  of Mithila  - the daughters  of Kushadhvaja,  brothe r 
of king Janaka:  Lakshmana married  Urmila,  Bharata  married  Mandavi  and Satrughna 
married  Srutakirt i. 
During  the journey back  to Ayodh ya, Rama was confronted  by Parasuram a, who knew 
that Rama had broken  the sacred  bow of Shiva,  and challenged  him to hold the bow of 
Vishnu.  The last chapter  (77) of Bala kanda  ends  with  Parasura ma's defeat  and the 
triumphant  arrival of  the marriage  party in the cit y of Ayodh ya.
The next book,  entitled Ayodhya  kanda (after  the name of the capital  city of Dasaratha's 
kingdo m) begins  with the preparations  for the official  installation  ceremony  of Ram a as 
yuvaraja, meant to allow  Dasaratha  to quickly  retire from the manag ement of the 
kingdo m. The king was expecting  to die soon  and suddenly,  because  there  had been  some 
inauspicious  omens.  Dasaratha  offered  Ram a advice  on the art of governm ent and 
Kaushalya  gave  her blessings,  and then Vasistha  started  the rituals  with  the diksha 
("initiation  to the sacrifice")  to Ram a and Sita, who observed  fasting  from  the evening 
before  the ceremony.
A palace  maid  named  Manthara  went  to infor m queen  Kaike yi of the imminent 
coronation;  Kaike yi was very happ y and rewarded  the maid  with a gift, but Manthara 
refused  the gift in indignation  and rebuked  her mistres s. She observed  that Ram a's 
coronation  had been  organized  very suddenly  and at a convenient  time, when  Kaike yi's 
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son Bharata  was absent  from  the city, having  gone  to visit his maternal  grandfather.  This, 
she said,  could  only  mean  that Ram a was afraid  of Bharata's  comp etition,  and thus 
Rama's coronation  would  cause  Bharata  and his mother  Kaikey i to beco me mere servants 
in the palace.  Rama's son would  then ascend  the throne  and Bharata  would  be excluded 
from succes sion and even  from  the dynasty : all this was due to the fact that Kaike yi had 
encouraged  his son to remain  in the company  of his maternal  uncle  rather  than staying 
near to his own father.  In the past Kaikeyi  had been  the king's  favorite,  but now 
Kaushalya  was officially  the queen  mother  and she would  soon  get revenge.  Finally 
Manthara  succeeded  in convincing  Kaikey i of her fears,  and reminded  her that Dasaratha 
was indebted  with her and had promi sed her two boons  in gratitude  for having  saved  his 
life on the battlefield.  If Kaike yi asked  Dasaratha  to crown  Bharata  and exile  Rama for a 
number  of years, the people  would  beco me used to the new situation  and would  remain 
loyal to Bharata  even after Ra ma's return.
When  Dasaratha  entered  Kaikeyi's  apart ment,  he found  her in the krodha  griha ("the 
room  of anger")  laying on the ground,  while  her ornaments  were  scattered  around  on the 
floor.  Kaike yi reminded  him the promise  of two boons,  then asked  him to crown  Bharata 
and send Rama into a forest  exile  for 14 years.  Dasaratha  was shocked  by that incredible 
and totall y unexpected  request,  and begged  her to ask for any other  favor  instead,  but 
Kaikeyi  did not relent.  The king spent  the night  in agony , torn between  the duty to keep 
his word and the injustice  of exiling  Ram a. The next morning,  when  the prime minister 
Sumantra  went  to search  for the king in Kaike yi's room and found  him unconscious, 
unable  to reply  to his questions,  the queen ordered him to immediately  fetch  Rama. When 
Rama arrived,  Kaikeyi  told him about  Dasaratha's  promise  and Rama swore  that he 
would execute  any orde r to save  his father from  the disgrace  of failing  to keep his word.
Rama went  to take leave  from Kaushalya,  who begged  him not to go. Seeing  Kaushalya's 
despair,  Lakshmana could  not control  his anger  and declared  that he was ready to fight 
against  anyone  and he would  put Ram a on the throne even  if that meant imprisoning  or 
killing  Dasaratha,  because  even  a superior  should  be punished  if he becom es arrogant  or 
evil,  and Dasaratha  and Kaikeyi  were behaving  like enem ies unde r the disguise  of 
parents.  Ram a pacified  his brother,  reminding  him that Kaikey i was no ordina ry person 
and had alwa ys showed  him the greatest  affection  - therefore  that situation  had obviously 
been  arranged by  destiny for a higher pu rpose.
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Sita was inform ed about  the change  of plans  and decided  to accom pany  Ram a into exile 
although  she was not required  to do so, and even  against  the order of Ram a, who told her 
to stay back  in the palace.  Lakshmana, too, chose  to accom pany  Ram a, and to the great 
distress  of all the  inhabitants  of Ayodhy a, Ram a, Sita and  Lakshm ana took leave  from the 
shattered  Dasaratha,  got on the chariot  driven  by Sumantra  and started  to leave  the city. 
Dasaratha  orde red that the army and all the  wealth of the treasur y to be assigned  to Ram a, 
and when  Ram a refused,  he said he would  personally  go with him. Kaikeyi,  however, 
protested,  and instead had  sannyasi clothes brought for all the three exiled.
Dasaratha  and Kaushalya  followed  Ram a's chariot  as far as they could,  then when  it 
disappeared  on the horizon  they resigned  themselve s to return  to the palace;  when 
Kaikeyi app roached  him,  the king r ejected  her, repudiating her and expelling her from  the 
family.  Alread y invalid  because  of his pain,  weakness  and confusion,  Dasaratha  asked  to 
be carried to Kausalya's  apartment,  where  he remained  lamenting  the tragedy,  while 
almost  all the subjects  followed  Ram a to the bank  of the Tama sa river, although  Ram a 
had begged  them  to return hom e.
The exiled  princes  camped  for the night,  but when  every body  else was fast asleep,  Ram a 
woke  Sumantra  and asked  him to take them  on the other  bank  of the river. On the next 
day Rama continued  to travel  and crossing  the rivers  Vedasruti,  Gom ati and Syandika,  he 
finally  reached  the bank  of the Ganges,  where  he was respectfully  welco med by the 
Nishadas  (forest  hunters) and by their head man Guha.  Rama only accepted  some food for 
the horses, although Guha had  asked  him to stay in that land and rule over his inhabitants, 
and had prepared for the m a great quantit y and  variet y of delicious  foods  and comfortable 
beds  for sleeping.  Ram a and Sita simply  lay down  on the ground  to sleep,  while  Guha 
remained  awake  to protect  their sleep  and had a long conversation  with Lakshmana,  who, 
too, did not want  to sleep.  Finall y Ram a convinced  Sumantra  to return to the capital  to 
reassure  Kaike yi, take care of the old king and bring  Bharata  back  home, because  he was 
still in the city of his maternal  uncle.  After  taking  leave  from Sumantra  and Guha,  the 
princes  crossed  the river Ganges  by boat, then entered the forest  on the other bank.
Next,  Ram a, Sita and Lakshm ana arrived  at the ashrama of Bharadhvaja  Rishi  at Prayaga 
(presently  known  as Allahabad),  at the confluence  of Ganges  and Yam una. The Rishi 
welco med them affectionately  and recommended that they establish  a residence  in 
Citrakuta,  a beautiful  place  a little  furthe r south.  After  crossing  the Yamuna  on a raft, 
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they walked  along  the bank  and rested  for the night  before  proceeding  to Citrakuta  hill 
After  they had visited  Valmiki's  ashrama there, Lakshmana built  a beautiful  log cabin 
with  a leaf-thatched  roof near the bank  of the Mandakini  river,  Rama performed the 
prescribed rituals and  they established  their home there.
Guha  and Sumantra  received  the confir mation  that Rama, Sita and Laksh mana  had 
happily  reached  Citrakuta,  so Sumantra  left to return to the capital  and inform  the king. 
Arrived in town,  Sumantra  went  to Dasaratha  and delivered  the messages from  Rama and 
Lakshm ana, also telling  the king that all the people  of the city were  depressed  and angry 
for what  had happened. 
Kaushalya  and Dasaratha  tormented  and consoled  each  other, maddened  in their  grief, 
and then suddenl y the king realized  that his sufferings  were  due to an old curse. It all 
went  back  to a hunting  expedition,  in which  young  Dasaratha  was practicing  archer y by 
hitting  a target  guided  by sound  only. He had arrived  on the bank  of river Sarayu and 
heard  the noise  of a big animal  that was drinking  there. After  shooting  his arrow,  he was 
shocked  to find out that actuall y he had hit a young man,  and the noise  he had heard  was 
actually  the sound  of water  he had been  collecting  in a pot. Horrified,  Dasaratha  tried to 
help his victim,  but the wound  was lethal  and the young  man only had the time to ask the 
prince  to take the water  to his old and blind  parents,  who were  waiting  to drink  it. 
Dasaratha  accompanied  the two old people  to the river bank  to perfor m the funeral  rites, 
but they were  crazed  with despair  for the loss of their only son and support,  and cursed 
Dasaratha  to die of  grief for the loss  of his own son,  just like them.
After  reme mbering  those  tragic  events  Dasaratha  compl etely  lost consciousne ss and died 
delirious calling Ra ma's nam e.
At dawn  the brahmanas gathered  to ask Vasistha  to choose  a new king,  because  the 
kingdo m could  not be left in a state of anarchy , and Vasistha  sent messengers  to Girivraja 
in the Kekaya kingdom  to call back  Bharata  and Satrughna.  In the meantim e, Bharata  had 
been  disturbed  by many nightmares  and bad omen s, and after quickly  taking  leave  from 
uncle  Keke ya and cousin  Yudhajit,  he left to return  home.  The journey  lasted  7 days, and 
when  he reached  Ayodh ya, prince  Bharata  found  the city unusuall y sad, dark and hostile. 
The king was not to be seen around,  so Bharata  went  to his mother  Kaikey i and asked  her 
what  tragedy  had befallen  the kingdom.  Kaikeyi  inform ed him of the king's  death,  and 
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told him to be ready to ascend  the throne,  but when  he came to know  the entire  story, 
Bharata  was horrified  and disgusted,  and strong ly rebuked  his mother  for the disaster  that 
she had brought about. 
Bharata  went  to Kaushalya,  who treated  him harshl y until  the prince  succeeded  in 
convincing  her about  his innocence  and genuine  pain.  Vasistha  told Bharata  to stop 
lamenting  and to take care of his father's  cremation;  at the end of the 13 days of funeral 
rites,  Vasistha  asked  Bharata  to occup y the throne  to fill the void left by Dasaratha's 
death  and Ram a's absence,  but Bharata  refused  to become  king and repeated  that he was 
deter mined  to bring  Ram a back  to the capital  and crown  him personally.  That 
extraordina ry news  brought enthusias m to all the subjects,  and as everybod y wanted to go 
with Bharata,  a huge  crowd  assem bled and a large  road was built from  the capital  to the 
Ganges,  equipped  with  water  wells  and tents  for resting.  Guha  saw the large  crowd 
arriv ing and went  to meet  Bharata  and ask him what  were  his intentions  towards  Rama. 
Reas sured,  Guha  became friendl y with Bharata  and told him that Ram a was observing  all 
the rules of renunciation  - matting  his hair with tree resin,  dressing  in tree bark,  sleeping 
on the ground  and eating  only roots  and fruits.  Bharata  took the solemn vow to observe 
the same rules  and to remain  with Rama in the forest  if Ram a had refused  to return  to the 
capital  and be crowned king.
After  crossing  the river,  Bharata  reached  the ashrama of Bharadhvaja,  and the Rishi,  too, 
asked  him his intentions  about  Ram a before  revealing  the place  where  the exiled  prince 
was staying.  With the Rishi's  permission,  Bharata  brought  his retinue  to the ashrama, and 
introducing  his mother  Kaikeyi,  he said she was the cause  of the entire  traged y: however, 
Bharadhvaja  corrected  him, saying  that Rama's adventures  would  bring great  blessings  to 
the world.
Rama heard  Bharata's  party approaching.  Lakshm ana climbed  on a tree to bette r see who 
was coming,  and recognizing  Bharata's  insignia,  concluded  that Bharata  had come  with a 
large  army to kill Rama; he prepared  to fight,  but Rama pacified  him explaining  that 
Bharata  would never attack him.
Bharata  asked  his retinue  to stop at a distance  and walked  alone  to the ashrama, where 
Rama welco med him with  great  affection.  Overwhel med by devotion,  Bharata  was 
unable  to speak  so he simply  prostrated  at Rama's feet. Rama lifted  and embraced  him, 
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then asked  for news  from Ayodh ya. Bharata  infor med him about  their father's  death,  and 
after  performing  the ritual  ablutions  in the Mandakini  river, Rama offered  water  and 
pindi (the traditional  food  offering)  to the departed  soul.  Bharata  took Vasistha  and the 
queens  to the ashrama, explained  the reason  why he had come  to the forest  and begged 
Rama to return to the capital  and ascend  the throne.  Ever yone  tried to convince  Ram a to 
accept  the kingship  by using  various  argument s but without  succes s; Bharata  finall y said 
that he was ready to fast until  death  to make that happen.  Ram a replied  that it was not 
possible  for him to dishonor  the promi se given  by Dasaratha,  and that Bharata  had to do 
his part by occupying  the throne as requested  by Kaike yi. So Bharata  went  back  to the 
capital,  carrying Ram a's sandals  as a symbol  of his presence  on the throne,  and solemnly 
declared  that he was nothing  more than his brother's  servant,  executing  his orders  to take 
care of the kingdo m in the absence  of the legitim ate king until the end of the 14 years of 
exile  -  and in case Rama did not return, he would  commit suicide. Bharata  established 
his residence  at Nandigra ma, at a certain  distance  from the capital,  and without  entering 
the city again  he engaged  in strict  austerit y but cooperating  with the ministers  for the 
manage ment of the govern ment.
After  Bharata's  visit,  Rama heard  from  the forest  Rishis  that some Raksha sas under  the 
command of Khara  had developed  the habit of molesting  the inhabitants  of the ashramas. 
Considering  that Citrakuta reminded  him of the sadness  of Bharata's  visit, the news  of his 
father's  death,  and the separation  and pain of his family,  Rama decided  to seek another 
residence.  He went  to the ashrama of Atri Rishi,  where  he was received  with hono r and 
affection,  and Sita met Anasur ya, Atri's wife,  who offered  her good  advice  on married 
life and gifts of divine  ornament s. The departu re from Atri Rishi's  ashrama ends chapter 
119 of  Ayodhya  kanda.
In the Aranya  kanda  ("the  book  of the jungle")  we see Rama, Sita and Lakshm ana 
entering  the Dandaka  forest,  welco med by the Rishis  who lived  there.  The first Rakshasa 
they met was Viradha,  who attacked  Sita and then Rama and Lakshm ana. When  he was 
brought  down,  Viradha  recognized  Ram a and was liberated  from the curse that 
conde mned  him to remain  in that form: he then returned to his position  of Gandharva  and 
suggested  Ram a to visit the ashrama of Sarabhanga  Rishi.  Sarabhanga  was a very old 
man, and was waiting to see  Rama before leaving his  body.
Other  Rishis  approached  Ram a and asked  him to protect them  from  the repeated  attacks 
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of the Rakshasa s that had settled  in the forest.  Rama reassured  them,  saying  he would 
eliminate  the threat,  then visited  the ashrama of Sutiksha  Rishi,  where  they spent  the 
night.  Sita was not very happ y about  those  talks  of war against  the Raksha sas, but Ram a 
explained  that a kshatriya's duty is to protect  the people,  and this required  the elimination 
of the Rakshasa s.
While  they were traveling  to the ashrama of Agastya  Rishi,  Ram a spoke  to Lakshm ana 
about  Agastya's  story, and especially  about  the extraordinar y way in which  he had 
eliminated  a great Rakshasa  named Vatapi.  Agast ya presented  Rama with the great  bow 
of Vishnu,  two inexhaustible  quivers  obtained  from Indra and a divine  sword;  he also 
promi sed that Matali,  Indra's charioteer,  would  bring him the chariot  of the king of the 
heavenly  planets  every  time he needed  it. Agast ya Rishi  praised  Sita for her great 
qualities  and recom mended Rama to spend  the last exile  period  in Panchavati,  on the 
river of the rive r Godavari - a trul y beautiful place,  surrounded by  flowering  trees. During 
his journe y to Panchavati,  Ram a met the great bird Jatayu,  who had been  Dasaratha's 
friend.  After  reaching  his destination,  Lakshm ana chose  the best spot and quickl y built a 
log cabin with a  thatched  roof. 
One day there came  Surpanakha,  a powerful  Raksha si sister  of Ravana,  the kings  of the 
Raksha sas. Surpanakha's  husband  Vidy ut Jihva  had been  killed  by Ravana  and she did 
not want  to remain  a widow,  therefore  when  she saw the handsom e prince Rama, she 
proposed  to marry him. Surpanakha's  episode  is crucial  in the story  of the Ramayana, 
both as a prelude  to the war against  the Rakshasa  colony  of Janasthana  in the forest,  and 
as an introduction  to the abduction  of Sita,  which  will cause  the destruction  of the 
Raksha sas' capital in Lanka.
Superficiall y, it may seem that Rama and Lakshm ana are cruelly  making  fun of a poor 
woman,  who is confused  and starved  for affection,  but this illusion  is short  lived,  and the 
Raksha si reveals  herself  in her true nature of brutal  and bloodthi rsty monster, when  she 
decides  to solve  the proble m by devouring  Sita. Also  Laksh mana 's action  to cut off the 
Raksha si's nose  and ears must be seen in its prope r context:  the Rakshasa s are able to 
take any form  they like, y et ph ysical  beaut y is never their main  concern.
Infuriated,  Surpanakha  rushed  to her brother  Khara,  the commander of the Raksha sa 
garrison  in the forest,  and Khara,  Trishira  and Duhsana  went  to punish  the two human 
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princes  for that offen se. Ram a ordered Lakshm ana to hide Sita in a cave  and stay to 
protect  her, while  he would  singlehandedly  annihilate  the entire  army  of 14 thousands 
Raksha sas. The only survivo r, Akam pana,  rushed  to inform  Ravana,  and advised  him to 
avoid  confronting  the prince  in an open  fight;  it would  be much better  to demoralize  him 
first by kidnapping  his beloved  wife.  Tataka's  son Maricha,  who had alread y been 
defeated  by Rama, confirmed  that the prince  was not an ordina ry person,  and in fact it 
could even  be Vishnu hi msel f, that so metimes descends  as avatara.
In the meantim e Surpanakha  had arrived  at Ravana's  palace  to demand vengeance  for the 
offen se she had suffered;  she entered  the discussion,  supporting  the plan for Sita's 
abduction.  Ravana  went  to see Maricha  and ordered him to take the shape  of a beautiful 
golden  deer and to go grazing  around  the ashrama, to lure Ram a as far away as possible. 
Maricha  was not enthusiastic  about  the plan,  but because  refusing  to execute  Ravana's 
order  would  mean  certain  death,  he decided  it was better  for him to risk being  killed  by 
Rama, and accepted  the task.
While  picking  flowers  in the surrounding  forest,  Sita saw the deer and was fascinated  by 
it; she called  Rama and Lakshm ana to show  it to them. Lakshmana  immediately 
suspected  a Rakshasa 's trick, but Ram a observed  that in such  a case it would  be even 
more important  to take care of it: if he failed  in capturing  the animal, he would  kill it. 
Rama told Lakshmana to stay and protect  Sita and followed  the deer further  and further 
away,  until he decided  he had passed  the limit.  He shot an arrow  and Maricha,  mortally 
wounded,  returned to his normal  shape  and by imitating  Rama's voice  called  Sita and 
Lakshm ana for help, according to Ravana's  plan.
Rama rushed  back  to the ashrama, but the damage was done:  obsessed  by the idea that 
Rama could  be in danger,  Sita had begged  Laksh mana  to go find out. At first Lakshmana 
did not want  to disobey  Rama's orders  and refused  to leave  her alone,  but from fear, Sita 
had moved  to anger,  and expressed  the doubt  that actuall y Lakshm ana was hoping  for 
Rama to die, so that he could  take advantage  of her. Finally  Lakshmana gave  in: he drew 
a mystic  protective  line (rekha) around  the cabin,  warning  Sita not to step over it, and ran 
off to look  for Rama. As soon  as Lakshm ana had left the scene,  Ravana  took  the 
appearance  of a sannyasi and came forward  chanting  some mantras. Sita respectfully 
welco med the fake sadhu and left the protective  circle  to bring him some food.  Then 
Ravana  revealed  his true identity  and asked  Sita to become  his lover;  when  Sita rejected 
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him indignantl y, the Rakshasa  lifted  her off the ground  and carried her away on his flying 
chariot.  Hearing  Sita's  cries for help,  the great  bird Jatayu rushed  on the spot to stop 
Ravana,  but in the ensuing  battle  he was fatall y wounded.  While  flying  over a mountain, 
Sita saw a group of Vanaras  ("people  of the forest")  and dropped  some of her ornam ents, 
hoping they  would be found  and help Ra ma to track her.
Arrived at Lanka,  Ravana  took Sita to visit his palace  and showed  her his wealth  and 
power,  but Sita did not relent  and even  refused  to look at his face.  In the end Ravana 
imprisoned  her in the Asoka  vana,  a grove of asoka trees inside  the royal gardens,  under 
the watchful  eyes of  som e Rakshasi s.
In the meantim e, Rama was rushing  back  to the ashrama when  he met Lakshm ana 
coming  after him, and their fears  were  confirm ed when  they reached  the ashram: it was 
empty.  Rama wept  bitterl y and ran here and there looking  for Sita, overwhelm ed by the 
pain for her absence,  and begged  the animal s, the trees  and the strea ms to give him 
infor mation  on his beloved  wife.  Lakshmana tried  to comfort him,  but without  much 
succes s.
This part of the poem  gives  particular  importance  to Ram a's loving  senti ment s in the 
sringara  rasa. While  they were  wander ing in the forest  looking  for Sita, they met dying 
Jatayu:  the bird just had the time to tell them  what  had happened  - his fight  with Ravana 
and his failure  to rescue  Sita. His eyes filled  with tears,  Rama embraced  the lifeles s body 
of Jatayu and performed  the funeral rites for  him on the bank  of the Godavari rive r.
Chasing  after  Ravana,  the two princes  met a Rakshas a named  Kabandha,  who had a 
strange  shape:  he had no head,  and there  was a mouth  in the middle  of his body. 
Grabbing  Ram a and Laksh mana,  the Rakshasa  started  to pull them  towards  his big mouth 
to devour  them,  but the two princes  chopped  his arms off, thus liberating  him from the 
curse  that had given him  that bod y.
After  Ram a and Laksh mana  had crem ated his body, Kabandha  appeared  in a divine  form 
and advised  Rama to seek the Vanara  named Sugr iva, who could  help him to find Sita. 
Kabandha  also told them  to go to the ashrama of Matanga  Rishi,  where  the Rishika 
Sabari,  of tribal  origins,  had been  waiting  for a long time to meet  Lord Ram a. In her 
devotional  enthusias m, Sabari  offered  Rama some forest  fruits,  after  tasting  some to 
make sure they were  really good.  Then Ram a and Lakshmana proceeded  towards  lake 
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Pampa and Rishyamuka  hill, where  Sugriva  lived.  This is the end of chapter  75 of 
Aranya kanda.
The Kishkinda  Kanda takes  its name from  the capital  city of the Vanara kingdo m.  As we 
have  mentioned  in the introduction,  we need  to go beyond the superficial  view  that 
identifies  the Vanaras  with the ordinar y langur  monkeys,  that are still found  in India.  It is 
possible  that the langur  monk eys are somehow  related  with the ancient  Vanaras,  but yet 
again,  even  the conte mporary  human  species  has many genes  in common with 
chimpanzee s. The Vanaras  described  in the Ramayana have  a tail but rather  resem ble the 
primate s in the "Planet  of Apes"  movie:  they build  cities,  have  a complex  social  system, 
wear  ornam ents and weapons  and speak  expressing  thoughts  and sentim ents that are 
certainly  not different  from the human s'. Vedic  tradition  describes  in details  many 
humanoid  races  that are recip rocally  fertile,  and the Vanaras  are among  them: we may 
remember that Krishna  married  a descendent  of Jambav an, one of the Vanaras  that had 
participated  to Rama's expedition  against  Ravana.  The other  humanoid  races are the 
Raksha sas, Yakshas,  Gandharvas  and Nagas,  all recip rocally  fertile  with  the human 
beings,  and all superior to human  beings in regard to the power of m anipulating  matter.
The book about the Vanaras  begins  with an elaborate  description of the beauty of  the lake 
Pampa,  that intensifies  Rama's feelings  for the absence  of Sita. This Rishyamuka  hill was 
the place  where Sugriva had taken  shelter, because  due a curse,  his brother Vali could not 
come near the hill. But  how had this en mity between  Sugriva and Vali developed?
Vali, son on Indra and king of  the Vanaras,  was Sugriva's  elder brother. One day Vali had 
gone  outside  the city to confront  the Raksha sa Mayavi  and during  the fight  the two 
entered  a cave,  while  Sugriva remained  to guard  the entrance.  After  a long wait,  Sugriva 
heard  some scream s and moaning,  and saw blood  flowing  out of the cave:  terro rized  at 
the idea that Vali had been  killed,  Sugriva  blocked  the entrance  of the cave  with  a 
boulder  to imprison  the Rakshasa  and returned to Kishkinda  with the news  of the king's 
death.  The ministers  convinced  Sugriva to ascend  the throne  for the sake of the kingdom, 
but Vali was not dead  at all, and after  some time he was able to remove  the boulder 
blocking  the passage  to the cave  and returned to the capital,  extremely  angry. Sugriva 
fled and Vali appropr iated  Sugriva's  wife  Rum a.
Sugriva  saw the two princes  approaching,  and fearing  they might  be Vali's  spies,  he sent 
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his minister  Hanuman  to find out their intentions.  Rama was very pleased  by Hanum an's 
courtesy  and he explained  who he was and what  he was looking  for. Immediately 
Hanu man lifted  the princes  on his shoulders  and took them to Sugr iva, who was happ y to 
beco me their  ally. Both  had a wife to rescue  and an enemy to defeat,  and they made a 
solemn oath to help each other.
Sugriva  told Ram a that in fact some time earlier he had seen a flying  chariot  from  which 
a lady had dropped  a small package  containing  some ornam ents;  Ram a immediately 
identified  them all and Lakshm ana too recognized  the anklets,  that he had seen many 
times while offering  his hom age to his  elde r brother's wife.  
Sugriva  tried to pacify  Rama, then he told him his own story, warning  him that Vali was 
a formidable  and cruel  enemy,  who had killed  the powerful  asura Dundubhi.  To reassure 
Sugriva,  Ram a demonstrated  his archer y skills  by shooting  an arrow that pierced  7 sala 
trees,  entered the ground  and after going  through  the entire  earth  returned into the quiver 
at lightning  speed.  Sugriva was really impres sed and decided  to challenge  Vali;  however 
he was defeated.  According  to the plan,  Rama was supposed  to hit Vali while  he was 
engaged  in fighting  Sugriva,  but Ram a was unable  to distinguish  one from the other, 
because  they looked  so much alike.  Rama suggested  Sugriva  to wear  a garland  during the 
next fight  so that he would  be able to recognize  him, so Sugriva  went  back  to challenge 
his brother again.
Vali was getting  ready to fight,  but his wise wife Tara, descendent  of Brihaspati,  begged 
him not to accept  the challenge.  They knew  Sugriva was not crazy, yet only one day after 
being  badly  defeated  he was returning  for a new fight:  obviousl y he was counting  on 
some other  hidden  factor.  Besides,  Tara had heard  rumors  that Sugriva had beco me 
Rama's ally. Maybe it was better  to drop that silly enmity  and make  peace  with Sugriva  - 
what  if he could  be crowned  yuvaraja? Vali rejected  Tara's advice,  and this time while 
Vali and  Sugriva were fighting, Ra ma aimed at Vali and  shot an ar row into his  chest.
Mortally  wounded,  Vali fell to the ground  and saw Ram a approaching  with his bow;  he 
rebuked  him for having  attacked  an unaware  enemy,  but Ram a explained  the reason  of 
his intervention:  those  who believe  they can freely violate  the dharma with  immoral 
actions,  have no right to invoke the p rotection of  dharma, and one  who chooses  to behave 
like a ferocious  animal should  be treated  as such.  Vali recognized  the validi ty of Rama's 
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argum ents and apologized  for rebuking  him. Then he made  peace  with Sugriva, entrusted 
him with his son  Angada and  asked hi m to take care of  Tara. 
Both  Tara and Sugriva  were  distraught  because  of Vali's  death;  Rama pacified  them  and 
suggested  that Angada  be crowned  yuvaraja while  Sugriva occupied  the throne  of 
Kishkinda.  As the orders given  by Kaikeyi  requi red him to live in the forest,  Ram a did 
not enter  the city of Kishkinda  but remained  on the Prasravana  hill to pine on Sita's 
absence,  waiting  for the end of the rainy season,  when  Sugriva would  be able to send 
explorers to track down the kidnapper.
After  some time Hanuman  warned  Sugriva reminding  him of his promi se to Rama, but 
the new king was deeply  immersed into the sense  gratification  enhanced  by the autumn 
season,  and he lazily  appointed  Nila as a general  and ordered  him to rally the troops 
within  15 days. The rainy season  finished  but Sugriva still did not show  up, so Ram a sent 
Lakshm ana into the city. Seeing  that Lakshmana was very angry, Sugriva  sent Tara  to 
meet him hoping  that he would  be pacified,  then he immediately  sent messengers  to 
gather  all the Vanaras.  Sugriva personally  went  to Ram a to explain  the preparations  for 
the army  that was going  to leave  for war against  Ravana,  and organized  explorers' 
groups,  sending  them  into various directions  and explaining  them the details  of the 
geography  of the regions  they would  have  to go through  while  searching  during  the 
subsequent  month.  Because  Ravana' s chariot had been  seen  heading  south,  Sugriva 
entrusted  the south  group  to prince  Angada  and his best minister, Hanu man,  as well as 
Jambavan  and general Nila. Ra ma gave his  signet ring to Hanum an, to show  it to Sita as  a 
token.
It is interesting  to note that Jambavan  is listed  here as a Vanara  and at the same time as 
"bear";  this could  indicate  that, like the pre-celtic  sham anic tribes  of Europe  who lived  in 
its forests,  the Vanaras  had totemic  clans  and identified  with the spirit  of the animal  that 
they choose  as "ancestor".  We could  say that this tendency of tribal peoples  is natural and 
intrinsic,  and that many  archaeological  finds  show  a variety  of hominid s with ape-like 
features.  We cannot  really  say whether  the Vanaras'  tail was actuall y a physical  appendix 
of these  "ancestors  of mankind"  (as most relics  consist  of very incomplete  skeletons,  and 
especially  of skulls)  or that it was a totemic ornament  of great  value.  In any case,  our 
understanding  of who and what  such  Vanaras  actually  were  is beginning  to expand  in 
various di mension s.
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The group  that was supposed  to go west was put unde r the command of Sushena,  Tara's 
father,  and was asked  to explore  the entire  territory from  the Afghanistan  mountains  to 
Arabia,  while  Angada  was going  to search  Lanka  as well as the entire  Indonesia,  and 
even  furthe r east if necessary.  The explo rers sent north,  led by Satabali,  were  supposed  to 
go up to mount Soma.  Sugriva explained  to Ram a that his vast geographical  knowledge 
was due to the fact that while  fleeing  Vali's  fury he had traveled  extensively  before  he 
had found  a suitable  shelter.
The group  journey ing south  explo red the Vindhya  mountains,  entering  the Riksha  caves, 
where  after  a long and totall y dark tunnel  they found  a wonderful  place,  with plent y of 
houses,  gardens  and small  lakes.  An elderly  lady  named Svayamprabha,  who  was 
guarding that subterranean world, informed  the Vanaras  that the cave  had been created by 
Maya  Danava  and gifted  to her by the Apsara  Hema, then she transported  the Vanaras 
outside  by her mystic  powers.
Depressed  because  they had not succeeded  in finding  anyth ing although  their  allotted 
period  had passed,  the Vanaras  decided  to fast to death.  Sampati,  a great  old bird who 
lived  in that place,  was happy  at the idea of getting a good  meal  with them,  because  his 
wings  had been  burned  by the sun and he found  it very difficult  to hunt to eat regular ly. 
While  the Vanaras  were  lamenting  their bad luck,  reme mbering  Sita's  abduction  as the 
root cause  of their troubles,  Sampat  heard  that Jatayu  (who  was his brother ) had died 
fighting  to protect  Sita. He approached  them  and confirm ed that in fact his son Supa rsva 
had seen a wom an kidnapped  by Ravana,  the king of Lanka.  Thanks  to his keen  sight, 
Sampati  knew  the location  of Lanka  and gave  valuable  infor mation  to the Vanaras; 
immediately  Sampati' s wings  were  healed,  and to his great  amazement the bird 
remembered  that this m iraculous  fact had been  predicted  to him  by Nisakara  Rishi.  
With  renewed  enthusias m Angada  and the other  Vanaras  went  to the beach  and started 
discussing  how to cross  the ocean.  Who  could  jump farther ? Jambavan  stated  that 
Hanu man,  born from Anjana  and Vayu, was as powerful  as his father,  the Deva  of the 
wind.  Once  when  he was a child,  Hanu man had seen the sun rising  and thought  it was a 
ripe red fruit:  he jumped  up to the sky to grab it and Indra,  scared,  tried to stop Hanum an 
by striking  him with a lightning  which  left a scar on the left side of his chin (hanuman 
means "broken chin"). 
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After  mentally  offering  his homag e to his father  Vayu, to Rama and Lakshm ana, 
Hanu man took a giant  leap from mount  Mahendra,  helping  himself with his hands  and 
tail, too. Here ends  chapter 67 of Kishkinda  kanda.
The next book,  entitled Sundara  kanda ("book  of the wonders")  is the most popula r and 
is often  recited during special  functions;  at the end of  the reading, the  coronation of  Rama 
(described later in the text) is reme mbered.
During  his flight,  Hanuman  encountered  mount Mainaka,  the last of the flying  mountains 
(that  Vayu had saved  from Indra's fury) but instead  of stopping  for a rest he moved  it 
aside  and gracefully  accepted  its prayers. Then he met Surasa  the mother  of the Nagas 
and the Rakshasi  Simhika,  escaping  from both;  finally  he landed  on Lamba  hill (also 
called  Trikuta)  and from  there he watched  in amazement the beaut y and splendor  of 
Lanka's  capital,  well protected  by fortifications,  moats and many soldiers.  He decided  to 
shrink  his size and as the night  fell he went  to the main gates  of the city, where he met 
Lankini,  the personification  of the city, and defeated  her. Lankin i abandoned  the city, 
foreseeing  its imminent destruction,  and Hanu man went  on to explo re each  street  and 
each building, in the meanti me getting an idea  of the weapons  and of the ar my of Ravana. 
Arrived at the r oyal palace  he observed  the wonderful airc raft of Ravana,  called Pushpaka  
vimana,  and he entered Ravana's  private  apartm ents, and was amazed by the luxur y of the 
place  and by the beaut y of the wom en of all races and colors  who lived there, especially 
one who was covered  with jewels.  However,  that woman was not Sita, but Mandodari, 
Ravana's  queen.  Walking  on, he found  a hall with a great  variety of foods  and drinks, 
meats and liquors  of all kinds,  but no sign of Sita. When  he had finally  given  up hope,  he 
saw a large  garden  within  the palace  that he had not checked  yet, and there he found  a 
woman of Sita's  description,  sitting  on a platform  surrounded  by watchful  Raksha si 
guards.
Dawn  cam e and king Ravana,  awakened  by the p raise  of the court singers, went to see  the 
prisoner, again tr ying to coax her into sub mission,  but Sita plainly  told hi m that he should 
give up that false  hope  and beg forgiveness  from  Ram a. Ravana  warned  her that she had 
two m onths'  time  to make  up her mind  before he killed her; then he orde red the Rakshasis 
to harass  her as  much  as possible  or convince her in som e other way , and  he left.
Many  months  had passed  since  she had been  kidnapped,  and Sita's  patience  had come to 
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the end; she had decided  to commit suicide  when  one of the Rakshasi s, named Trijata, 
told her comp anions  that she had a dream  where  Ram a was victorious  and Ravana  was 
dead.
Noticing  also some other  good  omens,  Sita gathe red her courage  and Hanuman  decided 
to announce  himself, beginning  to sing the glories  of Ram a with a soft and sweet  voice, 
while  he was still hiding  among  the branches  of a simshupa tree. Then he showed  himsel f 
in a tiny form,  asking  her if she really was Rama's bride.  From  her part, Sita too wanted 
to make  sure it was not some Raksha sa trick.  After  suppl ying  all the required 
infor mation,  Hanum an gave Sita the signet  ring and  offered  to take her away  immediately 
from Lanka,  reassuring  her that he was strong  enough  and revealing  his gigantic  form. 
Sita remarked  that in this way Rama would  find himsel f in an embarras sing position:  it 
would  be much bette r if Ram a personally  entered  Lanka  as a conqueror  and directl y 
avenged  the offense.  
To show  Rama proof  that he had really  found  her, Sita gave  Hanum an the last jewel  she 
had kept,  and told him about  one intimat e episode  that he could  mention  to Rama - one 
day while  they lived  in Citrakuta,  a crow  had attacked  Sita and scratched  her, and Rama 
had shot  a Brah mastra  at him.
After  taking  leave  from Sita,  Hanum an thought  that before  leaving  he could  do some 
damage  to the city and scare  Ravana  a bit - something  that would  also keep  up Sita's 
spirits  - so he went into a rampag e destroy ing a section  of the park and  easil y defeated  the 
Kinkara ("servant")  soldiers  that had co me to face  him.  Then, mani festing  a gigantic for m 
and using  tree trunks,  pillars and iron bars from  the park pavilions,  he destro yed one 
entire  garrison  sent by Ravana,  including  Jambumali and the other  sons of the minister 
Prahasta,  other powerful  warriors  and even  Aksha,  one of Ravana's  sons.  Finally  Ravana 
sent his son Indrajit,  who had previousl y defeated  Indra  in a battle;  Indrajit  brought 
Hanu man down  by using  the Brah mastra,  then while  Hanum an was immobilized,  the 
Raksha sas cam e and tied hi m up with m any ordina ry ropes.  Although he could have freed  
himsel f quite  easily,  Hanu man decided  to let himself be brought  to Ravana,  because  he 
wanted  to give him a message from Rama. 
Majestically  sitting  in the jewelled  throne  hall and surrounded  by his minister s Durdhara, 
Prahasta,  Mahaparsva  and Nikumbh a, Ravana  radiated  power  and splendor.  Hanu man 
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said that he had destroyed  the park specifically  with the purpose  of being  brought  to his 
presence  because  he had a message for him: Rama was extre mely  powerful  and he was 
going  to punish  the offender,  therefore  Ravana  needed  to unde rstand  that it was bette r for 
him to surrender imm ediately  and let Si ta go free.
Angered  by Hanu man' s daring  speech,  Ravana  wanted  to have  him killed,  but 
Vibhishana,  Ravana's  brother,  reminded  him that according  to the kshatriyas' ethical 
code,  a messenger  can never  be killed.  Ravana  relented  and decreed  that Hanu man' s tail 
was to be set on fire instead;  the Rakshasa s wrapped  the tail with many oil-soaked  rags 
and set fire to it, then they took the prisoner  around  the city for the amusement of the 
residents.  Sita heard about it and p rayed Agni not to ha rm Hanu man - who was  amazed  to 
notice that he  did no t feel  any pain  or disco mfort.
When  he decided  he had seen enough,  Hanu man loosened  the ropes that tied him up and 
killed  the guards,  then he used  his blazing  tail to set fire to the capital's  buildings,  only 
sparing  Vibhishana's  house.  Finall y he returned to Sita, who was glad to hear about  his 
raid and blessed  him.
Hanu man climbed  mount  Aristha  and leaped  again  through  the ocean,  landing  on the 
opposite  beach.  After  reporting  the succes s of his mission  to the jubilant  Vanaras, 
Hanu man was ready  to go to war alone  against  Lanka,  but agreed to return  immediately 
to Rama to give him the news.  Arriving  near Kishkinda  the explorers  stopped  at the 
Madhuvana  garden,  proper ty of Sugriva,  and in spite  of the presence  of the caretaker, 
Dadhi mukha,  they pillaged  the hone y to celebrate  the succes s of their mission.  Informed 
by Dadhimukh a about  the exuberant  behavior  of the explorers,  Sugriva  guessed  they had 
been  celebrating, and sent i mmediately for  Angada and his  companion s.
Angada  repor ted to Ram a about  finding  Sita, then Hanu man gave  a complete  description 
of the adventure,  handed  him the jewel  received  from  Sita and mentioned  the crow 
episode.  Chapter  68 of Kishkinda  kanda ends  with  Rama embracing  Hanum an in 
gratitude and affection.  
The Yuddha  kanda ("the  book  of the battle")  constitutes  the last part of Valmiki' s 
Ramayana. Rama was anxious  to leave  for Lanka,  and on an auspicious  day the Vanara 
army  began  their  march.  Hanum an carried  Ram a on his shoulder  while  Angada  carried 
Lakshm ana, and quickl y they arrived  at the Mahendra  mountain,  from  which  Ram a 
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conte mplated  the vastness  of the ocean.
In the meantim e in Lanka,  Ravana  summoned his minist ers to discuss  about  the situation. 
The ministers  encouraged  him reminding  him about  the past victories  and saying that 
Indrajit alone  was capable  of winn ing a war, if the situation  required  a fight.  On the 
contrar y Ravana's  younger  brothe r, Vibhishana,  advised  him to restore  Sita to her 
husband,  saying  that many  bad omen s had already  been  observed.  Displeased,  Ravana 
dismissed the me eting  but Vibhishana  repeated  his advice  on the next morning.
Ravana  would  not listen,  so he called  the council  again.  When  he was suggested  to solve 
the proble m by simply  raping  Sita, he replied  that he was unable  do that because  of a 
curse.  Vibhishana  spoke  up again  and again  requested  that Sita be restored  to her 
husband;  displeased  with his uncle,  Indrajit  rebuked  him and Ravana  kicked  Vibhishana 
out of the kingdo m, saying he did not want  to see him any more.  Vibhishana  left his 
family,  home  and posses sions,  and crossed  the ocean to join Ra ma.
Sugriva  alerted  Ram a that Vibhishana,  followed  by four companions,  was walking 
towards  their camp and wanted  to join them; at first all the army  leaders  suspected  some 
kind of trick and did not want  to allow  Vibh ishana  to join them , but Ram a replied  that he 
would  never  abandon  a person that sought  his protection.  Grateful  for having  been 
accepted  by Rama, Vibhishana  fell to Ram a's feet,  offering  his eternal  devotion,  and 
Rama lifted hi m up with affection.  
Then  they discussed  about  Ravana's  military  strength  and Vibhishana  revealed  all his 
military  secrets,  including  Indrajit's  power  to beco me invisible  in the middle  of a fight, 
then he added  that Ram a's army  was much  smaller than Ravana's.  Ram a reassured  him 
saying  that he would  win the war and install  him on Lanka's  throne,  then he immediately 
perfor med Vibhishana's  coronation ce remony  by using the ocean's  water.
After  that, Ram a sat on the beach  to fast, praying three  times a day to obtain  a passage 
from the ocean,  but he got no reply . In the end Ram a became angry and shot lightning -
like arrows  to the bottom  of the ocean,  shaking  the ocean  and all its inhabitants;  then he 
called  the Brahma stra and threatened  to use it to dry up all the water.  The ocean  then 
personally  appeared  with folded  hands  in front  of Ram a and suggested  him to build  a 
bridge. T he Vanara nam ed Nala, son  of Visvakar ma, organized the building of the bridge,  
that was 100 yojana long and 10 yojana wide;  all the Vanaras  enthusiastically  carried big 
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boulders  and tree trunks  and completed  the bridge within 5 days,  crossing  it and reaching 
Lanka.  The remain s of the bridge  still exist  and constitute  one of the most  famous 
mysteries  of archeology.  The British  called  them  "Ada m's bridge"  and the modern 
scientific  methods  date them  no less than 1,750,000  years ago. Recently  NASA  has 
published  very interesting  photos in this regard.
Ravana  had been  informed  about  the arrival  of Ram a's army and his spies  Suka  and 
Sarana,  captured  by the Vanara  with Vibhishana's  help,  were  released  and sent back  into 
the city, where  they described  the power  and value  of Ram a's army.  Irritated  by the 
discouraging  conclusions  of his two spies,  Ravana  sent a third agent,  Shardula,  who also 
returned  with the same report.  Then  he decided  to go for a trick;  he sent for Vidyutjihva 
and asked  him to create  a head  simil ar to Ram a's and a bow that was identical  in looks  to 
Rama's Kodanda  bow,  and to take them to the Ashoka  vana.  Ravana  went  to the garden 
and infor med Sita that Rama's army  had been  defeated  in battle  and that the Raksha sas' 
general  Prahasta  had beheaded  Rama in his sleep.  Vidy utjihva  came with the head  and 
the bow,  that were  shown  to Sita, with a new request  for union  with Ravana.  Seeing  the 
head  and the bow,  Sita burst into tears. In the meanti me a messenger  came for Ravana 
and the Rakshasa  king went  to meet him - the illusion  disappeared  and the Rakshasi 
Saram a comforted  Sita, explaining  that it has been  a trick  and that Rama was still alive 
and waging  war against  Ravana.
The time of the siege  came. Ravana  posted  Prahasta  at the east gate,  Mahaparsva  and 
Mahodara  at the south  gate and Indrajit  at the west gate,  ordered Virupaksha  to lead the 
troops  within  the city, and then went  to personally  watch  the north gate.  Rama, too, 
organized  his army, putting  Nila at the head  of the division  that was going  to attack  the 
east side,  Angada  to the south  wall,  Hanu man to the west  side,  while  Ram a and 
Lakshm ana would  face Ravana  on the north side of the city. Sugriva,  Vibhishana  and 
Jambavan  were  going  to take care of the rear guard. Then  they climb ed mount Suvela, 
from which  they could  observe  the city and spend  the night  safely.  Sugriva  saw Ravana 
and in a fit of rage he leaped  towards  him, knocked  his crown off and attacked  him. After 
a long fight,  realizing  that he was not going  to win, Sugriva returned  to the camp  and 
Rama scolded  him for that impulsiv e action,  also considering  that Sugriva had 
responsibilities  to his  own kingdom  and was not supposed  to get into unnecessary  danger. 
Rama sent Angada  to Ravana  to tell him that there  could  be peace  if he returned Sita, but 
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Ravana  got angry and ordered his people  to kill the messenger.  The Vanara  prince 
grabbed  the four Raksha sas that were  coming  towards  him and leaping  into air he threw 
them down to the ground, then he de molished  Ravana's  terrace before  returning to Ram a.
The Vanaras  started  the systematic destruction  of the city and the Rakshasa  army 
descended  to battle.  The clash  was terrifying and went  on far into the night.  Angada 
defeated  Indrajit  and destro yed his chariot,  and Indraji t resorted  to invisibility , shooting 
the Nagapasa  ("snake  ropes")  that made Rama and Lakshm ana unconscious.  Ravana  was 
very pleased  and embraced  Indrajit,  but Vibhishana  comforted  Sugriva  and the Vanaras, 
telling the m that the Nagapasa  only  had a temporary effect.  In the m eanti me, Ravana  took 
Sita to the battlefield  on his Pushpaka  vimana  so that she could  see how Rama and 
Lakshm ana had fallen  unconscious.  Sita was terrified,  but the Raksha si Trijata  comforted 
her, saying that the y were not dead, and that soon  they would r egain  consciousness.
Rama awoke  first,  and seeing  Lakshm ana laying motionle ss, he thought  he was dead  and 
started  to lament  - but the effect  of the Nagapasa  was instantly dissipated  by the arrival of 
Garuda,  the divine  eagle.  Seeing  that Ram a and Lakshmana were  again  standing  ready to 
fight,  Ravana  sent Dhumraksh a against  them.  Hanu man killed  Dhumraksha,  and in a 
series  of other clashes  Vajradam stra was killed by Angada,  Akampan a was killed  by 
Hanu man after  a long battle,  and Prahasta  was killed  by Nila.  Ravana  decided  to go 
personally  into battle  and sweeping  away many  Vanaras  from  his path,  he went  to 
challenge  Lakshm ana to fight,  hitting  him in the chest  and making him fall unconscious. 
While  he was trying to lift Lakshm ana to carry him away, Ravana  was attacked  by 
Hanu man,  who stroke  him down.  Hanum an carried  Lakshmana safely  to Rama, who then 
climbed  on Hanu man' s shoulders  and engaged  Ravana  into a duel,  destro ying his chariot 
and horses,  crown  and bow,  and wounding  him severely.  Then  Rama showed  his 
generosity and valo r by allowing Ravana  to go away to take rest and revive his strength.
Returned  into his city, Ravana  decided  to awaken  his brother  Kumbhakarna,  who had 
gone  to sleep  a few days earlie r and was supposed  to remain  sleeping  for many  months. 
Finally  Kumbhakarna  shook  sleep  off and descended  into battle,  hitting  Angada  and 
Sugriva,  who  were  saved  by Hanu man.  Ordina ry arrows  had no effect against 
Kumbhakarna,  therefore  Ram a used  divine  weapons  controlled  by Vayu  and Indra, 
cutting  the Raksha sa into pieces  while  he was advancing,  and finall y beheading  him. 
Ravana  decided  to send  his sons Trisira,  Devantaka,  Narantaka  and Atika ya, and his 
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brothers  Mahodara  and Mahaparsva,  all great  warriors,  but all these  were  killed  in fierce 
battles,  too.
The only son of Mandodari,  Indrajit,  asked  permission to get into battle,  and equipped 
with many  divine  weapons  he killed  many Vanaras  and made  Rama and Lakshm ana 
unconscious  with his Brah mastra. Jambavan  called  Hanuman  and told him that to revive 
the two princes  they needed  to get the herbs  called  mrita  sanjivani,  visalya  karani, 
suvarna  karani and sandhani, growing  on a particular  Himalayan  hill. Hanuman 
immediately  left, but because  he had the feeling  he was wasting  time by searching  for 
those  particular  herbs,  he lifted  the entire  hill and carried it to the battlefield.  The remedy 
worked  instantly , bringing  back  to life not only Ram a and Laksh mana,  but also all the 
Vanaras  that had fallen  on the battlefield.  
The fight  continued,  with  Kumbhakarna' s sons  Kumbha  and Nikumbha  entering  the 
battle.  Also  Maharaksha  son of Khara  came into the battle, and Indrajit  returned to fight 
by using  all the mystic  weapons;  he also  created a false  image  of Sita and cut her throat in  
front  of Hanum an and the other Vanaras.  Informed about  that horrendous  action,  Ram a 
and Laksh mana  fell into despair,  but Vibh ishana  exposed  the fraud  and said that Ravana 
would  never  be able to kill Sita.  In the meanti me Indrajit had started  a ritual  for a 
demoniac  sacrifice  in the temple  of Niku mbhila.  Vibhishana  came to know  about  it and 
advised  Ram a to send  Lakshm ana immediately to kill hi m before he was  able to complet e 
the ritual.  Lakshm ana and Hanu man,  accompanied  by Vibhishana  and Jambavan, 
disrupted the ritual and challenged  Indrajit to a duel.
Finally  Lakshm ana shot the Aindrastra,  invoking  Ram a's virtue,  and Indrajit  was struck 
down.  At the news  of his heir's  death, Ravana  was shocked  and decided to really kill Sita, 
but was stopped  by minister  Suparsva.  The last Rakshasa  went  into battle  and Ram a 
defeated  them all. On the eight  day of the war Ravana  himsel f returned  to battle, 
accompanied  by all the ministers that were  still alive.  Again  Ravana  hit Lakshmana with 
his Shakti weapon, sending  him unconscious,  and again  the prince was revived with more 
medicinal  herbs  brought  from  the Himal aya. Suddenl y Matali  came with Indra's  chariot 
and Rama ascended  it for the last attack.  After  a fierce  fight  with the divine  weapons  sent 
by Indra, Ram a used  Indra's Shakti to b reak Ravana's  trident.
Agastya  Rishi  intervened  giving  Ram a the mantra called  Aditya  hridaya ("the  heart  of 
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Surya") while  Ravana  was resting  from battle for some time. Rama chanted  the mantra 
three  times, regained  strength,  and he returned to battle.  But every time he cut off one of 
Ravana's  heads,  another  one was growing  in its place.  Finall y Ram a evoked  the 
Brah mastra and hit Ravana  in the chest,  striking  him down.  While  Mandodari  lamented 
the king's  death,  Vibhishana  praised  his fallen  brothe r's powe r and valor, and asked 
permi ssion  to pe rform his funeral rites.
Rama sent Hanuman  to inform  Sita about what had happened;  Sita asked  Hanu man to tell 
Rama she was anxious  to meet him and Vibhishana  accompanied  her to Rama, but 
every one was perplexed  when  Rama treated  his wife coldly , simply  telling  her that she 
was free to go wherever  she liked.  To prove  her purity, Sita asked  Lakhs mana  to make a 
big fire and walked  through  it, protected  by Agni,  and the Devas  appeared  to remind 
Rama his divine nature of  Vishnu, and to tell hi m that Sita was  actuall y Lakshmi  Devi. 
After  this demonstration  Rama, Sita and Lakshmana ascended  the Pushpaka  vimana to 
return  to Ayodh ya, and allowed  Vibhishana  and the Vanaras  to accom pany  them.  During 
the flight,  Ram a showed  Sita the various  places  of their adventures.  They first landed  at 
the ashrama of Bharadhvaja  Rishi,  and Rama asked  the Rishi  to bless  the trees  on the 
way so that they would  fill with all kinds  of fruits,  even  out of season.  Then  Ram a sent 
Hanu man to inform Guha  and Bharata  about  their arrival,  and after sending  a message to 
Satrughna,  Bharata  rushed  to welcome  Ram a and return his sandals,  thus indicating  the 
return of the legitim ate king.
To the great joy of every one, Rama ascended  the throne  of Ayodh ya, appointing  Bharata 
as yuvaraja. 
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Yoga Vasistha
This is anothe r very important,  albeit  less known,  text of 10 chapters,  written by Valmiki 
about  the story  of Rama. It contains  the instructions  to the young  prince  offered  by the 
Raja Guru  (the king's  guru) Vasistha  Rishi,  that was one of the 10 manasa  putras  ("sons 
born from  the mind ") of Brah ma, the creator of  the unive rse. 
Vasistha  had been  the preceptor  of the Ayodh ya Surya vamsa (solar  dynasty ) since  the 
times of Ikshvaku,  the son of  Svayambhuva  Manu.  
This episode  is set before  Ram a's exile,  in anticipation  of his coronation,  and lasts several 
days.  The teachings  of the Yoga Vasistha  are meant to lead to liberation  and Self 
realization,  which  start when  a human  being  asks questions  about  his real nature. When  a 
man asks,  "who am I?", he seeks  the company  of the sages  to obtain  the answers  and thus 
he is blessed  with the essence  of all scriptures.  The realized  teacher  guides  the worth y 
disciple,  who has  attained the prope r level of  renunciation, and dissipates  his illusions.
The activities  of the material  world  are as illusor y as the idea that the painted  image  of a 
snake  could  move and attack  one who is watching  it. Creation  is nothing  but a play of 
consciousne ss, and the strength  of the bondage  - although  they do not exist  in realit y - 
beco mes stronger  and creates  more  sufferings  when  the individual  desires  to exploit  it to 
get sense  gratification.  One who wants  to achieve  happiness  must reject  the samsara of 
material  identification  and the ment al fantasies  and attach ments,  and come to the level 
where he can  see that ever ything that exists  is only Brahman.  
Just like the snake  appears  in our mind when  we mistak enly see it as a rope, and 
disappears  as soon  as we recognize  the rope for what  it really  is, the world cease s to 
appear  as material  to one who recognizes  the absolute  existence  of the Self.  The same 
thing happens  to one who awakens  from a drea m and finds  true realit y.
The characteristics  of a jivanmukta, a person  who has alread y attained  liberation  in this 
lifeti me, are inner happiness  and peace,  and freedom  from fear. He continues  to work  in 
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this world like inalterable  gold that has sunk  into mud;  free from doubts  and from the 
knots  of desires,  he does  not becom e attached  to his parentage  and has no prejudice 
towards  friends and ene mies, treating them  with equal justice.  
The material  mind  (cittam) divides  awareness  by creating  objects  of desire  for itself  and 
runs after them  - a faculty  that derives from  the omnipres ent and omnipotent  Lord,  but it 
must be destro yed by  using  that same tendency, just like a fire created  by the action of the  
wind is  extinguished by  the wind itself.  
Moving  the concept  of "I" and "min e" from the level  of material  illusion  to the 
transcendental  reality  of Atman- Brah man,  the purusha mind  dissolves  the attachm ents 
and the dormant  impres sions  (vasana). Such  attachm ents do not reside  in the body, 
because  the same arms can encircle different  objects with different  mental  attitudes.
Material  consciousnes s (cittam) is terrifying  (ugra) in the awakened  state,  peaceful 
(santam) in dreams, and dull (mudham) in deep  sleep,  but just like the powder  of kataka 
seeds  used to precipitate  dirt in the wate r disappears  in the water  itself  after completing 
its action, the mat erial consciousnes s dissolves  into the Self.
Only  the fools  speak  of meditation  when  they are not even  able to contro l their  own 
minds.  We should  rathe r seek  the company  of the sages,  abandon  the dorm ant 
impression s (of the past),  study the knowledge  of the Self contained  in the scriptu res and 
control b reathing:  in this  way we beco me masters of the mind.
The search  for the knowledge  of the true nature  of the Self is the key to destroy  the 
dormant  impression  and the control of breathing  helps  to direct the mind. By remaining 
in the co mpany  of the wise, ceasing  to think about the m aterial  activities  and attach ment s, 
and remem bering  that the body will have  to die, the dormant  impres sions  of the past 
beco me inactive.
Even  an ignorant  person  is able to transform  poison  into nectar  and nectar  into poison  by 
the power  of his belief  - in the same way we need  to understand  and deepl y believe  that 
we are not the m aterial  body .
Meditation  on the Self consists  in realizing  our nature  of pure consciousne ss, beyond  all 
illusions,  and that the body we  are wearing  does  not really belong to us. The ocean  of this 
consciousne ss can contain  the rise and disappearance  of all the imaginary  waves  of 
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personalities,  actions  and reactions,  without  being  disturbed.  By rendering  homage  to the 
Self that is in all creatures,  the inner  consciousne ss expe riences  pure  and constant 
happiness.  
In this way we must act externally  by playing our role in the world  but remain  inwa rdly 
stable,  free from all attachment s and dormant  impres sions,  abandoning  all objects  of 
conte mplation  and cutting, with the sword  of knowledge,  the illusion  of being the  body. 
By meditating  on the Self and cultivating  the knowledge  of the Self,  illusion  dissipates 
automatically,  even  if this requires  a certain  effort  - just like we need  some effort  to 
extract iron from  ore, fire from  wood, butter from  the cow, and oil from  sesa me seeds.
 
Rama cha rita manasa
In the course  of the centu ries, the popularit y of Ramayana has also been  reflected  in 
various  versions  in the popular  languages  of India  (Hind i, Tamil, Oriya etc). The most 
famous of such  translations  (which  tend to be rather  "independent"  in their  versions)  is 
Tulsidas'  version  in Hindi  language  (more  specifically,  in Awadhi  dialect)  entitled 
Ramacharitamanasa  ("remem brance  of Ram a's adventures")  that attained  immense 
popularit y, especially among  the illi terate population of  the Indian vil lages.
Gosva mi Tulsidas  was born  in 1497  in Uttar Pradesh  and lived in Varanasi  (Benares), 
founding  the temple  of Sankatamoch ana dedicated  to Hanu man and inaugu rating  the 
tradition of the folkloristic  drama events on the story  of Rama, called rama  lila. 
Both  the text of the Rama charita manasa  and the tradit ional  stories around T ulsidas  echo 
some of the beliefs  and attitudes  called  laukika  sraddha  ("popu lar beliefs")  developed  in 
the course  of ti me, also due to the influence  of the Muslim  and European domination,  that 
compacted  the lack of a solid  Vedic  knowledge,  for example  aggravating  the division 
between  "brah mins"  and "low  castes".  It is possible  that Tulsidas  reflected  such prejudice 
because  he did not want  to embark  into unnecessary  controversies  with  the ignorant 
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people  of his times,  but it is also possible  that the manu scripts  presently  available  have 
been  tampered  with.
We can see an exam ple of such prejudice  in a story about  Tulsidas  himself: the popular 
legend  says that Hanum an had visited  the ashrama  of Valmiki  Rishi  to hear the original 
Ramayana, but the Rishi  had kicked  him out saying  that as a monkey  he did not have  the 
right  of attending  the recitation  of the sacred  text (an idea that looks  rather  stupid,  as 
Hanu man hims elf is one of the main  heroes  of the text written by Valmiki).  So according 
to this unlikely story, Hanu man went  to the Himalaya  to meditate  on Rama and wrote  the 
Maha  nataka  or Hanuman  nataka  by scratching  the text on the rocks with his fingernails. 
When  Valmiki read Hanum an's work, he realized  that it would  eclipse  his own poem, so 
he ordered him to destro y the rocks  by throwing  them into the ocean  (another  rather 
unbelievable  act as even  the mere  presence  of the name of Ram a would  be sufficient  to 
purif y the rocks  - as Valmiki  himself had written in his poem , when  the Vanaras  had 
created  the floating  bridge  by writing  Rama's name on the rocks).  All the fuss about 
Hanu man being  "unwor thy" then came down  to Valmiki supposedly  advising  Hanuman 
to take birth  again  as a human being  and a brahmin,  so that he would  be allowed  to 
compos e a poetic  work.  One may be forgiven  for wondering  why Narada  had not given 
Valmiki the same instruction (take another birth) to transfor m him from  a chandala into a 
brahmana, and had instead  recom mended  him simply to reme mber the name and the 
story  of Ram a - including the part pla yed by  Hanu man as his dear devotee  and servant.
It is said that Tulsidas  was born after 12 months  of pregnancy,  alread y with 32 teeth,  and 
as developed  physicall y as usuall y are 5 year old child ren. When  he was only 4 days old 
he was abandoned  by his parents,  who feared  the effects  of the negative  constellations 
under  which  the child  had been  born. So Tulsidas  was compelled  to immediately  start to 
earn a livelihood  by begging  from  door to door, until he was taken  in by Narahar idas,  a 
ramanandi  sannyasi, who initiated  him to sannyasa as his disciple.  Later  on, Tulsidas 
visited  various  places  of pilgrimage  all over India,  and he claim s he personally  met both 
Hanu man and Ram a several  times. One day in Varanasi  he met a preta (ghost)  and after 
quenching  his thirst with water,  he obtained  from him the blessing  of meeting  Hanu man, 
who was wandering  around  in the form  of a leper  to hear the story of Rama - and who 
after  Tulsidas'  insistent  requests,  admitted  he was Hanu man and advised  him to go to 
meditate  at Citrakuta,  where Ram a had lived  during  his exile.  To this ghost,  Tulsidas 
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offers  his ho mage  at the  beginning of the text of  the Rama charita  manasa (doha 1.7). 
There  are also many  popular  stories  of miracles  attributed  to Tulsidas,  like the episode 
when  he was imprisoned  by the emperor  of Delhi,  and an army of monkeys  invaded  the 
city, devastating  ever ything including the r oyal palace.
Tulsidas  compo sed his work  in vernacular  language  remaining  in the holy  place  of 
Ayodhya  and completed  it in 2 years,  7 months  and 26 days. Then  he went  to recite  it in 
the temple  of Shiva in Varanasi,  where  according  to the popular  legend  the brahmin s of 
the temple  allowed  the book  to be kept in the inner  chamber  of the temple;  the next 
morning  the manu script  was bearing  an addition  of three  words:  satyam  shivam 
sundaram  ("true,  good  and beautiful")  with the signature  of Shiva  himself. According  to 
the popular  tradit ion, several  copies  of the Rama  charita  manasa were  written  personall y 
by Tulsidas'  hand. 
As described  in one of his last works,  the Hanuman  bahuka, in his last years Tulsidas 
was afflicted  by serious  pains  all over the body, especiall y in his arms,  and by absces ses 
that infected  the pores of his skin.  The last text he wrote, the Vinayapatrika, contains  a 
very popular  verse (45) often  sung  as bhajan in the evening  ceremonie s, like the famous 
Hanuman chalisa , the 40 verses  in praise  of Hanuman.
Particular ly important,  from  the ideological  perspective,  are the conversation  between 
Loma sa Rishi  and Kakabhushundi  regarding  the identit y between  nirguna  brahman  and 
saguna  brahman, the elaboration  about  the chanting  of the holy name of Ram a as the 
only effective  religious  practice  in Kali yuga, and the presentation  of Ram a as the source 
of all divine  manifestation s - including  Krishna,  Vishnu,  Shiva  and Brahm a - and of the 
entire universe, that is  his cos mic form  and at the sa me time  his lila ("divine pla y"). 
Similarly,  in this conversation  it is said that Sita is Maya  - called  Vidya Maya  because 
she enables  the creation  and liberation  of the individual  soul,  as well as Avid ya Maya 
because  she is the cause  of illusion  and ignorance.  Regarding  Shiva,  Tulsidas  describes 
him as the mani festation  of the Guru tattva,  the original  spiritual  master. Tulsidas' 
philosophical  position  in regard  to the famous controvers y dvaita versus  advaita is that 
the world in itself  is neither  truth (satya) nor falsenes s (asatya), or the two things 
simultaneou sly (satyasatya), and that only by abandoning  all these  three  illusions  it is 
possible  to attain true realization.
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Puranas
Also  compiled  by Vyasadeva,  the Puranas offer  valuable   teachings  in the form  of stories 
and dialogues,  just like the  Itihasas. 
There  are 18 Mahapuranas ("great  puranas") for a total of 400 thousand  verses,  and 18 
Upapuranas ("secondary puranas"). 
The lists in order of importance  sometimes give slightly  different  sequences,  and there 
are reasons  to believe  that the Bhavishya  purana, often  listed  as Mahapurana, is actuall y 
a much later text inserted  in the lists in place  of the ancient  Devi  bhagavata  purana, that 
is mentioned  separatel y.
Here is  a sum mary of the main  Puranas. 
Bhagavata  purana
Also  known  as Srimad  Bhagavatam and composed  by 18 thousand  verses,  it is certainly 
the most famous; the core of the narration  is the story  of Krishna,  presented  as the 
Supreme  Lord  (bhagavan). An ample summary study  of the Bhagavata  purana, of about 
400 pages,  has been presented  in this series  by the sam e autho r.
The text begins  with an assem bly of sages  in Naimi sharanya,  discussing  spiritual  topics. 
Suta  Gosvam i reports the dialogue  between  Sukadeva  and king  Parikshit,  who was 
waiting  for death  and asked  him what  is the supre me good  for the human  beings, 
according  to the scriptu res and the teachings  of the great sages.  Sukadeva  narrated  many 
stories,  such  as the appearance  of the avatara Varaha,  of Kapila  (with his teachings  on 
Yoga  and Sankh ya, and on the process  of reincarnation),  of Daksha' s sacrifice  (and Sati's 
death),  of Dhruva (of his austerities  when  he was a child  and his deeds  as an adult),  of 
king Vena  (and his elimination  by the brahmanas), of king Prithu,  king Pracinabarhi  and 
his sons the Pracetas,  of king Priyavrata,  Rishabha  (and his teachings),  of Jadabharata 
(who  preserved  the memories of his previous  lifetim es even  through  an animal birth), of 
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Ajamila  (who  was saved  by the Vishnudutas),  of the sons  of Daksha,  of Indra  and 
Vritrasura,  of Citraketu  (and his child  who temporaril y returned from  death),  of Indra and 
Diti (who was trying to have  a son who could  defeat  Indra), of Prahlada  and his father 
Hiran yakasipu  (including  the appearance  of the avatara Narasim ha), of the elephant 
Gajendra  (who  was saved  by Vishnu),  of the churning  of the nectar  of immortality  (that 
was obtained  from the milk ocean  thanks  to the extraordina ry cooperation  of Devas  and 
Asuras),  of the Vishnu  avatara  Mohini,  of Bali Maharaja  and the avatara Vamana  (who 
asked  him for three  paces  of land,  by which  he covered  the entire  universe),  of the fish 
avatara Matsya,  of Cyavana  Rishi  (and  how he recovered  his lost youth), of king 
Ambarisha  who was a great devotee  of Vishnu,  of Bhagiratha  (who  brought  about  the 
descent  of the Ganges  to earth(,  of the avatara Rama (whose  adventures  are narrated  in 
the Ramayana), of the avatara Parasuram a, of king Yayati, of king Dushm anta (who 
became the husband  of Sakuntala  and father  of Bharata),  and of the ancestors  of Parikshit 
Maharaja.  
After  speaking  of the genealogy  of the Surya vamsa ("the  Sun dynasty" ), the text 
describes  the Soma vamsa ("the  Moon  dynasty"),  in which  Krishna  appeared.  From  the 
10th canto  onwards,  the story focuse s exclusively  on Krishna,  from his birth in Mathura 
to the escape  to Gokula,  from  the adventures  in Vrindavana  (including  the famous rasa 
dance  with the cowherd  girls) to the return  to his parents  in Mathura,  the founding  of 
Dvaraka  city, his adventures  with  the Pandavas,  and finally  the disappearance  of the 
entire Yadu dy nasty.
In the 6th canto  we find the Narayana  kavacha  ("the  Nara yana  armour"  constituted  by 
protective  mantras) and the Pumsavana  vrata  (a ritual to have  a son);  in the 8th canto  we 
have  the Payo vrata  (a ritual fast on milk).  Among  the most famous prayers there  are 
those  of Brah ma (3rd canto),  Shiva (4th canto),  the inhabitants  of Jambudvipa  (5th 
canto), Daksha  (6th canto ) and  the personified  Vedas (10th canto). 
Skanda (or Kartika ) purana
It is the largest  puranic  text, with 81,100  verses  divided  into 7 books  or kandas named 
after  Mahesvara,  Vaishnava,  Brah ma, Kashi,  Avanti,  Nagara  and Prabhasa.  The text 
starts  by describing  the glories  of Shiva,  the story of Daksha' s sacrifice  and Sati's  death, 
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the episode  when  Devas  and Asuras  churned  the milk ocean  to produce  the nectar  of 
immortality  but had to face the proble m of the halahala, the poison  that aggregated  the 
impurities  of the ocean.  Shiva  Mahesvara  ("the  great  Lord") drank  this poison  to save the 
world.  Then the text introduces  the main  topic:  the birth of Skanda,  son of Shiva,  who 
became the general  of the Devas'  army  and killed the Asura  Taraka.  There  is a 
description  of the blessings  obtained  by observing  the Shivarat ri fasting  - the 14th day of 
the waning  moon  of each month  - with the example  of the story of Dussah,  who becam e 
Virabhadra. 
After  killing Taraka, Skanda  received from  Vishnu  the instruction to worship  Shiva in the 
forms of Pratijnesvara,  Kapalesvara  and Kumaresv ara. Then there  is the story of 
Kalabhiti  ("he who feared  Time"),  the son of the brahmana Manti.  For 4 years Kalabhiti 
refused  to take birth because  he was afraid  of Time;  Manti  prayed Shiva,  who sent 4 of 
his ganas ("companions")  named  Dharma  ("ethical  sense"),  Jnana  ("knowledge"), 
Vairagy a ("renunciation")  and Aisvar ya ("lordship")  to convince  him.  A fifth  gana, 
named Adharma  ("immorality")  promised  never  to come near the child.  At last Kalabhiti 
was persuaded  to take birth. After  Kalabhiti  was personally  visited  by the Lord, who 
gifted  him with the jyotilinga ("radiating  form") svayambhu  "spontaneously  appeared") 
called  Mahakala  that is still worshiped  today. 
Here  he find the conversation  between  Kalabhiti  and king  Karandha m regarding  the 
rituals  to honor  the ancestors,  the difference  between  Shiva  and Vishnu,  the worship  of 
the Lingam,  the manifestation  of the Arunachala  mount ain as a huge  Shiva  lingam,  the 
creation  of the universe,  and the episode  of the killing  of Sumbha  and Nishum bha and 
Mahisha sura by Du rga.
The Vaishnava  kanda relates  the story  of Varaha  and his conversation  with  Prithivi 
(Earth), including  the description  of the four abodes  of Vishnu  in the four  yugas 
(respectivel y Anjana,  Nara yanagir i, Simhanchala  and Venkatachala),  the powerful 
mantra for the worship  of Varaha,  the story of Padmavati,  and the explanation  of the 
reason  why Sita ente red the fire at the end of  the Ramayana. 
The text continues  with the story  of Maharaja  Parikshit  and the curse  cast by Sringi son 
of Shamik,  who condem ned the king to die within 7 days b y a snake  bite. 
Also  we find the story of the story of the brahmana  Ramakrishn a who engaged  in 
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austerity  on mount Venkatachala  (where  the temple  of Tirupati  Balaji  was built) and the 
description  of an important  sacred  place,  Akasha  Ganga  Tirtha,  that became famous for 
the austerities  of Anjana  (Hanuman 's mother)  who wanted  to have  Vayu as his son. The 
text gives  the precise indication of  the locality .
Then  we find the description  of Purushottam a kshetra  (Jagannatha  Puri) where  Brahm a 
went  to meditate  on the recommendation  of Vishnu,  the episode  where  Markandeya  Rishi 
survived  the destruction  of the universe  by taking  shelter  in the Kalpa  Vata  (the desire 
tree)  in Puri, the description  of the temples  of Kapala  mochana  and Vimala  Devi,  the 
appearance  of Jagannatha  and the stor y of king Ind radyumna,  Vidyapati and Visvavasu.  
The episodes  of the appearance  of the Jagannatha  Deities,  the worship  to Narasim ha and 
the Asva medha yajna occup y most of this kanda. Narada  Rishi  come s to give detailed 
instructions  for the worship  to Jagannatha  and especially  for the annual  celebration  of the 
Ratha  yatra.
Tthere is a long  list with  the description  of sacred  places,  such  as the rivers Ganga, 
Godavari,  Narm ada, Tapti,  Yamun a, Kshipra,  Gauta mi, Kaushiki,  Kaveri,  Tamraparni, 
Chandrabhaga,  Sindhu,  Gandaki,  Sarasvati,  and the cities of Ayodh ya, Dvaraka,  Kashi 
(Varanasi  or Benares),  Mathura,  Avanti,  Kurukshetra,  Ramatirtha  (Rame svara m), 
Kanchi,  Purushottam a kshetra  (Puri), Pushkara  kshetra,  Varaha  kshetra  and 
Badarikashra ma. Then  it speasks  of the importance  of the month  of Kartika,  of bathing  in 
the Ganges  in the month of Margasirsha,  of distributing  charitable  donations  in the month 
of Vaisakha  and visiting the sacred  place of  Ayodh ya.
The Brahma  kanda speaks  about  Ramesvara  tirtha, where  Rama, the avatara of Vishnu, 
installed  a Shiva  lingam,  and the story  of Ram a's war against  Ravana,  the Rakshasa  king 
of Lanka.  Then it speaks  of Dharm aranya  kshetra,  where  Dharmaraja  (Yama)  engaged  in 
austerities  to please  Shiva. After  the description  of Dharmak shetra  we find a conversation 
between  Vyasa and Yudhisthira,  describing  the degrading  effect s of the Kali yuga. In 
another  conversation,  Brahma  explains  the benefits  of the chaturmasya  vrata ("the four 
months  vow")  and the worship  method  called  sodasa  upachara ("with 16 worship  steps") 
that must be performed  by reciting the Mahasukta of the Yajur Veda constituted  by 16 
suktas (including  the Purusha  sukta) connected  to the various  parts of the body of the 
Deity  of Vishnu.
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The Kashi  kanda begins  with  the episode  of Narada  Rishi  that awakened  the rivalr y 
between  the mountain s Vindh ya and Meru;  Vindh ya decided  to expand  and obstruct  the 
passage  of the Sun, with serious  climat e consequences.  
The Devas  begged  Brahma  for help and Brah ma suggested  to consult  Agastya  Rishi  who 
lived  in Kashi  (Varanasi).  Agast ya left his city to order  the mountain  to shrink  back  to its 
normal  size,  then he traveled  to Sri Shaila  with  his wife  Lopamudra  to meet Lord 
Kartike ya (Skanda);  this chapter  also contains  the description  of the sacred  places  of 
Prayaga, Naimi sharanya, Kurukshetra,  Gangadvara,  Avanti, Ayodh ya, Mathura,  Dvaraka, 
Badrikashra ma, Purushotta ma kshetra  and Kashi,  whose  glories and histor y are narrated 
from its origin.  In the Ananda  vana  ("the forest  of joy") of Kashi,  that is presentl y known 
as Manikarnika  ghat,  Shiva  and Parvati  manife sted  Vishnu  as Purushottam a; 
Purushottam a dug a lake with his disc, the Suda rshana  chakra, to remain  in that place  and 
engage  in austerit y.
The Avanti  kshetra  kanda  begins  with the glorification  of Mahakala  tirtha  (the present 
Bhubaneswar  in Orissa)  in the conversation  between  Parvati  and Shiva.  This Mahakala 
tirtha  is also called  Ekamra  vana  ("the forest  with one mango  tree")  and Vimukti  kshetra 
("the  place  that gives liberation" ) and is also known  as a pitha because  it is the abode  of 
the Matrikas  ("the  Mother  Goddesse s"). One day Shiva arrived  in the Mahakala  forest 
carrying a skull  (kapala) in his hand;  the Devas  perfor med the Pasupata  vrata to honor 
Shiva, and as  soon  as Shiva dropped the skull, all the Asuras  were destroyed.
Then  the text speaks  of Ujjain,  also called  Kanaka  sringa  ("golden  horn"),  Kusasthali 
("the  place  of the sacred  straw"),  Avanti  ("of one who protects")  and Padmavati  ("lotus-
like").  Ujjain  is also famous because  in this place  Shiva defeated  the Tripura Asuras.  This 
is also the place  of appearance  of Lakshm i, who manife sted from  the ocean  of milk that 
was being churned here b y Devas  and Asuras.  
In the region  of Avantipura  there  are 4 sacred  rivers  called  Kshipra,  Divyanava, 
Nilaganga  and Gandhavati,  temple s for 84 Shiva  lingas,  8 Bhairavas,  11 Rudras,  12 
Adity as, 6 Ganeshas,  24 Devis,  and m any temple s dedicated to Vishnu  such  as Vasudeva, 
Ananta,  Balaram a, Janardana,  Nara yana,  Hrishikesha,  Varaha,  Dharanidhara,  Vamana 
and Vishnu  resting on Seshanaga.  
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Then  there  is the story  of the descent  to earth  of the sacred  river  Narm ada, thanks  to the 
efforts  of king  Puru tkusu;  the impa ct of the sacred  waters  was sustained  by Paryanka,  son 
of the Vindh yachala  mountain.  Later,  during the Svayambhuva  manvantara,  Manu  went 
to bathe in the water of  the Narmad a, in the place  called T ripuri. 
In the second  half of the same age more sacred  rivers  mani fested: Kalindi  (Yamuna), 
Sarasvati,  Sarayu and Mahabhaga.
The conversation  between  Markande ya Rishi  and Yudhisthi ra, who was visiting  those 
sacred  places  with his  brothe rs, continues  with the story of Jamadagni Rishi  who received 
from Shiva  a kamadhenu cow,  who later became an object  of contention  with Kartavi rya 
Arjuna, who wanted to appropriate her. 
Markandeya  also speaks  of the hellish  planets  - Atighora,  Raudra,  Ghoratam a, 
Dukhajanani,  Ghorarupa,  Taranta ra, Bhayanaka,  Kalarat ri, Ghatotkata,  Chanda, 
Mahachanda,  Chandakolahala,  Prachanda,  Varagnika,  Jaghanya,  Avaraloma,  Bhishni, 
Nayika, Karala,  Vika rala,  Vajravinshti,  Asta,  Panchakona,  Sudirgha,  Parivartula, 
Saptabhau ma, Ashtabhaum a and Di rghamaya.  
The Nagara  kanda contains  the story of Trishanku,  who was cursed by the sons  of 
Vasistha  Rishi,  and for whom  Visvam itra Rishi  created  a special  star system within  this 
universe.  The Prabhasa  kanda contains  the description  of the various  Puranas and 
Upapuranas, and explains  that characteristicall y they all deal with 5 subjects:  sarga (the 
primary  creation  of the universe),  pratisarga  (the secondary  creation),  vamsa (the 
description  of the dynasties),  manvantara  (the periods  of the Manus)  and manucharita 
(the stor y of the descendants  of the d ynasties).  
Then  it describes  the glories of the sacred  place  of Prabhasa  ("radiant")  tirtha,  known 
along  the various  ages  also with the name s of Somanath a ("Lord of the moon"), 
Mrity unjay a ("conquero r of death"),  Kalagnirudra  ("he who shouts,  who is fire and 
time"),  Amrite sha ("the  Lord of the immortals"),  Anna maya  ("the  foundation  for the food 
existence"),  Kritivasa  ("where  fame resides")  and Bhairava  natha  ("the  terrifying  Lord"); 
its future nam e will be Prananatha ("the L ord of  life").  
In that sacred  place,  between  the rivers  Vajrini and Nyanaku,  there  is the ancient 
Somanatha  jyotirlinga  (installed  by the Deva  of the Moon)  and a main temple  dedicated 
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to each  of the three  Deities  - Surya Nara yana,  Madhava  and Bhavani  - and also 10 
million  more  temple s dedicated  to Vishnu and 15 m illion  dedicated to Shiva. 
There  are also three forms of the Mother  Goddess  - Mangala  ("auspicious")  connected  to 
Brah ma, Vishalakshi  ("large  eyes")  connected  to Vishnu  and Chatvari  ("the  fourfold") 
connected  to Shiva,  respectively  representing  the powers  of will, action  and knowledge. 
No pilgrimage  is considered  compl ete without a visit to the m.
From  Prabhasa  kshetra starts the river Sarasvati,  that before joining the ocean  splits  into 5 
branches,  of which  4 are called Harini, Vajrini, Nyanku  and Kapila from  the names of the 
Rishis  who bathed  there.  In the same area we find the linga  called  Sarvesvara  ("the Lord 
of all") or Siddhesvara  ("the Lord of perfection"  installed  by the Siddhas)  that along  the 
ages was also known  as Mahodaya  ("the  great ocean")  and Jaigishavyesvara  as he was 
worshiped  by a great  devotee  named Jaigishavya.  There is the description  of the lingas 
called  Gandharvesvara  (installed  by a Gandharva  named  Dhanvahan),  Kapilesvara 
(installed by  Kapila  Rishi) and Dhanadesvara  (installed by  Kuvera, "the Lord of wealth").  
The text speaks  also about  the tradit ion of shaving  one's  head  during  a pilgrimage  and 
taking  bath in the ocean,  especially  near Somanatha,  where  50 million  Shiva  lingas  are 
submerged.  After  the description  of Prabhasa  we find the Dvaraka  mahatmya ("the 
glories  of di Dvaraka"),  speaking  of the fabulous  city built by Krishna  in the ocean,  and 
of the journey of the Rishis  to Patala  to ask Prahlada  and Bali how it was possible  to help 
the people  of Kali yuga to realize  Lord  Vishnu.  Prahlada  explained  the glories  of the city 
of Kushasthala  Puri,  known  as Dvaraka  or Dvaravati  Puri, where  on the bank  of the river 
Gomati there is the temple  of Trivikram a ("the Lord of  the three steps")  where the powers 
of Krishna  were preserved even  after his disappearance.  
Padma purana
Composed by 55 thousand  verses  divided  into 5 parts called  Sristi  kanda ("the  book  of 
creation"),  Bhumi  kanda ("the  book  of Earth"),  Svarga  kanda ("the  book  of the highe r 
planets"),  Patala  kanda ("the  book  of the lower  planets")  and Uttara  kanda ("the highe r 
book"). 
The text begins  with Ro maharshana  Suta entrusting the Puranas to his  son Ugrasrava and 
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asking  him to go to Naimi saranya to present the m to the sages  assem bled there. 
Suta tells about  Pulastya  Rishi  who went  to bless  Bhish ma who was engaged  in austerity 
and explained  the process  of the creation  of the universe,  the duration  of Brah ma's life, 
the cycle  of the ages,  the origin  of the four varnas, the appearance  of Rudra  and Manu 
and Manu's  descendants.  
Then  follows  the appearance  of Lakshm i from the milk ocean  churned by Devas  and 
Asuras,  the sacrifice  perfor med by Daksha  and the death of his daughter Sati, the creation 
of the bodies  of the various  living  beings,  the origin  of the Maruts  (who  were  born from 
Diti but became Indra's  friends),  Svarocisa  Manu  in the second  manvantara, Autam a 
Manu  in the third, Tamasa Manu  in the 4th, Raivata  Manu  in the 5th, Chakshusa  Manu  in 
the 6th, and Vaivasvata  Manu in the 7th and present  manvantara. 
Then  it speaks  about  the future  Manus:  Savarni  in the 8th, Ruci  in the 9th, Bhautya  in the 
10th,  Merusavarni  in the 11th,  Ribhu  in the 12th,  Vitadham a in the 13th and Visvakshena 
in the 14th and last  manvantara during Brahm a's day. 
The conversation  between  Pulastya  and Bhish ma continues  with the story of king Prithu 
(from  whom  the Earth took the name of Prithivi),  of the wives  of Surya (the Deva  of the 
Sun),  of the descendants  of Ikshvaku,  of the avatara Vamana  and king Bali (also  called 
Bashakali),  of the avatara Ram a killing  Sham buka,  and the appearance  of Ganesha  and 
Kartike ya. 
Follow  the explanation  of the duties of the brahmanas, the meaning  of the Gayat ri 
mantra,  the method  of nyasa (installation  of the sacred  syllables),  the legitim ate means by 
which a  brahmana can earn a livelihood, and the stor y of the brahmana Narot tama. 
Then the text speaks  of the importance  of the rudraksha ("Rudra's  eyes"  - the seeds  of the 
Elaeocarpus  ganitrus, used  to make sacred  necklaces  and rosaries),  of the amla (the 
acidic  fruit of the Phyllanthus  emblica) and of tulasi  (a variety  of basil  called  Ocimum 
sanctum) and the worship  to Surya.
The Bhumi  kanda speaks  of the different  types of papa and punya (negative  and positive 
actions),  of the story of king Yayati and his marriage  with Asrubindu mati,  and of the 
story  of the meeting  between  Cyavana  Rishi  and the parrot  Kunjala  - including  the 
teachings  of Kunjala  to his children  in regard to religious  duties  and the story  of his 
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previous lifeti me.
The Svarga  kanda describes  the main  sacred  places  of India (Bha rata varsha),  its 
mountains,  rivers  and janapadas (kingdo ms or "human settlem ents")  and especiall y 
Jambumarga and the river Narm ada, mount Amarkantaka,  Dhar ma tirtha  and the river 
Yamuna,  Kashi,  Kapardisvara  and Gaya, and the importance  of the Puranas. Follows  the 
story  of Ram a returning from  Lanka  after defeating  Ravana.
The Patala  kanda continues  with the story of Ram a, especially  with the episode  where 
Sita retired  to the forest  to give birth to her two sons,  the story of Kaikasi  the mother  of 
Ravana,  the episode  when  Rama perform s the Asva medha yajna, and the story of Sita 
return ing to Ay odhya.
The Uttara  kanda  describes  the sacred  place  of Badarikashram a, the descent  of the 
Ganges,  the meeting  between  Dasaratha  and the planet  Shani (Saturn ), the qualities  of the 
vaishnavas,  the city of Indrap rastha,  the abode  of Vishnu  called  Vaikuntha,  and the 
avataras of Vishnu:  Matsya,  Kurma, Narasim ha, Vam ana, Ram a and especially  Krishna. 
After  the description  of the end of the Yadu  dynast y, we find the rituals  to worship 
Vishnu  and the story  of Parasura ma.
Narada or Naradiya  purana
It has 25 thousand  verses;  the first section  contains  the famous text known  as Brihan 
Naradiya  purana, consisting  of 125 chapters.   
The text starts  with the four Kumara s ("the  young",  named Sanaka,  Sanatana,  Sananda 
and Sanat)  sons of Brahma,  going  to visit their father.  Their younger  brother Narada  asks 
Sanaka  to speak  about  Vishnu,  the cause  of creation,  the character istics  of devotion, 
knowledge  and austerit y. Sanaka  explains  how Maha  Vishnu  manifests Brahma,  Shiva 
and Vishnu,  Lakshmi,  Chandika  and Sarasvati,  and then the elem ents of the material 
creation. 
Then  the secondary  creation  starts,  in which  Brahma  manifests the various  planets  and 
the bodies  of the living  beings,  and then the various generations  and dynasties.  In this 
passage  we find  a description of the  universe  and Ea rth, and a  famous verse declaring that 
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Vasudeva  ("the  omnipresent")  Vishnu  ("omnipotent")  is the final purpose  of Dharma  and 
austerities,  the supre me knowledge  and the path to realization.  Vasudeva  is every thing 
that exists,  from Brah ma and Shiva  to the Devas  and Asuras,  sacrifice,  the universe  itself 
and all living beings,  down to the unicellular o rganis ms (krimi). 
Sanaka  also explains  the science  of Bhakti,  devotion,  starting  from sraddha (faith), 
satsanga (the company  of good  people)  and samatva (equanimity  in front  of the various 
situations).  
Follows  the story of Markandeya  Rishi,  son of Mrikunda  son of Bhrigu,  and how by his 
worship  he pleased  Vishnu,  who offered  him instructions  on the character  and behavio r 
of a vaishnava  devotee,  and especially  on devotion  to Shiva,  that is not different  from 
Vishnu.  
The conversation  between  Narada  and Sanaka  continues  with the story  of the Ganges, 
from the times of king Bahu  of the Sun dynasty  and his son Sagara,  and how the Ganges 
touched  the feet of  Vishnu  in his  incarnation as Va mana.  
Then  the text speaks  of the observance  of Dvadasi  ("the  12th  day of the moon") 
especially  of the waxing  moon,  with specific  rituals  for the different  month s of the year, 
described  in detail. 
Then  the discussion  continues  with the real meaning  of Yoga,  that is jnana (knowledge) 
supported  by bhakti (devotion)  and characterized  by the 8 qualities  - non violence, 
truthfulness,  absence  of anger,  compas sion,  benevolence,  sexual  abstinence,  and freedo m 
from greed and envy. 
It continues  with the various  forms of Yoga,  the rules to be followed,  the rituals  and 
practices,  the asanas (sitting  positions  for meditation),  pranayama (breathing  control ) in 
relationship  with  the mantras and visualization,  pratyahara (detachm ent from sense 
stimulation),  dharana (concent ration  of the mind  on the Supreme Soul) and samadhi 
(compl ete immersion in me ditation). 
Here  we find the story  of king Bharata,  who maintained  the memory of his previous 
lifeti mes even  in the subsequent  form s of deer and brahmana, and gave  valuable  spiritual 
teachings  to the king of Suvira  - including  the story of Nidagha  (son of Pulastya  Rishi) 
and the  non-difference  between  the jivatma ("individual soul")  and paramatma ("supre me 
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soul"). 
Sanandana  Kumara  explained  to Narada  that the 6 Vedangas (Siksha,  Kalpa,  Vyakarana, 
Nirukti,  Chanda  and Jyotisha)  are aimed  at supporting  the sadhana (spiritual  practice)  to 
attain liberation, and supplies  detailed explanations  on this extraordinar y statem ent.
Sukadeva,  son of Vyasa, was considered  a great expert  on all these  topics,  but his father 
Vyasa  advised  him to follow  the prescribed  socio- religious  system, that he should  learn 
from king Janaka  of Mithila. 
The wonderful  teachings  of Janaka  constitute  a very valuable  part of this Purana, as 
confir med by the subsequent  conversation  between  Suka  and Vyasa, where  the divya 
dristi ("divine  vision")  of Suka,  who has assimilated  these teachings,  is blessed  by the 7 
Vayus (mani festation s of the wind). 
On that occasion  Sanat  kumara  talked  about  the tattvas ("the categories  of realit y") and 
moksha ("liberation" ), then Sukadeva  retired to meditate  and had the vision  of Vishnu,  to 
whom he offered  beautiful pra yers.
In the original  conversation  between  Narada  and the Kumara s, Sanat  kumara  explained 
the details  of the Shiva tantra, that enables  one to understand  the Supreme Lord and to 
worship  him correctl y, especially  in regard  to the daily  spiritual  practices.  Sanatana 
kumara  continued  to speak  about  the vratas ("religious  vows")  to observe  on particular 
days of the year for the various Deities  - Lakshm i, Jagannatha,  Ganesha,  Matsya,  Kurma, 
Skanda, Devi  Bhavani, Krishna,  Ram a, Dharm a, Ganga,  Dasa avatara,  etc. 
He also spoke  about  Ekadasi  (the 11th day of the waxing  and waning  moon),  Dvadasi 
(the 12th day of the moon),  Trayodasi  (the 13th day of the moon),  Purnima  (the full 
moon) and Amavasya  (the new m oon).  Specifically in regard to Ekadasi  we find the story 
of Narada  visiting  Yamaraja  and the activities  of king Rukm anda  to spread  the glories of 
Ekadasi.  
The last part of the text contains  the Yugala sahasranama ("1000  name s of the couple") 
of Radha  and Krishna,  the 10 regulative  principles  and a summary of the other  Puranas, 
deriving  from  the original single  Purana in the following  order : Brahma  purana,  Padma 
purana,  Vishnu  purana,  Vayu purana,  Bhagavata  purana,  Narada  purana,  Markandeya 
purana,  Agni  purana,  Bhavisya  purana,  Brahma  vaivarta  purana,  Linga purana,  Varaha 
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purana,  Skanda  purana,  Vamana  purana,  Kurma  purana,  Matsya  purana,  Garuda 
purana,  Brahmanda purana . 
Finally , there  is a list of the religious  merits acquired  by reading  and studying  the text 
(phala  sruti).
Vishnu  purana
It consists  of 23 thousand verses,  divided into 6 cantos  or amsas  ("parts").
The text begins  with the description  of the creation  of the universe,  called  brahmanda 
("the  egg of Brah man").  Inside  each  universe  there  is the particular  manife station  of 
Vishnu  called  Garbhodakasayi  Vishnu,  who later manife sts Brah ma for the creation  of 
the various  planets  and Shiva  for their destruction.  It is said that Brahma 's day consists  of 
100 cycles  of the four ages (yugas) of the universe,  called  respectively  Satya or Krita  (4 
thousand  years), T reta (3 thousand), Dvapara (2 thousand) and Kali (1 thousand). 
This calculation  is subject  to various  interpretations  because  Vedic  tradition  considers 
different  dimension s of time (in the Bhagavata chapter  11 of 5th canto  is specifically 
dedicated  to this topic)  especially  in relation  to the various  planets.  One year on the Earth 
is equal  to one day on the heavenly  planets,  therefore  according  to this calculation  Kali 
yuga would  last 1000  celestial  years, equivalent  to 365 thousand  Earth years,  multiplied 
in turn to calculate the duration of the  other yugas. 
During  each  of Brah ma's days there  are 14 reigns  of Manu  (manvantaras); at every 
Brah ma's morning  the creation  is repeated  and each night  there is a partial  destruction;  at 
the end of the cycle of Brah ma's life (100 of his years) the entire  universe  is withd rawn 
into the Causal  Ocean  for 10 million  years before  being mani fested again. 
The creation  of the universe  develops  from  the various parts  of Brah ma's body: the 
Asuras  were created  from  the legs,  the Devas  from the mouth,  the Pitris from the sides. 
Similarly  the Gandharvas,  Nagas,  human beings,  animal s, and all the other bodies  of the 
living beings  were created  from  the bod y of Brahma.
Next  is the episode  when  Durvasa  became angry with  Indra and cursed him to be 
abandoned  by Lakshmi: this was the original  reason  why the Devas  lost the war against 
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the Asuras.  Following  Vishnu's  advice,  the Devas  negotiated  a temporary  alliance  with 
the Asuras  to cooperate  in churning  the milk ocean,  from  which  Lakshmi  appeared, 
together  with the nectar  of immortality.  In this chapter  we find the famous Lakshmi  stuti 
(hymn to Lakshmi) compos ed by Indra. Next  come  the stories  of Dhruva,  king Vena  and 
Prithu, P racinabarhi and the Pracetas,  and P rahlada.  
The story of king Priyavrata  includes  an extensive  elaboration  on the geography  of the 
planet  Earth  with  its seven  continents  and their  various  populations,  the seven 
underground  worlds  and the hellish  planets,  the structu re of the unive rse and the position 
of the various  inhabited  planets.  The text continues  with the story  of Bharata  who took 
birth  again  as Jadabharata  and his conversation  with the king of Subira. This canto  ends 
with the story  of Ribhu.
In the third canto  we find the description  of the manvantaras, the story  of Samjna  (wife 
of Surya), the list of the incarnations  of Vyasa,  the stories  of Yajnavalkya  Rishi,  the 
description  of how the Puranas were  compiled  starting  from the Purana  samhita given 
by Vyasa to Rom aharshana  Suta,  and the 14 types of knowledge  (vidya) constituted  by 
the 4 Vedas, the 6 Vedangas, the Mimamsa (Vedanta  sutra or Brahma  sutra, Karma 
kanda, Nyaya (texts  on logic),  the Puranas, Dharma  shastra, Ayur  Veda  (medicine), 
Dhanur  Veda (military  art), Gandharva  Veda (music and dance)  and Artha  shastra 
(econo my).
The text then speaks  about  Yamaraja  and relates a discussion  between  Yama and one of 
his servants  on how to recognize  a genuine  devotee  of Vishnu,  about  the system  of the 
varnas and ashramas with their duties  and especially their ritual duties  (nitya  karmani) of 
family men.  
Follow  the stories  of Mayam oha (a manifestation  of Vishnu  who created  the arhat 
tradition  to confuse  the Asuras)  and king  Satadhanu  and his wife  Shaiv ya (and  the 
dangers  of the comp any of false  teachers  who have  abandoned  the original  knowledge  of 
the Vedas). 
Then  we find the stories  of some particula rly important  persons  among  Manu's 
descendents  - such  as Ila/ Sudy umna,  Marutta  and Revata  (the father  of Revati,  wife of 
Balara ma), Ikshvaku  and his son Vikukshi  and his son Paranja ya, and Yuvanasva  and his 
son Mandhata.  
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There  is the story of Saubhari  Rishi  who married  the 50 daughters  of Mandhata  creating 
an equal  number  of manifestations  of himsel f, of king Purukutsa  (and his role in the war 
between  Gandharvas  and Nagas),  of king Bahu  (and his son Sagara,  who remained  in his 
mother's  womb  for 7 y ears) and his descendent  Amsuman (who met  Kapila Rishi).
After  Bhagiratha,  who brought  down  the river Ganges  to the Earth, there was Soudasa, 
also called  Mitrasaha  (and later Kalma sapada),  who killed a Rakshasa  that had taken  the 
shape  of a tiger.  A friend  of this Rakshasa  took revenge  by cheating  Soudasa  into serving 
human meat to Vasistha  Rishi.  Another  famous descendent  of Manu  was Nimi, son of 
Ikshvaku;  he too angered  Vasistha  because  of a misunderstanding.  Nimi' s son was Janaka 
Vaidha,  the father of  Sita. 
After  the descendence  of the solar  dynasty  we find the story  of the lunar dynast y. Atri 
Rishi,  son of Brahma,  was father  of Chandra  (the moon),  Lord of the stars and the herbs, 
who kidnapped  Tara the wife of Brihaspati  (the planet  Jupiter)  - an action  that triggered 
the fa mous war called  Tarakam aya. 
With  Tara,  Chandra  generated  Budha  (the planet  Mercur y), who married  Ila and had 
Puru rava as a son.  Follows the story  of Pururava and the Apsara  Urvasi. 
The text then speaks  of how  Jahnu  Rishi  drank all the water of  the Ganges,  and of Jahnu's 
descendents.  One of them,  Gadhi,  had a daughter  named Satyavati,  that became the wife 
of the powerful  Rishi  Richika.  Disobeying  Richika's  orders, Satyavati  and her mother 
caused  a confusion  in the characters  of their sons;  thus were born Visva mitra  (who  was 
supposed  to be a brahmana) and Jamadagni,  whose  son Parasuram a should  have  been  a 
kshatriya. 
One of Puru rava's  son, king Raji,  fought  alongside  the Devas  in one of their wars  against 
the Asuras,  at the condition  of obtaining  Indra's  kingdom.  After  the victor y Raji's  sons 
claimed their inheritance  installing  themselves  on the throne  of the heavenly  planets,  and 
could be  removed  only  with great difficulty. 
The text continues  with  the story of Yayat i, who married  Deva yani the daughter  of 
Sukrachar ya, whose  sons  were  Yadu  and Turnvasu.  One of Yadu's  descendents  was 
Kartavir ya Ar juna,  who was defeated  by Parasura ma. 
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However,  the most important  among  the descendants  of Yadu  was Krishna,  whose 
adventures  are narrated  in the Bhagavata  purana. Here  we find specifically  the story of 
the Sy amantaka  jewel, that belonged to Saty abha ma's father  Satrajit. 
We also find the story of Sisupala,  who had previousl y taken  birth  as Hiranyakasipu  and 
Ravana,  and the story  of the three  sons of king Pratipa  - Santanu,  Devapi  and Vahlika  (or 
Bahlika) and  Santanu's descendant s, the Pandavas.  
Regarding  the future,  the Vishnu  purana speaks  of king Mahapadm anand a, who will be 
killed  by a  brahmana named Kautily a (Chanakya ), that will raise  the sudra Chandragupta 
Maurya  to the throne.  Then we have  the description  of the conditions  of life in Kali yuga 
and the episode  of the birth of Krishna  and Balara ma (who  appeared  from  two hairs  of 
Vishnu). 
Then  the text narrates  the childhood  adventures  of Krishna  in Vrindavana  and the killing 
of the various  Asuras,  the punishment of the Naga  Kaliy a, the episode  of the Govardhana 
hill, the arrival  of the two brothe rs in Mathura,  the war against  Jarasandha  and 
Kalayavana,  the adventures  of Balara ma, the defeat  of Narakasura,  the descent  of the 
Parijata  tree, the story of Usha  and her father  Banasura,  the story of Paundraka  (who  had 
convinced  himsel f he had beco me Vishnu),  the marriage  of Samba with Duryodhana's 
daughter,  the episode  of the Vanara  Dvivida,  the destruction  of the Yadu  dynasty  and the 
advent  of Kali yu ga. 
Then there is the explanation  of the various ty pes of cyclic destruction in the universe, the  
story  of the two cousins  Keshidhvaja  and Khandiky a, and how the ancient  stories  of the 
Puranas were t ransmitted  in the past.
Brahma  purana 
This text of 10 thousand  verses  begins  with the conversation  between  Suta and the Rishis 
assembled at Naimi saranya  - about  the creation  of the unive rse and the story  of 
Svay ambhuva  Manu  and Satarupa  and their descendents  such as Dhruva,  Pracinabarhisat 
and the Pracetas,  Daksha  and his daughte rs (who  married  the Rishis  sons of Brahm a and 
generated  all the living  beings  of the universe),  Vena  and Prithu, and the Sun God Surya, 
head  of the Sur ya vam sa. 
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Surya married  Samjna,  daughter  of Visvakar ma, who begot  Vaivasvata  Manu,  Yamaraja 
and Yam una. From her own image,  Samjna  created  Chaya  ("shadow")  to take her place 
for some time while  she cooled  herself  by running  in the northern  lands  in the form  of a 
mare. Chaya generated Savarni Manu and  Sani (Saturn ). 
When  Surya discovered  what  happened,  he thinned  his rays by creating  the Sudarshana 
chakra  with the excess  ones,  then he took the form  of a horse and went  to seek Samjna; 
he generated  with her the twins  Nasatya  and Dasra,  who becam e known  as the Asvini 
kumaras  ("the horse  boys"). 
The descendant s of Surya were  Ikshvaku,  Ila/Sudy umna and Kubalasva  (also  called 
Dhundhu mara  because  he killed the  terrible Asura Dhundhu). 
We also find the story of Trisanku  (who was originally called  Satyavrata and was the son 
of Trayaruni, son of  Dridasva,  son of Kubalasva)  and how he beca me a chandala. 
While  Visvam itra was engaged  in austerity  on the beach  of the ocean,  his family had to 
face starvation  because  of a terrible famine, so much that Visva mitra's  wife took one of 
her sons (Galava)  to the market  to sell him so that she could  feed the other  child ren. 
Satyavrata,  who had been  exiled  by his father  on the advice  of Vasistha,  decided  to take 
action:  he snatched  Vasistha' s cow,  killed her and fed her meat to Visva mitra' s children, 
eating so me of it himsel f. 
Furious,  Vasistha  cursed  Satyavrata for his three  sinful  actions  (tri: "three",  sanku: 
"crimes"):  disobe ying his father,  killing a cow and eating  her flesh.  To return  Trisanku's 
kindness  to his  family,  Visva mitra  agreed to perform  the ritual that would raise him to the 
heavenly  planets;  at the end of the entire  episode  Trisanku  ascended  his father's  throne 
and ruled on Ay odhy a. The fa mous Harischandra  was Tr isanku's  son.
Another  descendent  of the same dynast y, Bahu,  neglected  his kingly duties  and was 
defeated  by an alliance  of the surrounding  kingdo ms - Haihaya,  Talajangha,  Shaka, 
Mahishaka,  Darva, Chola, Kerala, Yavana,  Parada,  Kamboj a and Pahlava. 
He retired to the forest  with his wife Yadavi  and when  he died Yadavi  took shelter  in the 
ashrama of Ourv i Rishi,  where  she gave  birth to Bahu's  son. The Rishi  personally 
educated  and trained  the child,  who was named  Sagara.  Strong  with the knowledge  he 
had received  from  the Rishi,  Saga ra was able to defeat  his father's  enem ies and win back 
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the kingdo m. Later  the two wives  of Sagara  turned to Ourva  Rishi  to get the blessing  to 
have  child ren, and the Rishi  offered  them to choose  between  having  one single  child  or 
60 thousand  child ren. 
Thus  were  born Panchajana  (also  known  as Asam anja)  and his 60 thousand  stepbrothers, 
who acco mpani ed the horse in the Asva medha yajna ritual perform ed by their father. 
However,  they angered  Kapila  Rishi,  who burned almo st all of them to ashes  - except 
Varhiketu,  Suketu,  Dharmak etu and Panchajana.  Bhagirata,  who brought  the sacred 
Ganges  river down  to earth,  was son of Dilipa,  son of Amsuman, son of Panchajana. 
Bhagiratha  was the forefather  of Raghu, the ancestor  of Dasaratha, Ra ma's father.
Nest  the text speaks  about  the Moon  dynast y, beginning  from the birth  of Soma (also 
called  Chandra),  the Deva  of the Moon,  who was generated  by the power  of austerit y of 
Atri Rishi.  
He jumped  up to the sky and bounced  back  to earth,  simultan eously  creating  all the 
medicinal  herbs.  Brahma  took care of Soma, who later engaged  in great austerities  and 
perfor med the Rajasuya  yajna. Soma  kidnapped  Tara (Brihaspati's  wife),  which  caused  a 
war in which Shiva took Brihaspati's  side and Sukrachar ya allied with Soma.  
Then  we have  the stories  of Soma' s descendants  - Nahusha  and his son Yaya ti (who 
married  Deva yani and Sarmi stha),  his sons  Yadu  and Pu ru and their descendents.  
The text also describes  the geograph y of the Earth and the higher  and lower  planets,  the 
regions  of Mercury (Budha ), Venus  (Sukra), Mars  (Mangala), Jupiter  (Brihaspati),  Saturn 
(Shani ), Ursa  major  or the constellation  of the Great  Dipper  (the seven  Rishis)  and the 
polar  star (Dhruvaloka),  as well as the stellar  systems of Maharloka,  Janaloka,  Tapaloka 
and Satya loka.  
Then  it speaks  of the Sun temple  of Konarka  in Orissa;  the name comes from  Konadity a, 
referring  to the Deva  of the Sun. It also explains  the method  to offer  worship  to the Sun 
and the  108 name s of the Sun.
Follows  the story of Indradyumna,  king  of Avanti  in the kingdo m of Malva.  The 
prosperous  city of Avanti  was famous for its temple  of Shiva  Mahakala  and for the 
Vishnu  temples  called  Govindasva mi and Vikrama svami on the bank  of river Shipra. 
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Indradyumna  went  to Purushotta ma kshetra,  where  he built a large  temple  with the help 
of the local people and  performed the Asvam edha  yajna. 
Very  quickly  Visvakar ma carved  the sacred  image s from a great  tree trunk  that had 
landed  on the ocean neach.  
The text tells,  with some variations  compared  to other  Puranas, the episode  in which 
Markandeya  Rishi  witnessed  the destruction  of the universe:  here the banyan  tree was 
floating  on the ocean together with a yo ung boy  sitting in a boat.  
The boy invited  the Rishi  to take shelter  within  his mouth,  and by so doing  the Rishi 
found  there  all the planets  and the living beings  exactly  as they were  before  the 
destruction.  The Rishi  realized  the boy was Vishnu,  so he offered  his homage  and asked 
for the blessing  to be able to build  a temple  to Shiva  in the place  of  Purushotta ma 
kshetra.  
Then  we find the story of king Sveta,  who vowed  to revive  the son of Kapalagauta ma 
Rishi  and he succeeded  thanks  to Shiva's  blessing.  King  Sveta  built  a great temple  for 
Vishnu  at Pu rushotta ma kshetra, calling it Sveta Madhava.   
The story  of Vamana  and the sacrifice  of king Bali narrated  here coincides  with the 
narration  in the other  Puranas, except  for the continuation  of the story  of the Ganges 
descent.  
According  to the Brahma  purana the water  that touched  the feet of Vamana  divided  into 
four branches:  the west  branch  entered the kamandalu (water  pot) of Brahm a, the east 
branch  was collected  by the Devas  and Rishis,  the south  branch  descended  onto Shiva's 
head  and was brought  to Earth  by Bhagiratha,  where  it divides  further  in 7 branches  - 
while she  has 4 branches  on the higher planets  and 4 on the lower planets. 
The main north branch  was brought  down  by Gautam a Rishi  through  a plan devised  by 
Parvati:  Ganesha  went  to live in Gautam a's ashrama  for some time, then one of Parvati's 
companions,  Jaya, took the shape  of a cow  and went to g raze into Gautam a's rice field. 
The Rishi  rushed  in and tried to send the cow away by poking  her with a blade  of grass, 
but Jaya gave  a loud moan and dropped  to the ground  pretending  to be dead.  The other 
Rishis  declared  that the ashrama had been  conta minated  by the killing of a cow and to 
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convince  them  to stay, Gauta ma accepted  Ganesha' s suggestion  and called  for Ganga, 
asking  her to descend  on Shiva's  head  to purify  the ashrama. From that time, that branch 
of the Ganges  (presently known as Godavari) has  been called Gauta mi Ganga.  
The glories  of this river are highlighted  by a series  of episodes  giving  their  names to 
specific  places  along  her course.  One speaks  about  the hunter  of Brah magiri  and the two 
doves  who sacrificed  them selves  to offer  him hospitalit y and were  elevated  to the 
heavenly  planets;  while  departing,  they advised  the hunter  to take bath in the Ganges 
waters  for 15 days to beco me free from the reactions  of his previous  activities.  The place 
where this  episode happened  is called  Kapota ti rtha ("the doves'  ford").
Then  there  is the story  of Maninaga,  the son of Ananta  Sesha,  who prayed Shiva  to 
protect  him from  Garuda.  Seeing  that he was not able to kill him,  Garuda imprisoned 
Maninaga;  Shiva came to know  about  it and sent his personal  companion  Nandi  to set 
Maninaga  free. Nandi  approached  Vishnu  and asked  him to give the required  orders to 
Garuda,  who complained  about  the apparent  injustice  he was subjected  to, in spite  of his 
faithful  service.  Vishnu  replied by crushing  Garuda  to the ground,  then he entrusted  him 
to Nandi  so that he would  be cured by Shiva.  Garuda  was complet ely healed  under  the 
instructions  of Shiva,  by bathing  in the Gauta mi Ganga  in the place  known  as Garuda 
tirtha.
During  a great  draught  and famine,  Visva mitra  arrived  with his disciples  on the bank  of 
the Gauta mi Ganga (in the place known  as Visvam itra tirtha) and the only food  they were 
able to find was a dead  dog. Visva mitra  gave  the order to wash  and offer  its meat to the 
Devas,  but Indra decided  to stop that unprecedented  action  and took the shape  of a crow 
to snatch  away the offering  before  the sacrifice.  Seeing  that the Rishi  was going  to curse 
him, Indra  quickly  returned  the booty , that he had transfor med into nectar  in the 
meanti me. 
However,  Visvam itra was not happy : "Why should  I eat nectar,  when  all the people 
around  me are starving ?" Indra  understood  the meaning  of that objection  and finally  sent 
the rains,  relieving the fa mine: then the Rishi  agreed to consum e the nectar.
Another  story  on the Gauta mi Ganga  is about  Sveta,  friend  of Gauta ma Rishi  and great 
devotee  of Shiva.  When  Sveta died,  Yam a's servants  came to take him away  but they 
were  unable  to enter  the house;  after  some time Yama sent Mrity u ("death")  himself to 
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verify  what  had happened,  and saw that Shiva  was personally  present  to guard  Sveta's 
body . When  Death  tried  to grab  Sveta,  Shiva  and all his companions  defended  him 
strenuously in a fierce  battle, in which Yam a himself was killed b y Kar tikeya. 
When  Yama  accepted  Shiva's order  that all his devotees  must remain  free from  Yam a'a 
servants,  Nandi  went  to get some water  from  the Ganges  and revived  all those  who had 
died in the fight.
Visrava  Rishi  had two wives:  one gave  birth to Kuvera  and the other  gave  birth  to 
Ravana,  Kumbhak arna and Vibhishana.  Kuvera  was the king of Lanka,  but Ravana's 
mother  was not very happy  and she ordered  her sons to engage  in austerit y to acquire 
more power  and take the kingdom  away from Kuve ra. Ravana  also appropriated  Kuve ra's 
airplane  and declared  that anyone  who would  give shelter  to Kuvera  would  be killed.  On 
the advice  of grandfather  Pulastya  Rishi,  Kuvera  went  to the Gautam i Ganga  to pray 
Shiva and as  a result he beca me the Deva  of wealth.
The story  of king Harischandra,  too, is connected to the Gautami  Ganga.  On the advice  of 
Narada  and Parvata  Rishi,  the king  worshiped  Varuna  on the bank  of the river and 
obtained  the blessing  of a son, at the condition  to offer  the child  in sacrifice.  When  little 
Rohita  was born,  Harischandra  continued  to postpone  the sacrifice  as long as possible;  in 
the end Rohita  found  a substitute  in Sunahshepa,  the son of Ajigarta  Rishi,  who was 
going through a ver y difficult  time, but Harischandra  refused  to sacrifice  him.  
The solution  was offered  by a voice from  the sky, that suggested  to perform  another ritual 
on the bank  of Gauta mi Ganga,  and thus every body  was satisfied.  Later Sunahshepa  was 
adopted  by Visvam itra.
Vriddhagautam a was son of Gauta ma Rishi,  but he had a birth defect  that made  him very 
ugly. One day he arrived  at mount Shitagiri,  where  an elderly lady engaged  in austerities 
proposed  him to marry  her, suggesting  she would  pray Varuna  to give him learning  and 
good looks.  Vriddhagauta ma accepted  the proposal  and the y lived happily . 
One day some Rishis  visited  their  home  and were  surprised  by that strange  union;  on 
Agastya's  advice  the two spouse s went  to bathe  in the Gauta mi Ganga  (at the place 
known as  Vriddhasangam a) and the  old lady becam e young and beautiful  again.
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The powerful  Dadhici  Rishi  lived  on the bank  of the Ganges  with his wife Lopamudra 
and sister  in law Gabhastini.  One day the Devas  went  to see him after a fight  against  the 
Asuras  and left their weapons  in his custody.  The years went  by and the weapons  started 
to lose their luster,  so Dadhici  tried  to revive  it by washing  them  with water,  but the 
power of  the weapons  dissolved  and passed  into the water. 
To preserve  that power,  the Rishi  drank the water.  When  the Devas  came back  to reclaim 
their  weapons,  Dadhici  had no other  option  but to leave  his body  so that Visvakarm a 
could  use his bones  to craft  new powerful  weapons  for Indra and the other Devas. 
Lopamudra,  too, chose  to die and entrusted  her newbo rn child  to the care  of a banyan tree 
(pippala): this was how the child  came  to be known  as Pippalada  ("given  to the banyan 
tree"). 
Next  there  is the story of Surasena  of Pratisthana,  who had a snake-son  by the name 
Nagesvara,  who m arried  Bhogavati,  the daughter of  the king of  Vijay a, that had  also been 
his wife in a previous  lifeti me. By bathing  in the Ganga,  Nagesvara  obtained  a divine 
form, and in his  gratefulnes s he built a te mple  for Sh iva in the place known as  Nagatirtha. 
In another  episode  the Devas  asked  Shiva's  help in one of their wars;  from  Shiva's  sweat 
drops  rose the Matrikas  ("little  mothers"),  who defeated  the Asuras.  The place  where  the 
Devas  gathered  to wait for the end of the battle  is called  Pratisthana,  while  the place 
where the Matrikas  took rest is  called Matri ti rtha. 
At that time Brahma  had 5 heads,  including  a donkey 's; this rebellious  head  offered  the 
Asuras  help against  the Devas  and Vishnu  agreed  to cut it off, on the condition that Shiva 
should  catch it. 
The place  where  the head  was cut is called  Rudra  tirtha,  and there  a temple  to Brah ma is 
called  Brahma  tirtha. 
Next  there  is the story of the war between  the doves  and the owls  (respectivel y supported 
by Yam a and Agni,  who gave  their names to two more tirthas), the story of Veda  Rishi 
and the hunter Bhilla  (devotee  of Shiva)  that shows  the difference  between  the 
celebration  of rituals  and true devotion,  the friendship  between  the brahmana Gautam a 
and the vaisya Manikundana  (in which  the vaisya demonstrated  his loyalty to dharma in 
spite  of all difficulties  and was saved  by Vibhishana,  Ravana' s brothe r, who administered 
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to him the medicinal  plant  called  vishalyakarani), as well as the story  of Kandu  Rishi 
(temporarily  distracted  from austerities  by Indra who sent him the Apsara  Pramalocha) 
and his  daughter Marisha,  and the description of  many  othe r tirthas. 
The text continues  with  the story of Krishna,  the description  of the four varnas and 
ashramas and their  respective  duties,  the story of the chandala devotee  of Vishnu  who 
met a Brah ma Rakshasa  (a type of particula rly powerful  Rakshasa,  who knows  Vedic 
sciences)  who wanted  to eat him on the Ekadasi  day and how both of them reme mbered 
their  previous  lifetim es, and finally  the explanation  of how to engage  in Yoga  - a path 
that requires the study of the Puranas, Vedas and Itihasas. 
Shiva purana
Initiall y constituted  by 100 thousand  verses (divided  into 12 samhitas called 
Vidy eshvara,  Rudra,  Vinay aka, Uma, Matri,  Ekadasha-rudra,  Kailasha,  Shat rudra, Koti 
rudra, Sahasra  Koti rudra,  Vayavi ya and Dharma)  was reduced  by Vyasa  to 24 thousand 
verses;  the 7 surviving  samhitas are Vidyeshvara,  Rudra,  Shat rudra,  Koti Rudra,  Uma, 
Kailasha  and Vayavi ya. 
The text starts  with the explanation  of the proper  method  to hear its recitation  for the 
purpose  of purif ying the mind and attaining  liberation.  The assembly of Rishis  where 
Suta narrated  this Purana was in Prayaga  kshetra  (present  Allahabad)  and the narration 
starts  with another  Rishi  assembly that was trying to determine  which  was the suprem e 
form of the Deity . 
There  Brah ma told the Rishis  that Mahadeva  Shiva  is the origin  of Vishnu,  of the Rudras 
and all the Devas,  and that the best method  to realize  this is to listen  (sravana), 
pronounce  (kirtana) or reme mber (smarana) the name of God in the form  of mantra (a 
brief  evocative  formula  for repeated  chanting ), stotra (elaborated  prayer presented  in the 
scriptures) or even bhajan (songs) in Sanskrit or in an y other language. 
Another  method,  even  simpler,  consists  in worshiping  the Shiva  linga,  the nirguna 
(without  attributes)  form of God,  that symbolize s the divine  pillar of fire (analastambha) 
that appeared  on the occasion  of a fight  between  Vishnu  and Brah ma, when  Shiva 
intervened by  getting between  the two. 
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Vishnu  took the for m of Varaha ("boar") to descend  to the botto m of the universe  (Patala ) 
to find the lower  extremity of the pillar, while  Brah ma took the form  of Hamsa ("swan" 
or better,  Himalayan  goose)  to fly as high as possible  to search  for the highe r end. In 
those  regions  Brah ma found  a Ketaki  flower  that had been  floating  there since  the 
beginning of  creation and had not been able  to find the end of  the fire pillar. 
Brah ma convinced  the flower  to declare  in front  of Vishnu  that he had indeed  found  the 
end of the pillar,  but Shiva exposed  the lie and condemned  Brahm a to be deprived  of 
ritual  worship  and the Ketaki  flower  not to be used  in his own worship.  When  the two 
culprits  begged  for forgiveness,  Shiva  said that Brah ma could  preside  the sacrificial 
ceremonies,  and that the flower could  be offered  to Vishnu.
The place  of this adventure  of the fire pillar  is Lingasthana  (also  called  Arunachala)  and 
its day is celebrated as  Maha  Shiva rat ri, when devotees  fast,  consu ming  only fruits.
Then  Shiva  told Brahma  and Vishnu  about  the pancha  kritya (5 divine  tasks)  that sustain 
the world:  sristi  (creation  or nature ), sthiti  (mainten ance  or position),  samhara 
(destruction  or dissolution),  tirobhava (disappearance  or sense  of absence)  and anugraha 
(mercy  or liberation ) and spoke  about  the sacred  syllable  Om, that represents  the world 
and is  the union of Shiva and  Shakti.
We find also the description  of the preparation  of the Shiva  linga,  that can be shaped  in 
clay,  stone  or metal, and must be installed  together  with its support  base in a place  that 
can be accessed  daily. 
It can be chara ("mobile")  and therefore  of a small size, or sthira ("fixed")  and of large 
size,  always  in the proportion  of 12 fingers  (wide)  and 25 (high)  measured  by the 
devotee.  One's  own thumb  can also  be considered as  a rep resentation  of the Shiva linga. 
The worship  ritual is the sodasa  upachara ("16 actions")  and gives  best results  when  it is 
perfor med in the middle  of the night.  The text lists some of the pilgrimage  places 
dedicated  to Shiva as the rivers  Sarasvati,  Ganga,  Yamun a, Godavari,  Narmad a, Kaveri, 
Sarayu, Tungabhad ra and Kashi (Varanasi), Nai misharanya  and Badarikashram a. 
Also,  we find  the description of the interm ediate  or mixed  varnas, the specific  methods  of 
spiritual  realization  in the various  ages,  the fire sacrifice  (agni yajna), Deity worship 
(deva  yajna), the study of scriptures  (brahma  yajna), the Deities  to whom  the days of the 
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week  are dedicated  (Monda y to Durga, Tuesda y to Skanda,  Wednesday  to Vishnu, 
Thursday  to Yam a, Frida y to Brahma  and Saturda y to Indra),  the rules for the worship  of 
Shiva  especially  on sankranti (the day of passage  between  one zodiac  sign to the other, 
especially  Tula and Mesha,  that is Libra and Aries),  the solar  and lunar  eclipses,  Magha 
krishna chaturdasi,  the month  of Kartika and Sunday .
Then  we find the explanation  of the Pranava  (the original  mantra) that manifests as "om" 
and "om namah  shivaya" (panchakshara  or "5 syllables  mantra"), of the material 
bondage  and libe ration, and  of the 8 chakras. 
The different  types  of Linga are described  as svayambhu "spontaneously  manife sted", 
bindu "drop",  pratisthita "installed",  char "four-fold",  guru "represented  by the teacher", 
vana "of the forest",  and parthiva ("of earth") that is the supre me. 
The parthiva  linga must be 4 fingers  tall and be supported  by a beautiful  base;  the 
devotee  must face north and the offerings  are mostly  the leaves  of the bilva tree and food 
(that  should  not touch  the linga). The svayambhu,  siddha  and vana  lingas accept  and 
purif y even  the food offered  by a chandala (a person who does not observe  the rules of 
the scriptures).  Those  whose  ancestors  were  struck  by some curse  should  worship  the 
parthiva  linga together  with the 8 personifications  of earth,  water,  fire, air, space,  sun, 
moon and guests.  Then  the texts  speaks  of the importance  of the sacred  bilva tree, of the 
sacred  ashes  (bhasma) and the rosar y of rudraksha ("ey es of Rudra").
The Rudra  samhita begins  with the episode  when  Narada  was boasting  about  conquering 
lust, and Vishnu  presented  him with  a very interesting  illusory  experience.  Vishnu 
suggested  Narada  to attend  the svayamvara of king Shilanidhi's  daughter,  and Narada 
was so taken  by the princess'  beaut y that he went  to Vishnu  to ask a form like his, since 
Vishnu  is ver y handsom e. 
Playing on a double  meaning  of the expression  used  by Narada,  Vishnu  gave  him a 
monkey  face,  something  that caused  the hilarity of all those  who were  attending  the 
svayamvara. Enraged,  Narada  cursed  Vishnu  by saying  that he would  too lose a beloved 
wife and that on that occasion  he would seek  the help of  a monk ey.
Then  we find the episode  of the austerities  performed  by Vishnu,  by which  the unive rse 
was mani fested,  and the expansion  of the pranava  omkara in the mantras Gayat ri Savita, 
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Rudra  Gayat ri, Maha mrityunjaya,  Panchakshara,  Chinta mani,  Dakshinam urti and 
Mahavakya. 
Then we find  more  explanations  on the m ethod  for worshiping Shiva and the  origin of  the 
Shiva  lingas  worshiped  by the various  Devas  (made  of diam ond, gold, silver,  bronze, 
crystal, coppe r and pearl), on the origin  of Kailasha  Vaikuntha,  on the appearance  of 
Rudra,  on the birth of the Rishis  and their descendants,  and on the story of Gunanidhi  - 
who angered  his father  because  of his addiction  to gambling,  but was purified  by 
unknowingly  fasting  on Maha  Shiva  ratri and took a new birth as the son of the king of 
Kalinga  (Orissa) and  then as the Deva  Kuvera, king of Alakapuri.
The episodes  of the marriage  between  Shiva  and Sati, and the sacrifice  of Daksha,  are 
followed  by Parvati's  birth  and her austerities  to obtain  Shiva  as a husband,  the 
appearance  of Kamadev a and the power  of his 5 arrows  (harshana "joy", rochana 
"attraction",  mohana "confusion",  soshana "languishing"  and marana "death")  that 
Kamadeva  experi mented  on Brah ma and his daughter  Sandhy a ("junction  between  day 
and night").  Brah ma felt offended  and cursed Kamadev a to be incine rated  by Shiva and 
to rem ain without a bod y until Sh iva hims elf had married. 
In turn,  Sandhya  engaged  in long austerities  by worshiping  Shiva  to obtain  his blessings, 
then she left her body  in the fire of Medhatithi  Rishi's  sacrifice  to be reborn  as Arundhati 
the daughter  of Daksha,  but she was divided  by Surya into 3 expansions  (pratah, 
madhyanha and sayam  sandhya, i.e. dawn,  noon  and sunset).  Arundhati  later married 
Vasistha.
Daksha  prayed  Durga  to appear  as his daughte r to fulfill  Brahma 's prophec y, and thus 
Sati was born (also  known  as Uma). Pleased  by the long austerities  of Sati, Shiva  agreed 
to marry her and the divine couple  settled  on mount  Kailasa,  where nobody  would disturb 
them. Shiva  and Sati had many conversations,  especially  on the importance  of bhakti 
(devotion ) in Kali yuga and on the story  of Ram a. Then the disastrous  sacrifice  of Daksha 
caused  Sati's  death and the appearance  of the avenger Vi rabhadra. 
Next  we find the story  of Dadhici  Rishi  and king  Kshuva  (in which  the Rishi  was 
wounded  and asked  help from  Sukrachary a and Shiva,  obtaining  the Maha mrityunjaya 
mantra  and three  extraordinar y blessings),  then  the story of the marriage  between 
Himalaya  and Maina  (mother  of Dhanya  mother  of Sita and Kalavati  mother  of Radha) 
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and Parvati's  birth, the birth  of Bhau ma (planet  Mars),  the austerities  of Parvati, 
Kamadeva 's incineration,  the story  of Tarakasura,  the marriage  between  Shiva and 
Parvati  (against  the wishes  of Parvati's  parents),  the story  of king Anaran ya (father  of 
Padma the wife of Pippalada),  the meeting  between  Padma and Dhar maraja  (who  was 
cursed  with the gradual  loss of legs in the four ages),  the extraordina ry birth  of Kartikey a 
(Skanda),  the fight  between  Kartikeya  and Indra (and the manifestation  of his expansions 
Sakha,  Vishakha  and Naigam a), the killing  of Tarakasura,  the episodes  of Pralamba  and 
Banasura,  the birth  of Ganesha  and how he received  an elephant's  head,  Ganesha  's 
marriage  with Siddhi  and Riddhi  ("perfection"  and "prosperity ") and the birth  of Kshe ma 
("patience") and Labha ("gain").
The Yuddha  kanda  narrates  the story of how Shiva  killed the three Asuras  sons of Taraka 
(the "Tripu rasura"  Tarkasha,  Vidyunmali  and Kam alaksh a) each  posses sing a flying 
fortress  made respectively of gold, silver and  iron, all built b y Maya Danava. 
To confuse  these  Asuras,  Vishnu  created  a strange  character  called  Arihan,  who 
manufactured  a new ideological  system based  simply  on action in this world, withou t any 
reference  to spiritual  life, and with four followers  he entered  the fortresse s of Tripura. 
Weakened  by that deviant  philosophy,  the inhabitants  of the fortresses  were  easier  to 
defeat.
In another  episode,  Shiva  tests Indra  by meeting  him in the form  of a sadhu and refusing 
to answer  his questions.  Indra was going  to punish  the hermit when  he revealed  his true 
identity , opening  his third eye that was blazing  with such fire that when  he turned  it on 
the ocean  it created  a child  of enormou s power,  called  Jalandhara.  When  he becam e 
adult,  Jalandhara  married  Vrinda,  the daughter  of the Asura  Kalanem i, and became the 
king of  the Dait yas. 
One day Brihaspati  went  to see Jalandhara  and told him the story of the churning  of the 
milk to obtain  the nectar.  Jalandara  becam e furious,  thinking  that the Devas  had 
misappropriated  the riches  belonging  to his father  the ocean,  and went  to war against 
Indra. 
Lakshm i, who was born from  the ocean  like Jalandhara  and therefore  considered  him like 
a brother, asked  Vishnu  not to kill him but to make peace  with him instead;  therefore 
Vishnu  and Lakshmi  went to live in the ocean  with him. 
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In order  to bring about  Jalandhara's  fall, Narada  suggested  him to seduce  Parvati,  Shiva's 
wife;  Jalandhara  first sent Rahu  (who surrendered  to Shiva)  and then he directly  attacked 
the Kailasha.  Creating  a diversion  with several  Apsaras,  Jalandhara  sneaked  into Shiva's 
house  and directl y approached  Parvati,  who rejected  him in indignation  and went  to seek 
Vishnu's  help, suggesting  him to do the sa me thing and tr y to seduce  Jalandhara's  wife.  
Thus  Vishnu  took  the form  of Jalandhara  and went  to Vrinda,  with  whom he had 
intercourse:  in this way Jalandhara  could  be killed during the battle.  When  Vrinda 
discovered  she had  been deceived,  she cursed  Vishnu and co mmitted suicide.  
Vishnu  was saddened  by Vrinda's  death,  and after  getting  some seeds  from Parvati, 
Lakshm i and Sarasvati,  sowed  them on Vrinda's  burned  body and from  there  three plants 
sacred  to Vishnu grew: A mla, Tulasi and Malati.  
Then  we have  the episode  of the Asura  Sankhachuda,  who in his previous  lifeti me was 
Suda ma (the cowherd  friend  of Krishna),  born as Daitya because  of a curse  by Radha. 
Thanks  to Brah ma's blessing,  Sankhachuda  becam e very powerful  and married  Tulasi, 
king Dharm adhvaja'  daughte r, and  then he approp riated Indra's throne. 
In this case,  too, Vishnu  weakened  the Asura  by seducing  Tulasi  and Shiva was able to 
kill Sankhachuda.  Again  Vishnu  was cursed  by Tulasi  to beco me a stone;  this is 
explained  as the origin  of the Salagra ma sila, a special  sacred  stone  considered  a form  of 
Vishnu  and is worshiped  by offering tulasi flowers  and leaves.  
Also  Hiranyaksha's  episode  is presented  here unde r the shaivite  angle,  by introducing  a 
character  called  Andhaka,  who  was created  by Shiva  and given  in adoption  to 
Hiran yaksha  as a reward  for his austerities.  After  killing  Hiranyaksha,  Vishnu  put 
Andhaka  on the th rone of  the lower planets.  
Later  Hiranyaksha's  brother Hiran yakashipu  engaged  in austerities  with the purpose  of 
acquiring more  power t o avenge  his brother. 
Blessed  by Brahm a, he was granted  that he would  not be killed  during  the day or the 
night, on earth or i n the  sky, by  weapons,  by Devas,  human  beings  or animals.  
However,  Vishnu  appeared  in the form of Narasim ha, half man and half lion, and killed 
the Asura  at dusk, with his  own claws,  by holding hi m on his  own lap.
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Then  we have  the episode  of the long austerities  perform ed by Sukrachar ya to propitiate 
Shiva  and to obtain  the Mritasanjivani  vidya ("the science  of how to resurrect  the dead"), 
the story of the battle  between  Shiva and Andhaka  (in which  Chandika  drank  the Asura's 
blood  to prevent  him from  multiplying  himsel f, and Shiva swallowed  Sukra  to prevent 
him from  resuscitating  the Asuras),  the killing  of Gajasura  (Mahishasura's  son, whose 
skin was used by Shiva  as clothing ). the killing  of Nirhadatya  (Prahlada's  maternal  uncle, 
who had decided  to avenge  the death  of his brothe r in law by destro ying the brahmanas 
of Kasi),  and the story  of Vital  and Utpal  (killed  by Parvati with the ball she was playing 
with).
Then  we find the story of five of Shiva's  incarnations:  as Sadhojat  (with  his disciples 
Sunanda,  Nandana,  Visvanandana  and Upanandana,  all of white  complexion),  Namadev a 
(of  red complexion  like his disciples  Viraja,  Vivaha,  Vishoka  and Visvabhavana),  Tat 
Purusha  (dressed  in yellow clothes),  Ghoresha  (of black  complexion  like his emanations 
Krishna,  Krishnasikha,  Krishnam ukha  and Krishnakanthadhari),  Ishana  (and  his 
emanation s Jati,  Mundi, Sikhandi and Ardhamundi).  
We find the explanation  of the 8 form s of Shiva  - Sharva,  Bhava,  Rudra,  Ugra,  Bhim a, 
Pasupati,  Ishana  and Mahadeva,  representing  the element s of nature  (earth,  water,  fire, 
air, space,  soul, sun  and moon),  of Shiva Ardhanarishvara (half m an and half  woman)  and 
various  other  incarnations  of Shiva  along  the ages  of the unive rse, the birth of 
Nandikesvara,  the appearance  of Bhairava,  the incarnation  of Shiva  as Sarabha  (on the 
occasion  of Narasim ha's appearance),  the blessing  to the brahmana Visvanara,  the 
incarnation of  Shiva as Grihapati and Yakshesvara  and 10 more  incarnations  of Shiva and 
Shakti,  the origin  of the 11 Rudras,  Durvasa  Rishi,  Hanu man,  Mahesha  and Vrishabha, 
the killing  of Vritrasura,  the incarnation  of Yatinatha  and Krishna  darshana,  the episode 
of Satyaratha's  son and Upamanyu,  the conversation  between  the Pandavas  and Vyasa, 
the fight  between Arjuna and Shiva in the for m of the Ki rata hunte r, the description  of the 
12 Jyotirlingas  (Somanatha  in Saurastra,  Mallikarjuna  at Sri Shaila,  Mahakala  at Ujjain, 
Amaresvara  at Omkara,  Kedar  on the Himalaya,  Bhimash ankara  on river Bhima, 
Visvanatha  at Varanasi,  Trayambak esvara  on river  Gauta mi, Vaid yanatha  at Chitabhumi, 
Nagesha  at Dvaraka,  Ram esvara  at Setubhanda  and Dhush mesha at Shivalaya ) and the 
Upalingas  ("secondary  lingas") generated  by the Jyotirlingas,  such  as Some svara, 
Rudresvara,  Dughdesha,  Kardame svara,  Bhutesvara,  Bhimesvara,  Guptesvara, 
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Vyagh resvara  and many  others. 
Then  we find the description  of the austerities  of Atri and Anasuya,  the stories  of the 
brahmana Suvada,  of the Shivalinga  Mahabala  and of Vatukanatha.  We also find the 
story  of how Vishnu  obtained  the Suda rshana  chakra, the description of  many  devotees  of 
Shiva,  the austerities  of Maha  Shiva  ratri and the different  levels  of liberation,  the 
conversation  between  Krishna  and Upamanyu,  the classific ation  of the criminal  activities 
and their  punishm ent, the explanation  of the importance  of charit y, the description  of 
Earth and the planets,  the categories  of austerit y, the process  of develop ment  of the body 
at birth,  control over  death,  the descent  of the Ganges,  the austerities  of Vyasa,  the 
incarnations  of Mahakali,  Mahalaksh mi, Mahasara svati,  and Saka mbari.
The Kailasa  samhita speaks  of the classification s of Yoga, the  behavior of  a sannyasi, the 
Pranava  Omkara,  and the initiation  and the funeral  of a sannyasi. It follows  with the 
description  of the origin  of knowledge,  the calculation  of time and yugas (the ages of the 
universe),  meditation,  the Pasupata  vrata,  the duties  of a brahmana, the installation  of the 
Deity  within  one's  own body , the mental  worship  to Shiva,  the performan ce of havana 
(fire sacrifice),  the auspicious  days  for special  rituals,  the installation  of the Shivalinga, 
the classification  of Yogas,  the obstacles  in the practice  of Yoga  and the attainment  of 
mystic  powers.
Varaha  purana
It has 24 thousand  verses.  After  being  rescued  by the avatara Varaha  ("boar")  Mother 
Earth had a conversation  with him and asked  him many questions,  especially  on creation, 
on the descendants  of Manu  and on the 10 main  avataras of Vishnu.  The narration 
includes  an episode  where  Narada  is confused  by Maya  in the presence  of Savitri, a 
previous  lifeti me of Narada when  he was a brahmana by the name of Sarasvata,  the story 
of king Asvasira,  the story of king Vasu  and Rishi  Raimya,  the story of the avatara 
Matsya,  the story of king Durja ya and the explanation  of the Sraddha  ritual (honoring  the 
ancestors).  
The text also speaks  about  Agni,  the Asvini  kumaras,  Parvati,  Ganesha,  the Naga  Devas 
and the meaning  of Naga  pancha mi, Kartike ya, Aditya (Surya), the Ashta  Matrikas 
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("eight  Mothers"),  Durga,  the Digapalas  (protecting  the 6 directions:  Purva, Dakshina, 
Paschi ma, Uttara,  Urdhva  and Adhara ), Kuvera,  Vishnu,  Dhar ma, Rudra,  the Tanmatras 
(the subtle  forms of matter),  Chandram a (the Moon),  the observance  of Dvadasi  (the 12th 
day of the moon)  for Matsya,  Kurma,  Varaha,  Nrisimh a, Vamana,  Jamadagni,  Kalki, 
Padmanabha  and Buddha. 
The Dharani  vrata is dedicated  to the Earth and is observed  in the month of Kartika, 
while the Subha vrata is  observed on the first  day of the  month  of Margasirsa,  the Dhanya 
vrata  in the month  of Aghana,  the Kanti  vrata  in the month of Kartika;  the Saubhag ya 
vrata  is observed  for one entire year, the Avighna  vrata for 4 months,  the Shanti  vrata  for 
one year, the Kama vrata for 15 days. The Arog ya vrata is observed  on the 7th day of any 
month,  the Putra  prapti  vrata  in the month  of Bhadrapada,  and the Shaury a and 
Sarvabhaum a vratas  in the month  of Asvina.  
The Til Dhenu  dana  consists  in gifting  a brahmana with the image  of a cow made with 
sesame seeds,  the Rasa  Dhenu  dana  requi res the gift of sugarcane  juice  and sesam e, the 
Gud Dhenu  dana  requi res brown  cane  sugar,  while  the Sarkara  Dhenu  dana  requires 
white sugar.
Also  there  is the description  of the holy places  called  Koka mukha  tirtha, Haridva ra (also 
called  Mayapuri),  Kubjamraka  tirtha  (Rishikesha),  Badarikashram a, Mandara  tirtha, 
Prabhasa  (Somanatha),  Salagrama  kshetra,  Ruru  kshetra,  Gonishkraman a tirtha, 
Stutasvam i tirtha,  Dvaraka,  Sanandura  tirtha,  Lohargala  tirtha,  Mathura,  Chakra  tirtha, 
Kapila  tirtha, Govardhana tirtha and Gokarna ti rtha. 
Then  the text explains  the various types  of sacred  image s made with wood,  stone,  clay, 
copper,  bronze,  silver  and gold;  it follows  with the funeral  rituals  and the story  of 
Nachiketa,  the purification  from negative  activit ies, the description  of Gokarnesvara,  the 
realization  of Vishnu,  Gautam a Rishi's  curse, the geograph y of Earth and Trishakti  (the 
threefold  form  of the Mother  Goddess).
Garuda  purana
It has  19 thousand  verses  in the for m of a dialogue between  Vishnu  and Garuda; it mainly 
speaks  of the funeral  rituals  lasting  12 days, the categories  of criminal  activities,  Yoga 
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and liberation.  Traditionall y it is recited  only during funerals.  In the introduction,  we find 
a list  of 22 avataras of Vishnu.
Agni purana
It has 15,400  verses  in 383 chapters,  with an appendix  of 6 more  chapters.  After  the 
traditional auspicious  invocation we find  the description of  the 10 avataras of Vishnu, the 
creation  of the universe,  the process  for the worship  of Ganesha,  Shiva, Chandi,  Vishnu 
and Surya, the Lakshmi  stotra and its benefits,  the Vishnu  panjara  stotra, the Marjana 
Apamarjana  stotra, a general  summary of Vedic  scriptures  and the Puranas, and 
instructions  on build ing te mple s. 
Then  we find the Tirtha  mahatmya, the description  of the Bhuvana  koshas  ("the 
coverings  of the unive rse"),  the explanation  of the system  of varnas and ashramas, the 
various  traditions,  dream s and omen s, the Papa  nashaka  stotra, the Gayatri  mantra and 
the Sandhya  vidhi. It follows  with an introduction  to Sanskrit  literatu re and grammar, the 
practice  of Yoga,  Dhanur  Veda, the duties  of the king, propert y rights,  the knowledge  of 
Atman,  and finall y an introduction to t he Bhagavad gita and to Yama gita.
Brah manda purana
The title means "the egg of the Brahman ", and the text is constituted  by 12 thousand 
verses  divided into 3 parts:  Purvabhaga, Madhyabhaga and Uttarabhaga. Brah ma speaks 
about  the creation  of the present  universe  and future  creations,  the dimension  of time and 
the cycles  of ages,  the description  of Earth and the planets,  the descendants  of Rudra,  the 
glories  of Shiva  and the birth  of Nilalohita;  it describes  the creation  of the Rishis  and 
Agni, the descendants  of Priyavrata, the explanation of the na me of Nilakantha,  the origin 
of the Shiva  linga,  the curse  of the Daruvana  Rishis,  the meeting  of Puru rava with the 
Pitris, the annual  Sraddha  cerem ony,  the system  of yajnas, the four  yugas, the 
characteristics  of the Rishis  and the mantras, Vyasa  and his disciples,  the story of 
Yajnavalkya, the descendants  of Manu  and the various manvantaras. 
In the text we also find a description  of the Vedangas, an elaborate  version  of the story of 
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Rama (known  as Adhyatma  Ramayana), Nachiketa's  instructions,  the glories  of Pinakini, 
Viraja kshetra and  Kanchi.
Brahma  vaivarta  purana
Composed by 18 thousand  verses,  it is divided  into Brahma  khanda,  Prakriti  khanda, 
Ganesha  khanda  and Krishna  Janma  khanda. Like  the Bhagavata  Purana, it gives 
particular  importance  to the figure  of Krishna  - not as one of the avataras but as 
Parabrahman,  the origin of everything.  The Brahma  kanda describes  the creation  of 
Brah ma and the descendants  of Manu,  the story of the Pracetas  and the sons  and 
daughters  of Daksha,  Prithu,  the manvantaras, Kuvalasva  and Brihadasva,  Trisanku, 
Bahu  and Sagara.  Moving  to the lunar  dynast y, it speaks  about  Chandra  and Yayati, then 
it describes  the geograph y of Earth and of  the planets.
The text continues  speaking  about  Utkala  (present  Orissa)  and the temple  of Konarka 
dedicated  to the Sun, the method  of worship  to Surya, and the expansions  of Surya as the 
12 Adityas - Indra (the warrior aspect),  Dhata  (the creator  and destiny ), Parjanya  (rain), 
Tvasta  (trees  and herbs),  Pusha  Aryama  (in food  grains),  Bhaga  Vivasvana  (in fire), 
Vishnu  (omnipresent),  Amshu mana (in wind),  Varuna  (in water)  and Mitra  (in the moon 
and in the ocean)  - that preside  over the 12 months  of the solar  year. It follows  with the 
108 na mes of Surya.
Then  the text narrates  the story of Indradyumna,  the description  of his capital  Avanti  (in 
the kingdo m of Malva,  present  Kashm ir), the description  of Purushottam a kshetra 
(Jagannatha  Puri), the story of the construction of the templ e with the help of the kings  of 
Kalinga,  Utkala and Koshala,  and the installation of  the Deities  of Jagannatha.  
Follows  the episode  of Markandeya  Rishi  who witnessed  the destruction  of the unive rse, 
the story of the king Sveta  and Sveta  Madhava,  the story  of Bali and the descent  of the 
Ganges,  the two Brahm agiri  doves,  Garuda  and Maninaga,  Visvam itra and Indra, the 
brahmana  Sveta,  Deva  Kuvera,  Harischandra,  Vriddha  Gauta ma, Pippalada,  Nagesvara, 
the 5th head  of Brah ma, the owl and the dove,  Bhilla  and Veda,  Gauta ma and 
Manikundala,  Kandu  Rishi,  the description  of the varnas and ashramas, and the story of 
the chandala and the  brahma raksha sa. 
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The text also speaks  about  how Nara yana  emanated  from  Krishna,  and how Krishna  and 
Radha  manife sted all the cowherd  boys  and girls and the cows  of Goloka  Vrindavana. 
Then it glo rifies  Radha  as the o rigin of  Lakshmi,  Sarasvati,  Durga and Savitr i. 
It follows  with  the stories  of Savit ri and Satyavan,  Surabhi,  Svaha  and Svadha,  the 
descendants  of Suratha and the story of the Ganges,  many stories  from the Ramayana and 
Durvasa's  curse  to Indra,  as well as instructions  for worshiping  Lakshm i. The Ganesha 
kanda speaks  mostly about  the story  of Ganesha  but it also contains  parts of the story of 
Jamadagni,  Kartavir ya A rjuna and  Parasura ma.
The Krishna  kanda speaks  about  the story of Krishna  in Vraja and Mathura,  and how 
Radha  was reun ited with Krishna  and all the inhabitants of  Gokula retu rned to Goloka.
Kurma  purana
Its name come s from  the tortoise  avatara of Vishnu  and the present  text consists  of 17 
thousand  verses  of the collection  called  Brahma  samhita. The other  3 samhitas - 
Bhagavati, Gauri  and Vaishnavi - have been  lost.
The text tells the story  of the subsequent  life of Indrad yumna,  the description  of the 
system  of varnas and ashramas, the creation  of the universe,  the calculation  of time,  the 
story  of Varaha,  the importance  of Ananta  Sesha  Naga  (presented  here as Sanka rshana), 
the appearance  of Rudra,  the 1000  names of Parvati,  the descendents  of Uttanapada,  the 
stories  of Daksha,  Narasim ha, Varaha  (that in this version  is presented  as after 
Narasi mha's), and a different  version  of the story of Gauta ma Rishi  and the faked  death 
of the cow.
Follow  the stories  of Andhaka,  of king Bali and the avatara Vamana,  and the story  of 
Bana  Asura  - in a different  version  than the Bhagavata and Vishnu  puranas: here Bana  is 
defeated  by Shiva  and not by Krishna,  and when  he surrenders  he become s one of the 
gana patis or "leaders  of the companion s" of Shiva. 
We also find descriptions  of the descendants  of Surya (who  in this version  has not 2 
wives  but 4 - Samjna,  Rajni,  Prabha  and Chha ya - and a greater  numb er of children),  of 
Vaivasvata  Manu  and his son Ikshvaku.  After  the Sun dy nasty we find the Moon dynast y, 
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with Puru rava,  Yayati and his sons  Yadu,  Tursavu, Druhy a, Anu and Puru. 
Follows  the story of Kartavir ya Arjuna  and his son Jayadhvaja,  that includes  the 
interesting  discussion  between  Jayadhvaja  and his brothe rs on worshiping  Vishnu  rather 
than Shiva:  as a general  tendency  the kings worship  Vishnu  and Indra,  brahmanas 
worship  Agni,  Adity a (Surya), Brah ma and Shiva,  while the Devas  worship  Vishnu,  the 
Asuras  worship  Shiva,  the Yakshas  and Gandharvas  worship  Chandra, the Rishis  worship 
Brah ma and Shiva, and women  worship  Parvati. But the best thing for human  beings  is to 
understand  that Shiva is non-d ifferent  from Visnu,  therefore  Shiva  and Vishnu  must be 
worshiped  simultan eously.
The text continues  elaborating  on Durja ya and Urvasi,  Krishna's  austerities  and his 
conversation  with Upamanyu  Rishi,  the description  of the 4 yugas, the importance  of the 
Shiva  linga,  the 12 Jyoti rlingas  and the tirthas or pilgrimage  places  of Ganga,  Yamuna 
and Prayaga.  It describes  the geography  of the Earth, the various manvantaras, the cyclic 
manifestations  of Vyasa in the various  Dvapara  yugas, the avataras of Shiva,  the Isvara 
gita and the Yoga  of the secret  knowledge,  the rituals  and samska ras, the rules of 
cleanliness,  atonem ent and fasting.
It reveals  the story of the Maya  Sita ("illusory  Sita") that was kidnapped  by Ravana,  the 
remov al of one of Brah ma's heads,  and the story  of Kalabhairava and  Nandi. 
Matsya  purana
It has 14 thousand  verses,  in the form of conversation  between  Vishnu  and Vaivasvata 
Manu;  it tells the story  of the fish avatara (Matsya),  the creation  of the universe,  the 
descendants  of Manu  and Daksha,  the story  of the Maruts,  the list of  the manvantaras, the 
story  of Prithu, the dy nasty of  the Sun (here Sur ya has  3 wives), the dy nasty of  the Moon, 
the story of Sati the daughter  of Daksha  and her 108 name s and 108 tirthas ("places  of 
access "). 
Follow  the instructions  for funeral  ceremonies,  the story of Brah madatta,  the description 
of many sacred  places,  the story  of Chandra's  birth  and the war for Tara,  the stories  of 
Puru rava,  Yayati, Puru, Bharata,  Kacha  and Devayani,  the quarrel between  Sarmista  and 
Devayani,  the story of Sukrachar ya and Jayanti  (daughter  of Indra ), a gene ral description 
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of the Puranas (the version  for the human beings  and the version  for the Devas  that 
comes to a total of 1 billion  verses),  the story of Tripura  Asura,  the calculation  of time, 
the characteristics  of the yugas, the story of Vajranga  son of Diti,  the austerities  of 
Taraka,  the war between  Devas  and Asuras,  the appearance  of Kausiki  from  Parvati's 
body , the birth of Kartikey a, the story of Hiran yakasipu  and the descendants  of the Rishis 
Bhrigu, Angira, Atr i, Visva mitra,  Kasyapa,  Vasistha,  Parasara and Agastya. 
Follow  the story  of Savit ri and Satyavan,  the description  of the duties  of a king,  the 
interp retation  of dream s and omen s, the story  of Bali Maharaja  and the avatara Vam ana, 
the story of the avatara Varaha,  the episode  of the ocean  churned  by the Devas  and 
Asuras,  and the appearance  of Lakshmi. 
The text includes  a treatise  on the science  of architecture  compiled  by 18 great  Rishis  - 
Bhrigu,  Atri,  Vasistha,  Visvakarm a, Maya,  Narada,  Nagnajita,  Vishalaksha,  Puranadara, 
Brah ma, Kartike ya, Nandishvara,  Saunaka,  Garga,  Vasudeva,  Aniruddha,  Sukra and 
Brihaspati  - and the auspicious  moments to start building a house.
Linga p urana
It has 11 thousand  verses  divided  into two parts of 108 and 55 chapters  respectively;  it 
begins  with the t raditional invocation. 
Vyasa  starts  speaking  in the assem bly of the Rishis,  explaining  the compo sition  of the 
Omkara,  the subtle  mechani sm of creation,  the appearance  of the Rishis  known  as 
brahma  manasa  putras ("sons  of Brahma 's mind"),  the nine Prajapatis,  Svayambhuva 
Manu  and Satarupa  and their  descendants.  Here  Sati is described  as manasa  putri of 
Brah ma, entrusted  to Daksha  with a warn ing about  her special  position  as Mother  of the 
Universe.  In this  regard we also  find the prayers of Brah ma to Shiva. 
Follows  a description  of the Astanga  Yoga,  with particular  instructions  on the places 
suitable  for practice,  meditation  and visualization,  on the mantras to be chanted,  the 
difficulties  to be faced  and the 64 siddhis or "perfections"  to attain.  Then the text 
elaborates  on Shiva  tattva  and the meaning  of the 5 faces  of Shiva,  the meaning  of 
Omkara,  the Shiva  stuti chanted  by Vishnu,  the description  of the rituals  called  Linga 
archana  ("worship  to the Linga")  and Pancha  Yajna  ("five  sacrifices"),  the explanation  of 
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the Tryambika  mantra, the origin  of the Shiva  linga  and the meanings  of atitya 
("hospitality "), pativratya ("loyal ty to one's  husband"),  bhakti ("devotion  for God")  and 
bhasma ("sacred ashes").
Follow  the Apara  stuti for Shiva  chanted  by the seven  Rishis,  the conve rsation  between 
Dadhici  Rishi  and king Kshupa  on Shiva's  superior  position,  the birth of Nandesvara,  the 
universal  form  of Shiva,  the worship  to Shiva  by Parasara  Rishi,  the story  of the 
Tripurasuras,  the Pasupata  Yoga,  the rules for ritual  worship,  different  vratas ("ritual 
observances")  and specific ally the Pasupata  vrata, the monthly  Shiva  vratas  and the Uma 
Mahesvara  vrata. 
The text also contains  the Pancakshara  japa mahatmya ("the  glories of the chanting  the 5 
syllable  mantra"), the description  of the Dhyana  Yajna  ("sacrifice  of meditation"),  the 
interp retation  of dream s and omen s, the stories  of Andhaka,  Varaha,  Narasim ha and 
Jalandhara,  the Shiva  sahasra  namavali ("the  1000  names of Shiva")  recited  by Vishnu, 
the death of Sati, the marriage  of Shiva and Parvati, the appearance  of Ganesha,  the Shiva 
Tandava  ("cos mic dance  of Shiva" ), the description  of the various  mantras for Vishnu 
and Shiva,  the story  of Dhundu ma, the definition  of pasutva ("animal  character" ) and 
pasu ("animal"),  the vibhutis ("powers")  of Shiva, the 8 form s of Shiva,  the mandala 
("circle")  of puja ("worship"),  the universal  form  of Shiva,  the installation  of the Shiva 
linga and the  various  form s of Gayatri.
 
Vamana  purana
It has 10 thousand  verses.  The story of the avatara Vamana  is narrated  by Pulast ya Rishi 
to Narada,  after  a series  of other  episodes  such  as the sacrifice  of Daksha,  the story of 
Andhaka,  the story of Sukeshi  (including  the description  of the virtuous  and criminal 
activities,  the geograph y of Earth  and the 10 parts  of Dharma),  the story  of Nara 
Naray ana Rishi  and their meeting  with Prahlada,  the story  of Mahishasura  (including  the 
episodes  of Rambha  and Karambh a, mount  Vindh ya, Chanda  and Munda),  the new 
incarnation  of Durga, the story of king Kuru  and Kuru  kshetra,  and the story  of Bali 
before  his m eeting  with Va mana.  
After  Vaman a's episode  we find the story of the river Sarasvati,  the geog raphical  position 
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of Kurukshetra  (with its 7 forests  and 9 rivers), the prayers of the Rishis  to Shiva,  the 
description  of Sanihit ya Sarovara  and Sthanu  tirtha,  the origin  of the 4 heads  of the linga 
called  Brah mesv ara, the description  of Prithudaka  tirtha, the birth  of Uma (daughte r of 
Mena  and the Himalaya)  that originall y was named Kali and had one brother by the name 
of Sunama  ("beneficial  name ") and two sisters  called  Ragini  (red) and Kutila  (white),  her 
marriage  with Shiva, the palace  built  by Visvakarm a for the newl y weds,  the killing  of 
Sumbha  and Nishu mbha,  the birth of Kartike ya, the killing  of Taraka  and Mahishasura, 
the story  of Ritudhvaja  and Patalketu,  the austerities  of Shiva,  the killing  of the Asura 
Mura,  the story of Andhaka  Asura  (including  the story of king Danda  and the episode  in 
which  Visvakarm a becom es a monk ey), the origin  of the Maruts  in the various 
manvantaras, the episode  of Vishnu  killing  Kalanem i, the victor y of Bali Maharaja,  the 
story  of Pururava,  the description  of the constellations,  the story  of Upam anyu  and 
Sridama,  the story of Gajend ra and the crocodile,  the Sarasvata  stotra, the conversation 
between  Bali and Prahlada,  the atonem ent austerities  of Indra,  and the benefits  of 
listening  to the Puranas.
Markandeya  purana
Composed of 9 thousand  verses.  It is famous especially  because  it contains  the Devi 
mahatmya ("the glories of the Goddess"),  the most popula r text for the worship  to the 
Mother  Goddess.  The recitation  of the Devi  mahatmya, also called  Chandi  patha, is 
traditionall y requi red during  the observance  of Navaratri  and many  shaktas ("devotees  of 
Shakti") perform  it eve ry day.
The text begins  with the conversation  between  Jaim ini and Markandeya  Rishi,  in which 
Markandeya  speaks  of Drona's  bird sons,  all expert  in Vedic  knowledge.  This Drona  was 
the son of the brahmana Mandapala  and married  Tarkshi,  daughte r of Kandhara  (of 
Garuda's  family); the 4 eggs  of Tarkshi  were collected  by Shami Rishi  and thus 
Pingaksha,  Vibodha,  Suput ra and Sumuka  learned Vedic  knowledge  by listening  to the 
recitation of  the Rishis  in his ashrama. This happened because  in their p revious  lives  they 
had been  the sons of Rishi  Sukrisha,  son of Rishi  Vipulasva.  Jaimini went  to meet these 
extraordina ry birds and asked  them many  questions  about  the incarnation  of Krishna  and 
the story of the Pandavas.  The answers  also speak  about  the various  incarnations  of 
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Vishnu,  such  as Nara yana,  Sesha,  Pradyumna  and Aniruddha.  It is Pradyumna who 
manifests in the form  of the avataras such as  Varaha, Nrisim ha and Krishna.
The story  of Draupadi,  the wife of the Pandavas,  begins  with the episode  in which  Indra 
killed  Trishira  and his father  Tvasta  Rishi  created  Vritrasura;  instead  of hono ring the 
friendship  with Vritra, favored  by the Seven  Rishis,  Indra treacherously  killed Vritra and 
thus provoked the  Asuras'  anger. 
Later  on the Devas  took birth on Earth,  and the Pandavas  are precisely  manife stations  of 
Dhar ma, Vayu, Indra  and the Asvini  kumaras.  Follows  the story of Balara ma's 
pilgrimage,  the killing  of Suta  Gosva mi and its atone ment  by a 12 year fast in the 
pilgrimage  place known as  Pratiloma Sarasvati.  
Then  again  the story of Draupadi's  sons  is traced  back  to the episode  when  king 
Harischandra  insulted  Visva mitra  and Visva mitra  asked  him to surrender  every thing  he 
posses sed. At that time 5 Devas  of the directions  showed  indignation  at how Visva mitra 
was mistreating  Harischandra's  wife and he cursed  them to take birth as human  beings. 
Visva mitra  continued  to test Harischandra's  virtue  to the extreme consequences,  then 
Harischandra  was blessed  by the Rishi  Visva mitra,  by Indra and by Dharma. Follow  the 
story  of Sumati  and the description  of how a human  being  goes through  death  and in the 
cycle of reincarnation.
Vayu  purana
It has 24 thousand  verses,  divided  into 4 parts entitled  Prakriya  pada,  Anusanga  pada, 
Upodghata  pada  and Upasamhara  pada, plus an appendix  entitled Gaya  mahatmya ("the 
glories of  Gaya", the famous place of  pilgrimage  in present  Bihar ). 
The text begins  by declar ing that the knowledge  contained  in the Puranas was originall y 
enunciated  by Brahm a and constitutes  a very important  part of Vedic  literature.  After  the 
description of  creation, Rom aharshan a Suta speaks  about the story  of Varaha, the cycle of  
the yugas and the characteristics  of the various  ages,  the descendants  of the 10 manasa 
putras  of Brahm a and Daksha's  daughters,  and the appearance  of Rudra  and the science 
of Yoga, for which detailed  instructions are given. 
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The text also speaks  of the interpretation  of dream s and omen s, of the list of the 34 
kalpas (days  of Brahma)  that passed  from  the beginning  of creation,  and of the birth  of 
Lakshm i as daughter of Brighu Rishi  and sister  of Dhata  and Vidhata. 
Then  we find the sacrifice  of Daksha,  the description  of the geograph y of the Earth and 
the regions  assigned  to the sons of king Priyavrata, the various  planets  of the universe, 
the episode  in which  Shiva  swallowed  the poison,  the compilation  of the Vedas and 
various  stories  about  the Rishis,  such  as the episode  of the asvamedha  yajna  by king 
Janaka.  
It narrates  how the groups  of Devas  and Rishis  incarnate  in the various  manvantaras, the 
story  of king  Vena  and Prithu,  and narrates  about  the Pracetas,  the descendants  of 
Daksha,  Hiranyakasipu  and Hiran yaksha  the sons of Diti, the Maruts,  the Danavas  and 
the Pitris.
The dynasty  of the Sun begins  with the birth of Surya from the cosmic egg - by which  he 
was given  the name of Martanda.  After  the birth of Yam a, Yami, Vaisvavata  Manu  and 
the Asvini  kumara s, the next generation  sees the progeny  of Vaivasvata,  starting  with 
Ila/Sud yumna,  Ikshvaku,  Brihadasva,  Trishanku  and Sagara.  In the Moon  dynast y we see 
the birth of Chandra,  Pururava  and Urvasi,  Yayati, Kartaviry a Arjuna,  and the episode 
when   Brihaspati  took the for m of Sukrachary a and  cheated the Daityas for 10 yea rs. 
Follows  a brief summary of the main  avataras of Vishnu,  in a list that is slightly different  
from usual:  Matsya,  Narasim ha, Vaman a, Dattatre ya, Bhavya,  Parasuram a, Rama, 
Vedavyasa,  Krishna and Kalki,  and the line of transmission  of Vayu purana from Vayu to 
Ushana,  to Brihaspati,  Savita and so on, down to Vyasa and Ro maharshana  Suta.
Bhavisya  purana
The Apastambha  Dharmasutra  mentions  a Bhavisya  purana, but it is possible  that the 
text presently  available  has been  drastically  modified  in very recent  times,  because  its 
contents  are ver y doubtful and drasticall y different  from the other Puranas. 
The first section  of the text speaks  of the glories of Vishnu,  Shiva  and Surya, then 
Romahar shana  Suta  goes  to sleep  for 2000  years,  and on returning  he presents  his 
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prophecies  for Kali  yuga (which  is supposed  to have  started  in the times when 
Romahar shana  originall y received  the Vedic  texts  from  Vyasa).  These  belated  prophecies 
include  the advent  of Buddhis m with descriptions  of terrible wars  between  Buddhists  and 
Hindus,  with  millions  of casualties  (that never  actually  happened).  It mentions 
Zarathustra,  Adam  and Eve (called  Adam a and Havyavati,  pictu red under  a Papa  vriksha 
or "sin tree"),  Noah's  ark, Moses,  Jesus Christ  (called  "Isha  Messia")  and his journey to 
India,  Muham mad and Islam,  Nimbarka,  Madhva,  Jayadeva  Gosvam i, Kutubuddin  and 
the Delhi  sultans,  Tamerlan,  Nadir  Shah, Akba r, the British colonial  rule, queen  Victor ia 
and the city of Calcutta.  The "mleccha  dharma" is described  as devotion  to God,  worship 
of fire, nonviolence, austerity and sense  control.
In the list of Upapuranas  the most famous are named  after  Samba,  Nandi  (or 
Nandikesva ra), Surya,  Adi (or Aditya),  Parasara,  Kapila,  Narasimha,  Kalika,  Nilamata, 
Varuna,  Durvasa,  Manu, Sanatkumara,  Ushana  (Sukra), Maricha,  Bhargava,  Lakshmi, 
Shiva rahasya,  Shiva dharma, Vasistha,  Ganesha, Kalki  and Hamsa. 
Some sources  add the Devi  bhagavata  and the Brihan  naradiya  purana  to the list, while 
others  add the Vayu,  Shiva  and  Skanda  puranas, that generall y are considered 
Mahapuranas.  There  are also other Upapuranas  called Asamavya,  Aunasa  (Ausanas ), 
Basava,  Bhanda,  Brihaddharma,  Harivamsa,  Kotyaka,  Kuvera,  Limbaja,  Magha,  Malla, 
Medasani-vari,  Mudgala,  Peria  (Periya ), Sarasvati,  Sthala,  Svayambhuva,  Tula, 
Vaisakha and Vishnu-Dharma Purana.
Devi  bhagavata  purana
Also  known  as Devi  purana, it has 18 thousand  verses  in 12 chapters  or cantos  and is 
attributed  to Vyasa,  who called  it Mahapurana. The introductory  invocation  offers  a 
meditation  on Brah mavidya,  "spiritual  knowledge",  that is sarva  chaitanya  rupa, "the 
form of all awareness",  so that she  will awaken  buddhi, "intelligence".
The text begins  with the Rishis'  questions  to Saunaka  and continues  with the glorification 
of the various  Puranas, the incarnations  of Vyasa  in the various  Dvapara  yugas,  the 
classi fication  of the scriptu res and their essence.
The Vedanta  (also called  jnana  kanda, "the section  of knowledge")  is characterized  by 
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sattva, the collections  of sutras that deal with the ritual ceremonie s (karma  kanda, "the 
section  of the prescribed  activities")  are characterized  by rajas and the Nyaya  shastra 
("the  texts  on logic")  are characterized  by tamas, and similarly  the Puranas too are 
divided  into 3 categories  according  to the predominant  guna, but the Bhagavata 
Mahapurana  and the Devi  Bhagavata  Mahapurana are above  them  all. As it is 
characteristic  of the Puranas, also this text speaks  of the creation  of the unive rse, the 
secondary  creation,  the dynasties,  the periods  of the Manus  and the stories  of the various 
kings.
 The original  Devi  Shakti  is called  Vidy a, "knowledge",  her nature is turiya  chaitanya 
("transcendental  awareness")  and she is the Mother  of all the worlds.  Her unfathom able 
waters  sustain  Vishnu,  who is the support  and the origin of Brah ma, the creator  of the 
universe.  Maha  Laksh mi is her sattva  shakti, Maha  Sarasvati  is her rajas  shakti and Maha 
Kali is  her tamas shakti. 
The text continues  with the story of Hayag riva,  the avatara of Vishnu  "with  a horse 
head":  the Devas  were  performing  a sacrifice  ritual,  but they discovered  that Vishnu  had 
gone  to sleep  after fighting  against  the Asuras  for many years,  so trying to awaken  him 
indirectl y, they cut the string  of his arc, producing  a strong  noise.  Unexpectedly  the 
snapping  bow string cut off Vishnu's  head,  that rolled  away and became lost in the ocean. 
The Vedas then prayed Maham aya, who revealed  the purpose  of that particular  lila 
("pla yful pastim e") of Vishnu:  there  was an Asura  called  Hayag riva because  he had a 
horse  head,  and who had obtained  the blessing  to remain  unconquered  by anyone except 
a person  who looked  exactl y like him. Thus, Vishnu  was going  to take on a horse  head  in 
order to deal with the Asura.
Two  more Asuras,  named Madhu  and Kaitabha,  appeared  from Vishnu's  ear wax while 
he was sleeping,  and started  to afflict  the universe.  Brahm a went  to offer  his prayers to 
Vishnu  and ask for his help,  but as he was unable  to wake  him up, he addressed 
Maha maya,  who was covering  Vishnu's  heart  in the form of sleep  (Nidra ). With  the help 
of Maha maya,  who confused  the mind s of the two Asuras,  Vishnu  eliminated  Madhu  and 
Kaitabha,  thus liberating Brahma  and the entire universe fro m that m enace.  
Then  the text speaks  of the birth of Budha  (the planet  known  as Mercur y), son of 
Chandra  (the Deva  of the Moon)  and Tara ("star",  wife of Brihaspati,  who is known  as 
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the planet  Jupiter ) who had fallen  in love with Chandra  and had eloped  with him. Budha 
married  Ila, daughter  of Manu,  and from  their  union  the king  Pururava  was born. 
Actually  Ila had been  a male  at birth and until the moment of transfor mation - which 
happened  when  he entered  without  permission into the forest  where  Shiva  was enjoying 
with Parvati.  Later Puru rava married  the Apsara  Urvasi,  but Indra wanted  her to return to 
his court, so he devised  a plan to force  Puru rava to fail to keep  his word,  with the result 
of angering his wife.
Vyasa  too met an Apsara,  Ghritaci,  who took the form  of a parrot  and indirectly  became 
the mother  of Sukadeva.  Suka  was born from the fire of the ritual  and immediately 
became an adult,  as it is the norm  with the child ren of the Devas;  he went  to Brihaspati's 
house  for his studies  and then returned  to his father,  who advised  him to marry  and thus 
comply with his  family duties.  
However,  Sukadeva  was free from  all material  desires  and attach ment s and he feared  that 
marriage  would  create  unnecessary  problem s for him; to help him understand  the truth, 
Vyasa  sent him to meet  king Janaka  of Mithila,  a famous jivanmukta ("liberated  soul still 
living  in the body") who was a great  example  of detachm ent and perfection  in the 
perfor mance  of duties.  
Then  we have  the description  of Sukadeva's  journey to Mithila,  his arrival  at the palace, 
and his conversation  with Janaka  about  renunciation  and family  life, and the gradual 
evolution  of the individual. In the end Janaka  openl y declared that the constant  awareness 
of the Self as different  from the material  world  is the key to attain  a healthy  and natural 
renunciation fro m attach ment s.
Convinced,  Sukadeva  returned  to his father's  house  and married  Pivari,  the daughter  of a 
Rishi;  he had four sons - Krishna,  Gaurap rabha,  Bhuri  and Devasruta  - and a daughter, 
Kirti.  Later Kirti married  Anuha  and begot  the powerful  king Brahmad atta, who was 
perfectly  realized  in the transcendental  Self and simultaneou sly endowed  with great 
wealth  and p rosperity . 
Finally  Sukadeva  left his father's  house  and went  to mount  Kailasa,  where  he meditat ed 
for a long time,  finally  attaining  the perfection  of Yoga.  Vyasa  went  to search  for him, 
calling  him with great  affection  and sadness,  and was pacified  by Shiva  himsel f. Then 
Vyasa  went  to the birthplace  of his own mother  Satyavati  and finally  to the city of 
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Hastinapura,  where Sat yavati had m arried Santanu and  begot two hei rs to the th rone.
The next canto  speaks  about  the birth of Satyavati,  the birth of Vyasa,  the birth of the 
Vasus,  and the bi rth of  the Pandavas,  then about the extinction of  the Yadu fam ily and  the 
life of Maharaja  Parikshit, and the Sarpa y ajna perform ed by his son Jana mejaya. 
In the 3rd canto  we find the questions  of Janam ejaya  to the Rishis,  the hymns to the Devi 
compos ed by Shiva  and Brah ma, the powers  of the Devi,  the characteristics  of the gunas, 
the story  of Satyavrata,  the fight  between  Yudhajit  and Virasena,  the story of Visva mitra, 
the marriage  of Sudarshana,  the installation  of the Devi  at Varanasi  and Ayodhy a, the 
explanation  of Navaratri,  the tradition  of hono ring young  girls as representatives  of the 
Goddess,  and the stor y of Ra ma observing Navaratri. 
In the 4th canto  we find the story of Krishna  and the conversation  between  Nara  and 
Naray ana Rishi.  In the 5th we find the birth of the Apsara  Urvasi,  the explanation  of the 
importance  of pilgrimages,  the curse  of Brighu  and the truce between  Devas  and Daityas, 
and the stories of various  avataras of Vishnu.  Then the story of Krishna  is resum ed with 
the m arriage  of Devaki,  the bi rth of  Krishna  and the kidnapping of  Pradyumna.  
The 5th canto  also compare s Shiva and Vishnu,  speaks  about  the birth of Mahisha  Asura, 
his war against  Indra  and the appearance  of the Devi  to defeat  the Asura,  the battle 
against  Tamra, Vaskala,  Durmukha,  Ciksura,  Vidalaksha,  Asilom a, and finally  Mahisha 
himsel f. 
Then  the Devi  tackled  anothe r danger  for the Devas  - the Asuras  Sumbha  and Nisu mbha, 
with their generals Dhu mralochana,  Chanda,  Munda,  Raktabija,  and kil led them  all. 
The narration  of the deeds  of the Devi  is a source  of great  blessings  for those  who hear it, 
as dem onstrated  by the story  of king Su ratha  and the vaisya Samadhi.
The 6th canto  speaks  about  the story of Trishira,  Vritra and Indra's  escape,  then narrates 
the story  of king Nahusha,  the war between  Adi and Baka,  the birth  of Vasistha,  the 
Haihayas  and Bhargavas,  the story of Ekavita,  the war between  Haihaya  and Kalaketu, 
and the  illusory  experiences  of Vyasa and Narada.
The 7th canto  speaks  of the two dynasties  of Surya and Chandra,  the story  of Chyavana 
Rishi  and Sukany a, the stories  of Revata,  Satyavrata,  Trisanku  and Harischandra.  Then  it 
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speaks  about  the form of the Goddess  "that  has 100 eyes" (Satakshi  Devi ), the birth of 
Parvati,  the Virata  rupa,  Yoga  and perfection  in mantras, the knowledge  of Brah man, 
bhakti and worship  of the Devi. 
In the 8th canto  we find the story of Varaha that lifts the Earth, the description  of the 
family  of Manu  and Priyavrata, mountains  and rivers, Ganges  and the regions  of Earth 
(varsha), continents  (dvipa) and the structu re of the universe.
The 9th canto  describes  the origin  of Prakriti and Purusha,  Brah ma, Vishnu,  Shiva  and 
the Devas,  the appearance  of Lakshm i, Ganga  and Sarasvati,  the power  of Kali,  the 
punish ment  prescribed  for offen ses against  Earth, the story of Tulasi  and Sankhachuda, 
the story  of Savit ri and her dialogue with Ya ma, the 86  kundas ("basins") and  the various 
forms of the Devi  - Maha  Lakshm i, Svaha,  Svadha,  Dakshina,  Sasthi,  Manasa  and 
Surabhi.
The 10th canto  speaks  about  Svayambhuva  Manu  and the conversation  between  Narada 
and Vindh ya, after which  Vindhy a blocked  the passage  of the Sun, then we find the story 
of Manu  and the story of king Suratha,  and the appearance  of Bhra mari Devi.  The 11th 
and 12th cantos  describe  the morning  duties  and specifically  the cleanliness  rules,  the 
glories  of the rudraksha, the rules for the Sirov rata, the 3 types of bhasma (sacred  ashes), 
the rules  of the sandhya  upasana (the spiritual  practice  at the day's junctions),  the 
brahma  yajna (the pursuance  of transcendental  realization),  the mantra  gayatri, the 
Vaisvadevas,  the Tapta  kricchra  vrata,  sadachara ("good  behavio r"), diksha ("initiation") 
and the  mystic  Mani  Dvipa.
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Vedang a and Up aved a
The secondary  Vedic  texts  called  Vedangas ("limb s of knowledge") and Upavedas 
("secondary  knowledge")  or even  Upangas  ("secondary  limbs") are also considered 
shastra ("sacred scriptures") and so metimes are called  sutra ("apho risms"). 
Many  among  the most ancient  texts  have  gone  lost and we have  only quotes  related  in 
more recent books (which of  course, are still centuries  old).
The t raditionally  recognized  Vedangas are:
- Siksha (rules for pronunciation )
- Vyakarana  (grammar)
- Chanda (intonation and metric  to ensure  proper understanding)
- Nirukta (derivation and m eanings  of words)
- Jyotisha (astrolog y)
- Kalpa (practical  details of  rituals)  
Trad itionally , the Upavedas or Upangas (subsidiar y parts  of the Vedas, required for the 
good perfor mance  of rituals) are:
- Ayur Veda (medicine)  connected  to the Rig Veda
- Dhanur Veda (military science)  connected to the Yajur Veda
- Gandharva  Veda (music, dance  and figurative arts) connected  to the Sama Veda
- Artha shastra  (sociology , politics  and economy)  connected to the Atharva Veda
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In turn, these  include  more subsidiary  texts.  Someti mes the Sulba  shastra  (mathe matics 
and geometry)  is considered  a part of the Vedanga called  Kalpa because  it is required  to 
calculate  the measure ments of the altars, and sometimes it is considered  part of the 
Jyotisha to make  the astrological  calculations,  or part of the Artha  shastra as it is a basic 
knowledge  for many  social  occupations.
The  Kama  shastra (sense  gratification  and quality  of life) and the Krishi  shastra 
(agricultu re and care for animal s) belong  to the field of Ayur  Veda, while  the Vimanika 
shastra (construction and uti lization  of airships) is  considered part of the  Dhanur Veda.
Within  the field of Artha  shastra we can mention  the Niti shastra  (good  behavior ), Silpa 
shastra (architecture and crafts)  and the kalas or arts.
The scriptures that deal  with the  darshanas ("perspectives  of vision") on the Vedas are:
- Nyaya (the science  of logic)
- Yoga (con trol of  body and mind)  
- Sankhya (analy tical philosophy )
- Vaisesika  (cosmology and  physics)
- Purva mimamsa  (comm entaries  to the Kalpa sutra)
- Uttara mimamsa , also known as  Vedanta sutra
Sometim es Yoga,  Sankh ya and Vaisesika  are considered  parts of the Nyaya because  they 
are logical and philosophical  interp retations  of the Vedic  knowledge.
These  are the 6 darshanas called  astika ("orthodox")  or faithful  to the authorit y of Vedic 
There  are also 3 more darshanas called  nastika ("hete rodox")  that do not recognize  the 
authorit y of the Vedas, although  in a certain  measure they deal with the funda ment al 
knowledge  presented  in the Vedas. The nastika  darshanas  are the systems of Charvaka 
(atheistic  materialism ), the system of Buddha  (Buddhis m in its form s sunyata, 
madhyamaka,  yogachara,  sautrantika  and svatantrika) and the system of Mahavira 
(Jainis m both anekantavada and syadvada).
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Siksha
The most famous and complete  texts  on this subject  have  been  written  by Panini  and 
Yajnavalkya. 
The Samana  siksha  sutra  (in appendix  to Rig Veda) specifically  focuse s on visarga (the 
letter  represented  by aspired  h), the Bharadhvaja  siksha  contains  an alphabetical  index  of 
the definitions  used  in Yajur Veda, the Narada  siksha  discusse s about  the accents  in 
Sama Veda, and the  Manduki siksha  about accents  in Atharva  Veda. 
Other  texts,  known  as Pratisakhya  siksha, are in appendix  to the four  Samhitas  and 
explain  the modifi cations  in chanting  or reading  the samhita  (or mula) patha  (the original 
form of the Vedic  text)  into the pada  patha  (the reading  that separates  words)  and the 
krama  patha (reading  with the words  and their meaning),  as we have  seen in the 3rd 
chapter of  this book speaking  about Sanskrit. 
Two  more modalities  of recitation  of the same hymns, called  jata and ghana, are 
considered  particularly  powerful  and are used in rituals  prope r rather  than in the learning 
exercises.  The secret  of this power  resides  in the rhythmic tone,  combined  with  the 
awareness  of the meaning  of the mantras; the tonic  sequence  of the jata ("braid")  is 1-2, 
2-1, 1-2 , while  the tonic sequence  of the ghana ("cloud" ) is 1-2, 2-1, 1-2-3, 3-2-1. We 
have  already mentioned  these in the chapter about  the 4 main  Vedas.
The word  siksha refers  to the technique  for teaching  the scriptures,  based  on phonetics 
and m emorization.
These  are the othe r funda mental definitions:
* varna refers  to the pronunciation  of the indiv idual  letters, classified  as guttural,  palatal, 
lingual,  dental  and labial  according  to the physical  point  of articulation  in the vocal 
apparatus.
* svarah refers  to the tone - anudatta ("low"  that is low frequency ), udatta ("high"  or 
high frequency ) and svarita ("mediu m") - in the pronunciation  of vocals;  in the manual s 
used  for study  and practice  these  three  signals  are represented  respectively  by a 
horizontal line under the vocal, and by  one or two vertical lines above  the vocal. 
Other ver y specific  tones,  that are not used any  more, were called prachaya,  hrasva, 
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dirgha  and pluta.
* matra  is the duration of vocalization  in reference  to tim e, that is  short (hrasva), long 
(dhirga) or echoed  (plutam), consisting  of 1, 2, o r 3 units  of ti me (matra); the ardha 
matra or "half  time" refers  to consonants  that are not accom panied  by vowels.
* balam refers  to the forcefulne ss of pronunciation,  to the vocal  effort,  both internal 
(abhyantara  prayatna) and external  (bahya  prayatna) - that is before  pronunciation  and 
during p ronunciation.
* samah refers  to the correct space  between  letters  during  pronunciation,  which  must not 
be too short or too long.
* santanah is the pronunciation  flow  obtained  through  the correct  combin ation  in the 
union (sandhi) of letters.
Sanskrit  is an extrem ely complex  and precise  language,  and each  small intonation  and 
difference  in pronunciation  and accent  can change  the meaning  of the sentence,  even 
substantially.  The Siksha of Panini  tells a story from  Taittirya  samhita  (2.4.12 ) in which 
Tvasta  perform ed a ritual  to evoke  an Asura  who could  destroy  Indra  (indra  sattrur 
vardhasva) and because  of a pronunciation  mistake  (emph asizing  "tru" instead  of "dra") 
he obtained  an Asura (V ritra) who could be destro yed by  Indra. 
On the other  hand  it is well known  (and it has also been  demon strated  even  in our own 
times)  that the correct pronunciation  of the Vedic  hymns has a considerable  influence  on 
atmospheric  phenomen a, and especially  it brings rains.  It is even  said that the repeated 
and correct recitation  of the apratiratha  sukta is able - by itself  - to repel  aggressors  and 
even  hostile  armie s, while  the  akamathya  sukta produces  a feeling  of peace,  harmony 
and cooperation. 
Recent  studies  on the chanting  and singing  of Vedic  mantras have  shown  a close 
relationship  with mathem atics and geometry,  as well as with the binary  logic  used  in 
computers.
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Vyakarana
This term is defined  as vyakriyate  anena  iti vyakarana: "gram mar is what  enables  us to 
form and examine  words  and sentences".  In Sanskrit  there  is a precise  and logical  system 
to form declinations,  conjugations,  compo sed words  and derivatives,  which  enables  us to 
system atically understand  the deep m eaning  of the words.
The nine  tradit ional  gram matical  system s are those  compiled  by Indra, Chandra, 
Kasakritsna,  Kumara,  Sakatayana,  Sarasvati  Anubhuti  Svarupa  achar ya, Apisali  and 
Panini. 
The text entitled Astadhyayi ("8 chapters") written b y Panini is certainl y the mo st famous, 
and has commentaries  written  by Patanjali  (the autho r of the famous Yoga sutras), 
Katya yana  and Bhattoji  Dikshita.  It is said that the basic  14 aphorism s of Panini's 
gram mar, called  Mahesvara  sutra, were  originated  by the same number  of fast beats  of 
the damaru, Shiva's  hand  drum, during  his cosmic dance.  They contain  the basic  43 
Sanskrit letters, organized in their p recise  esoteric  meaning.
Chanda 
It is the science  of intonation  and metric s, requi red to ensure  the correct unde rstanding  of 
the text. 
The most important  traditional  text is Pingala's  Chandoviciti, in 8 chapters,  followed  by 
Kedara's  and Gangadasa' s work. 
Sanskrit  poetic  composition s are made of pada  ("verses")  each with a specific  number  of 
aksharas ("letters-syllables") each  with a p recise  length (matra).
These  are the main  Vedic metric s:
* Gayat ri, with 3 padas of 8 syllables each
* Ushnika,  with 4 padas of 7 syllables
* Anustubha,  with 4 padas of 8 syllables
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* Brihati, with 4 padas of 9 syllables
* Pankti, with 4 padas of 10 syllables
* Tristubha,  with 4 padas of 11 s yllables
* Jagati,  with 4 padas of 12 s yllables
Nirukta
This work by Yaska  is the most famous text dealing  with develop ment  and meanings  of 
the words;  however,  it quotes  passage s from  a previous  text called  Nighantu, that is 
presently  lost except  for the 5 chapters  copied  in the Nirukta. Besides  Nirukta there are 
other koshas ("vocabular ies") and anukramanika ("indexes").
Nirukta has 12 chapters:  from chapter  1 to 3 there  is an explanation  of synonyms  (words 
of different  form s but having  the same meaning),  from  chapter  4 to 6 we find the 
homonym s (words with identical  forms but different  meaning s), and from  chapter  7 to 12 
there  is the explanation  of the name s of the Deities.  Words are categorized  as nama 
(nouns), akhyata (adjectives), nipata (adverbs) and upasarga (prepositions).
To examine  the origin  and meaning  of the words, it is important  to consider  the 
pronunciation characteristics  and the gram matical form ation.  
All nouns  develop  from a "root"  (mula). For exam ple, the word  karma comes from the 
root kr, which  means "to do". Sometim es a superficial  similarity  can be deceitful;  for 
example  the word hasta ("hand" ) does  not originate  from  the root has ("to laugh")  but 
from the root han ("to strike").  The root has instead  form s the words hasa ("smile, 
laugh")  and hasya ("amusing").  To establish  the precise  meaning  and the form ation  of the 
various fa milies of words we  need a dictionar y.
Kalpa 
Visualizing  the Vedanga as the various parts of the body  of the Virata Purusha,  the Kalpa 
sutras  represent  the hands  - while  Siksha are the nostrils,  Vyakarana the mouth,  Chanda 
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the feet,  Nirukta the ears,  and Jyotisha the eyes. 
In fact  the wo rd kalpa ("intention, desire") expresses  the passage  by which after  acquir ing 
the knowledge  of the ritual we take the initiative of  performing  it practically .
There  are two types of Kalpa  sutra: the Srautas explaining  the rituals  and ceremonie s for 
the kingdo m, and the Smarta  (or Grihya) explaining  the daily rituals  for indiv idual 
familie s. 
The two nam es derive from  the fact  that the first category  is prescribed  in the texts known 
as Sruti (the 4 main  Vedas and their  direct  commentaries,  such  as Brahmanas, 
Aranyakas,  Upanishads) while  the rituals  of the second  categor y are only mentioned  in 
the Sruti but the y are p rescribed  in the Smriti.
Apart  from  the simple agnihotra (that should  be perfor med as a daily practice),  the 
majority  of the traditional  sacrificial  rituals  have  been  abandoned  in Hindu  society, 
because  the rampant  degradation  of Kali yuga make s their correct performan ce almo st 
impos sible.  
In the 1800s  the British scholar  Martin  Haug  convinced  some brahmanas in Pune 
(Maharastra)  to perform  a Soma Yajna  as described  in the ancient  texts;  he took a lot of 
photographs and  brought the used  utensils  in E urope. 
In 1969 there was a  Soma Yajna in Shivapu ri, under the direction of Sri Gajanan. 
In 1975  (from  12 to 24 April)  the indologist  Fritz  Stal financed  and document ed one 
Agnichayana  yajna perform ed by the Nambudiris  (traditional  brahmanas from south 
India). 
These  episodes  awakened  the interest in the orthodox  Hindu  community of Kerala,  that 
was inspired  to continue  with an Agnisto ma in 1984  at Trivandrum,  an Agnicha yana  in 
1990 at Kundoor, an Agnisto ma in 2003 at T richu r, an Atiratra and an Agnisto ma in 2006 
at Sukapu ram, a Soma  yajna in 2009  (from  25 April  to 1 May)  at Aluva,  and an Atiratra 
in 2011 at Tr ichur. 
Furthe rmore,  in 1996 (from  11 to 22 Decem ber) a  Pravarg ya ya jna was  perform ed.
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The t raditional Srauta  sutras  are:
* Asvalayana and Sankhyayana (Rig Veda), 
* Apasthamba,  Baudhayana,  Hiranyakesi,  Bharadvaja,  Vaikhanasa,  Vadhila,  Manava, 
Varaha (Krishna  Yajur Veda)
* Katyayana or Paraskara (Sukla Y ajur Veda)
* Khadira,  Latyayana, Drahyayana,  Jaiminiya (Sama Veda)
* Vikhanasa (Atharva  Veda)
The t raditional Griha  sutras  are:
* Asvalayana and Sankhyayana (Rig Veda) 
* Apasthamba,  Baudhayana,  Hiranyakesi,  Vaikhanasa,  Manava,  Katha  (Krishna  Yajur 
Veda)
* Khadira,  Gobhila, Gautama, Jaiminiya  (Sama Veda)
* Kaushika (Atharva  Veda)
The t raditional Dharma  sutras are:
* Vasishtha (Rig V eda)
* Apasthamba, Baudhayana, Hiranyakesi  (Krishna  Yajur Veda)
* Gautama (Sama Veda)
Naturally  this classi fication  of the Dharma  sutras is only  indicative,  because  this 
definition  can be applied  to a great  variety of texts,  as they deal with religious  or social 
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duties.  Thus some scholars  list even  Mahabharata and Ramayana  among  the Dharma 
shastra s. 
There  are other Smriti  scriptures  that further  elaborate  the topic  of rituals,  in the 
categories  called  Pratishakhya,  Padapatha,  Kramapatha,   Upalekha,  Anukramani, 
Daivatsamhita,   Parisishta,  Paddhati, Karika,  Khila and Vyuha. 
The Prayogas  deserve  a special  mention  because  they are in turn sub-divided in  hotru  (on 
practical  details),  adhvaryu  (on general  organization)  and udgatru  (on the chanting  of 
mantras) depending on the ty pe of  officiant  that will utilize them.  
Always within the Smriti categor y, but on the topic of  personal  and social  duties,  we have 
the 18 main texts  such  as Manu Smriti, also known  as Manu  samhita  or Manava 
Dharma- Shastra  (meant  for the Satya yuga),  Yajnavalkya  Smriti  (meant  for the Treta 
yuga), Sankha-Likhita  Smriti  (meant  for the Dvapara  yuga) and Parasara  Smriti (meant 
for the Kali yuga), as well as the texts  written  on the subject  by the Rishis  Vishnu, 
Angirasa,  Daksha,  Yama,  Samvarta,  Shanka,  Ushanas,  Katya yana,  Devala,  Brihaspati, 
Narada,  Vyasa,  Harita,   Satatapa,  Vasishtha,  Yam a, Apastam ba,  Gautama,  Atri and 
Saunaka.  
Because  it is not possible  here to analyze  these  texts  one by one, we will simply  offer  a 
general  view  on the topic of the rituals  that are described  in the Kalpa  sutras  and in the 
Smriti literature.
The rituals  of purification  and auspiciousne ss (samska ras) that create  "good  impres sions" 
of sattva and dharma in the mind  of the individual  and the collectivity  are 40, of which 
14 are perform ed for the benefit  of societ y at large (srauta  yajnas) and 26 for the benefit 
of the individual (smarta  yajna).
"Just  like a painter  creates  an image by using  various  colors,  the correct perform ance of 
the samskara s develops  the character  that is typical  of the brahmanas." (Parasara  smriti, 
8.19)
These  rituals  are aimed at eliminating  the negative  tendencies  (dosa  apanayana), to 
create  an affinity  (gunadhana) towards  the spiritual  qualit ies (atma  guna) such  as 
compassion  (daya), tolerance  (kshanti), absence  of envy (anasuya), purit y of body  and 
mind (sauca), inner  peace  (anayasa), a positive  attitude  (mangala), absence  of greed and 
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miserlines s (akarpanya), and  absence  of attach ment s (asprha).
Here are the 40 samska ras listed in the Kalpa  sutras:
1. Garbhadhana,  for conception.
2. Pu msavan a, for the beginning of  awareness  in the e mbryo.
3. Sim antom nayana,  to reassure  the fetus  before  birth.
4. Jatakar ma, at bi rth.
5. Na ma karana,  the ceremony  in which the newborn is given a na me.
6. Annaprasana,  the first  meal  consisting  in food grains.
7. Chuda  karana, the first  hair cut.
8. Upanayana, the awarding of  the sacred thread ( upavita).
9. Prajapat yam, the beginning of  the stud y of Vedic scriptures.
10. Sau mya, the recognition of  the student's  personal progress.
11. Agneya, when  the student  begins  the practice  of the samidha  dhana, the offering  into 
the fire  (the special  firewood for  the sacrifice  is called  samidha or idhma) .
12. Vaisvadeva,  the first direct offering  to the Devas.
13. Sa mavartana,  the co mpletion  of the studies  (a sort of graduation cere mony).
14. Vivaha,  marriage  (4 days of rituals);  the sacred  fire for the ceremony  is brought  from 
the house  of the husband's  father.
After  marriage,  a family man regularl y perform s the Pancha  Maha  yajna ("5 main 
sacrifices "):
15. Brahm a yajna:  the study and the teaching  of the scriptures  (svadhyaya) and the 
spiritual  practice  (sadhana) for the realization  of Brahman  - to repay one's  debt towards 
the Rishis  and the Vedas.
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16. Pitri yajna,  or the offerings  to the Pitris (ancestors)  during the Agnihotra,  the tarpana 
etc. 
Besides  these  rituals,  the Pitri yajna include  the duty to beget  at least one son who will 
continue the family line, and to behave  in such a way to bring glory and good name  to the 
family.
17. Deva  yajna,  or the offerings  to the Devas  (the administrators  of the universe)  during 
the Agnihotra,  the ritual  worship  to the family Deities  (upasana), the Sandhyavandana  
etc.
18. Bhuta  yajna,  or the offering  of food to the animal s and the living  beings  in general; 
this consum es one's  past negative  karmic reactions.  
It includes  the regular  practice  of nonvio lence,  compassion and harmony  with nature,  and 
even  good r elationships  with ghosts.
19. Nri yajna,  that consists  in assistance  to guests  (atithi), a category  that includes  all 
travelers,  as well  as in the regular  practice  of charity , compa ssion,  tolerance  and 
forgiveness  towa rds other human  beings.
Another group of sacrifices  is called  Sapta Paka y ajna ("the 7 cooked sacrifices "):
20. Astaka  anvastaka,  to the ancestors,  4 tim es a year.
21. Parvani, to the ancestors,  once a m onth.
22. Sravani, to the snakes  (on the da y of Naga pancha mi).
23. Agraha yani, at the  end of the Sravani ri tual.
24. Chaitri, to the Mother Goddess,  during the m onth of Chaitra.
25. Asvayuji, offering  the first products of  the harvest.
26. Sthalipaka, the regular offering  of rice to the fa mily Deit y.
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These  rituals  are based  on oblation  of food grains,  alone  or boiled  with other  ingredients, 
especially  milk, butter,  yogurt, fruits  or rice pudding,  and sometimes special  steam ed 
cakes  called  purodasa. Especially  for the departed  ancestors,  the family prepares  balls  of 
cooked  rice called  pindi.
The next group of samska ras consists  of the Sapta Havir y ajna ("7 sacrifices  to the fire"):
27. Agnyadhy ana, the consecration  of fire (that is "installed"  as the personal  presence  of 
Agni) both for the public ri tuals  and the house  rituals.  
The first installation  of the fire for family is performed  at the marriage  ceremony,  and the 
fire is solem nly carried into the new house  of the married  couple  and is subsequently 
divided  into Garhapat ya agni (for the srauta  yajnas) and Aupasanagni  (for the smarta 
karmas), from which  the fam ily kindles  the fire for the daily  cooking of  meals.
The Aupasanagni  is further  divided  into Akshinagni  and Ahavani yagni,  that kindles  the 
lamp (dipa) and the fire for the daily  Agnihotra ("offering to the fire").
28. Agnihotra,  the daily  ritual of oblations  that constitutes  the first step for the public 
rituals as  well as  for the hom e rituals.
29. Darshapurnam asa, perfor med at each  paksha (moon  fortnight)  for Agni  and Soma, 
with the offering  of the purodasa  cakes,  milk,  yogurt and butter.
30. Agrayana,  with oblations  of the first products  of the harvest  (barle y and rice) 2 times 
a yea r, in spring and autu mn.
31. Chatur masya,  every  4 month s.
32. Nirudha pasubandha,  in which one acquires  a cow.
33. Sautram ani, the offering  to the kshudra  devatas: Indra, Sarasvati  and the Asvini 
kumara.
In these  yajnas the ritual focuse s on the sacred  fire, in which  one offers ghi (clarified 
butter ), firewood  chosen  from  specific  trees,  and a mixture  of uncooked  whole  grains 
(especially r ice, barley and wheat). 
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The Agnihot ra is perform ed at dawn  and sunset  (together  with the Sandh ya rituals)  and 
consists  in the offering  of pinches  of uncooked  rice, mixed with a small quantit y of 
clarified  butte r (from  cow milk), that are put in a small fire within  a a copper  container  in 
the shape  of a half  pyramid.
The next group of samska ras consists  of the Sapta Soma yajna ("7 sacrifices  of soma"):
34. Agnisto ma, a purification  and "new  birth" for the yajamana (the author  of the ritual), 
of which  the Jyotistom a is a variation  for the vratyas ("those  who take the vows")  who 
enter Vedic society by  leaving their anarya society of  origin.
The Jyotisto ma also includes  the Prayascitta  ("atone ment")  that generally  consists  in 
consu ming  the pancha gavya ("the 5 pure substances  from  the cow").
35. Aty agnisto ma, with the recitation of the 16 suktas of Soma after the Agnisto ma.
36. Ukthy a, acco mpanied  by other mantras of Sama Veda.
37. Sodasi,  accom panied  by other mantras of Sama Veda.
38. Vajapeya, for health and longevity ; it requi res 40 days of rituals.
39. Atirat ra, accom panied  by mantras of Sama Veda.
40. Aptor yama, acco mpanied  by mantras of Sama Veda.
In these  ceremonie s, that are usually  long (from 5 days  to several  years) and complex, 
with the participation  of many  officiating  priests  (up to 16 ritvikas), the main  offering 
consists  in the juice  of the soma plant,  of which  we have  already  discussed  in the chapter 
on the 4 m ain Vedas.
Some of these  samskara s are perform ed every  day (such  as the Agnihotra,  the Pancha 
maha yajnas  and the Sthalipaka),  others  twice  a month  (such as the Darshapurna masa and 
the Sthalipaka),  once  a month  (the Parvani ) or once  a year (Sravani,  Agraha yani,  Chaitr i, 
Asvayuji, and Sthalipaka).
The others  are gene rally performed  once  in a lifeti me, obviously for those  who can afford 
them from the financial  point  of view.  All these  rituals,  from  marriage  up to this point, 
are meant  for family men as nitya  karmas (regula r duties),  naimittika  karma (occasional 
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or "instru mental"  duties)  and kamya  karma (duties  perfor med to satisfy  a particula r 
desire,  or "optional" duties).
The naimittika  karmas  also include  the daily bathing  and purification  activities,  the 
cleaning  of the temple  and house,  and the perfor mance  of one's  profes sional/ 
occupational  duties and fa mily duties.
At the age of 50, when  the family  man retires  entering  the order of vanaprastha and 
leaves  his home  to travel  in the pilgrimage  places  or to live in solitudine  in the forest,  his 
religious  duties  are sized  down  to the study  of the Vedas, the chanting  of mantras (japa, 
patha etc) and to the worship of  the Deities  with the sim ple ingredients he can  find.
These  practices  are described  as Kakshagni  yajna.
One who enters the order of total  renunciation,  called  sannyasa, further  reduces  the 
religious cere monies  to the Jnanagni  yajna, the "sacrifice  in the fire  of knowledge".  
Actually  according  to the Bodhayana  Grihasutra  (1.1.18.21 ), the performance  of 
sacrifices  gives  bette r results  when  it is done  mentally,  as long as it is done  with the 
proper concentration and knowledge. 
The bahir  yajna  (external  sacrifice)  of svadhyaya,  japa and karma (each  with benefits  10 
times greater  than the previous  one) has a lesser  effect  compared  to the manasa or bhitar 
yajna (inner sacrifice), for which  it simply  functions  as a practical  support. 
Other  important  factors  are bhavana (good  motivation),  tyaga (detach ment  from  the 
sense  of posses sion of what  is offered),  deva (the actual  presence  of the Devas,  that 
manifests in different  ways) and phala (the effect,  that must  be actual and  verifiable).
The funeral  rites,  called  Antyesti  karm a, are not considered  samksa ras but rather 
naimittika karmas  (as it is for exam ple the daily  bathing process).
The public  sacrifice  ceremonies  for the benefit  of collectivity  are perform ed by the king 
and involve  a considerable  number  of officiating  priests  or ritvikas (up to 16), with the 
distribution  of food and gifts of various types  to all the participants,  public  lectures  and 
readings.  Usually  they last several  days and require  the temporar y building  of a series  of 
structures  that a re specifically me ant for the rituals - som ething  that already  constitutes  an 
important  ritual in itself,  called Atiratra Agnicha yana that lasts  for 12 da ys. 
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The most famous ritual in this category  is the asvamedha, perfor med by kings  on the 
occasion  of the rajasuya  yajna, which  officially  establishes  their position  of power.  The 
ritual  proper,  that lasts for 3 days but requi res a prepa ration  that lasts for one entire year, 
has a deeply  symbolic  meaning  that superficial  translators  motivated  by biased 
considerations  have  sometimes presented  as a mere  animal  sacrifice.  Actuall y, in all the 
sacrifices  of this type (asvamedha,  gomedha,  purushamedha), the main "sacrificial 
victim" (the horse,  the cow or the human  being)  and the secondar y ones (goats  etc) are 
released  at the end of  the ceremony,  and are purified and strengthened  by the r itual.
In the sarvamedha  yajna one sacrifice s all one's  possession s, by distributing  them to 
those  who attend  the ritual,  in order to enter  the order of sannyasa. The pitrimedha  yajna 
constitutes  a permanent  offering  to the Pitri, that liberates  one from  all obligations 
towards  them. Finally  the pravargya  yajna  grants  a subtle  body of a higher  qualit y, by 
which one  can access  the heavenl y planets.
Jyotisha
The science  of astrolog y/ astronomy  is requi red for the correct study  and application  of 
the Vedic  hymns, because  the succes s of a complex  and delicate  ritual also depends  on 
the proper mo ment for its perform ance.  
Surya himsel f, the Deva  of the Sun,  is considered  the original  author  of the texts  on 
astrono my, that have  reached  us especially in the co mpilation  by Garga Rishi.  
The Jyotisha shastra  can be divided into 3 categories:
* Siddhanta, with  particular  importance  to mathematics, geometry,  trigono metry  and 
algebra  for the precise  calculation  of the positions  of the planets,  from  which  one must 
build  the altars  and the temporary  structures  for the sacrifice  rituals,  as well as the 
perm anent  buildings such  as houses,  templ es etc.
* Hora, with particular  importance  to the evaluation  of the individual's  karmic  journe y, 
also indicated  by the position  of the planets  at the time of birth  and at the important 
passage s of life. This factor,  too, has some importance  in the performanc e of the ritual 
ceremonies,  because  it helps  in stabilizing  the procedures  and the auspicious  moments in 
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a personalized  way .
* Samhita, with  various  useful  inform ation,  such  as the localization  of subterranean 
springs  and water  bodies,  the agricultu ral calendar,  the rules  for the construction  of 
buildings  and the method s to prepare  extracts  that are influenced  by the season  and the 
position  of the planets.
The Vedic astrological  calendar is called panchanga ("co mposed  by 5 par ts) or panjika or 
panji, because  it considers  5 different  astrono mical  movem ents of the sun, the moon, the 
stars,  the planets,  and the Ea rth itself  (as the inclination on its  axis).
Like  in the western  system , the solar  month  lasts about  30 days and is marked  by the 
passage  of the Sun in the 12 signs  (rasi) of the Zodiac  - called  Mesha  (Aries),  Vrisha 
(Tau rus),  Maithuna  ("the  couple",  or Gemini),  Karkata  (Cancer),  Simha  (Leo),  Kanya 
(Virgo),  Tula (Libra), Vrischika  (Scorpio),  Dhanus  ("bow"  or Sagittarius),  Makara 
("crocodile" or Capricorn ), Ku mbha  ("vase"  or Aqua rius) and  Mina (Pisces). 
The day of passage  from one sign to another  is called  sankranti ("change")  and is 
different  from the day calculated  by western  astrolog y, because  it considers  the 
precession  of the equinoxes.  For example  the winter solstice,  called  Makara  sankranti, 
falls around the 15 January instead of  21 Decem ber.
Just like in western  astrolog y, the week  days  are connected  to the planets  - Sun for 
Sunday  (Ravi -vara),  Moon  for Monday  (Soma- vara),  Mars  for Tuesday  (Mangala-vara),  
Mercury  for Wednesday  (Budha-vara ), Jupiter  for Thursday  (Guru -vara),  Venus  for 
Frida y (Sukra-va ra), and Saturn for Satu rday ( Sani-va ra).
The lunar  month  however  lasts about  2 days less than the solar  month,  because  the lunar 
day (tithi) and the solar  day (vara) do not correspond  exactl y. The festivals  are calculated 
generally  according  to the lunar  calendar,  that is easier  to observe  directly  in the sky by 
following  the phases  of the moon.  
Each  lunar month  is divided  into 2 fortnights  (paksha) called  sukla ("white",  or waxing) 
and krishna, ("black"  or waning  moon)  ending  respectively  with the full moon (purnima) 
and the  new moon  (amavasya). 
The lunar  days are simply  called  first (pratipat), second  (dvitiya), third (tritiya), fourth 
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(chaturthi), fifth (panchami), sixth  (sasthi), seventh  (saptami), eighth  (ashtami), ninth 
(navami), tenth  (dasami), eleventh  (ekadasi), twelfth  (dvadasi), thirteenth  (trayodasi), 
fourteenth  (chaturdasi), to which  we must add the days of full and new moon,  for a total 
of 16 lunar da ys, corresponding to 14 solar days. 
Precisely  because  the lunar day is 4 hours  shorter  than the solar  day, sometimes a solar 
day overlaps  on two lunar days.  To adjust  the lunar  calendar  to the solar  year and to the 
earth  cycle of seasons,  we regularl y add a lunar  month  called  Purushotta ma adika  masa, 
considered  particularl y favorable  to spiritual life, that may fall at different  times of the 
year.
In the Vedic system , season s (ritu, "regulation", fro m which  the word "ritual" derives) are  
rather  different  from  the western  system. They are 6: spring  (vasanta), summer 
(grishma), monsoon  (varsha), autumn  (sarad), winter (hemanta), and cool (sisira). 
Both  the solar  and earthl y year begin  with Mesha  sankranti,  known  in the west as spring 
equinox. 
Actually  in the Indian  calendar  it opens  the summer season  around  the middl e of April, 
connected  to the first sowing  of the grains.  The first month  (April-May ) of the Vedic 
calendar  is called  Vaisakha,  the second  (May -June)  is Jyestha,  then come Asadha  (June-
July), Sravana  (July -August),  Bhadra  (August-Septemb er), Asvina  (Septe mber- October ), 
Kartika  (October -Nove mber),  Margasira  (Novem ber-Dece mber), Pausha  (Decemb er-
January ), Magha  (January -February ), Phalguna  (Februar y-March)  and Chaitra  (March-
April ). 
These  names come from the stars  with which  the Moon  associate s, and are considered 
particularl y important  in the calculation  of the personal  horoscope  of an individual  or of 
the auspicious  mom ent to begin  a specific  activit y - something  that is very interesting 
because  this concept  does  not exist  any more  in western  astrology  (that  considers 
practicall y only the members of our solar  system) although  the popular  language  still 
preserves  some sayings  in regard,  such as "being  born unde r a good/bad  star",  "what  the 
stars say", and so on. 
While  exam ining  the names of the stars,  we need  to consider  the modi fications  due to the 
gram matical declinations  of Sanskrit;  for the correspondences  with western  astronomy 
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we have  chosen  to use the Latin  name that constitutes  the standard  international 
reference.  
Visakha  corresponds  to the star Alpha  Librae,  Jyestha  is Antares,  Purva  asadha  is Delta 
Sagittari  and Uttara  asadha  is Sigma sagittari,  Sravana  is Alpha  Aqui lae, Purva  bhadra 
pada  is Alpha  Pegasi  and Uttara  bhadra  pada  is Gamma Pegasi,  Asvina  is Beta  Arietis, 
Kritika  is Eta Tauri (associated  with  the constellation  of the Pleiades),  Mrigasira  is 
Lambd a Orionis,  Push ya is Delta  Cancri,  Magha  is Regulus,  Purva  phalguni  is Delta 
Leonis  and Uttara phalguni  is Beta  Leonis,  Chitra  is Vegas  or Spica  Virginis.  Other 
important  stars are Rohini  (Aldebaran), Revati  (Zeta Pisciu m), Anuradha  (Delta  Scorpio ), 
Dhanishta  (Beta  Delphinu m), Ardra (Alpha  Orionis/  Betelgeuse),  Satabisha  (Lambda 
Aquarius),  Aslesha  (Alpha  Hydrae),  Puna rvasu  (Beta  Geminorum ), Hasta  (Delta  Corvi), 
Svati  (Arcturus),  Mula  (Lambd a Scorpion is), Bharani  (35 Arietis),  Asvayuja  and 
Punarvasu  (Castor  and Pollux),  Abhijit  (Vega)  etc. On the other  hand,  it is not clear 
which  conte mporary  astronomi cal names correspond  to the stars  called  Radha,  Sunrita, 
Sravistha and  Prostha  pada. 
The 28 main  stars  are mentioned  in the  Atharva Veda (19.7 ); each one of them  is ruled by 
one of the 9 grahas ("celestial  bodies")  - Ketu  (Cauda  draconis),  Sukra  (Venus),  Ravi  or 
Surya (Sun ), Chandra  (Moon ), Mangala  (Mars),  Rahu  (Caput  draconis),  Guru or 
Brihaspati  (Jupiter ), Sani (Satu rn) and Budha  (Mercury ). These determine  the periods 
called  dasa, that are very important  for the development  of the circum stance s in the 
individual's  life. 
Rahu  and Ketu  are particular ly important  in Vedic  astrology / astrono my because  they are 
connected  to the solar and lunar eclipses,  that are calculated  with g reat precision.
The jyotisha offers  various  solutions  for the unfavorable  situations  and defects  (dosha) in 
the birth horoscope  and in the important  moments in an individual's  life; the simplest 
remedy consists  in chanting  mantras and offering  prayers to the Lord of the concerned 
lunar  mansion.  It is also recommended to cultivate  a specific  sacred  plant  for each of the 
grahas and perfor m ritual ceremonie s (the grahas are alwa ys offered  oblations  during all 
fire sacrifices  as well).
Another  tradit ional  remedy  is gemmology,  that utilizes precious  and semi-precious  stones 
(as well as corals  and pearls)  to strengthen  the required  influences.  Vatsya yana  Rishi's 
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Ratna  pariksha, considered  one of the accessory  texts  or kalas ("parts")  of Vedic 
knowledge,  describes  24 types of gems with their specific  characteristics  and 32 methods 
to verif y their genuineness.
Another  practice  connected  to astrolog y is palmistry,  on which  there  is a classical  text 
entitled  Samudrika  shastra, attributed  to the personification  of the ocean  (Samudra  raja) 
who observed  the auspicious  signs  on Vishnu's  body  (and especially  hands  and feet) 
while Vishnu  was laying on Sesha naga  over the waters.  
The text also  includes  teachings  of Varaha,  Kart ikeya, Narada and Mandavya. 
Kartike ya (Skanda)  is considered  the autho r of the Kala  shastra, dealing  with  the 
classi fication  of the various  periods  of time,  and especially  auspicious  and inauspicious 
moments.
Ayur Veda 
Literally  "the science  of life",  it traditionally  includes  the Kama  shastra  or Kama  sutra, 
that we  will exa mine  separatel y. 
The Ayurvedic  system is closely  connected  to the other forms of Vedic  knowledge,  such 
as Yoga  (especially  the practice  known  as surya  namaskara), music (applied  as music 
therap y), ritual cere monies,  astrolog y, gemology,  etc. 
Famous  mantras for health  are the Maha  mrityunjaya, the Aditya  hridaya, the Shiva 
kavacha, the Indrakshi  kavacha and the Dhanvantari  mantra. The Deity that presides 
over this science  is Dhanvantari,  the Vishnu  avatara who appeared  to give the nectar  of 
immortality to the Devas.  
Ayur  Veda gives  great importance  to what  is called  today  "spiritual  healing",  or the 
psychological  wholistic  aspect  that enables  healing  and health  already  at a subtle  and 
mental  level,  which no rmally brings excellent  results  also on the ph ysical  level.
According  to the tradition,  the original  Ayur  Veda came from Brahm a, who taught  it to 
the Asvini  kumara s (the physicians  of the Devas)  who through  Indra transmitted  it to the 
Rishis  Bharadvaja,  Punarvasu  Atreya and Agnivesa.  Later,  this original  knowledge  was 
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elaborated  in the compilations  of the Rishis  Charvaka  and Sushruta,  and in a famous 
commentary by  Vagbhatta.
The Charvaka  samhita  is the funda mental and most famous text among  those  that still 
survive. 
It deals  especiall y with  the kaya  chikitsa (general  medicine)  and explains  about  the 
pancha  bhuta  ("five  elements " or earth,  water,  fire, air, ether  or space)  that by combining 
and interacting  produce  the tri dosha  ("three  component s" of the body) and  precisely  vata 
(move ment, nervous  system , wind ), pitta (heat,  digestive  system , bile) and kapha 
(solidity , lymphatic  system , phlegm or mucus).  In turn, these  three  component s combine 
in various ways for ming  7 types of different  physical constitutions.  
There  are also 7 dhatus, or substance s that compos e the body  - plasm a, blood,  muscle 
tissues,  fat, bone  tissue,  marrow  and rep roductive  fluids.
The secret  to good  health  consists  in maint aining  the prope r balance  among  all these 
element s, first of all by following  a diet that is suitable  to one's  constitution,  to the 
climate  and the season,  and to one's  personal  and occupational  needs,  by choosing 
appropriate  life habits  (including  going  to sleep  and waking  up, the hours  and 
circum stance s of the meal s, personal  hygiene,  abstention  from damaging  behaviors  etc), 
by facilitating  the elimination  of primary  and secondar y waste  (ama and mala), practicing 
regular  massage and external  applications  of natural  substance s (oils,  plant  extracts, 
infusions  etc), by regularl y exposing  oneself  to the sun rays especiall y in the hours  when 
they  are milder,  by stimulating  the immune system with  period ical rejuvenation 
treatm ents called  pancha  karma, and when  required  by apply ing pharmacology,  with the 
internal  use of vegetal,  mineral  or even  animal  substance s, especially  clarified  butter  and 
honey , that are used  mostly as  vehicles  for the active principles.  
There  is a great  number  of medicinal  plants  listed  in the Ayurvedic  texts,  that constitute 
the m ost ancient existing evidence  of herbology .
Special  attention  is given  to the knowledge  defined  as kumarabhritya  tantra, uniting 
gynecology,  fertili ty treatm ents,  midwi fery and pediatrics,  that offer  the best possible 
beginning  to the life of a human  being,  and to the rasayana  tantra, that includes 
geriatrics, detoxification,  and special  techniques  for rejuvenation. 
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The agada  tantra is the categor y of toxicology , while  the vajikarana  tantra is the 
category  of sexual  stimulant s.
The Sushruta  samhita  (also  known  as Salya  tantra) deals  with the same topics  and with 
surgery , too. 
The Astanga  hridaya  samhita, compiled  by Vagabhatta,  constitutes  the third important 
text in the study of this  discipline. 
These  two texts  also deal with reconstructing  surger y, cataract  removal,  and 121 different 
surgical  instru ments,  treated  with a carbon  process  to make  them  stronger  and sharper. 
This carbon  process  consists  in applying a coal paste  to the blade  and to heat it until  it 
beco mes incandescent  red, and then to suddenly  immerse it in cold water  to temper  the 
blade.  
It also speaks  about cont rolling infections  by using  antiseptics,  about anesthetics  and anti-
haemorrhagics,  toxicology , classi fication  of burns, psychiatry  and medical  ethics. 
Specific  sections  are dedicated  to the restoratives  of the immune system, fractures  and 
wounds,  bites  and stings  of poisonous  anim als, and to the diagnosis  through  the 
examination  of the 3 different  types of pulses  that can be felt in the wrist.  It speaks  about 
digestion  and metabolism , circulation  of the life energ y (prana) and its energ y meridians 
(nadi) and crucial  points  (marma), sexual  dysfunctions  and insuffi ciencies,  the treatment 
of ears,  nose  and throat  (salakya), the sense  of taste,  opthalmology,  the extraction  of 
foreign  objects  from the body , the complication s that can develop  during therapies  and so 
on. Less known  are the texts  called  Bhela  samhita, Madhava  nidhana, Chikitsa  sara 
sangraha, Nava  nitaka, Roga  vinischaya, Siddha  Yoga (that contains  formulas  for 
mercury -based  preparations),  Rasa ratnakara, Rasa arnava  (that explains  how to reduce 
gems and metals  into ashes  for medicinal  use),  Saranga  dhara  samhita  (specifically 
dealing  with  the pulse  examination)  and Bhava  prakasha, all compiled  by various 
authors. 
The Visha  shastra  attributed  to the Asvini  Kumaras  deals  with poisons,  listing  32 types 
with  properties,  preparation,  effect s and antidotes.  Nagarjuna,  author  of the treatises 
called  Arogyamanjari and Yogasara, is considered  an expert  of alchemy  applied  to 
medicine.  
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There  is also one Supa  shastra, compiled  by Sukhesha  Rishi,  that deals  specifically  with 
the science  of gastrono my, analyz ing the ingredients  and presenting  108 different  type of 
preparations  (including  condiment s, preserves,  sweets  etc) to obtain  3032  different 
recipes,  characteristic of  different  geog raphical  and cultu ral regions.
Finally , the Vriksha  ayur  veda  is a treatise  written  by Surapala  on the application  of 
medicine  to the cultivation  of plants,  and that can be classifi ed both under  the categor y of 
the Ayur Veda and the  categor y of the Krishi  sutra ("texts  on ag riculture"). 
Similarly  there  are specific  veterinary  texts  for horses,  elephants  and cows  - the Asva 
ayur veda, Gaja ayur  veda and Gava  ayur veda. 
The knowledge  of Ayurvedic  medicin e has been  introduced  in western  countries  since 
1978  by pioneers  such  as Dr. Vasant  Lad,  Dr. Deepak  Chopra,  Santosh  Krinsky,  Dr. 
Sunil Joshi,  Dr. Pankaj, Smita  Nara m, and Len Blank. 
Kama shastra 
Many  people  have  heard about  the Kama  sutra  or Kama  shastra, but the ideas  that 
circulate  are rather  distor ted and confused,  because  the majority  of the texts  published  in 
the west are actually  books  written  in very recent  times on the topic  of sexual  unions,  by 
utilizing  some material  from  the original Kama  sutra (by Vatsyay ana Rishi)  and more 
often,  from  commentaries  to the Kama sutra compiled  during  the middle  ages as sex 
manuals  by courtie rs of the m uslim sultans  that dominated  India. 
The proof  is that such  manual s generall y contain  many illustrations  of evident  persian 
and mogul style,  that have  very little relation  to the original  shastra except  for the sexual 
theme.
A careful  reading  of the original  Vatsya yana  text (compiled  from  the teachings  of 
Nandikesvara,  the same author  of Gandharva  Veda) reveals  that the main topic  is not sex 
in itself  - which  constitutes  only a part of the subject  - but rather  the qualit y of life in 
general. 
The first part of the text (Sadharana) explains  that sense  gratification  (kama) constitutes 
one of the 4 primary  purposes  of human  life (after  dharma and artha and before  moksha), 
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then mention s the 64 arts (kala, "parts") that we  listed  in the  chapter of the study of  Vedic 
knowledge  in India,  particularl y in relation  to the acade mic education  of women.  The text 
continues  with useful  teachings  on home managem ent, interior decoration,  mainten ance 
of gardens and kitchen  gardens,  and on the daily  life of a city dwelle r (nagarika).
After  examining  all the aspects  of home  comforts and leisure  activities  that are 
considered  approp riate to a civilized  life, the text defines  the categories  of friendship  and 
social  relationships  that one should  cultivate,  and also those  that are to be avoided.  It 
clearly  explains  which wo men one can  legitimately  try to approach for a relationship  with 
sexual  implic ations,  and the civilized way to make friends  with them  and to manifest 
one's  desires.  Only  the second  part of the text ( Samprayogika) deals  with t he sexual union 
proper,  starting  with physical  compatibility  and elegant  and refined  preliminaries  and 
finally conclude the encounter in a satisfying  way.
The third  part of the text (Kanya  samprayuktaka) explains  how one should  find a wife;  it 
speaks  about  reciprocal  courtship,  engage ment and the various  types of marriage, 
including  very "free"  situations  such as the Gandharva  type of marriage,  which  although 
perfectly  legal  and legitim ate, simply  consists  in exchanging  garlands  and mutually 
accepting  the couple relationship. 
The fourth  section  of the text (Bharya  dhikarika) constitutes  a sort of marriage  manual 
for a good  married  life even  in polygamou s situations.  The fifth section  of the text (Pari 
darika) speaks  about  the wives  of other  people,  and particularl y of how to understand 
which wo men are willing to have  extra-marital  relationships,  and which wo men are not.
The sixth  section  (Vaishika) is meant for the various  categories  of women  who are 
normally  willing  to have  promiscuou s sexual  relationships,  listed  in more  or less 
respected  categories.  
The ganikas ("society  women")  were educated  and refined,  had a place  of honor  in the 
city assem bly and at the religious  functions  where  their presence  was considered 
auspicious,  and maintained  friendly  relationships  - both sociall y and personally  - even 
with kings,  royalty members and religious  autho rities  at the highest  level.  Their company 
did not necessarily  entail  sexual  contacts,  but it was rathe r about  an atmosphere  of very 
civilized  sophistication.  The ganikas were  highly  appreciated  as teachers  for boys  and 
girls  from good  familie s (including  princes  and princesses)  in the subjects  of good 
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manners,  elegance,  attitude,  refinem ent and fine arts, because  their behavior  and their life 
style  were  considered  the highest  exam ple of qualit y of life. Someti mes they were 
requested  to manag e and administer  public or private  properties,  or to perform diplomatic 
missions,  and their home was often  visited  by those  who wished  to improve  their social 
status  and to m eet important  and influential  people.
The "independent  women"  (svairini) that are not capable  of getting  a livelihood  from 
activities  at such  a high level,  could  engage  in the occupations  of nati (dancer),  silpa 
karika (crafts  woman),  kumbhadasi (water  carrier),  dasi (housem aid in a large mansion), 
kliba  (mas seuse or beautician)  or paricharika (house  help).  In the course  of their 
professional  activities  they had the opportun ity to accept  lovers  in a more or less casual 
way,  and this enabled  them to receive  gifts in cash or valuable  objects  as a token  of 
appreciation  for their  beauty  and sexual  skills.  Such  gifts  were  alwa ys offered  and 
accepted  in a civilized  and respectful  way,  and the personal  relationship  was always 
based  on friendship,  something  that is generall y very difficult  to understand  for those 
who are used  to the present concept  of "prostitution".
Those  who make  a livelihood  exclusively  by sexual  services  were  defined,  in decreasing 
order  of social  position  and level  of personal  culture,  as veshtya, rupajiva, kulati, 
prakashavina sta, or pumschali. Such  definitions  also applied  to the hejira (transexual  or 
transvestites)  because  in Vedic  societ y there is no ho mophobia.
The section  called  Vaishika in the Kama  shastra explains  the advantages  of the use of 
sexual  relationships  to obtain  personal  advantages  - which  include  money,  favors  or even 
revenge.  It also illustrates  how to balance  romantic  and friendly  sentim ents with profit, 
and even  how to choose  a suitable husband  among  the worthiest habitual custo mers. 
There  are also instructions  for stylish  dressing  and ornam ents,  beauty  and personal 
hygiene,  interior  decoration  and ornamentation  of the house,  witty and refined 
conversation,  the exchange  of small gifts to develop  friendship,  the offering  of garlands 
and perfu me oils, refreshm ents and mouth- fresheners,  psychological  attentions  and even 
modesty,  "because  excessive  exposure will give the impre ssion  of a lesser  value".
The last section  of the text, entitled  Apamshadika, deals  with potions  of aphrodisiac  and 
stimulating  effects.
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It is important  to unde rstand  that Vedic  culture  does not consider  sexual  acts (as long as 
they are free and based  on mutual  consent)  as illegal  or immoral,  even  when  they are 
perfor med with  the intent  of gaining  some monetary  profit.  Actually , sex (kama) is 
considered  a positive  value  (artha) as long as it is not contrary to the universal  and 
funda mental principles  of dharma: truthfulness,  compassion,  cleanliness  and self control. 
So, as long  as a relationship  is not based  on physical  or psychological  violence,  on 
betra yal or hypocr isy, on some type of psychological  or phys ical perversion,  or on mere 
animal lust,  it is considered legiti mate  from the moral  point of  view.
We need  to clarif y here that this scenario  refers  to the original  Vedic  civilization,  not to 
the present  situation  in India, where these  ideals  and values  have  been  much  distorted  by 
the cultu ral superi mposition  forced  by the invaders,  to the point  that they have  been 
forgotten  or turned  upside  down.  The same consideration  applies  to the next topic  - the 
Veda of m ilitary science.
Dhanur Veda 
The  Veda of military  science,  attributed  to Visvam itra Rishi,  presently  contains  4 
chapters  entitled  Diksha,  Sangraha,  Siddhanta  and Prayoga. It speaks  of the preliminary 
qualifications  for the students,  the moral,  mental  and physical  discipline,  about  weapons, 
how to make them  and use them, but also about  strateg y and sociology,  that may be 
considered  "preventive" m ethods,  preferable  to violent action. 
In Vedic  logic  there  is no space  for imperialistic  or religious  wars;  when  we speak  of 
"empire"  (as in the case of the maharaja who celebrates  the ritual  of the rajasuya  yajna) 
the authorit y of the emperor  is based  on a system  of tributary  alliances  rathe r than on 
direct  domination.  Under  no circumstance  the emperor  can arbitrarily replace  the local 
monarch  of a vassal  kingdom,  or give him orders.  If during  the rajasuya a local  king 
refuses  to ally with the emperor  and opposes  him with weapons,  and is killed  on the 
battlefield,  his legiti mate  heir ascends  the throne and in turn he can choose  whether  to 
accept  the alliance or reject it. 
Usually he  will accept  it, because  the defeat  of his father's  army  has already de monstrated 
that it is bette r to establish  a good  relationship  with the emperor,  who has a stronger army 
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and a greater  power.  The purpose  of the imperial  structu re is to facilitate  trade, 
transportations  and cultu ral exchanges,  and especially  to better  protect  the various 
kingdo ms, building a  com mon front against external aggressors.
The emperor  utilizes  the allies'  tributes  to build  and protect  the roads  between  the 
kingdo ms, to organize  and perform great  ceremonies  and rituals  of sacrifice  for the 
prosperit y of the entire  land,  for the benefit  of all the concerned  kingdo ms. However,  he 
never  interferes  in the internal matters  of the allied  kingdo ms, and especially  he is not 
interested  in introducing  or imposing  his own way of life or his cultu ral or religious 
beliefs.  
For exampl e we see in the Mahabharata that many among  the kings who allied  with the 
Pandavas  or Kurus belonged  to non-Vedic  cultures,  but they were  never  pressurized  in 
A kshatriya has the duty to protect  the kingdom  and the subjects  from  internal  and 
external  aggressions,  and while  engaging  in such  activities  he must follow  a very strict 
ethical  "chivalr y" code that binds  him to the use of the minimum requi red force.  We have 
mentioned  these  rules  in our summary of the Mahabharata. However,  the kshatriya must 
always  be prepared  for any emergency,  and therefore  he has the duty to train  himself 
constantly to the use  of weapons  and m ilitary expeditions.
The simplest  method  consists  in hunting  those  wild animal s that belong  to the category of 
"aggressors"  towa rds the human beings  and their means of livelihood  - tigers  and lions 
who eat people  and cattle,  but also deer and rabbi ts that (without  an adequate  number  of 
natural  predato rs) multiply  and spread  outside  the forests,  damaging  the cultivations.  On 
the other  hand,  Vedic  ethics  conde mn the hunting for birds and other inoffen sive animals, 
and the killing  of animal s that are friendl y and useful  for human society,  and in any case 
all those  actions  that produce  unnecessary  physical  or psychic  suffering  in animals, 
including the wild ani mals,  such as  imprison ment or non -lethal wounds.
The most common conventional  weapons  (manava  sastra) are described  as dhanur 
(bow),  kunta (spear ), khagda (sword),  churika (knife),  gada (mace),  chakra (disc),  and 
the same importance  is given  to the training  in hand  and body  wrestling  (bahu), that 
survives  in some styles presently  called  Gatka,  Kabadi,  Thang-ta,  Kuttu varisai,  Varma 
kalai,  Adithada,  Kalaripa yat, Malyutha m and Malla yuddha.  In the battles  with  the 
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participation  of many  warriors,  the generals  utilized  the vyuha  or battle  formation s of 
which we  discussed  in the Mahabharata.
We have  alread y mentioned,  speaking  about  Ayur Veda, how surgical  instrum ents were 
carbon-t reated  to make  them more  durable  and sharper.  Obviousl y the same process  was 
used  to temp er and sharpen  conventional  weapons,  thus giving  them  legendar y qualit y 
and value,  and making  them  practically  indestructible.  The process  is described  in details 
in the Loha shastra by Patanjali Rishi  and in the Brihat samhita by Varaha mihira.  
As demonstration  of this extremely  ancient  science,  we still have  today some 
extraordina ry pieces,  such as the famous Ashoka  pillar at Mehrauli  (pure  iron of superior 
quality ), the Kodachadri  pillar  in Karnataka,  the Dhar  pillar in Madhya  Pradesh,  and the 
beams from  the Sun temple  in Konark,  Orissa:  all made of iron and all extrao rdinaril y 
free from rust, in spite  of the many centuries  of exposure  to the atmo spheric  elem ents.  In 
the case of Kokark,  the environmental  atmo sphere  is particularl y destructive  for ordinar y 
iron because  of the high level of saltiness  and humidity  in the ai r.
The second  categor y includes  the chemical  or mechanical  weapons  including  explosives, 
called  agnibana ("fire ar rows") because  they were generall y shot with the bow. 
In Niti Cintamani  the gunpowder,  with its effects and compo sition,  is called  aurvagni 
from the name of Aurva  Rishi  (preceptor  of emperor  Sagara,  a forefather  of the avatara 
Rama) who is said  to have invented or discovered it. 
Other  mysterious  "arrows"  are the Kamaruchi, that can change  direction  during  its 
course,  and the Sabdaveditva, that can  hit a hidden ta rget by  following  sounds.  
Among  the "arrows"  that attack  the enemies ' nervous  system  we find the Naga  pasa, 
which  acts on human  consciousne ss by rendering  the adversary  senseles s, and the 
Nadana and Murchadhana, that create confusion  and loss  of psycho-ph ysical control.
It is important  to explain  here that the bows  mentioned  in the Vedic  texts  are extrem ely 
powerful  instrument s, very large and heav y, that can shot  a great variet y and often  a great 
quantity  (simultaneously)  of projectiles  with a speed  and penetration  force  that supersede 
our contem porar y firear ms.
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The third  category  of weapons  (divya  astra) is even  more  difficult  to unde rstand,  as it 
entails  the conscious  control  of vibrational  frequencies  and electro-magn etic fields  that 
are able to alter the state  of m atter.  
For example  the Brahma stra is described  as a nuclear  weapon  that seems to be much 
more controllable  than  the nuclear  weapons  of the modern  western  science.  The 
propert ies and power  of the Brah mastra may appear  legendary  to those  who do not know 
the precise  and deep  explanations  on atomic and subato mic realit y of matter offered  by 
Yoga  and Vaiseshika,  that enable  those  "paranormal  powers"  that modern  western 
science  is still unable  to explain  and that reside  in the considerable  percentage  of the 
brain that mo st modern  people never utilizes  (from 70 to 85% in different  individuals).  
At the level  called  chittakasha, or the vibrational  space  where human  awareness  can 
operate,  sound  (mantra) can be modulated  and applied  with a logic  that is similar  to the 
logic  of the laser  instru ments,  that focus  simple rays of light  into a truly terrif ying 
weapon.  Alread y ordinar y sound  is more powerful  than ordinary light, so much  that some 
tones  are able to shatter  the glass  and move  objects  even  for a considerable  distance;  we 
can just imagin e what  can be produced  by a scientific  modul ation  (of which  Siksha and 
Chanda have  given  us some preliminary  example s) when  it is applied  with the required 
knowledge  and p ractice  to the modi fication  of the si mplest  and mo st primary  element s.
Thus  we have  the Agne yastra  that produces  the pheno menon  known  as self-co mbustion 
(presently  considered  as possible  even  spontaneously,  although  in extremely  rare cases) 
and the Varunastra  that condensates  atmo spheric  humidity  causing  sudden  rain in the 
absence  of clouds.  The descriptions  of the Vayuvastra  seem to suggest  a telekinetic 
manifestation  where  a sort of "wind"  throws  the opponents  to the ground.  However,  we 
need  to unde rstand  that such  "wind" is not necessarily the ordinar y physical m anifestation 
that naturall y moves the windmills,  but it could  be that kinetic  energ y (chi) of which  the 
martial  arts fro m the far  East still have so me cognition. 
Particular ly famous in this categor y are the Narayana  astra, Pasupata  astra  and Naga 
astra.  Obviousl y such  techniques  requi re extrem e preparation  and tireless  practice.  The 
mantras of the astra require a minimum of 50 billion  correct  repeti tions  in order to be 
brought to pe rfection.
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In his Doomsday  1999  A.D., Charles  Berli tz comments various  passage s of the 
Mahabharata (in the translation  by Protap  Chandra  Roy), recognizing  in the description 
of the Brahm astra  the effects of an extrem ely sophisticated  nuclear  weapon:  ".... an 
incandescent  column of flames and smoke, as bright  as 10 thousand  suns,  a gigantic 
messenger  of death  that incinerated  the entire  race of the Vrishnis  and Andhakas.  The 
bodies  were  burnt beyond  recognition,  hair and nails  falling,  and to escape  from this fire 
the warrio rs dived into the water to wash the mselves  and thei r equip ment".  
Also  Oppenhei mer (1904-1967),  the protagonist  of the famous "Project  Manhattan",  was 
convinced  that the Brahm astra  was a nuclear  weapon.  To a student  of Rochester 
University  who asked  him whether  the bomb detonated  in the locality  of Alam ogordo, 
New  Mexico,  was the first of its kind,  Oppenheimer  replies,  "Well,  yes. In modern  times, 
naturall y."
Another  text that is considered  a part of the Dhanur  Veda  is the Malla shastra, dealing 
with 82 types of exercises  in gymna stics and sports  that are required  to keep  the body  in 
perfect  shape,  and 24 t ypes of  close  comb at, "hand to hand".  
A treatise  attributed  to one Agnivar ma illustrates  the knowledge  about  horses  - 
physiolog y, breeding,  training  and so on - and another  attributed  to Kumarasva mi 
illustrates  the sam e knowledge but about elephants.
One Virabahu, lieutenant  of Kartike ya, is said to have written a treatise  on Mahendrajala, 
the science  of magic,  that explains  how to walk  on water,  fly in the air on a stick,  and so 
on. 
Another  practical-mystic  text, compiled  by Agast ya Rishi,  is the Shakti  tantra, consisting 
in 8 chapters  illustrating  the 64 shaktis or yoginis of the natural  elements  (air, fire, sun, 
moon etc) and how their  knowledge  enables  one to modi fy the structure  of matter. 
Matanga  Rishi  is the author  of the treatise  called  Soudamini  kala, that explains  the subtle 
connection  between  thought  and ideas,  and the etheric blueprinkt  of their  tangible 
manifestation.  It also includes  an elaboration  on how  it is possible  to utilize  the 
perception  of the subtle  level  to see inside  the mountains  or within  the subterranean 
strata.  
Garga  Rishi  is the autho r of the Sakuna  shastra, dealing  with  the auspicious  and 
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inauspicious  omen s that we can read in the environ ment,  as for example  from the flying 
and cry ing of  birds, from  the conversations  of the hu man beings etc.
Vimani ka shastra
The knowledge  of the construction  and utilization  of space  ships  can be considered  a 
branch of  the Dhanur Veda. 
The most famous text presently  available  is the Vimanika  shastra or Brihad  vimana 
shastra, that is part of the Yantra  sarvasva  by Bharadvaja  Rishi.  The text illustrates  339 
types of land vehicles,  783 types of boats  and ships,  and 101 types of airplanes  and space 
ships  - of which  25 types (including  the Puspaka  viman a) are mantrika  vimanas  and are 
used  in Treta yuga, 56 types  (including  the Bhairava  and the Nandaka)  are tantrika 
vimana  and are used in Dvapara  yuga, and 25 types (including  the Sundara,  Sukana  and 
Rukma, of which  the schem atics are given)  are krtitaka  vimana  (engine based)  and are 
used in Kali y uga. 
Airplanes  are described  in 8 chapters  for a total of 3 thousand  verses;  the text explains 
how to make the vehicle unbreakable  (abhedya), fire resistant  (adahya) and invisible,  and 
how to intercept  the conversations  from the cockpit  of another  airplane (para  sabda 
graha). The chapters  called  vastra  adhikarana  and ahara adhikarana explain  the type of 
clothing and food  for the pilots and  the passengers.
Bharadvaja  also quotes  a bibliograph y of 6 texts  that preceded  his work:  Vimana 
Chandrika  by Naray ana Muni,  Vyoma  Yana Mantra  by Shaunaka,  Yantra Kalpa  by 
Garga,  Yana Bindu  by Vachaspati,  Kheta  Yana Pradip ika by Chakra yani,  and Vyoma 
Yanarka  Prakasha by Dundi Natha.
The Agastya  samhita describes  a chatra ("umbrella")  flying  on hydrogen  extracted  by 
electrolysis  from water,  and a vimana  dvigunam  ("secondary  airplane")  resembling  our 
conte mporary para -gliders, and  that can be opened and  closed by  using  cables.  
We find innum erable  passage s mentioning  airships  in a great  number  of Vedic  texts, 
starting  from Rig Veda, that lists the categories  of vehicles  as jalayan (running  both in air 
and in water,  6.58.3),  kara  (land-wate r, 9.14.1),  tritala (3 tier vehicle,  3.14.1),  trichakra 
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ratha (airp lane with 3 wheels,  4.36.1 ), vayu  ratha  (jet airplane,  5.41.6 ) and vidyut  ratha 
("power"  airplane,  3.14.1).  Flying vehicles  are also mentioned  in the hymns 1.116.3 -5, 
1.112.20, 1.117.14, 1.119.4.
The  Artha  shastra by Kautily a (also  known  as Chanakya  Pandita ) mention s the 
professional  categor y of the saubhikas, "pilots  of air vehicles"  (a name that echoes  the 
name of Saubha,  the flying  city of king Harischandra),  and the akasha  yodhinah, "air 
fighters".  Seve ral passages  mentioning  flying  machin es are found  in Mahabharata, 
Ramayana and Puranas.   
Based  on the information  supplied  by the Vimanika  shastra  prof.  Dongre,  of Benaras 
Hindu  University , has conducted  some experiment s, obtaining  a glass- like material  that is 
not perceived by  radars. 
Besides,  already  in 1895  (8 years before  the historical  flight  by the Wright  brothe rs at 
Kitty  Hawk,  North  Carolina)  Shivaka r Bapuji  Talpade  and his wife  gave  a public 
demonstration  on Chowpatti  beach,  Mumbai,  with the flight  of a vehicle  run by a ione-
motor (a type that would  be invented  in the west by Godda rd in a future  not earlier than 
1906) that was  also exhibited in the city  hall by  the Bo mbay  Art Society . 
The event,  attended  by the Maharaja  di Baroda  Sri Sayajirao Gaekwad  and Justice 
Govind Ranade,  was repo rted by  the daily  paper Kesari (in marathi  language). 
The flying machine  rose up to about  500 meters, then descended  again  automatic ally; 
later it was  sold by  Talpade's  relatives  to the British organization Reilly  Brothers.  
Gandharva Veda 
Music  must naturally  have  a primary  role in a civilization  based  on harmony,  on the 
careful  and precise  modulation  of meanings  and expressions,  and on the communication 
of knowledge through sound, that gives  such i mportance  to beauty  and pleasure. 
The main  texts,  the Vedas, consist  in hymns to be chanted  harmoniously  (Rig, Yajur, 
Atharva) or even  sung  with a polyphonic  musical  accom paniment (Sama) in 5 stages  - 
prasthava (performed  by the Udgata  called  Prastotha)  with a basic  sound  for tuning  (hun 
kara), udgita  (performed  by the main  Ritvik)  beginning  with  om kara  and continuing 
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with the first part of the rik ("hymn"),  pratihara or the chant  of the middle  part of the rik 
(performed  by the Pratihari ta), upadrava (taken  up again  by the Udgata  Prastotha)  and 
nidhana or the final  part of the h ymn (perfor med by all the 3 priests  together ). 
The repetition  of these  passages  for 3 times is called  stoma, a definition  that gives  its 
name to many rituals.
Also  Vedic  cosmogony  highl ights  the fact that nada or sabda, sound,  is the first 
manifestation  from which  all the rest is created.  Not only that: sound  is the force  that is 
able to penetrate  awareness  most effectively,  even  during sleep  and in conditions  of 
minimal evolut ion, as in the case  of child ren and animal s, who are therefore  fascinated  by 
it. Even  plants  respond  to different  types of sounds  or music with  a more  luxuriant 
growth,  and even  the water  molecule s considerably  modify  their shape.  Sound,  chanting, 
and music get through  the conscious  level  and easily  touch  the subconscious,  instantl y 
reprog ramming it, as it is demon strated  by the effectiven ess of music therap y, also 
considered  a part of Ayur Veda. 
Yoga, too, gives  importance  to the modulated  and musical sounds,  as we can see from  the 
syllables  assigned  to the various  chakras during  meditation,  and especially  to the sacred 
vibration of the pranava  omkara.
 The Deities  play musical instrument s and dance  - especially  Shiva  Nataraja  ("king  of the 
dancers")  with h is damaru drum  and Krishna in the rasa dance  with his flute.  
Ganesha  is often portra yed dancing and play ing mridanga (2 headed drum)  and Kartikeya 
(also called  Skanda) is fam ous for his  dances,  including the kudai and the tudi. 
The Goddess  of knowledge  Sarasvati  holds  the vina (a kind of lute with a long handle), 
the characteristic  instrument  of the udgatas, the officiating  priests  in cha rge of singing  the 
hymns  of the Sama  Veda  with musical accom panim ent during the sacrifice s. The vina is 
also the preferred  instru ment  of Narada  Rishi,  son of Brahm a, who constitutes  an 
important  link i n the  chain of transm ission of knowledge to m ankind.
Trad ition  says that the knowledge  of Gandharva  Veda was transmitted  by Brahma  to 
Sarasvati,  who taught  it to Narada;  Narada  transm itted the knowledge  to Kasyapa,  who 
instructed  Bharata  Rishi,  the autho r of the text of about  36 thousand  verses,  dealing  not 
only  with  singing  and instrumental  music (gita) but also with  the rhythm  created  by 
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percussions  (vadya) and dance  (nritya). Bharata  Rishi  explains  the origin  of the 7 notes 
(that in the Vedic  system  are called  sa, re, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni) from  the 3 primary  tones 
udatta,  anudat ta and svarita (that we have  seen  in the Upaveda on the mantra 
pronunciation, and are also  called udara, mudara and tara). 
Udatta originated  ni (nishada) and ga (gandhara), anudatta gave  origin  to re (rishabha) 
and dha (dhaivata), while  svarita was the origin  of sa (sharja), ma (madhyama) and pa 
(panchama), when  the sound  is anatomic ally produced  from  above  or under  the palate 
(talu). 
The observation  of the sounds  in nature has associated  notes  with the calls  of animal s 
who also have  a deep  symbolic  meaning  - the elephant,  the goat,  the bull, the horse, the 
peacock,  the heron and the cuckoo.
The number  of musical instrument s is limited  because  the greatest  importance  should  be 
given  to the sound  modulated  by the human voice,  while  the instru ments  should  be just 
an acco mpanim ent. 
Besides  the Indian  lute (vina) in its different  form s having  3 to 100 strings,  the flute 
(vamsi), and the small drum (damaru), the Vedic  system utilizes a drum  prope r (karkan), 
a metallic flute (nali), a sort of trumpet  (nadesvara) and a sort of harp (ksheni). All ritual 
ceremonies  also utilize  a small bell (ghanti) and a conchshell  (sankha), and the kirtana or 
bhajana is traditionally  accompanied  by cymbals of various  dimension s (karatala, 
jhanja, ghanta etc).
Some musical  instrument s are used  especially  on the occasion  of battles,  royal 
processions  and other occasions  where  the kshatriya elem ent predominates  - for example 
the dundubhi (a large drum), the panava (a smaller drum),  the dhola (tamburine),  the 
tanava (trumpet),  and so on. The great  variet y of instru ments  used by our conte mporary 
Indian  music developed  from  these  ancient  basic  instrument s, that have  been  joined  by 
"imports"  such  as the t ypicall y western (British) viol in and  harmonium .
The different  types of  music are classi fied as:
* uha gana: sacred  music or song  meant for the celebration  of ritual  ceremonie s, 
especially the soma  yajna
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* grama  geya gana, ordinar y musi c or song, m eant for the  life in the city  of village
* aranya  gana: contemplative  music or song,  meant  for meditation,  especially  in the 
forest
* uhya  gana: spontaneous  music or song,  meant for oneself,  secret  or in any case 
personal
The text that deals  specifically with dance,  called Natya  shastra, is part of the Gandharva 
Veda. Panini  Rishi,  who also wrote a commentary to the Gandharva  Veda, mention s 
some earlie r texts  called Sailali and Krishasva, that unfortunatel y have been  lost.
The first chapter  of the Natya  shastra  speaks  of the origins  of dance,  and tells how 
Bharata  Rishi  organized  a theat rical  entertainment  for the Devas,  entitled  Lakshmi 
svayamvara, and on that occasion  Shiva  requested  his companion  Tandu  (Nandikesvara) 
to help Bharata  in developing  the art of dance.  In turn,  Bharata  instructed  the Apsaras, 
beginning  with  Rambha.  The Apsaras  are the heavenl y ganikas or courtesanes,  that 
sometimes are sent to Earth to seduce  some Rishi  or some powerful  king: for example 
Menaka  had a daughter  (Sakuntala)  from Visvam itra, and Urvasi  had a relationship  with 
king Puru rava.  
Other  heavenly  beings  dedicated  to dance  and music are of course  the Gandharva  (after 
whom this Veda is named)  and the Kinnaras,  that are part men and part horses (like the 
centaurs) and  part wo man and part bird ( like harpies) respectively.
The chapters  from 2 to 5 deal with the stage  and the preparation,  chapter  4 speaks  of the 
movem ents of the body  (angahara), of the postures  (karana) and hand  movem ents 
(rechaka). 
Chapters  6 and 7 deal with the sattvika  abhinaya, or the facial  expression  of the various 
poetic  emotions  and sentim ents (bhavas and rasas) that the actors  want  to communicate 
to the public. 
Chapters  8 to 13 teach  how to express  these  emotions  and senti ment s through  the body 
language  (angika  abhinaya) to tell stories.  This includes  the study of the main limbs 
(anga) and the secondary limbs (pratyanga), the use of the hasta  mudras  (hand  postures), 
chari (leg m ovements), gati (steps) and ahangara (combination  of expressive  gestures).
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Chapters  from  14 to 19 deal with  the vacika  abhinaya, or the verbal  expression, 
dialogues,  intonations, dialects  and pronunciations, etc.  
Chapters  20 to 22 speak  of the different  types of drama and 4 types  of presentations, 
chapter  23 speaks  of costu mes and ornaments  (aharya  abhinaya) and their symbolic 
meanings,  chapters  24 to 25 of the various  feminine  characters,  chapters  26 and 27 of the 
duration  of the show  and the factors  for succes s with the public,  chapters  28 to 33 about 
the music and musi cal instrument s accomp anying  the show,  and the chapters  34 to 36 
explain the  roles within d ramatic  perfor mance s.
One of the most ancient  popular  theater  events  was the Indra dhvaja  maha,  also called 
jarjara  puja, focused  on the celebrations  around  the "sacred  pole"  (similar  to the jupa 
present  in most  classic  ritual  ceremonie s) topped  by the flag that represented  Indra's 
presence.
It was also a general  habit  among  the residents  of cities  and villages  to gather  in the 
samitis  ("clubs"  or "association s") and dancing constituted  a much appreciated pasti me. 
The Ramayana says that the city of Ayodh ya had 4 mandapas or dancing  halls,  one of 
which was  reserved for  women  only. 
In the Virata  parva  of Mahabharata we see that Draupadi  entices  Kichaka  into the 
dancing  hall to have  him killed  by Bhima, and that Arjuna  in the garb of Brihannala 
taught dancing  to the  princess  Uttara in her p rivate  apar tments.  
Specifically  the Shiva  purana recommends, regarding  temple  construction,  to provide  to 
the needs  of a group  of sacred  dancers  (devadasi) "married"  to the Deity, that will take 
care of the personal  aspects  of worship  (bathing,  decorating,  fanning  etc) and dance  for 
his pleasure.  It is important  to understand  that the tradition of the sacred  dancers  has been 
terribly distorted  and damaged  during Kali yuga and especially  during  the centuries  of 
Musli m invasion  and domination,  so mu ch that it does  not exist any  more, in an y templ e.
More  recent  treatises  on dance  are the Dasarupaka, Abhinaya  darpana and Sangita 
ratnakara. Some great  poets,  such  as Kalidasa,  Bhavabhuti,  Visakhadatta,   Asvaghosa, 
Sudraka  and Bhasa  have  written  some famous works,  such  as Sakuntala, Uttara  rama 
charita and Mudrarak shasa. 
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Let us exa mine  som e of the technical term s that are m ost frequentl y used  in th is field.  
The word  natya  includes  all the aspects  of dance,  while  nritta defines  pure dance  without 
any expression  of meaning.  
The tandava style is the energetic,  "masculine"  style  of Shiva's  dance  at the time of the 
destruction  of the unive rse (in its 108 versions,  such  as sandhya,  samhara,  tripura, 
urdhva and ananda), but may normally  be executed  also by female dancers.  In contrast, 
the lasya ("languid")  style  is characteristic  of female senti ment s, and as such  it is 
traditionall y depicted in the te mple  decorations  as an auspicious  deco ration.
The word  raga indicates  the particular  type of melody  created  by the combination  of 
notes,  while  tala indicates  the rhythm  of music,  and laya indicates  the velocity . There are 
ragas that are suitable  for the various  moments of the day - from early morning  to deep 
night - that unde rline the  natu ral energies  we can perceive.
We take this opportunit y to explain  the iconog raphic  symbolism  connected  to the dance 
of Shiva, which is rather difficult  to inte rpret. 
The image  of Shiva  Nataraja  is at the center  of the worship  in the temple  of Cidam baram 
(Tillai),  where  Shiva  manife sted his ananda  tandava  to attract  the attention  of a group  of 
Rishis  who lived in that area and were  spreading  teachings  that are contra ry to the 
funda mental principles of  dharma. 
The tiger,  the snake  and the black  dwarf  represent  the negative  forces  evoked  by these 
deviant  Rishis  - cruelt y, deceit  and attachment  to the lower  pleasures  - and Shiva 
neutralized  them and then wore two of them  as trophy  ornament s, and danced  on the 
third. 
The hand  holding  the damaru represents  creation  (that originates  from  sound,  word, 
harmony)  while  the hand  holding  the fire represents  dissolution;  the foot standing  on the 
dwarf  represents  the submission  of the lower  instincts,  while  the raised  foot symbolizes 
the elevation  towa rds the higher levels of  awareness.  
One of the other two hands  shows  the bhaya mudra, a symbol  of protection,  and the other 
points  at his raised foot,  symbolizing  surrender to the Divine. 
The snakes  that decorate  his body  represent  the primeval  forces  that are channeled  for a 
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higher  purpose,  and the 3 eyes symbolize  the past,  the present  and the future,  as well as 
the sun,  the moon  and the fire. 
The two ear rings are different  from  each other:  one is masculine  style,  and the other  is 
feminine,  to symbolize  the androgynous  natu re of the Divine. 
Among  those  who were  present  at Shiva's  dance  there was Sesha  Naga,  who expressed 
the wish  to see it again;  thus Sesha  Naga  took a partiall y human  form  as Patanjali  Rishi 
and remained  at Chidam baram in the company  of Vyagh rapada  Rishi,  a great  devotee  of 
Shiva. Both  are usually depicted at Shiva's  sides,  in the act of  offering  their homage.
Artha shastra  
This  Upaveda dealing  with  sociolog y, politics  and econo my also includes  the Niti 
shastra  (pedagogy,  social  ethics  etc), the Shilpa  shastra  (handicrafts  and architecture) 
and m any other m inor texts known as  the 64 Kalas ("pa rts").
The word  artha literall y means "som ething  valuable"  and includes  every thing  that 
contributes to a  high level  of quality  of life. 
In the Vedic  system  there  are no banks,  and money  consists  in coins  made with valuable 
and useful  metal s, bearing  a seal or mark  that guarantees  the genuineness  of their 
physical  value  on the word  of the jewelers  that make them. In this way the ornaments 
made with those  metals,  that constitute  the normal  "savings"  system  can be easily 
fractioned  in pieces  of smaller  value  to purchase  essential  commodities at a moderate 
price. 
This is the origin  of the dowry tradition  - a certain capital  in ornaments  and valuable 
object  was given  by the father  to the girl when  she left for her new home after marriage, 
and remained  strictly  the girl's  propert y as emergency  reserve.  In fact the scriptures  very 
explicitly  conde mn anyone  - husband  or in-laws  - who dares  to touch  this wealth. 
Presentl y the system  has been  completely  turned upside  down  and the dowry is paid 
directl y to the future husband  and in-laws even  before the m arriage,  and it often the girl is  
harassed  or ph ysically abused by  her new fa mily to force her parents to pay  more. 
There  are also many  cases  when  the girl is "suicided"  or falls victim  to some "kitchen 
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accident"  or goes  "missing"  so that the husband's  family  can organize  a new marriage 
with another  girl and obtain  more  dowr y. This is a typical  example  of adhar mic mentality 
born  from ignorance  and degradation,  that beco mes "normal"  and is even  outrageously 
presented  as the  traditional system . 
We have  seen that the genuine  Vedic  system  is very much  different,  and that simply by 
return ing to its genuine  and honest  application  we will be able to solve  all the present 
social  problem s. The same principle  applies  to the other problems that conte mporary 
societies  of a western  model  are facing  today - exploitation,  povert y, class  frictions, 
unemploym ent, existential  confusion,  consum erism , psychological  imbal ances,  and so 
on.
The Upavedas illustrate the occupational duties  of the social  categories.  
We have  seen how the brahmanas (the head  of society ) perform the ritual ceremonie s for 
the kings,  for the benefit  of the entire  population,  maintaining  harmony  between  the 
various  levels  of existence  - the Devas,  the human beings  and the universe  in gene ral - 
also caring  for the health  and individual  and collective  progress of people,  through 
teaching  and consultancy in all t he fields  of knowledge.  
We have  seen how the kshatriyas (the arms of societ y) constantly  engage  for the benefit 
of the kingdom  and the subjects,  protecting  the innocent  and all those  that cooperate  to 
the prosperit y of the social system , both hu man beings  and ani mals.  
In the  Artha shastra we will see how the vaisyas, the entrepreneurs in all fields  of activity 
(the belly  of society ) work to nourish  the social  body and circulate  the goods  that are 
necessary  for a high level  of the quality  of life. As jewelers  and merchants  of precious 
metals,  the vaisyas minted  the coins  and made valuable  objects  fructify  by using  them to 
produce  considerable  quantities  of clarified  butter,  food grains,  spices  and other  goods,  to 
increase  the cattle  herds  and manag e mining  expeditions.  With  these  metals  they also 
made weapons,  pots and plates,  containers,  instrum ents for agriculture  and specialized 
tools  of many kinds,  and of course  the personal  ornam ents that are suitable  for the 
different  types of individuals  according to the r ecommendation s of the brahmanas. 
They also used precious  metal s (gold,  silver,  copper ) and gems (pearls, diamond s etc) to 
finance  their trade in distant  regions,  where  they traveled  preferabl y by river  or sea, or by 
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utilizing the roads protected by  the i mperial  garrisons,  and brought back useful  goods.  
In ancient  times Indian  vaisyas normally  traded  with China,  Egypt, Arabia,  Greece  and 
Rome by using  the monsoon  winds  and brought  back  incense,  olive  oil, medicinal 
substance s, arsenic  (used  not only as a poison  but also to make explosives,  as an 
ingredient  for paints  and tanning  agent  for leather,  and even  as hair remover  for personal 
hygiene)  and antimony  (that  extraordinaril y has both  fire-resistant  and explosive 
propert ies in its different  manipulations,  and was used as a cosmetic  as black eye liner as 
well as to make ink and medicine s), vases  made from  silica  glass,  wool and blankets,  flax 
linen,  amber, purple  dye, copper,  tin, lead,  storax  (a resin  used as fixative  in perfum ery), 
wine,  melilotu s (a plant  also known  as sweet  clove r, containing  a powerful  blood  anti-
coagulant  used both as  medi cine and poison) and so  on. 
But especially  they sold spices,  sandalwood,  myrrh,  cosmetic s, Chinese  and Indian  silk, 
valuable  and embroidered  clothes  (we may mention  here the famous brocades  originated 
at Kanchi  in south  India ), ivory (both  Indian  and African),  ebony , lapislazuli  and 
turquoise  (especially  from  the regions  now known  as Iran and Afghanistan),  jewels  and 
special  artefacts  (such  as valuable  weapons),  indigo  (an excellent  dye, that remained  a 
very popular  commodity until the times of the East India Company),  nard oil (intensely 
scented,  used  as sedative  incense  and royal ointm ent for the priests  in the temple  of 
Jerusale m, as well as anesthetic  medicine  especially  for child  birth,  added  to wine  or 
beer),  costus  (a medicinal  plant  containing  vegetal  progesterone,  also used  as special 
fodder  for silk worm s), gulgulu (a resin  known  in the Mediterranean  as bdelliu m and 
used in perfum ery and medicines  - in Rom e and in Greece  it was mixed to the wine  for 
the offerings  to the Gods),  lycium  (a plant from  the nightshade  family,  with  berries 
known as  the "longevity  fruit"), r ice and sugar, and even  exotic fruits. 
They brough t back  fabulous  quantities  of silver,  gold  and gems, especially the corals,  that 
are ty pical of  the Mediterranean. 
As they lived  between  China  and the Mediterranean,  they also acted  as intermedi aries 
between  the two market s, because  rarely the Chinese  ships  reached  the Mediterranean,  or 
the Mediterranean  ships  reached  China.
Merchants  often  welcom ed paying passenger s both on ships  and in caravans,  because 
many people  wanted  to go to India to study  and sometimes even  to start a new life, 
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individually  or collectivel y, establishing  a small colony  in a count ry that was legendary 
for its  tolerance  and hospitality , as well as  for its prosperit y and high level of  knowledge.
These  exchanges  and journeys  to Europe  started  to decline  during the first plague 
epide mics in Europe  in 542, that coincided  with the final establish ment of Christianit y in 
the entire  area of the ancient  roman  empire.  We will discuss  more of these  events  in a 
separate  publication, focused  specifically  on the histor y of the develop ment  of Abraham ic 
cultures.
The Islamic conquest  of the middle  east, that followed  about  one centu ry later,  became a 
new good  reason  to avoid  traveling  to the west,  but Indian  merchant s continued  to 
commerce with China  and the region that was called  Indo-China until last  centur y. 
Still today on the east coast  of India,  especially  in Orissa,  there  is a popula r ceremony  at 
the end of the rainy season;  people  put small lamps in rudimentary  boats  made with 
banana  tree bark and send them  to float into the ocean.  In the old times when  sea trade 
was very active,  this sweet  tradition  constituted  for sailors  a first sign of the approaching 
coast,  a message of welco me from  the families that were  anxious  to see their husbands, 
brothers and sons  again.
Originall y Vyasa  compo sed a work on Artha  shastra, constituted  by 3 chapters, 
illustrating 82 ways to p roduce  wealth, but unfortunatel y this text is  now lost. 
The Santi  parva (12.59.80 -86) of Mahabharata says that the knowledge  manifested  by 
Brah ma on the subject  consisted  of 100 thousand  chapters  that extensively  illustrated 
dharma,  artha and kama, but Shiva reduced the collection to 10 thousand  chapters known  
as Vaisalaksha  shastra, to which  another  text was added,  compo sed by Indra and known 
as Bahudantaka. 
Later  on, Brihaspati  summarized the work  reducing  it to 3 thousand  chapters  known  as 
Barhaspatya  shastra, and finally  Sukracharya  (also known  as Usana)  compiled  a 
compendiu m of 1000  chapters  called  Ausanasa  shastra. Unfortunatel y, all these  texts  are 
now lost.
There  are various  passages  in different  scriptu res, as in the teachings  of Vidura  and 
Bhish ma in Mahabharata, in the conversation  between  Rama and Bharata  in Ramayana, 
in the Agni purana (218-242)  and in the Smritis of Manu  and Yajnavalk ya, but what  we 
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have  today  as Artha  shastra  is merely  a text that has been  compiled  much later (about 
2500  years later) by Kautily a, also known  as Vishnugupta  or Chanak ya Pandi ta, who 
lived  in the times of Chandragupta  Maur ya (conte mporary of Alexander  the Macedonian) 
and became his prim e minister. Chanakya  is especially  famous for his Niti shastra, a 
treatise  on gove rnment  ethics.
Kautily a's Artha  shastra is meant primarily  for the king,  who by distributing  wealth  and 
protecting the subjects  enables  the vaisyas to produce  sufficient  prosperit y for all. A solid 
and dy namic economy  is the m ost important  foundation  for a good government.  
In Kautilya's times, the role of  the government  had alread y shifted  from the celebration of 
ritual  ceremonie s to the collection  of taxes  and the control  of econo mic powe r, therefore 
his treatise  elaborates  especially  on these  topics.  Nonetheless,  his instructions  are 
generally  in accordance  to the Vedic  principles,  especially  in regard  to the ethical  norms 
for the  behavio r of the king towards the subjects.
The text speaks  about  the discipline  and self-control  that the king must observe  in his 
personal  life, the choice  of honest  and capable  minister s (mantris) and their supervision, 
the division  and utilization  of lands,   the construction  of villages  and cities,  the work  of 
subordinate  officers  engaged  in public  law and order,  law and magistrature,  assistance  in 
case  of national  calamitie s, training  and supervision  of informers,   alliances  with 
neighboring kingdom s, war m anagem ent, and the duties of  the four varnas and ashramas.
Economic  develop ment  is based  on trade and cattle  raising,  food  grains,  gold,  the 
products  of the forest  and manpower:  for all these  enterp rises,  the protection  supplied  by 
the king is  essential.
The future  king must be trained  through  a strict  discipline.  He must study  sciences  and 
scriptures,  and the art of government  that consists  mostly  in administ ering  the right 
punish ment  (danda) and supporting the cultivation of  prosperity  (vatra). 
The danda  niti (the ethical  rules  for the punish ment  of evil doers) is as important  as the 
raja niti (the ethical rules that the king m ust observe in his personal  behavior ). 
The king  must strive  to conquer  his inferior  tendencies  - lust, anger,  greed,  vanit y, 
arrogance  and intoxication  - that are his worst  enemies, and must be available  to the 
subjects  and do good to eve ryone. 
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He must alwa ys be faithful  to truthfulness  and to the principles  of ethics,  avoid  waste, 
respect  the counselors  that warn  him against  negative  ideas  and behaviors,  and recognize 
those  who are capable  administrators.  Similarly  he must choose  the general  (senapati) of 
his army based  on ethical principles  and skills.  
The choice  of the purohita or court  priest must be based  on the character,  scriptural 
knowledge  and morality  of the candidates;  if this brahmana  refuses  to teach  the Vedas to 
a person  of humble  origin  or to perform a ritual for a person  of a lower  social  condition, 
the king will im mediately sack  him.  
The ministers  should  be offered  oppo rtunities  for treason  and corruption,  so that those 
who are dishonest  and unfaithful  will be exposed.  The king will also employ  infor mers 
chosen  among  religious  persons  of solid  principles,  orphans  raised  by the State and 
trained  for this purpose,  widows  of brahmana familie s who  entered  the order of 
renunciation,  servants  of lower  rank,  traveling  actors  and other  people  who do not have 
strict  responsibilities  and ties, or familiar or social  duties.  Each  infor mation  must be 
separately  collected  from 3 different  sources,  and if the versions  coincide  in meaning  and 
details,  they are considered  reliable.  When  the versions  are different  from each other, the 
infor mers  are sacked.
The me etings  of the king's  counselors  must be secret,  and each ti me only  a maxim um of 4 
trusted  and intelligent  people  can take part in them.  The total number  of minister s can 
vary from  12 (according  to Manu)  to 16 (for Brihaspati)  or 20 (for Sukrachar ya) or even 
more, according  to the need.  It is said that Indra has 1000  Rishis  as minist ers, and this is 
the meaning  of his name  "he of the 1000  eyes".  The king must listen  to everyone  because 
a wise  man is able to accept good advice  even fro m a child.
The text also speaks  about  messengers  and ambas sadors,  of their  qualities  and training, 
the rules they must follow  during their  mission,  the protection  of the royal family, the 
evaluation  of the factual  qualifications  of the heir to the crown  for the purpose  of 
ensuring  a good  succession.  A prince  that has fallen  out of favor  with his father  can ask 
his permission to go and live in the forest  or take shelter  at a neighboring  king who is 
virtuous and honest,  and there build him self a solid position,  then acqui re gold and wealth  
working  as a merchant  until he is strong  enough  to win the respect  and reconciliation 
with his  father.
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Follows  the ideal  program  for the king's  day. The king should  directl y admini ster justice 
and personall y receive  all those  who want  to see him,  without  making  them wait, 
especially  if they are learned  brahmanas, women,  very young or very old people,  or 
people  who a re suffering  or desperate.  
There  is the description  of the royal palace,  where  the king lives  with his wives;  how its 
walls  must be built with clay  mixed with the ashes  produced  by lightning and hail water. 
The building  must be surrounded  by plants  that repel snakes  - jivanti,  sveta,  mushkaka 
pushpa,  vandaka,  pejata  and asvattha - and have  a certain  number  of cats,  peacocks, 
mongoose s and spotted  deer, that naturally  keep  away  both rats and snakes.  Also  parrots 
and the birds known  as mina and bhringaraja, herons,  pheasants,  quails  and cuckoos  are 
useful,  because  they reveal  the p resence  of snakes.  
The palace  should  be well equipped  with medicine  supplies,  have  a large  kitchen  garden 
and sufficient  water  tanks,  apartment s for princes  and princesse s, an area for body care 
(practically  a beaut y and wellness  center),  a council  hall, a court hall, the sitting  room of 
the crown  prince  and the officers'  room s. Nearb y there  must be the quarters  for the 
garrison of  the r oyal guards  and the queens'  body guards.
There  are several  ways to protect  oneself  from poisons,  especially  by observing  the 
behavior of servants  and other people around, by the mark s appearing on metal  plates  and 
cups (for the poison  added  to the foods),  on fresh  fruits  and vegetables,  on the surface  of 
drinks, in s moke  and fire within the braziers and in their lumino sity, on clothes  and b y the 
death  of small insects  in the envi ronment.  
The danger  of assas sination  also lurks in all weapons,  even  non-conventional  ones, 
carried  on the bodies  of servants  or unfaithful  wives.  Musicians  and actors  must do their 
work  without  using  fire, weapons  or other  dangerous  instrum ents,  and all musical 
instru ments  and the acces sories  and equip ment  of chariots,  horses and elephants  must 
always  be kept inside  the palace  unde r strict  guard.  Further more,  the king will approach 
the chariots  and the anim als only after  they have  been  personally  checked  by his 
charioteer, and will onl y board a ship that is  equipped with safety boats.  
He will not bathe or swim  in waters infested  by crocodiles,  serpents  or large fish, and will 
go hunting  only with a sufficient  escort.  He will meet ascetics  and ambas sadors  from 
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other  kingdom s only in the presence  of his ministers,  and will go to attend  the sacrificial 
ceremonies  and public festivities  escorted by  his body  guards.
It is important  to unde rstand  that Vedic  monarchy  is not absolute,  but it is subject  to the 
popular  consensu s, both of the brahmanas and of the subjects  in general.  A king who 
behaved  badly  could  be removed  at any time by the assembly of the brahmanas and a 
worthier r uler was  crowned  in his  place. 
The ideal  king is the raja rishi ("wise  among  the kings")  wise and virtuous,  expert  in the 
scriptures  and detached  from material  gratification,  always  concerned  only about  the well 
being  and the happiness  of his subjects.  He is always  active  and dynamic, cultivates  his 
own intellectual  faculties  in the comp any of evolved  persons  and constantl y tries to 
increase  his culture,  he always  gives  a good  exam ple to the subjects  with his public  and 
private  behavio r, and wins  the love of the people  by treating  his subjects  with kindness 
and affe ction.  
He practices  non-violence,  that consists  in remaining  free from  all negative  sentim ents 
towards  other living beings.  He does not desire  to acqui re the wives of  other people o r the 
propert ies of others, he avoids  unnecessary  luxury and whimsi cal pursuits,  he does  not 
waste  time in fantasies  and avoids  the company  of degraded  or wicked  people. 
He is alwa ys honest  and truthful,  he always  keeps  his word, he is resolute  and never 
postpones  his work, he shows  gratitude  to those  who  helped  him, he is always 
enthusiastic  and positive, he listens  carefully and reflects  properly . 
He takes  his decisions  without  hesitations  and acts in a considerate  way,  he is eloquent 
and has good  memory, he knows  how to face the moments of crisis and patiently  goes 
through  the routines.  He is always  dignified,  he does not laugh  loudly , he speaks  gently , 
looking directl y in the face  of his  interlocutor, and he avoids  frowning.
In foreign  affairs,  the king must first of all invest  sufficient  resources  in the work  of 
collecting  infor mation,  sending  both  official  ambas sadors  and secret  agents  that will 
present  themselve s as merchants  or travelers.  Once  they have  sufficiently  understood  the 
custo ms, the mentality,  the resources  and the strong  and weak  points  of the foreign 
kingdo ms, the king will negotiate  with their rulers  according  to a strateg y that is suitable 
to the situation,  choosing  among  the actions  defined  as upeksha (showing  lack of 
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interest),  sanmana (non-aggression  pact),  dana (sending  gifts  and offerings  of 
friendship),  maya (illusion,  especiall y pretending  to have  greater  military  strength  than 
what  it actually  true), bheda (creating  divisions  between  enemie s), and only in extreme 
cases  he will resort t o  danda (military force  and war ). 
Sulba shastra 
We have  alread y mentioned  the fact that the Sulba  shastra, or the science  of mathe matics 
and geom etry,  constitutes  the most important  among  accessory  sciences.  Various 
historical  sources  confir m that Vedic  culture  was the first to adopt  the decim al system 
that superseded  the Babilonian  system (based  on the number  60) which  survived  into the 
conte mporary  cultu res only in the calculation  of time  (hour,  minute,  second).  The 
decimal system  is mentioned  in the Taittirya  samhita of Krishna  yajur  Veda and was 
alread y used  in the urban  settle ment s of the Indus  valley , such  as Mohenjo  daro and 
Harappa. 
Another  characteristic  of Vedic  mathem atics is the concept  of zero (sunya) as opposed 
and complem entary to the concept  of infinite  (ananta), with the description of the relative 
propert ies and their connection  (division  by zero gives  infinity ). Even the present  symbol 
that represents  infinit y, that is a kind of 8, corresponds  to the serpentine  form  of Ananta 
Sesha  coiling on him self.
 The first text of modern  arithmetics  is Bhaskacharya's  Lilavati, followed  by the treatise 
by Aryabhatta,  that also explains  algeb ra and gives  the rules  to find the area of the 
triangle,  which  creates  the basis  of trigonom etry. Aryabhatta  also calculated  the moments 
for upco ming  eclipses,  and had very clear  ideas  about  the move ments of the heavenly 
bodies.  Here,  too, we see the natural  connection  between  the various  fields  of Vedic 
knowledge  - which  makes different  categor ization  more difficult  - because  mathe matics 
is needed  not only for astrolog y, architecture,  construction  of altars  and the correct 
chanting  of mantras, but also to navigation  (to triangulate  the positions  of the stars  and 
establish  the ship course).  It is also closely  connected  to the knowledge  of phys ics and 
cosmology,  that are normally  classifi ed as texts  of the Vaiseshika  darshana,  but also 
concern the experts  of other fields.  
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Varaha mihira  clearly  states  that Earth is a sphere  and rotates  on its own axis - which  is 
described  by the mathematician  Latadeva  in his Surya  siddhanta  as the Sumeru.  The 
spherical  shape  of Earth is depicted  in many iconographic  representations  of the avatara 
Varaha,  who specifically  appeared  to lift up the planet  that had deviated  from its proper 
orbit.
In his Siddhanta  siromani, Bhaskaracharya  speaks  about  the "attraction"  force  described 
as gravit y. 
Many  teachings  on physics  and cosmology  are also found  in other texts  that we have 
alread y mentioned.  For exam ple, the Aitareya  Brahmana (3.44) states:  "The Sun does not 
set and rise as people  think.  At the end of each  day it produces  two opposite  effect s, 
creating  the night  unde r itself  and the day in what  is on the opposite  side.  Actually  the 
Sun never sets."  
The Markandeya  Purana (54.12 ) states  that the Earth is not a perfect  sphere,  but is 
slightly  flattened  at the poles  and swelling  at the equator,  and that the Sun is at the center 
of the solar system  (106.41 ).
The Puranas (for example  the Bhagavata) speak  of atomic  time and calculate  the age of 
Earth (a complete  day of Brah ma) at 8.64  billions  years, a figure  that is rather close  to the 
one proposed  by our conte mporary  western  scientists.  Not only that: the vision  of time 
offered  by the Vedas goes even  beyond that and calculates  the entire lifetime of Brahma, 
that constitutes  the complete  cycle of one unive rsal manife station,  as 311,040  billion 
years, considered as  a mere breathing  cycle of  Maha Vishnu.  
Vedic  scriptures  speak  of ritu ("rule")  as the "cosmic law" of the cycles that regulate  the 
universe,  and of the law of gravit y as sankarsana ("that attracts")  sustaining  all the 
planets.  
Brah magupta  (that  according  to western  acade mia lived  around  628 CE) clearly 
commented, "All things fall to the ground  according to the law of nature, because  it is the 
nature of  earth t o attract and retain things."
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Shilpa shastra
Connected  to the Sulba  shastra (the science  of mathem atics) is the Shilpa  shastra (the 
science  of architecture,  sculpture,  painting  and crafts)  that utilizes  the mathem atical 
calculation  and rules of geometry  to make building  precise  and stable,  and give harmony 
and sym metry to useful  image s and objects.
The presently  available  text is attributed  to Kasyapa  Rishi  and consists  of 22 chapters, 
illustrating  307 varieties  of buildings  or constructions;  however  it gives  references  to a 
more ancient  knowledge  compiled  by Visvakar ma, Maya  Danava,  Maruti  and 
Chayapurasa. 
The word  shilpa  derives from  the root shil, "to focus"  and refers  to the concentration 
required  to visualize  the final  result  of the work alread y from the very beginning  of the 
process.  The block  of stone  alread y contains  the compl ete image, and the chisel  must 
only eliminate  the excess  material.  The eyes are completed  last, to symbolize  that the 
Deity  is still sleeping  in the form  that is developing, like a fetus  in the stone's  womb.  
When  the material  has been  chosen,  the ritual  called  ankurarpana  is perform ed, 
consecrating  it for that specific  work,  and before  starting  to sculpt,  the artist  meditates  on 
the form of the Deity  described  in the dhyana  slokas, with the position  of the body, the 
number  of arms, the different  symbol s in the various  hands,  the clothes  and the 
ornam ents, and the vahana or vehicle  on which the Deit y travels. 
The measures  and proportions  of the Deity  are codified  with great  precision  in unities  of 
measure called  angula ("finger",  about  2 cm), yava (a fraction  of angula) and tala (equal 
to 12 angulas).
Trad itionally  the image s of Vishnu  and Shiva  are 10 talas tall, while  the image s of their 
companions  are 9 talas and those  of their devotees  are 8 talas  tall. The imag es of the 
Mother  Goddess  standing  alone  are not subject  to these  measures.  Often  the dimension s 
of the sacred  image are calculated  on the basis  of the height  of the yajamana  (the person 
who establishes  the installation and the worship  of the Deity ) and especially of  the templ e 
room  where  it will be installed.  The propo rtions  of the sacred  images  are detailed 
carefully, to shape  a bod y that is "aesthetically perfect"  and sym metrical.
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The sacred  image s (generally  called  murti,  vigraha,  archa-vigraha etc) can be fashioned 
out of stone,  gems, metal, wood,  clay, or in a painting  or in sand.  Each  of these material s 
has a specific  duration  in decreasing  order of time, and therefore  the imag e will have  to 
be "un-installed"  within  a certain  period  of time and replaced  with  a new one. The 
process  of installation  and un-installation  is rather  simple,  as it constitutes  a respectful 
and affectionate  request  to the Deity (that is not limited  to any material  form) to mani fest 
personally and to withd raw his/her presence  respectively.
This  withdrawal  of the direct and personal  presence  of the evoked  Deity happens 
automatically  when  the image  is damaged  or defiled,  as in the case of the iconoclastic 
aggressions  by Muslim s and Christians  to Indian  temple s in the course  of centuries.
Stone  is described  as good quality , mediu m quality and mediocre  qualit y according  to the 
grain,  the color  and the hardness.  For the image s of the Deities  the best choice  is a stone 
that produces  a metallic sound  when  it is hit with an iron bar, even  better  if sparks  are 
produced.  This description  corresponds  to the classification  of igneous  rocks.  For general 
decorations,  less valuable stones  can be used.
The most frequently  utilized  stone  is a variety of basalt,  magn etite or iron silicate,  that in 
India  can be found  in a black  color  and becom es shiny  and even  blacker  with  the 
application of  scented  oils and clarified  butte r that are used  in ritual worship.
The color  is similar  to the Salagrama  sila (fossil  ammonite), a special  stone  that is found 
only in the bed of river  Gandaki  in Nepal  and is considered  a direct mani festation  of 
Vishnu,  and as such  it does  not need  to be installed.  Often  ordinar y stones  (that do not 
have  the characteristic  chakras or "discs"  spontaneously  embedded  in the stone)  are 
passed  for Salag rama silas,  when  they could  actually  and genuinel y be Shiva  lingas.  A 
Salagram a sila is never  carved  artificiall y. The same principle  applies  to all the sacred 
silas ("stones")  characteristic  of some specific  places,  such the Dvaraka  sila, Govardhana 
sila, etc.
On a separate  note,  the Shiva  linga m can be carved  or in a natural  form (svayambhu, 
"mani fested  spontaneously") in a considerable variety  of form s.
In the last few centuries  there  has been  a growing  popularit y for sacred  images sculpted 
in marble,  especially  white  or black,  that can be colored easily  and have  a realistic  look. 
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In the same way, there  has been  an increase  in sacred  images  that are "naked",  i.e. 
sculpted  or modeled  without  cloth ing or ornament s, that are easier  to wash  and clean,  and 
that a devotee  can dress  and decorate  with outfits  and jewelry  in a more  realistic  way. 
The most ancient  images  are rather  different,  although  the offering  of clothes  and 
ornam ents has always been part of  the r itual of  worship.  
The reason  for this change  should  be traced  to the fact that in the last centuries  the 
empha sis in Deity  worship  has moved  towards  the most intimate  form  of bhakti, the 
senti ment  of devotion  that prompt s the worshiper  to conte mplate  the Divine in an 
"inferior"  position  compared  to him/hersel f, as a child  or an intimate  friend  that depends 
on the worshiper  for the basic  activities  such  as bathing,  dressing  etc. This tendenc y is 
found  especially  in krishnaite  devotion,  that in the medi eval period (subsequently  to the 
Musli m invasions)  becam e widespread  among  the popular ma sses play ing on the si mple st 
and most immediate  senti ment s of the human  soul,  without having to develop  on the deep 
and expert cultivation of  spiritual knowledge or Self realization.
The sacred  image s installed  in private  houses  and those  that are taken  to procession 
outside  the temple  during the festivals  (called  chalanti  pratima, "mobile  representatives")  
as substitutes  for the Deity that is installed  permanently  in the temple,  are traditionally 
made from  metal.  The materials  recommended for this purpose  are gold,  silver  and 
copper,  but more often  bronze  and brass are used (as they are much more  econom ically 
viable)  or special  alloys such as the panchaloha ("5 metal s" - copper,  gold,  silver,  brass 
and lead)  or ashta  dhatu  ("8 materials"  - gold,  silver,  copper,  mercury,  iron,  aluminium , 
lead and b rass).
In this case the fashioning  of the image  is based  on the system of "lost  mould":  the 
original  image  is prepared  with bee wax mixed with coal powder,  and then it is cove red 
with a thick  layer of clay. When  the clay has dried  prope rly the mould is heated  and the 
liquid  wax is collected;  its place  is taken by the molten  alloy of metal s, and when  this has 
cooled  completely,  the clay mould  is broken.  The weight  of the metal to be poured into 
the mould  is carefull y calculated  on the basis  of the weight  of the used  wax and 
considering  the specific  weight of  the requ ired m etals.
The image s fashioned  in clay are installed  and worshiped  on the occasion  of annual 
festivals.  At the end of the festival  period,  traditionally  the images  are immersed in a 
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water reservoir, so that the clay can melt  and retu rn to the environment.  
Trad itionally  the colors  were  natural (mineral  or plant  based)  and the internal  support 
structure  (that  is essential  for an image  made with  non-baked  clay) was completely 
biodegradable  (made  with straw  and wood).  The clothes  and ornam ents were  recovered 
and recyc led after the dissolution  of the i mage,  to be used by  the devotees  as prasada.
Unfortunately in the last centuries  the craftsmen working  with  clay have  becom e ignorant 
and arrogant,  and they consider  themselves  as "free  artists",  not subject  to any rule or 
limitation.  Therefore  the images  are often  made with baked  clay, that does not dissolve  in 
water  and thus remains around  even  after  the end of the festivities  - damaged,  broken, 
dirty and torn - sometimes abandoned  in a garbage  dump,  or on the beach  togethe r with 
other  waste:  a terrible testimony  of cultural  degradation  that has totally  lost the meaning 
and purpose  of the original t radition. 
The same disastrous  tendenc y is also demonstrated  in the type of activities  that are 
perfor med around  the temporary  temple s or pandals ("canvas  pavil ions")  that are erected 
during  the festival  for these  temporary  clay Deities:  often  the collected  funds  are mostly 
misappropriated  by the organizers  or utilized  to purchase  alcoholic  drinks  (that Vedic 
ethics  consider  impure,  inauspicious  and detrimental  to physical,  mental  and social 
health) or to p rocure the services  of prostitutes,  and above  all p rovide a noisy loudspeaker  
background  of materialistic  songs  (gene rally  Bollywod  "film i" songs)  that have  nothing 
to do with religion  or spirituali ty, and other similar entertainm ent products  that do more 
damage  than good both to the indiv iduals  and to society.
The advent  of plastics  in its various  form s has created  a proliferation  of cheap  sacred 
images  made from this material;  these  cannot  be installed  in the traditional  way and are 
simply  considered  "decorative".  It is possible  to consider  them  "genuine"  only  by 
remembering  that the Deity  can also mani fest in a form  simply  made from  "mental" 
material  in the conte mplation  of the devotee:  in this case the Deity  mani fests, but not in 
plastic  itself  (which is not a suitable  material)  but in the mental projection  that the 
devotee  superi mpose s (consciously  or unconsciously)  to the plastic  form.  As in all forms 
of  manasa  puja ("mental  worship"),  this practice  can be very effective  and meritorious, 
but only if  the awareness  remain s honestly and solidl y consistent  in a genuine  meditation. 
Wooden  images are rather  rare and are sculpted  by specialized  artists,  while  the images 
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made of sand or ordinar y earth (provided  it is clean  and collected  from  a pure place)  are 
worshiped  in very short  rituals,  especially  by those  who live in the order of vanaprastha 
or those who  cannot afford  anything more  expensive.
Painted  images  (chitra) are considered  on the same level  with those  made from  clay or 
mental  substance,  and they are generally  worshiped  on particular  occasions,  such  as 
annual  festivals  or as temporary  substitutes  of the main  Deities  of the temple  when  these 
remain hidden  from the public  of devotees,  as in the case of the Jagannatha  Deities  in the 
period  called  anavasara. During  these  15 days the main vigrahas of Jagannatha  get a 
fresh  coat of paint  away from  public  view,  and the temple  visitors  offer  their homag e to 
the patta dia ("the painted Deities")  that r eplace  them  in the temple  hall.
Painted  images  are mentioned  in many  texts  - Vishudharmottara,  Citralakshanam,  Silpa 
ratnam,  Aparajita  priccha, and especially  Chitrakarma  shastra, that in 12 chapters 
explains  about  200 types of drawings,  including  the reconstruction  of the looks  of a 
person  of whom only a small particular  is known.  The colors  to be used  for the painted 
sacred  image s must  be natural,  vegetal  or mineral,  and usually  are the primary  colors - 
red, yellow,  black,  white  and green or blue - each one filled  with symbolic  meanings.  For 
example  black  is the color  of beaut y (sringara) or opulence  (aisvarya), red is the color of 
anger  (raudra) or power  (virya) or energy  (prana or shakti), while  white  is the color of 
merrim ent (hasya) or pur ity (sveta). 
In time, when  artists  lost the awareness  and understanding  of this symbolis m, they started 
to mix the primary  colors  in a more  and more  complex  way, sometimes with  very 
distorted  results,  as in the depictions  of Krishna  or Vishnu  with a complexion  of a very 
pale turquo ise or even  white, or the Mother  Goddess  (Radha,  Durga  etc) with a pink hue, 
or Shiva with a blue com plexion
The Samarangana  sutradhara  is an encyclopedic  treatise  on classic  Indian  architectu re, 
compiled  by king Bhoja  of Dhar  in relatively  recent  times (about  1000  of the Current 
Era). Its 83 chapters  deal with city planning,  temple  architecture,  palaces  and ordinary 
housing,  as well as sculpture  and paint ing, and mech anical  vehicles  (called  yantra). 
Chapter  31 is totally  dedicated  to the yantras or "machine s" and speaks  about  vimanas 
("airships") in the for m of birds, and robots or me chanical  men used  as securit y guards.
According  to this text, the sthapati ("architect"  or "artisan")  must be expert  in planning 
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and preliminary  design,  in the field  measure ments, both vertical  and horizontal,  in the 
making  of maps, in the 14 types of technical  drawing,  in the cutting  of stones  and wood, 
in the 7 types of circula r sections,  in the 4 fields  of engineering,  in the 8 specializations 
within the building work, including ca rpentry  and m etal working. 
The Dhatuvada, attributed  to the Asvini  kumara s, deals  with the materials  (dhatus) both 
natural  and artificial,  of their  combination s and transm utations  and the science  of 
alche my.
Vastu shastra
The Shilpa  shastra  also includes  the Vastu shastra, that has becom e rather  famous in 
western  count ries during the last decades,  together  with its more recent  offshoot  that 
developed  in the far east  - Feng shui.  
The word  vastu  derives  from the root vas, "to dwell",  and specifically  applies  to the 
knowledge  that enables  us to choose  the land,  the orientation  and utilization  of the 
buildings,  to align hu man settlem ents in ha rmony with the energy  of the envi ronment.
According  to the Brihat  samhita, Brahm a mani fested  the original  knowledge  of the 
Vastu,  that was later elaborated  by 18 Rishis  including  Brighu,  Atri, Vasistha, 
Sukrachar ya, Brihaspati,  and especially b y Ma ya Danava  and Visvakar ma. 
The  Matsya  purana says  that the Vastu  purusha,  the personification  of human 
settle ment s, was born from a drop of Shiva's  sweat.  This Vastu  purusha  is honored  before 
the beginning  of constructions  and at the moment of inaugurating  the completed  building, 
and also  in case  som e signs of  disharm ony or imbalanc e beco me appa rent.
In the planning  stage,  the land plot is divided  into 64 or 81 squares,  within  which  the 
body  of the Vastu  purusha  is designed,  with the head  in the north -east  corner  and the two 
feet in the south-west  corne r, while the knees  are in the other two corne rs. 
The various  parts  of the Vastu  body are related  to 45 guardian  Deities  and to the various 
human activities  that will be performed  when the building will be utilized.
Beginning  from  the north-east  corner (the head  of the Vastu  purusha),  we first find the 
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isana  kona  or "corner  of Isa",  guarded  by Shiva.  This area should  be dedicated  to the 
worship  of the house  Deities  and the sacred  fire; it consists  of a wide  space,  almost 
completely  empty, where  energ y can circulate  freely. Besides,  in this direction  one 
should  dig the well o r build the m ain water tank.
The east side (purva) is guarded  by Surya and should  be utilized  for ablutions  and all the 
activities  for cleanliness  and purification.  The next corner,  in the south-east,  is called 
agni kona  or "the corner of fire" and is guarded by Agni.  This is the ideal  place  for the 
kitchen. 
The south  side (dakshina) is guarded  by Yama, the Lord of Dhar ma, and should  be 
utilized as  bedroom  or study r oom. 
The south-west  corner is called  nirriti  kona  or "corner  of consum ption"  and it should  be 
used  for storage;  it is presided  by the Pitris or forefathers.  The west  side (pascima) is 
guarded by  Varuna and is  used as  dining room.  
The north-west  corner called  vyavaya  kona  is guarded by Vayu, the God of Wind,  and is 
the best  for the cow's  shed.  
The north side (uttara) is guarded  by the Lord of wealth  Kuvera,  so it's the best place  to 
keep  one's  valuable things.
The Vastu  shastra also deals  with  city planning;  it describes  20 types  of cities  with 
specific  characteristics  in regard  to layout,  location,   numb er of streets,  size, utilization  of 
neighborhoods,  and so on. It describes  residential  areas  for the different  varnas  or 
professional  categories,  explains  the optimu m propo rtions  between  the various  buildings, 
the construction  of water  tanks,  parks  and gardens.  It also describes  lecture  halls  and 
cultural centers  and markets.  It has areas  for cow grazing,  for the threshing  of food grains 
and for  the p ressing  of oil -  all activities  that were performed  locall y. 
The templ es were located  in the center  of the city and also in the suburbs,  preferably  on a 
river bank, at the foot of  som e hill or mountain,  near a forest  or a park - so that they  could 
be easily  located  even  for foreign  pilgrims.  For a mediu m-sized  city the calculated 
number  of temple s was 25, each  one of them in a specific  area, dedicated  to various 
forms of the  Deit y.
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The Silpa  ratnam and the Aparajita  priccha explain  the symboli sm in the build ing of a 
temple,  that as a dwelling  for the Divine  represents  the Virata  rupa  (universal  body) as 
well as the body of the yajamana (the devotee  who built  or financed  the temple;  the 
garbha  griha (inner  chamber  of the Deity ) represents  the head,  on which  the sikhara (the 
tower)  stands  like a head-d ress, while  the mandapas (halls  or pavilions)  are the arms and 
the gopura  (entrance  arch) rep resents  the feet.  
After  walking through  the gopura, the visitor  arrives at the bali pitha, the place  where  the 
external  sacrifices  are offered,  marked  by the presence  of the dhvaja stambha ("pillar or 
pole for the flag")  on top of which  in the last centur ies image s of the vahanas (vehicles) 
of the Deity have  been  installed  in place  of the traditional  flag that was raised  especially 
during  the festivals.  Then  the visitor  enters  one of the mandapas (pilla red halls)  for the 
sacred  dances  and the kirtana  (singing  or mantra  chanting)  and arrives at the mukhya 
mandapa  (main  hall) in front  of the garbha  griha, which  traditionally  is small and 
enclosed,  to avoid distractions  and to mak e the experience  more  dram atic.
The garbha  griha can only accom modate one or two persons  besides  the image s of the 
Deities,  so that the devotee  can have  a very intimate  and personal  relationship  with the 
Deity . 
Generally  there  are no side windows,  and the circulation  of air is provided  only through 
the large  front  opening,  that is closed  with suitable  doors  for the night  and at the times 
when  the Deities  are not to be seen by the public  - as for example  during meals, and for 
the bathing and  dressing  of the Deit y.
During  the construction  of the temple,  a process  that is solemniz ed with several  rituals, 
there  is the installation  of a copper  vase containing  various  auspicious  substance s, called 
garbha ("embryo"),  that is later covered  by a slab of stone  before  the foundations  are 
filled  with soil. The position  of this "temple  embryo"  is directl y unde r the Deities'  room, 
at a depth that can var y according to the foundations  system. 
Sometim es the "embryo"  is "guarded"  by the imag e of Ananta  Sesha  or another  similar 
protective  personalit y. Then  the garbha  griha  is built, and then the tower,  topped  by a 
kalasa (coppe r vase  for water). 
Often  there is a secret  subterranean  passage  that leads  to a closed  chamber  guarding some 
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treasures,  or where  private  rituals  are perform ed, or where  we find a tunnel  or several 
tunnels  that lead to a ro yal palace or other pa rticularl y important  places.
Lighting  is dramatic,  because  it is produced  by a limited  numb er of lamps burning  oil or 
clarified  butter,  hanging  from  hooks  by the ceiling  or standing  on a high stem  that keeps 
them at a certain  height  from the floor.  The hooks  on the ceiling  may also be used  to 
suspend  a royal umbrella  or the traditional  water  container  constantly  dripping  down  to 
bathe  the Shiva lingam.
During  the times of darshan the lighting  is increased  by the offering  of temporary  lamp s 
of ghi and camphor  presented  by the priest (in the arati  ceremony)  and often  by the 
devotees  in the public,  each one putting  a small clay lamp on a specific  structure  in front 
of the Deity room.  Around  the garbha  griha there  is a corridor  for the pradakshina, the 
ritual  homag e that consists  in walking  around  the object  of worship,  proceeding 
clockwise.  
Finally , after the construction  of the various  smaller  shrines  for the parsva  devatas (the 
"companion  Deities"  for the main  Deity  in the temple),  the artisans  build  the prakara or 
general enclosure  of the entire area of  the templ e.
Besides  the Griha  vastu for houses,  palaces  and housing  buildings  in general,  including 
the temples  that are the house  of the Deity , there  is a section  called  Silpa vastu dealing  on 
the nature  of the materials  in relation  to the environment,  the Jala vastu about  the springs 
and the wate r bodies  including  the subterranean  ones  (it explains  how to locate  them, 
evaluate  their  depth,  pressure  and qualit y of the water ) and the Garbha  vastu that deals 
with the geological  formation  of the soil and gives  important  instructions  on the mining 
work.
Krishi  shastra
The most ancient  and famous text on the science  of agriculture,  consisting  on 243 verses, 
is attributed  to Parasara  Rishi,  who is also considered  a great expert  on astronomy, 
astrology  and climate  science,  all fields  that are requ ired to understand agriculture. 
In this regard,  we would  like to note that the present  discipline  of biodynami c agriculture 
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developed  by Rudolf  Steiner  has its roots  in the contact  that theosophists  had with Vedic 
culture  in the British  colonial  period  and that a rigorous,  direct, serious  and careful  study 
of the original  Vedic  knowledge  would  certainl y lead to greater  and more important 
improvem ents to the knowledge  and practice  of organic  and biodynami c cultivations  in 
the west.  
The main  subject  in agriculture  is obviously  about  tilling the fields.  The traditional 
plough  used for hand  tilling  or with the help of oxen  is considered  the symbol  of power 
over  the land,  and therefore  it is connected  to the iconographic  image  of the king, 
especially in regard to t he function of  forceful  action. 
Vedic  cultu re respects  and hono rs Earth as the Mother  of all beings,  and the traditional 
daily  rituals  include  a prayer to Mother  Earth, that she may forgive  us the inevitable 
offen se of touching her with ou r feet.  
The symbol  of the plough  and tilling  naturall y evokes  the inevitable  suffering  that we 
inflict  not only to the earth that is "lacerated"  by this action,  but also to the small animal s 
that live in the soil and on the ground,  and are wounded  or killed  in the process.  So much 
that the Jains,  extreme  supporters  of the sentim ents of non-violence  towards  all living 
beings,  abstain  from  all agricultural  work  and all types of work  connected  to agricultu re, 
and prefer  to engage  in the trade of inani mate  objects,  especially  precious  stones  and 
gems. Still at present,  the great  majority  of jewelers  in India  are members of the Jain 
community. However,  this does  not stop them  from eating  agricultural  products,  albeit 
with a certain  sense  of guilt - in fact Jain philosoph y considers  voluntar y fasting  to death 
as a meritorious  action on the rel igious  level.
The original  Vedic  concept  is much more  consistent  and logical,  because  it prescribes  the 
daily  pancha  maha  yajna in which  the living  beings  in general  are hono red by offering 
them some food,  it recommends offering  one's  food to the Deity before  consum ing it, and 
orders  to perform  one's  duty within  societ y and within  the universe  by supporting  the 
material  and spiritual prog ress of ever yone. 
According  to the system  of karmic  accounting,  when  one perfor ms a good  and 
meritorious  action,  all those  who have  cooperated  to it, more  or less consciously,  are 
benefited.  
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Because  the human body must support  itself  by consu ming  foods  produced  by 
agriculture,  each  human being  who works  in favor  of the universal  community has the 
right  to take the share  of food that has been  assigned  to him/ her and that s/he needs.  The 
same rule applies  to all living  beings,  including  more  or less ferocious  and fearsom e 
carnivorous  animal s: Vedic  ethics  and logic  do not condem n tigers  for their natural 
instinct  to kill to feed,  and do not strive  to turn them  into vegetar ians at all costs,  because 
that would be contrar y to the p roper natural universal order.
When  the kshatriya fights  and kills the animals  that damage human society,  he does not 
do so with the idea of "punishing"  them  or to prevent  some "horr ible action",  but to 
protect  those  who - humans  and animals  - have  taken  shelter  in the king to live a 
prosperous  and happ y life. Vedic  sensitivity  embrace s both the sweet  and the terrible 
aspects  of life and thus of the Deity that represent  life and constitutes  its very foundation, 
and the ferocious  and dangerous  animal s like tigers,  lions,  snakes,  etc, are even  depicted 
as vehicles  for the Deity .
The Vedic  vision  of agricultu re can be summarized in the aphoris m annam  bahu 
kurvitha,  tad vratam  expressed  by Taittirya  Upanishad (9.1):  "we vow to produce 
abundant  food for every one",  and the more  the food is delicious,  attractive,  beneficial  and 
healthy , the more  merits it produces on the  religious  level, too. 
According  to the classifi cation  under  the 3 gunas or qualities  of nature,  the sattvic  or 
virtuous  food,  is "satisfying,  energetic,  pleasant,  juicy or succulent,  fatty, sweet  and 
attractive"  (Bhagavad  gita, 17.8).  Obviousl y such  food  must  be consu med with great 
moderation  by accepting  only what  is strictl y needed  and by purifying  it according  to the 
prescribed  rituals,  but the fact remains that contraril y to what happens  in other ideologies, 
the pleasures  of good  food (like the other  natural  and beneficial  pleasures)  are celebrated 
and not conde mned  by the Vedic religion. 
Kalas
The encyclopedic  text known  as Akshara  laksha  contains  the description  of 325 arts or 
sciences,  including  mathe matics, geometry,  algebra,  trigono metry,  physics,  mineralogy, 
the measuring  of air, heat and electricity , geog raphy,  and also the science  of sound 
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(propagation  and characteristics),  of the structure  and balance  of energies  in the various 
animate  and inanimate  beings,  down  to the art and technique  of making  garlands  of 
flowers,  female head-dressing  in floral  style and even  love messages written  on flower 
petals  (as for exa mple  found in the Malini shastra, compiled  by Rishyasringa  Rishi). 
Darshanas
Other  famous texts  in classic  Vedic  literatu re are the Vedanta  sutra  (also  known  as 
Uttara  mimamsa, Vedanta or Brahma  sutra), the Yoga sutras, Nyaya  sutras, Vaisesika 
sutras  and Sankhya. 
Together  with the Purva  mimamsa  (a general  definition  that includes  all the texts  dealing 
with the traditional  ritual  ceremonies,  that we have  already  exam ined),  these  Vedic  texts 
constitute  the Sad darshana, "the  six perspectives  of observation"  of knowledge or reality 
- knowledge and reality  that the Vedic system  considers  one reality  only : Brahm an.
As we have  alread y mentioned,  these  six perspectives  of observation  or "philosophical 
schools"  as they are defined  by western  acade mia, are astika, or based  on the acceptance 
of the authori ty of Vedic  scriptures.  On the contra ry, the nastika  darshana separate 
themselv es from such  autho rity by deny ing some of its principles  - as for example  the 
existence  of God or the soul,  the value  of ritual  ceremonie s or Deity worship,  and even 
dedication  to the  benefit and progress  of hu man society.
It is interesting  to note that the Vedic  system has never  tried to eliminate  any ideology, 
not even  agnosticism , atheism  or materialis m, because  it considers  them  as legiti mate  and 
respectable  points of view...  of course  as long as such  ideologies  do not requi re their 
followers  to act on some criminal  type of behaviors  that damage s innocent  and good 
people  who are under  the author ity of the king. Here  lies the boundar y line between  the 
legiti mate  freedo m of thought  and religion  on one side,  and the danger  from  which  the 
kshatriya is duty bound to p rotect the people  and the kingdom.  
Even  in such  case,  however  (as we have  seen  in the second  chapter  regarding  the 
difference  between  arya and anarya  communities)  the duty of the kshatriya is not to 
persecute,  imprison  or physically  eliminat e those  who profess  doctrines  of the criminal 
type, but to ensure  that such people  will not damage the civilized  population...  and this is 
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obtained  easily  by organizing  separate  settlem ents that have  little or no contact  between 
them, to guarantee the m aximum freedo m and happiness  possible  to all.
Nyaya 
We start the study  of the Darshanas  with Nyaya ("logic"),  that according  to some also 
includes  the philosoph y called  Vaiseshika ("of the unive rsal variet y" that covers 
cosmology  and physics)  formulated  by Kanada  Rishi  and the Sankhya ("anal ytic 
enunciation  of categories") for mulated  by Kapila Rishi.  
In a more  indirect way,  Nyaya is connected  to the science  of Yoga ("union")  and to the 
elaborations  of the Uttara  mimamsa or Vedanta  sutra, with  which  it shares  some 
categories.
First  of all it is necessary  to understand  that these  philosophical  systems, although 
apparently  different,  are not considered  opposed  or contradictor y to each other, but they 
are rather  comple mentary  as perspectives  of the same truth or reality . According  to the 
Vedic  ideolog y, the Absolute  Truth is that multi- dimen sional  harmonious  vision  of 
Reality that includes and  reconciles  all the various perspectives  or relative t ruths.  
The purpose  of the existence  of the variety  of perspective  is to allow  the philosophical 
debate  (vagvada) that helps  to widen  and deepen  the vision  and to expand  the mind,  thus 
making  people  mahatmas ("great  minds")  and leading  them  to prakasha 
("enlightenm ent")  and then moksha ("liberation" ).
 The Nyaya  shastra ("text on logic")  is attributed  to Akshapada  Gauta ma Rishi  and 
contains  538 sutras or aphorism s divided  in 5 sections  or books.  After  this texts,  a 
number  of commentaries  have  been  written,  such  as the Nyaya  bhasya  by Vatsyayana, 
Nyaya  varttika by Ud yotakara and Nyaya  varttika tatparyatika , Nyaya  suchinibandha  and 
Nyaya  sutraddhara  by Vachaspati  Mishra.  Othe r later  texts  have  been  compiled  by 
Udayana:  Nyaya  tatparyaparisuddhi  (com mentary to the work of Vachaspati  Mishra), 
Nyaya  kusumanjali  (demon stration  of God's  existence),  Atma  tattva  viveka (anal ysis of 
the nature of  the spiritual Self), Kiranavali and Nyayaparisistha .
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An important  ramifi cation  is the Buddhist  tradition,  that developed  a system  of logical 
debate  meant  to propagate  its doctrine  independentl y from the Vedic  autho rity, that 
Buddhis m does  not accept (being a nastika  darshana). 
Later,  the traditional  Hndu  school  of Nyaya merged  with  the Vaiseshika school  and 
therefore the  two Da rshanas  have practicall y becom e one only.
We need  to spend  a few words also to clarify  the difference  between  the concept  of logic 
in the Vedic  system  and the concept  of logic  in the conte mporary  acade mia of western 
type. 
Vedic  logic  does  not start from  the hypothesis  or opinion  but from a real substance  or 
realit y, whose  existence  has never  been  questioned,  and aims at understanding  this reality 
on a level  that transcends  logic itself,  with the result  of attaining  identification  with pure 
realit y, that is eternal  and happy.  In other  words,  knowledge  and reality  are one and the 
same.
Nyaya classi fies reality  and the expe rience  of reality  in 16 padarthas or categories: 
pramana (proof  or evidence),  prameya (objects  of knowledge),  samsaya (doubt), 
prayojana (purpose),  dristanta (example),  siddhanta (conclusion),  avayava (syllogism), 
tarka (hypothetical  reasoning),  nirnaya (comprom ise), vada (discussion),  jalpa (shallow 
argum ent),  vitanda (specious  argument),  hetvabhasa (illogical  argum ent),  chala 
(changing the topic), jati (elegant  rebuttal) and nigraha  sthana (point of defeat).
The valid  method s to obtain  knowledge  are pratyaksha (direct  perception),  anumana 
(deduction),  upamana (comparison)  and sabda (verbal  testimony).  The fallacious 
argum ents  are smriti (mem ory), samsaya  (doubt),  viparyaya (error) and  tarka 
(hypothetical reasoning).
The meaning  of pratyaksha refers  to the immediate awareness  of a factual  realit y, that 
can be ordinary  - as the evidence  presented  by the senses  or the mind  - or due to 
generalization  (samanya), the knowledge  acquired  through  study  or by special  perception 
abilities  that have  been  developed  through  the practice  of Yoga.  It can also be a precise 
feeling  that can be defined  with a name (savikalpa) or indetermined  or "without  name or 
description"  (nirvikalpa). 
Anumana, or deduction,  can be spontaneous  (svartha) or attained  through  a specific 
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method  (parartha) of 5 passages.  It can refer  to the effect  of a known  cause  or the cause 
of a known  effect,  or a simultaneou s existence  where  there  is no relation  of cause  and 
effect.  
The 5 passages  of the deductive  method  are the initial  declaration  (pratijna, "what  must 
be demonstrated"),  the reason  that sustains  the declaration  (hetu, or the reason  why we 
believe  that the initial  declaration  is true),  the reason  by which  we connect  the two ideas 
(udaharana), the application  to the first statem ent (upanaya) and the conclusion 
(nigamana). 
To make an example:  1. there  is a fire on the hill, 2. because  we see some smoke, 3. 
smoke  is always  associated  with fire, 4. therefore  the presence  of smoke demonstrates  the 
presence  of the fire, 5. therefore there is fire  on the hil l. 
In this  case  the hill is the  minor  term of comparison  (paksha), the fire is the m ajor term  of 
comparison  (sadhya), and the relation  between  smoke and fire is the connection  (vyapti). 
For the reasoning  to be valid,  the reason  (hetu) that supports  the reasoning  must be 
present  in the minor  term of comparison,  it must be unive rsally  valid  (it must be always 
present  in the positive  case and absent  in the negative  case ), must not be incompatible 
with the minor term of comp arison  (for exam ple, if we had a lake instead  of a hill) and 
must be free fro m any cont radictions.
The reasoning  must be free from  defects  (asiddha), that would  mani fest if the minor  term 
of comp arison  is unreal in itself  (for example  if instead  of a hill we have  a cloud 
formation  that looks  like a hill), if the reason  is incompatible  with the minor  term  of 
comparison  (for example,  the presence  of the hill must be perceived  by the sound  and not 
by the i mage)  and so  on. 
Upamana can be defined  as comp arison  or parallel,  and it refers  to the recognition  of 
something  that we have heard about in the past.
Verbal  evidence,  sabda, is defined  as the declaration  of a trustworthy  person,  preferabl y 
from the sruti or original scriptures  (sabda  brahman). 
Declarations  from other  persons  (laukika) are considered  questionable  or anyway of 
lesser  value co mpared  to the teachings  of the scriptures.
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The objects  of knowledge  are: dravya (substance),  guna (qualit y), karma (activit y), 
samanya (similarity ), visesha (difference),  samavaya (connection  or union ) and abhava 
(non-existence).  
In the categor y of dravya we find the Self (atman/  brahman), the mind,  time, the 8 
directions,  space,  air, fire, water  and earth.  The first 2 element s are subjects,  and the 
others  constitute  the world of objects.  The last 4 element s have  an atomic structure, 
where  the atom is defined  as an invisible  and non-d ivisible  particle.  Space  is 
characterized  by sound,  air by touch,  fire by heat,  water  by the cold feeling,  and earth  by 
smell.  
Guna and karma are the qualities  and activities  that are found  in substance s (dravya). 
Qualities  are described  as taste,  dimen sions,  fluidit y and pleasure,  while  the activities  are 
defined  as cont raction,  expansion and  move ment. 
The category  of samanya defines  objects  according  to their  common qualities,  for 
example  the definition  of "human  being",  while  the category  of visesha defines  the 
difference s among  the various substance s. 
The meaning  of samavaya (connection  or union)  refers  to a relationship  that exists  in a 
perm anent  way, as for example  between  fire and heat,  while  abhava indicates  a state of 
non-being, som ething  that does  not exist, as  for exa mple  light in darkness.
Vaiseshi ka
The "study  of differences"  compiled  by Kanada  Rishi  is based  on the material 
composition  of the unive rse, that can be reduced  to a calculable  number  of atom s. 
Because  it is a philosophical  system  based  on Vedic  authorit y, Vaiseshika recognizes  a 
transcendental  realit y constituted by  a supre me and unive rsal awareness.
Besides  the original Vaiseshika  sutra  and other  texts  that have  gone  lost, there  was a 
treatise  entitled Dasa  padartha  shastra  compiled  by Chandra,  of which  an ancient 
Chinese  translation  survives.  The objects  of experience  and the methods  for acquisition 
of knowledge  conte mplated  in this philosophical  system  are very similar  to the Nyaya, 
and we cannot  elaborate  much on these  subtleties  because  that would  entail  a long and 
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complex  elaboration that cannot  be done within this book.
The special  peculiarit y that we should  mention  here is about  the definitions  of paramanu 
(atom  endowed  with specific  individuality ) and trasarenu (groups  of 3 dyads of atoms, 
that are the s malle st visible  particle  of m atter). 
Sankhya
Unfortunately  the original  Sankhya  sutra by Kapila  Rishi  is now lost, and we only have 
its commentaries  written by Isvarakrishna  (Sankya  karika), Gaudapada  (Sankhya  karika 
bhasya), Vachaspati  Mishra  (Tattva  kaumudi) and Vijnana  Bhikshu  (Sankhya 
pravachana  bhasya). 
The focal  point  of this philosophical  system  is the interaction  between  purusha (spirit ) 
and prakriti (matter),  that gives  origin  to all the things  manifested  in the unive rse both at 
a gross  and at a subtle  level. 
Prakriti  is absolute,  eternal,  independent  and original;  it is composed  by the 3 subtle 
element s called  gunas - that are sattva (reality ), rajas (desire)  and tamas (igno rance)  - 
three inseparable  powers co mpared  to the fla me, the wick and the oil in a la mp.
Sattva is light, radiant,  lively  and illumin ating;  it produces  pleasure,  happiness, 
satisf action,  power for reflection and  move ment upwards. 
Rajas has a sanguine  (blood-based)  character  and produces  suffering,  restlessne ss, 
excessive  stim ulation,  constant  move ment and lack of  peace. 
Tamas is darkness,  the principle  of inertia,  and produces  apathy  and indifference, 
ignorance,  confusion,  and negativity . It is heav y and envelops  the consciousnes s, 
covering and extinguishing  its light.
This is the process  of mani festation  of the 25 element s listed and analyzed in detail by  the 
Sankhy a: prakriti or mahat ("the  great",  or the non-differentiated  principle  of matter), 
ahankara ("identification  with matter"),  manas (the mind),  the 5 senses  of perception,  the 
5 senses  of action  (or move ment organs  - mouth,  hands,  feet, anus and genital  organ),  the 
5 tanmatra (sense  perceptions),  the 5 mahabhuta (gross elem ents),  and the purusha, the 
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spiritual Self,  that is never touched by  matter.
Sankhy a teaches  that knowledge  can be obtained  through  pratyaksha (direct  perception), 
anumana (logical deduction) and sabda (verbal testim ony). 
The fundam ental  characteristics  of the Self (the purusha) are dharma  (ethical  virtue), 
jnana (knowledge),  vairagya (detach ment)  and aisvarya (power ). Under  the influence  of 
ignorance,  these  qualities  turn into their  opposites,  producing  the 3 types of sufferings 
(klesha) called  adhyatmika (caused  by one's  own body and mind),  adhibhautika (caused 
by other living beings) and adhidaivika (caused  by the natural elem ents).  
Yoga
Among  the Sanskrit  words that have  entered  the global  vocabularies  in the last decades, 
yoga is probably  the most famous, yet the original  knowledge  and the real meaning  of 
Yoga  are generally  unknown.
The most famous text on the subject  is Patanjali's  treatise  entitled  Yoga sutra and 
compos ed by 4  chapters  or padas, with a series  of aphorism s illustrating  samadhi (perfect 
conte mplation),  sadhana (spiritual  practice),  vibhutis (the faculties  that are acquired 
through  the practice)  and kaivalya (liberation).  Bhagavad  gita is a still wider  and more 
practical  source,  and each chapter  deals  with a step in the understanding  and the practice 
of Yoga.
The word  yoga literall y means "union"  and derives  from  the root yuj, that means "to 
unite,  connect,  control, discipline",  exactl y as yoking  horses or oxen  to a cart to pull it. In 
this sense,  yoga has the same primary  meaning  of the world "religion",  deriving  from 
Latin re-ligare, or "to connect,  unite" the hu man being to God.
The various  "yoga paths"  are actually  comple mentary  aspects  of the same discipline. 
They are classified  as karma (action),  jnana (knowledge),  bhakti (devotion ), buddhi 
(awareness),  sankhya (anal ysis of realit y), hatha  (balance  of energies  in the body  and the 
mind). 
The various  steps  of Yoga  are described  as yama (abstention),  niyama (prescriptions), 
asana  (control of the body), pranayama (contro l of breathing ), pratyahara (withd rawing 
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the sense s from the sense  objects),  dharana (mind  concentration),  dhyana (active 
meditation)  and  samadhi (constant  absorption,  where ignorance  and illusion  are 
completely vanquished).
Specifically,  the abstentions  are: ahimsa (non violence),  satya (truthfulness),  asteya 
(honest y),  brahmacharya (sexual  abstinence),  aparigraha (detachm ent).  The 
prescriptions  are saucha (cleanliness),  santosha (contentm ent),  tapas (self  control), 
svadhyaya (study  of the scriptures) and isvara  pranidhana  (dedication  to God ).
We take the oppor tunity  to infor m our reade rs about  the upco ming  publication  of a text 
focusing  specific ally on Yoga.
Vedanta  sutra
As we have  alread y mentioned,  the 3 basic  texts  of Vedic  knowledge  are Bhagavad  gita, 
Upanishads and Vedanta sutra.
The Upanishads are known  as sruti pramana  ("authorit y transmitted  by listening"  as part 
of the sruti scriptu res),  Bhagavad  gita  is known  as smriti  prasthana  ("autho rity 
transm itted by remembering"  as part of the smriti scriptu res)  and Vedanta is known  as 
nyaya  prasthana ("autho rity transm itted by logic" as  part of the nyaya scriptu res). 
The text of  the Vedanta is not ve ry large - it is onl y 555 aphorism s divided  into 4 chapters 
(adhyaya), each  consisting  of 4 sections  (pada), containing  groups  of sentences 
(adhikarana). 
The first chapter  is entitled  Samanvaya ("concurrence")  and explains  that the common 
harmoniou s purpose  of all the texts  of Vedic  knowledge  consists  in the realization  of 
Brah man - the transcendental  universal awareness.
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The second  chapter is  entitled  Avirodha ("absence  of conflict") and exa mine s the possible 
objections,  resolving  apparent  contradictions.  This is the chapter  on which  the various 
commentators  have  focused  more  extensively;  Adi Shankara's  commentaries  are meant 
especially  against  the Buddhist  and Jainist  philosophies  that were  preached  in his days, 
but also against  the distorted  perspectives  of the late followers  of sankhya, yoga, 
pancharatra and so  on. 
In turn,  the vaishnava commentators  that appeared  later  have  analyzed  those 
philosophical  and logical  distortions  they were  facing  in their  time,  including  those 
produced  by those  followers  of Adi Shankara  who had already  lost view  of the original 
meaning  and purpose  of the  discus sion:  to re -establish  the original Vedic authorit y.
The third chapter,  Sadhana ("the  method")  describes  how to attain  the transcendental 
realization,  and the fourth  chapter,  Phala ("the  fruits")  speak  about  the results  of 
liberation.
The Vedanta  sutra  is also called  Vedanta, Brahma  sutra, Uttara  mimamsa, Brahma 
mimamsa, Bhikshu  sutra, Sariraka  mimamsa or Nirnayaka  shastra. 
Vedanta means "the conclusion  of the Vedas", brahma refers  to the Supreme Brahman, 
mimamsa means "pursuit",  bhikshu refers  to sannyasis, nirnaya means "investigation", 
and sariraka means "of the body", intended  as a body  of knowledge  or jnana  kanda, as 
opposed  to the t reatises  on ritual procedures or karma  kanda. 
It is a deepl y philosophical  text based  on the logical  method  (nyaya), consisting  in very 
condensed  aphorism s, difficult  to understand  because  they can be interpreted  in many 
ways.  Actuall y it is not easy  to find editions  of the Vedanta  sutra  that are not 
accompanied  by one of  the com mentaries  of the various acharyas. 
The first and most famous commentary is the Sariraka  bhasya, written  by Adi Shankara, 
in turn elaborated  and commented upon  in very famous texts  such as the Panchapadika 
by Padmap ada Achar ya, Bhamati by Vachaspati  Mishra,  Nyaya  nirnaya  by Anandagiti, 
Bhasya  ratna  prabha  by Govindananda  and Bhasya  bhava  prakasika  by Citsukhacharya.  
These  commentarie s, too, have  been  commented in subsequent  times, thus creating  a 
considerable  amount  of philosophical  material - which  however  does  not constitute  an 
objective  scriptural  evidence  to be accepted  as apaurusheya, "above  the human level" 
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like the Vedanta and the other o riginal texts.  
The vaishnava  acharyas  too have  written  commentarie s to the Vedanta: Ram anuja  is the 
author  of the Sri bhasya, while  Madhvacharya  wrote the Brahma  sutra  bhasya, Nyaya 
vivarana, Anuvyakhyana  Brahma  sutra  anubhasya. Vallabha  wrote  the Anu bhasya and 
Nimbarka  the Vedanta  parijata  saurabha. Less famous commentarie s to the Vedanta 
have  been  written by Bhaskara,  Yadavaprakasha,Vijnanabhikshu  and Baladeva 
Vidy abhushana.  Among  the commentaries  to the commentaries  in the vaishnava field, 
the m ost famous author is Jayati rtha, who analyzed Madhva's  com mentary. 
The process  of analysis on the Vedanta  sutras  is based  on logical  discussion  composed 
by vishaya, samsaya or sandeha, purvapaksha, siddhanta  and sangati. 
Vishaya is the "object"  of discussion,  for example  (as in fact in the Vedanta) the pursuit 
of the knowledge of  Brahm an.
Samsaya  or sandeha means "doubt"  - in this case if it is actuall y possible  to know 
Brah man,  considering  that our original  awareness  is already  Brahman,  and that the 
existence  of Brahm an does  not depend on the result of  our research.
After  the statem ent of "doubt"  we find the purvapaksha  ("objection"  or "discussion"); 
Vedanta answers  that the pursuit of the knowledge  of Brahm an is necessary,  because  by 
dissipating  the ignorance  and illusion  that cove r the eternal and independent awareness  of 
the Brah man takes  us to the level  of liberation,  that is the natural and happ y state of Self 
realization, to which every one spontaneously  aspires.
Follows  the siddhanta or "conclusion":  the perfected  form of the initial  statem ent, that 
through  the process  of discussion  has been  liberated  from  all possible  misconceptions, 
and finally  we come to the agree ment  or sangati, "com mon goal",  where  all the 
participants  to the  debate recognize the objective truth and share it.
The conclusion  of Adi Shankara's  Sariraka  bhasya is summarized  by the famous 
declaration  (in the Brahma  jnanavali  mala): brahma  satyam  jagan  mithya,  jiva 
brahmaiva  na parah,  anena  vedyam  sat sastram,  iti vedanta  dindima,  "Brah man is 
realit y, the universe  is illusion,  and the living  being  is non-different  from  Brah man.  By 
understanding  these  (three points)  (we understand)  the scriptures:  this is the message of 
the Vedanta."
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The funda mental difference  between  the two existences  - Brahm an and material  universe 
- consists  in the fact that Brah man is consciousnes s (chit) while  matter is inert and devoid 
of consciousnes s (jada). While  consciousness  is unitar y, or free from duality , matter 
manifests in innumerable  different  form s and ele ment s. 
By utilizing logic applied to the unde rstanding  of the ultimate  reality , we can  demonstrate 
that the material  objects,  devoid  of awareness  (that are a temporary  variable)  depend  for 
their existence  on the t ranscendental  Realit y, that is  a constant and  permanent  substance.
It is i mportant  to unde rstand  what we m ean by "illusion"  (mithya). 
Some believe  that this definition  indicates  the complete  falsity  of matter, that simply 
"does  not exist",  but this is incorrect.  Matter  "is not" (maya  precisely  mean s "what  is 
not")  what  it seems to be, but it exists  (it is real)  as a projection  of the transcendental 
Reality, the Brahm an.
It is like the shadow  of an object,  that manifests in some particular  circum stance s of lack 
of light,  and disappears  when  the light  is present  on both sides  of the object  - that is, 
when  duali ty has been overco me.
We cannot  say that the shadow  is completely  devoid  of existence:  its existence  is 
secondary  because  it depends  on the object  proper,  but when  it mani fests we observe  a 
perceptible  effect,  as for exampl e a drop in temperature  in the area that is covered  by the 
shadow.  
Another  classical  example  is the cloud,  that is a temporary  manifestation  created  by the 
energy  of the sun, that evaporates  water  from the surface  of the planet.  The existence  of 
the cloud  depends  on the existence  of the sun, that is permanent  and independent,  and 
manifests in a cyclic  way moving  humidity  from  the surface  of the land up to the sky and 
then down  to earth  again.  In other  words, it is a temporary  transfor mation  (vivarta) that 
appears  to be different  from  the substance  that creates  it, and that is  alwa ys the sa me.
If we want  to use the language  of atomic  physics,  matter  is simply a temporary 
manifestation  of energ y, that is eternal  and all-pe rvading.  Even though  our senses 
perceive  matter as having  a solid  existence  while  energy  escapes  sensory  perception  and 
may seem  to be an abstract  concept,  the facts  are exactl y the opposite:  energ y is 
perm anent,  while  matter is always  in a transient  condition.  Everything  that exists  in this 
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world  consists  of various  forms of condensation  and manifestation  of energ y, and the 
supre me reality  is constituted by  the primary energy  of consciousnes s - Brahm an.
Translating  this concept  into the vedic  language,  we will say that pradhana (matter)  is 
nothing  by Maya,  the divine  illusor y mani festation  that constitutes  the inconceivable 
potency  of Brah man.  By overcoming  duali ty we can understand  that Maya,  illusion,  is 
nothing  but the "hidden  face"  of Vidy a, knowledge.  Just like electr ical energy  produces 
apparently  different  effect s in a fridge  and in an oven,  in a fan, a radio,  a computer  and a 
light  bulb, the primeval Shakti  of Brah man,  that is non-different  from Brahm an itself, 
manifests many for ms that appear to be different.  
In the same way, Brahm an ("trascendence")  is one but mani fests as Atman ("Self"),  that 
appears  to be localized  as Jiva ("individual  being").  It is not easy to understand  how this 
happens,  and in fact the entire  corpus of Vedic  scriptures  has been  compiled  to help the 
sincere  researcher who wants  to attain th is sublim e and fundam ental  realization. 
The "missing link"  of this mysterious  equation  is the figure  of Shiva,  of whom  Adi 
Shankara  is considered  a direct  incarnation,  precisely  appeared  to re-establish  the 
authorit y of Vedic  knowledge after several  centuries of  Kali yu ga. 
In fact Shiva is the supreme  Guru,  the personal  manife station  of Brahm an in the material 
world,  and occupies  an intermediate  position  between  Brahman  and Atman,  as Param 
Atman (Sup reme Self). 
Here  we need  to understand  that Shiva  and Vishnu  are the same Person,  but they simply 
have  different  Personalities.  Vishnu  or Naray ana is the Personalit y of Godhead  that is the 
One without  duality  and is in a completely  transcendental  dimension  called  Vaikuntha 
("without  anxiety" ), while  Shiva  mani fests in a form that appears  to be dualistic  - the 
androgy nous  ardha-naresvara  ("the Lord that is half  woman ").
Adi Shankara  states,  narayanah  aparo  avyakta, "Narayana  is Supreme  and non-
manifested",  precisely  because  he completely  transcends  matter.  When  Nara yana 
manifests in the material  world in the form  of Maha  Vishnu,  lying  on the Ocean  of 
Cause s (Karanodakasayi  Vishnu),  is called  Sadashiva,  "the eternal  Shiva".  This immense 
divine  form simply  remains  lying on the waters  (that  are the Prakriti ) and while  he is 
immersed in his mystic  sleep  (also  called  Yoga  Nidra, that is another  name  of 
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Maha maya)  Maha  Vishnu  emanates  all the unlimited  unive rses that appear  as seeds  from 
the pores of his body. At each  exhalation  of Maha  Vishnu  all the Brahm andas  ("the 
Brah man eggs")  are emanated  and at each inhalation  they are absorbed  again  into Maha 
Vishnu's  body , again  through  his pores.  Therefore  the entire cycle of cosmic 
manifestation  of the unive rse, lasting  for billions  of our years,  is included  in one mere 
breathing cy cle of  God.
During  the cosm ic manife station  period, within  each Brah manda  or "universal  egg" there 
is the mani festation  of a secondar y for m of Vishnu called  Garbhodakasayi Vishnu, who is  
"pregnant"  with  Brah ma (the first created  being),  who is born  from  the lotus  flower 
growing  from Vishnu's  navel.  Garbha precisely  means "fetus,  embryo".  From his own 
body  (that is very different  from the human  bodies  of this planet),  Brah ma manife sts the 
14 planetary system s or galaxies  of this universe,  and Vishnu  appears  inside  each  atom  of 
creation and in the heart of  each living being.
These  three manifestation s of Vishnu  are called  Purusha  avatara  ("mani festation s of the 
Self principle  descended  into the universe")  and are the Param Atman (supreme Self)  of 
material  mani festation  (Prakriti ). The devotees  of Vishnu  call them "Vishnu"  while  the 
devotees  of Shiva  call them  "Shiva",  but they are exactl y the same Person,  just like a 
human being  can be called  in different  ways  by different  persons  (for example  by his 
mother,  his wife  or his son), although he rem ains the same person.
The third  element  of the divine  Triad that constitutes  the focus  of the Vedic  of hindu 
tradition  is Prakriti, Nature,  the Mother  Goddess,  who is power  and form  through  which 
Vishnu/Shiva  mani fests both  in the material  and the spiritual  worlds.  In the spiritual 
world  it is known  as Para ("supre me")  Prakri ti, while  in the material  world  it transfor ms 
and manifests also as Apara  ("non  supre me")  Prakriti in the form of the material 
element s.
Here,  too, we must be very careful  to understand  this transfor mation of Prakriti,  because 
in the material  universe  Prakr iti appears  both as Para Prakriti (in the form  of chit shakti, 
the awareness  sof the living  beings)  and as Apara Prakriti  (in the form of the pradhana, 
the 8 ele ment s that are m erely material  or jada). 
Therefore  the living  beings  in this world are both  Jiva Atman  (individual  sparks  of 
Brah man)  and Prakriti (marginal  potency  of Brah man);  we could  say that they "posses s 
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the genetic  chromoso mes both of the father  and the mother  of the universe",  that is to say 
the m asculine  identit y or modality and  the feminine  identity  or modality  at the sam e time.
To sum marize these  deep technical  concepts,  we can say that: 
* Brah man includes  all beings  and all things.
* The Atman (the "Self")  is of the same nature  and existence  of Brahman  - pure 
consciousne ss, pure existence.
* The Jiva ("living" ) or Jiva Atman ("living  Self") is the Atman  that by taking  birth has 
beco me indiv idually  localized  - not in a geographical  or spatial  sense,  but at the 
conceptual  level.
* The Supreme Brahman,  Nara yana  (Vishnu),  is the transcendental,  non-mani fested 
Reality.
* Shiva  is the Brahman  that descends  in this world and enters  the heart  of each  living 
being as  their Pa ram Atman ("Supreme  Self" or "Self  of the Self").  
* Prakriti ("Nature")  is the inherent  potenc y of Brahman,  and also mani fests in the 
Atman.  She is described  as sat, "existence",  cit, "awareness"  and ananda, "happiness". 
But she is also rupa, "form ", shakti, "power",  vidya, "knowledge",  buddhi, "intelligence", 
trishna, "aspiration",  tushti, "satisfaction",  kshanti, "benevolence",  daya, "generosity", 
shanti, "peace",  jala, "water" and matri, "the Mother".  
Due to abraha mic ideological  infiltration,  some people  have  come  to think  that the cause 
of the problems of the conditioned  soul is Maham aya, the Divine  Mother  in her function 
of illusory  projection,  and therefore  we find some confused  people  who  delude 
themselv es of having  the power  to conquer  illusion  "by waging  war against  it" and 
disrespecting  Prak riti in her va rious  mani festations.  This offen sive approach cannot  work, 
and in fact brings  disastrous  results  because  it only amplifie s the illusory  tendencies  of 
ahankara (false  ego) and bends  the mind towa rds the lower  gunas of rajas (passion)  and 
tamas (ignorance). 
This prog ram is not recom mended  by any scripture. 
To understand  the futility  and foolishness  of this attitude,  we can bring  the exampl e of a 
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person  who is keeping  his eyes tight shut and tries to "wage  war against  darkness"  by 
trashing  and beating around in the environ ment  where he lives,  instead  of simply  opening 
his eyes to the  light.
The problem s due to illusion  are created  by ourselves  only, by our own perception,  and it 
is only by working  on our own  perception  abilit y, by eliminating  mistak es and 
misconc eptions,  that we  will be able to overcome  them  effectively.
The problem  of illusory  perception  is caused  by the superimpo sition  (adhyasa) of two 
distinct  concepts,  as for example  a rope and a snake:  this makes us see a rope as a snake, 
and the other way around.  It is a false  perception,  not a "false  realit y", because  the two 
concepts  of falsenes s and reality  are exactly  opposite  to each other. Mistaking  a rope for a 
snake  is maya, "what  is not", but the rope exists  in front  of us, and the snake  exists,  too, 
albeit in so me other p lace.
Thus  the Atman is perceived  as the material  body because  of the material  identification 
(ahankara or false  ego) and material  attachm ents (mamatva or sense  of posses sion).  This 
superi mposition  of the two concepts  - Atman  and matter - is due to ignorance  (avidya), 
which  is merely  lack of knowledge  (vidya) in one's  awareness.  Ignorance  is therefore  the 
cause  of mistakes  and misconception s (apavada) and must  be removed  by the prope r 
knowledge  received  from  the scriptures and fro m the Guru. 
This is the main  purpose  declared  by Vedanta, beginning  from its first verse:  "now  we 
enter the study of Brah man".
The four objectives  expressed  in the text are defined  as: 
1. adhikari, the person who engages  in action or stud y, 
2. vishaya, the nature or subject of  action or stud y, 
3. prayojana, the effect  or result of  action o r study, 
4. sambandha, the relationship between the  object of action (or stud y) and its effect.
The first 4 aphorism s of the text, known  as Chatus- sutri ("of 4 sutras") directl y elaborate 
on these  topics  and in fact are considered  the most important.  The answers  to these  4 
objectives  are known  as jijnasa ("the  pursuit  of knowledge"),  janmady  asya  ("since 
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birth" ), shastra  yonitva  ("being  the origin of the scriptures")  and samanvaya ("the general 
conclusion").  Such conclusion is  the "end of  the Vedas" indicated by  the word Vedanta.
Here  is the first sutra: atha atah brahma  jijnasa, "Therefore,  this is the mom ent to try to 
understand  Brahman. " (1.1.1 )
A person  who engages  in the study of the Vedanta  sutra  is one who wants  to know 
Brah man;  this desire  is sufficient  to qualify  a human being  as worthy of seeking  the 
knowledge,  because  it cannot  mani fest in someone  who has not attained  the required 
level of  evolution. 
To dissipate  illusion  and ignorance,  and to qualify  to attain  knowledge,  one must engage 
in the following  practices  (sadhana catushayam ): 
1. viveka  ("abil ity to discri minate  between  sat and asat"), 
2. vairagya ("renunciation"  to the subjective  ego and to the attach ments  that prevent  us 
from seeing  objectively ),
3. satka  sampatti  (the "six qualifications  of the mind",  that are sama, "equanim ity", 
dama, "self- control", uparathi, "detach ment  from sensory  distractions",  titiksha, "tolerant 
perseverance",  sraddha, "faith"  in the scriptu res and in the teacher,  samadhanam, 
"peacefulne ss") and 
4. mumukshutva ("strong desire to attain liberation").
This is the second  sutra: janmadi  asya atha,  tat brahma, "Brahm an is what  originated  all 
this" (1.1.2)
Brah man has been  described in various Upanishads. 
Taittirya  upanishad  states:  "That  from  which  the world  has been  created,  in which  the 
world  exists  and in which  the world  will re-enter  at the time of dissolution,  is known  as 
Brah man."  
Kena  upanishad  declares:  "That  which  cannot  be expressed  by words, but from  which 
words the mselves  obtain the power to exp ress - know that is  Brahman."
Brihad  aranyaka  upanishad tackles  the subject  by the neti, neti system - by explaining 
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what is  not Brahm an.
The acharyas explain that this  method  is called  vyavritta  lakshana ("by  elimin ation").  
The second  method,  tatastha  lakshana  ("intermediary")  consists  in explaining  Brah man 
as the witness  of all the activities  in the world.  The word kutastha derives from kuta, 
"anvil",  and offers  the image  of a stable,  solid,  unchangeable  support  on which  all things 
take shape.  Brah man is therefore  the existence  that sustains  the three changing  phases 
(avastha) of wakefulne ss, dream and deep sleep.  
The third  method  for explaining  Brah man is svarupa  lakshana  ("direct")  and consists  in 
understanding  its compon ents of sat, "existence",  chit, "consciousne ss" and ananda, 
"happiness".  
Unlike  the two previous  method s, that are considered  instru mental  (nimitta) for the 
preliminary  elimination  of misconception s, this method  takes  us directly  to the 
conte mplation  of the Absolute.  
These  qualit ies that constitute  Brahman  are not its "parts"  but they a re its  very natu re, that 
is inseparable  (akhanda). They also are the same funda mental qualities  of our real Self 
(atman), that can  be di rectly pe rceived  as soon  as ignorance  and il lusion  are dissipated.
Here is  the thi rd sutra: shastra  yonitvat, "it is the origin of the scriptures".  (1.1.3)
Brah man is the sum total of consciousnes s and therefore  omniscient,  and this complete 
knowledge  originated  the expression  of knowledge  that we find in the scriptures.  At the 
same time, the knowledge  contained  in the scriptures  is the testimony  or evidence  of the 
existence  of Brahm an, that can be  known th rough the scriptures.
Here  it is important  to understand  that the definition  of shastra  does not refer  specifically 
to a certain  number  of written  texts  compiled  in particular  historical  periods  - because 
these  can be  tampered  with, distorted, or lost in the events  of this world. 
This idea, that is rathe r widespread in so me milieus,  derives  from the m istaken  concept  of 
authorit y according  to the followers  of the so-called  "historical  religions",  by which  the 
existence  of the text itself  (irrespective  of its contents) constitutes  evidence  of the validit y 
of their faith.
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In the Vedic  system  the concept  of "scriptural  evidence"  is rather  applied  to the original 
knowledge of which  such  text simply constitute  a record.  The texts  that were  compiled 
"historically"  come  and go, but Knowledge  itself  remains,  eternal and alwa ys attainable 
independently b y any self-realized  soul in an y time  and place.
For this reason,  a person who tries to know  Brah man should  study the scriptures  through 
the direct contact with a  genuinel y qualified Guru - a person who has  actuall y realized the 
Self. 
Without  this fundam ental  qualification,  any other  favorable  quality  (disciplic  lineage, 
scholarship,  birth in a good  family,  abilit y to attract many disciples,  fame etc) becom es 
irrelevant  and can even  constitute  a detrimental  factor  when  it causes  an increase  in 
material  identification  and material  attachment s. These  can be easily  seen in the public 
and private behavior of  the pe rson who wants  to pass  as Guru.
An important  note to this effect  is about  the physical  presence  of the Guru.  In the initial 
stage  of his/her  search,  a neophyte  generall y needs  a guide  that s/he can clearl y hear. 
Such  guide  must carefully  watch  the progress  of the student,  and therefore  the tradit ional 
method  consists  in physicall y approaching  a Self- realized  soul and residing  in his/her 
ashrama for a certain period,  directl y interacting  at a personal  level  especially  with 
questions  and answers  and engaging in his/her service.
Later,  the relationship  with  the Guru beco mes established  at a deeper  level  and the 
disciple  beco mes able to directly  connect  to the Guru  in his/ her own heart.  Because  the 
relationship  with the Sat Guru  ("the  spiritual  teacher")  is eternal  and continues  lifetim e 
after  lifeti me, we can see that some people  seem to be "beginning  their  spiritual life" 
without  having  any direct visible  interaction  with a physicall y present  Guru  or with the 
official  representatives  of the disciplic succes sion founded  by such  Guru. 
Actually  these  people  are simply  resuming  their spiritual  journe y that began  in previous 
lifeti mes, where  they alread y met the Sat Guru  and therefore  they do not need  to accept 
"a new eternal Gu ru to who m they  will rem ain faithful  lifetim e after lifetim e".
It is not easy to understand  the nature  of the concept  of Guru - the guru  tattva  - especially 
because  in Kali yuga there are many dishonest  people,  who are unqualified  and greed y 
for fame and followers,  and who confuse  the ideas  of less knowledgeable  people,  ruining 
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the lives  of their followers  and creating enormou s damage  to society in general. 
Actually  all genuine  and qualified  Gurus  speak  and act exclusively  as representatives  of 
the supre me Guru, the Param Atman,  who resides  in the heart  of every being.  A realized 
soul does not have  "his own personal  material"  (created  by the egotism  of ahankara and 
mamatva) that obstructs  the pure transmission  of knowledge  by inserting  some material 
motivations.  Therefore  s/he is simply  a "transparent  mediu m" or a "messenger"  of the 
supre me Self.
Thus  all the genuine  Gurus must say the same thing...  there  cannot  be genuine Gurus  who 
do not agree with each  othe r and/or with the conclusions  of the scriptures.
When  such  contradictions  appear,  the disciple  has the duty to ask all the necessary 
questions  until  s/he is fully  satisfied,  and the Guru  must  continue  to explain,  also using 
example s and practical  applications,  how apparent  contradictions  are merely  differences 
of vision, due to the particular space-ti me perspective  of the  observer. 
If the Guru refuses  to give such explanation  by claiming  a dogmatic  author ity, or even  by 
resorting  to silence  or intimid ation,  s/he is simply  demonstrating  his/ her own lack of 
qualifications.  
Here  is the fourth  sutra: tat tu samanyayat, "but through  the agreem ent (of the statements 
of the scriptures)". 
Study ing the scriptures  and hearing the Guru's  teachings  we find a great  quantity  and 
variet y of statem ents,  that sometimes may seem  contradictory . In the original  scriptures 
and in the genuine  Guru such  contradictions  are only apparent  and are meant to widen 
our field  of unde rstanding,  eliminating  the mental  barriers consisting  of prejudiced  and 
limiting  patterns. 
For exampl e, we read that Brah man is both  nirguna ("without  attributes")  and saguna 
("with attributes"),  that it is unlimitedly  small and unlimitedly big, very far and very near, 
and so  on. 
By widening our understanding we see  that such  apparent contradictions are reconciled in 
a multi- dimensional  vision  - for exam ple, when  we understand  that the attribu tes of 
Brah man are not the ordinar y material  type that can be observed  in matter,  but they are of 
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a spiritual  type, transcendental  and absolute.  In other  words,  Brahm an possesse s both the 
specific  quality  and its opposite.  For this reason,  it is important  to beco me detached  from 
mental  patterns  and identifications,  and overcom e the limitation s of dualit y.
Here  is the origin  of the long controvers y between  the supporters  of the advaita ("non -
dual")  philosophy  and the dvaita ("dual" ) philosoph y, generall y described  as 
"impersonali sts" and "personalists"  respectivel y. Actuall y the contradiction  between  the 
two perspectives  is simply due to a lack of understanding  of the subject.  The great 
acharyas of the Indian middl e ages have  amply  elaborated  on this problem  to help us 
overco me the li mitations  of the dualistic  material  logic.
Adi Shankara  has explained  the nature of Brah man simply as advaita, "non  dual",  which 
is amply  confirm ed also in Bhagavad gita and Upanishads. 
However,  it is not easy to understand  that this non-duali ty posse sses unlimited  qualities, 
although having no qualities.  
The great  acharyas who appeared  later have  continued  the teaching  work by presenting 
the same Knowledge  in perspectives  that are slightl y different  from each other, so that we 
can have a vision that is  as multi- dimen sional  as possible.  
Ramanuj a, who appeared  a few centuries  after Adi Shankara,  proposed  the vision  called 
visista  advaita, "non-dualit y characterized by  variet y".
More  than one centur y later, Madhva  presented  his perspective  called  visista  dvaita, 
"duality  with  variet y", that constitutes  an extre me vision,  at the opposite  side of the 
kevala  advaita ("pu re and si mple  non-duality" ). 
The perspectives  called  dvaita  advaita, or "simultan eous  duali ty and non-duality " and 
suddha  dvaita, or "spiritual  duality"  have  been  presented  respectively  by Nimbarka  and 
Visnusva mi, the other  two vaishnava  acharya  that are most famous for their teachings  on 
Vedanta.
Still more  recently  we find Chaitanya's  perspective,  defined  as acintya  bhedabheda, or 
"inconceivable  simultan eous  diversit y and non-dive rsity (dualit y and non-duali ty)" that 
rightl y puts the issue  of Brah man  realization  on a level  that goes  beyond  mere 
intellectualis m, in which the students  of Vedanta risk falling  because  of the fascination  of 
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logical debate  in itself.
In fact Chaitan ya preached  the primary  importance  of bhakti, devotion  towards  the 
Supreme  Brah man in its forms of Paramatm a and Bhagavan,  that enables  us to cross  the 
abyss  of intellectual  elaborations  beyond  which  we can find the pure  perception  of 
Reality.  In turn,  the basic  teaching  of Chaitan ya has been  elaborated  by his followers, 
especially  by the six Gosvam is of Vrindavana  - Rupa,  Sanatana,  Jiva,  Raghunatha  dasa, 
Raghunatha  Battha,  Gopala  Bhatta  - who compiled  a great variet y of philosophical  texts 
on the subject,  commenting  the teachings  of the original  Vedic  scriptures  in the light of 
Chaitanyas'  vision. 
More  specifically it was  Baladeva  Vidyabhushana,  with his  Govinda bhasya , who applied 
Chaitanya's  vision  to the interp retation  of the Vedanta  sutra, albeit  in relatively  recent 
times - in the 18th century . 
It is important  to unde rstand  that according  to the perspective  of the genuine  acharyas, 
the difference s of opinions  expressed  in their commentarie s are meant to offer  a variet y 
of perspectives  on the same reality(tattva), that are not in competition  between 
themselv es, but rather  should  help us to widen  our field of unde rstanding  by reconciling 
apparent  differences,  exactly  like the statement s of the various  genuine  scriptu res. Of 
course  this applies  only to the teachings  of the realized  souls,  not to the mental 
speculations  of those  "empirical"  philosophers  that are simply grappling  for answers  or 
want  to establish  their  beliefs  in a dogmatic  form, as an "absolute  truth",  considered  as 
such only because  it destro ys other  truths  by stamping  them  as falsenes s a priori because 
they are presented  by the "opponents".
Unfortunately  this negative  tendency  is supported  by the western-ty pe mainstrea m 
acade mia, where  the study  of philosoph y has completely  lost the view  of the purpose  of 
the acquisition  of knowledge  of realit y, and has becom e a "history  of hypothetical 
speculation"  that leads  the students  to conclude  that reality  does  not exist,  that the 
knowledge  of realit y is not possibile  and that anywa y nothing r eally  makes sense.  
According  to this perspective  a seeker  of reality  must choose  a "school  of thought" 
founded  by a "great  thinker"  and beco me a faithful  follower,  strictl y uniforming  his 
mental  structures  to adapt  them  to the dogmatic  boundaries  established  by the 
"ideological  autho rity", a typically  abraha mic concept  that has nothing to do with the 
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search  for knowledge in its  original m eaning.
This same tendenc y to classi fy speculative  opinions  as "different  philosophies"  that are 
equally  worth y of being  studied  but incompatible  among  themselv es and totall y relative, 
is then applied  by the so-called  "acade mic indology "  also to the Vedic  darshanas 
("perspectives  of vision"),  with  devastating  results.  Instead  of leading  to a greater 
understanding,  the fragm entary  and sectarian  study of the Vedic  philosophical 
perspectives  creates  a schizophrenic  confusion  and directs  the energies  of the sincere 
seekers  towards  a never ending par tisan  struggle between  factions,  that becom e engrossed 
into the only occupation  of abusing  each other out of a perverted  sense  of loyalty for their 
own "cam p", something  that is certainly  not prescribed  by the Vedic  texts  and that does 
not help to better understand Vedic  knowledge.
The subsequent  aphorism s, from 5 to 11, confir m that according  to the scriptures  only 
Brah man,  the intelligent  and conscious  principle,  can be the cause  of the mani festation  of 
the universe.
Here  is the famous aphorism  12: anandamayah  abhyasat, "its nature is constant 
happiness".  
Here  anandamaya refers  to the description  of the Upanishads by which  the living  being 
is "a body " made  of happiness,  anandamaya, surrounded  by "bodies"  that are 
increasingly  grosser,  made respectively  of intelligence  or knowledge  (jnanamaya), mind 
(manomaya), life energy  (pranamaya) and gross matter  (annamaya) assim ilated  to the 
food.  This Atman,  made of pure happiness,  is non-different  from Brahman  that is the 
complete  and absolute  Reality,  except  for being  appa rently  and temporarily  covered  by 
material  identification.  
The subsequent  aphorism s up to 19 further  elaborate  on the concept  of Atman- Brah man 
in the light of  the declarations of  the Vedas and the Upanishads.
Aphorism  20 presents  a new argument:  antah  tat dharma  upadeshat, "(Brah man)  is 
within and its  essential  nature ( that supports  existence) is  (manif ested)  by teachings".  
This  description  presents  Param atma, the localized  mani festation  of Brah man that is 
inside  each being  as the supre me Self.  The same supre me Existence  is worshiped  in the 
Sun,  in the Devas  and in the Vedas. The next apho risms present  it as the life energ y 
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(prana), light (jyoti) and etheric space  (akasha). 
In the second  chapter (apho rism 11) we find  that Brahm an and At man (atmanau, "the two 
Atmans ") enter  into "the cave"  (guham) of the material  body  or the cosmos, that is the 
material  body of the Virat Purusha,  and Brah man in the form  of Paramatm a (antaryami, 
"that  is inside",  apho rism 1.2.18 ) supports  the existence  of the body  and of all the 
element s, although it remain s invisible to the hu man eye. 
The text further  explains  that the knowledge  of Brah man can only be achieved  by the 
human beings  that have  purified  themselves  through  the perfor mance  of the samska ras 
and the observance  of the Vedic  rules  in life habits.  It is important  to unde rstand  here that 
the definition  of sudra does  not refer  to a birth condition,  but to the qualities,  the 
tendencies  and the  activit ies that a hu man being has  developed  at the time  of m aturity.
In this regard,  we can refer  to chapter  2 of this book  on the history  of the study  of Vedic 
knowledge  in India. 
After  refuting  all the misunderstanding  created  by the distort ion of the original  doctrines 
of the scriptures,  the text of the Vedanta  sutra  continues  to explain  the difference  and 
non-difference  between  Brahman  and Atman,  stating  that Atman  is a reflection  (abhasa) 
of Brahm an (apho rism 2.3.50 ). 
The text speaks  also about  prana and the senses,  and the develop ment  of the various 
element s of creation,  the incarnation  and reincarnation  of Atman,  the different  states  of 
consciousne ss, and the practical exam ples to meditate  on Brahm an. 
It explains  the rules  for the ashramas and the condition of those who have  fallen  from the 
level  of behavior  required  for their  position,  the deter mination  needed  to attain  Self 
realization and liberation, and existence  on the liberated level.
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Agama and  Tantra
Another  group  of traditional  scriptu res in Vedic  knowledge  is the Agamas, that include 
Tantra,  Mantra  and Yantra. 
These  name s have  filtered  into western  culture  in the last decades  but often  the artificial 
superi mposition  of different  cultural  concepts  has caused  even  serious  misunderst andings 
- many of the so-called  "courses on Tantra"  boil down  to a sort of sex counseling  to 
improve  couple  relationships,  often  in combination  with what  passe s as "Yoga",  but is a 
system  of exotic gymnastic s, with a strong tendency to conto rtionism .
Reality is different,  and m uch deeper and  more  complex.  
The word  tantra means "power"  and refers  to the divine  power  that is directl y contacted 
by the sadhaka ("adept,  spiritual  practitioner" ) through  the precise  and scientific 
technology  of archet ypal resonance.  
Vedic  cultu re teaches  the concept  of direct correspondence  and connection  between  the 
macrocos m and the microco sm, offering  a specific  knowledge  that enables  one to go 
beyond theory  and to apply  the equation  also, and above  all, to p ractice.
As we have  seen (in the first chapter  of this book)  in the declarations  of the scientists  that 
approached  Vedic  knowledge,  western  empirical  physics  has only recentl y started  to 
understand  this extremely  ancient  science  that constitutes  the "instruction  manual"  of the 
universe.
The power  of tantra rests  on the two concepts  of mantra and yantra, that are closely 
connected  to it, and equall y deep and subli me.
A mantra is a very specific  sound  vibration,  while the yantra is a very specific  geometric 
diagram . 
It is important  to unde rstand  that these  are not artistic  creations  based  on fantasy  or 
aesthetic  sense,  or on a literal meaning  or on the imitation  of "natural  sounds"  as some 
people  imagine.  
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The aesthetic  product  of musician s, linguists  or painters  that whim sically  take liberties  in 
freely  or vaguely  imitating  the original  mantras  and yantras  of Vedic  tradition  can never 
have  the same results,  just like a mathe matic equation  created  by a person  who does not 
know  the mathematical rules  and the meanings  and functions  of the various  components 
can never be considered valid and correct, and cannot bring effective  results.
On the other  hand,  there  is a greater  freedo m of interp retation  in the meaning  and 
utilization  of the mandala ("circle",  equivalent  to the Tamil  word kolam  and the Prakrita 
word  rangoli or alpana), that is used  to circu mscribe  the space  where the yantra or 
geometrical  form of the Deity will mani fest. Although  it is always  better  to follow  the 
scientific  geometrical  shapes  of the traditional  mandalas, it is possible  to apply  creative 
modification s by combining  the basic  sche mes. 
However,  this is impos sible  when  drawing  yantras, which  simply  "will  not work"  when 
they are traced in a way that is not perfectl y correct.
The philosophers- scientists  of ancient  Greece  (especially  the Pythago reans)  considered 
music and geom etry (and mathematics) as the foundation  for the knowledge  of the 
universe,  a secret  knowledge  accessible  only to few initiates.  In India this knowledge 
constituted  the main  foundation  of Vedic  culture,  and was brought  to a very compl ex 
level.
Galileo  took up these  studies  in the middle  ages,  as he explains  in his Dialogo  dei due 
massimi  sistemi  del mondo (Dialogue on the two greatest  system s in the world, banned  by 
the Inquisition  but published  in Holland),  a work that was continued  by Robert  Hooke 
(1680 ) and  Ernst Chladni  (1787). 
In 1967  Hans  Jenny  called  this science  kymatik or cymetics ("science  of vibrations"),  or 
the study of the visible  form  of sound  and sound  vibrations.  Experiment al observations  of 
this science  are conducted  on a suitable  surface,  ideall y a "Chladni  plate"  or a membrane 
covered  with  a thin layer of particles  in the form of solution,  paste  or powder.  The 
different  sound  frequencies  immediately create perfect  and compl ex geometrical  form s.
In 1999  Masaru  Emoto  published  his research,  connecting  cymetic s with  the human 
biomagnetic  field  and observed  its results  on wate r molecule s (crystallized  through 
freezing).  As we know,  water  is the main  compon ent of the human  body and of the 
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structure of  the majority of  living o rganis m, both animal  and vegetal.
In the light  of such  infor mation,  we will be bette r able to understand  the meaning  of 
mantra,  yantra and tantra, whose  knowledge is detailed  in the  Agamas.
There  are 3 main categories  of Agamas - called  Vaishnava,  Shaiva  and Shakta  - dealing 
respectively with the wo rship  of the  Deit y in t he form s of Vishnu, Shiva e Shakti. 
Each  of these  Agamas contains  4 parts,  dealing  respectivel y with the philosophical  and 
spiritual  knowledge  of the Deity  (vidya or jnana), the method  of conte mplation  or 
sadhana  (yoga), of the ritual aspects  (kriya) and the general  behavior  and lifestyle  of a 
devotee  (charya  or achara).
The  Agamas'  place  within  the corpus of Vedic  knowledge  has been  a subject  of 
controvers y, because  they are generally  listed  separatel y. However,  it is evident  that the 
knowledge  contained  in the Agamas is directl y connected  to the Vedic  texts  and more 
precisely to the Atharva  Veda, maybe  even constituting  its original for m. 
In fact it is the Agamas that originall y contain  the bija mantras  ("seed  sounds")  that is the 
basis  of the ri tual worship  and the recitation of all mantras.
The Vaishnava  Agama  are the Pancharatra, Vaikhanasa, Pratistha  sara  and Vijnana 
lalita.  In turn,  Pancharatra is divided  into 7 groups  of texts,  attributed  respectively  to 
Brah ma, Shiva, the  Kumaras,  Vasistha,  Kapila, Gauta ma and Narada. In all, these  are 215 
texts,  of which  the most important  are the Samhitas  known  as Isvara,   Ahirbudhnya, 
Paushkara,  Parama,   Sattvata, Brihad -Brahma  and Jnanamritasara.
The Pancharatra system  is specifically  followed  in the temple  of Venkatesvara  at 
Tirupati  and in the temple  of Parthasarathi  at Chennai  (Madras),  while  the Vaikhanasa 
system  is followed  especially  in the temple  of Ranganatha  ar Srirangam  and in the temple 
of Varadaraja at Kanchi.
The traditional  Shaiva  Agamas were  originall y 28, of which  the most important  is the 
Kamika, and each of them  has some Upa-Agamas or secondary  texts;  in all only about  20 
texts  have survived. 
This  knowledge  has given  origin  to the Shaiva  siddhanta  in south  India  and to the 
Kash miri Shaivis m (also called Prat yabhijna ) in north I ndia. 
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There  are also 3 other  agam ic traditions  that focus  on the worship  of Shiva  - called 
Kapala,  Kalam ukha  and Pasupata  - that a re also connected  to the wo rship  of Shakti. 
The  Shakta  Agamas  are also known  collectivel y as Tantras and are considered 
particularl y important  because  the ritual  worship  and meditation  offered  to Vishnu  and 
Shiva cannot be  separated fro m those  offered  to their S haktis.
Presentl y there  are 77 Shakta  Agamas, of which  64 are listed  in the Vamakeshvara in this 
order:  Mahamaya,  Shambhara,  Yoginijala-shambhara,  Tattva-shambhara,  
Bhairavashtaka (Asitanga,  Ruru,  Chanda,  Krodha,  Unmatta,  Kapali,  Bhishana, 
Sanghara), Bahurupashtaka (the 8 Tantras  of the 7 Matrikas  and Shivaduti ), 
Yamalashtaka (Brahmayamala,  Vishnuyamalam,  Rudrayamala,  Lakshmiyamala,  
Umayamala,  Skandayamala,  Bhaskara or Jayadrathayamala ), Ganeshayamala,  
Grahayamala,  Mahochchushya,  Vatula,  Vatullotara,  Hridbheda,  Tantrabheda, 
Guhyatantra,  Kamika,  Kalavada,  Kalasara,  Kubjikamata,  Tantrottara,  Vinatantra, 
Trodala,  Trodalottara,  Panchamrita,  Rupabheda,  Bhutoddamara,  Kulasara, 
Kuloddhisha,  Kulachudamani,  Sarvajnottara,  Mahakalimata,  Mahalakshmimata,  
Siddhayogeshvarimata,  Kurupikamata,  Devarupikamata,  Sarvaviramata,  Vimalamata, 
Purvamnaya,  Pashchimamnaya,  Dakshinamnaya,  Uttaramnaya,  Niruttara,  Vaisheshika, 
Jnanarnava,  Virabali, Arunesha,  Mohinisha, Vishuddesvara . 
In the tradition  of Tantra the Mother  Goddess  is called  Dasa  Mahavidya,  "the  10 form s of 
Great Knowledge":
1. Kali or Kalaratr i ("the  black  night"),  Time  that devou rs everything,  the rhythmic cycle 
of the universe and the  destruction of all obstacles,
2. Tara ("the brigh t star"  or "she who liberates"),  guiding  the devotee  in his/ her journey 
and research,
3. Sodashi  ("16 years old"), also called  Rajarajesvari  ("the Lady of the kings  of kings")  or 
Lalita  Maha  Tripurasundari  ("the  beautiful  and playful"),  the power  of Beauty  in the 
universe,
4. Bhuvanesvari  ("the  Lady of the universe")  or Maya  ("energ y"), the power  of Creation 
that generates  ever ything,
393

5. Chinnam asta ("the  beheaded"),  Intuition  or Inspiration:  that immediate and direct 
intelligence  transcending  the logial and rational mind,
6. Bhairavi ("the terr ible"), the divine Wrath that destroys the negative powers;  she is  also 
called  Chidagni  ("the  fire of awareness"),  Tejas ("splendor  or powe r") that controls  the 
subtle  form s of the senses,  and Tapas  ("austerity ") or the power  of the desire  to obtain  a 
higher purpose,
7. Dhumav ati ("smoke- like")  is the Crone,  and represents  the knowledge  gathered 
through a long and painful  exper ience,
8. Bagala mukhi ("that  bridles  the mouth"),  is Control,  the enunciation  of the final truth, 
the hidden  presence  of opposites  one inside  the other,  the power  to turn defeat  into 
victor y,
9. Matangi  ("whose  body is made of thought")  is Knowledge,  the secret  form  of 
Sarasvati,  the powe r of the primeval  creative sound,
10. Ka mala  ("lotus  flower") is the secret  form  of Lakshmi, who fulfills  all desires.
In the practical  application  of the Tantra  of Shiva and Shakti  there are 3 schools,  called 
respectively  Dakshinachara  ("of the right  hand" ), Vamach ara ("of the left hand")  and 
Mishra  ("mixture").  
Another  sub-division  considers  the 7 categories  of Vedachara,  Vaishnavachara,  
Shaivachara, Dakshinachara,  Vamach ara, Siddhantachara and Kaulachara. 
The Dakshinachara  or Samayachara  path  follows  the Vedic  rules  and is generall y 
practiced  by brahmanas; the form of the Mother  Goddess  worshiped  in this tantric 
system  is Maha  Tripura Sundari.
The Vamach ara or Kaulachara  path  (followed  for exampl e by the famous Aghoris) 
observes  rules  that are diametrically  opposite  to the Vedic  (arya) rules,  especiall y in 
regard  to the concept  of cleanliness  or conta mination,  and utilize  the raw power  of the 
sense s and matter to access  the heart of material  energ y and overcome  one's  limitating 
identifications.  The for m of the Mother Goddess  worshiped in this  system is Bhairavi.
394

The path called  Kaulachara  is particularly  famous for the worship  method  called  Pancha 
Ma-kara or Pancha  tattva, "of the five Ms" or "of the five realities"  - Maithuna or sexual 
union,  Madya or psychotrop ic substance s including  alcohol,  Mamsa or animal meat, 
Matsya or fish  and Mudra or roasted  grains. 
Its followers  liberall y use these  element s of sense  gratification  during  the ritual 
ceremonies  to "feed  the tiger"  of the inner  energ y with the qualities  of rajas and tamas 
(passion  and ignorance) of which they feel the power. 
By worshiping  this "raw"  power  in the form of the Divine  Mother,  they can attain  the 
realization  of their own transcendental  identit y by overcoming  the identification  with the 
limitations  of body and mind.  
However,  this is a dangerous  path on which  any shortcoming  in knowledge  or awareness 
can cause  a downfall  into degradation  and put one in touch  with lower  (and not highe r) 
entities,  just like we risk being  electrocuted  by an electrical  discharge  when  we work  at a 
high-voltage t ransmission  line.
When  we take Tantra lightly , we may end up depending  not on the inner  divine  powe r 
within  ourselves,  but on the powers  of some evil ghost  or spirit,  that can certainly  show 
up during  rajasic  or tama sic rituals,  and develop  a bond  with us, of which  we may not 
clearly  understand  the terms and the ru les. 
In this category  of "black"  Tantra  we find the 6 arts of control  - shanti to avoid  accidents 
and diseases,  vasikarana to keep  the minds  of other people  under  control, stambhana to 
obstruct  the movements of other people,  vidveshana to create  quarrel  and 
misunderstanding s among  other  people,  ucchatana to repel or send  people  away  and 
marana to kil l. 
It is important  to unde rstand  that the exercise  of such arts is based  on the exploitation of  a 
power  that does not come  free of charge, and especially  when  one tries to harm innocent 
or even good people, the  karmic reactions  are very heavy.
On the other  hand,  the Dakshinachara  and Mishra  path replace  these  lower  energies  with 
more sattvic  or even  transcendental  elements.  Thus at an ordina ry level  the ritual 
ceremonies  include  the "five realities" in the form  of flowers, green coconut  juice, ginge r, 
radishes  (or spinach)  and boiled g rains  respectivel y. 
395

At the level  of the Yoga  practice,  these five realities  consist  of the mystic  union  between 
the male and female energ ies within  one's  body, by the liquid  that is produced  with the 
tongue  tip when  it is rolled  back  and upwards  in the Kechari  mudra,  by the Kechari 
mudra  itself  (by which  one "swallows"  one's  own  tongue,  that is "flesh"),  by the 
activation  of the two currents  Ida and Pingala  within  the spinal  cord (that move like two 
swimming fishes),  and by the gestures  or positions  of the body that facilitate  the passage 
of Kundalini in the spinal cord. 
At the inner  level,  they are constituted  by the union  of the individual  ego with  the 
Absolute,  by the nectar  of the contemplation  on the Divine,  by silence,  breathing  control 
and concentration  techniques.  These "pure" options  are certainly  recom mended,  because 
in Kali yuga it is extremely  difficult  to channel  and ride the raw energ ies of matter 
without  being  devoured  by them: this is precisely  the meaning  of traditional  iconog raphy 
showing  the tige r as the symbol  of Tant ric practice.
In any case the tradition  of Tantra also includes  a practice  called  dig bandha  ("binding 
the directions"),  a system of mantras that, when  pronounced  correctly , form  a protective 
barrie r that cannot  be penetrated b y negative energies.  
A similar effect  is given  by the kavacha ("armour"),  also compo sed by mantras, that 
creates  a specific  protection for the person  rather than for the space  as in the dig bandha.
Cleanliness  and purit y are considered  very important  factors.  Each  procedure  begins  with 
ritual  ablutions  (complet e bath and change  of clothes  or at least  washing  hands,  face, 
mouth and legs),  then follows  the asana  suddhi  ("purification  of the sitting  place"),  the 
achamana (ritual purification  with water  and specific  mantras) and only after these,  one 
can begin  the ritual  proper,  in the following  order: anga  nyasa,  kara  nyasa  and dig 
bandha,  pranayama  ("breathing  control")  connected  to the mula  mantras, and then 
dhyana ("meditation"),  bhuta  suddhi  ("purification  of the gross element s of the body"), 
pratishta  ("installation"  of the Deity  in the body  of the worshiper  and in the imag e to be 
worshiped)  and finally  puja ("wo rship"  proper ) with  the offering  of various  articles 
expressing  affection  and respect.
Other  very important  concepts  in the tantric  tradition  are the bija mantras  ("seed 
mantras"), mula  mantra  ("root  mantras") and the process  to install  the Deity  into the 
body  of the devotee,  constituted  by the two practices  called  anga  nyasa  ("consecration  of 
396

the body" ) and kara  nyasa  ("consecration  of the hands"),  also performed  by applying 
mantras. These  practices  are utilized  universall y and daily  by all the Hindu  traditions  for 
personal  worship  as well as  temple  worship, including the fire  rituals.
There  is a great variet y of mantras (and connected  yantras) in all these  categories  - bija, 
mula  and nyasa - because  there  are many  specific  archety pal mani festations  or 
personalities  of the Deit y. 
Within  the 3 main  categories  of Vishnu,  Shiva  and Shakti  we find a great  number  of 
Divine  Personalities,  each with their own yantra, bija mantra, mula  mantra, and series  of 
nyasa  mantras. 
The most famous text collecting  all these  series  of mantras and yantras is the Sarada 
tilaka, compiled  by Sri Lakshmana Desikendra  from  a great number  of ancient  scriptures, 
many of  which no longer exist.
The most important  and famous text in tantric literature  is the Mahanirvana  tantra, 
describing  in details  the process  of anga  nyasa  and kara nyasa, and focuses  on sadhana 
("spiritual  practice")  of worship  to the Suprem e Brah man in his personal  form of Isvara, 
or Hari -Hara.
The central  mantra of the Mahanirvana  tantra  states  Om sat chit ekam  brahma, "Om  is 
the eternal and conscious  Brahman,  that is the only  reality ". 
From  this mula  mantra  derives  the particular  gayatri ("to be chanted")  mantra reciting, 
Om paramesva raya  vidmahe  paratattvaya  dhimahi  tan no brahma  prachodayat, "Om! 
We meditate  on the suprem e Realit y, that is known  as the supre me Lord; may Brah man 
inspire and  guide us." In this case,  the bija mantra  is the pranava  omkara  - om.
To make a comparison  with the Gaudiya  vaishnava  tradition  (that is relatively  known  in 
the west thanks  to the work of  Bhaktivedanta  Swami  Prabhupada) we can quote Krishna's 
mula  mantra  that is Klim  krishnaya  govindaya  gopijana-vallabhaya  namah, and the 
Krishna  Kama  gayatri  accom panying  it - Klim  kamadevaya  vidmahe  pushpabanaya 
vidmahi,  tan no ananga  prachodayat, "Klim!  We meditate  on Kam adeva,  that is known 
as he who has  flower arrows: m ay Ananga  ("he who  has no body ") inspire and guide us."  
The particularit y of the Gaudi ya vaishnava  is the fact that it grows  from the roots of the 
397

mystic  love in the erotic sentim ent (sringara  rasa) of the soul towards  God,  visualized  as 
Krishna,  the all-attractive cowherd boy  of Vrindavana.
Back  to the Mahanirvana tantra , here a re som e very interesting extracts:
"This mantra  is the suprem e among  the mantras, that immediately  grants  dharma,  artha, 
kama  and moksha. Its practice  has no negative  side effect s and does  not require a 
particularl y auspicious  astrological  mom ent to be started,  or the perfor mance  of the 10 
samska ras (preliminary  purification  ceremonie s) or other  circum stance s. The only 
required  condition  is the purit y of the heart  - that transcends  the rules of external 
cleanliness,  fasting  and rituals.  It is sufficient  to meditate  on the Lord and to consum e 
(personall y and in the company  of friends  and family)  the consecrated  food offered  to the 
Lord. 
One who practices  this mantra has already  perfor med,  in previous  lifetimes, all the 
prescribed  ritual  ceremonie s, has alread y studied  all the scriptu res and is hono red in all 
the worlds.  His parents  and ancestors  are benefited  and do not need  any more  to receive 
the traditional  offerings  (sraddha,  pinda  and tarpana) or the results  of pious  activities 
such  as pilgrim ages,  chari ty and performance  of rituals.  A person who practices  this 
mantra in full knowledge  is always  protected  against  all aggressions  or negative 
influences,  and is not pertu rbed by the power of hostile  planets  or evil spirits. 
Those who  may  try to harm  this person can  only damage  them selve s."
Other extracts fro m tantric literatu re:
"A demoniac  ment ality will consider  the Guru  as a mere mortal human being,  the mantra 
as a mere word  or ordina ry sound,  and the image  of the Deity  as a stone  statue." 
(Kularnava  tantra)
"The  name s of the various  Goddesse s are actually  different  attributes  of the only one 
Goddess,  and this also applies  to the masculine  aspects  of the Divine."  (Matrikabheda 
tantra)
"Shiva  said:  Tara is the blue form  (Matsya ), Bagala  is the tortoise  (Kurm a), Dhumavati  is 
the boar (Varaha ), Chinna masta is Nrisimh a, Bhuvanesvari  is Vamana,  Matangi  is Rama, 
Tripura  Lalita is Parasuram a, Bhairavi  is Balabhadra,  Mahalaksh mi is Buddha,  Durga is 
398

Kalki, and  Kali is Krishna." ( Todala tantra)
"Krishna  is Durga,  and Durga  is Krishna.  One who sees them differently  will not be 
liberated fro m the cycle of repeated births and  deaths." (Gautamiya tantra )
"I am Durga,  I possess  all virtues.  I am not different  from  Radha,  the eternal  Goddess  of 
fortune."  (Sammohana tantra )
In the course  of the centuries  the original  Vedic  scriptures  have  generated  a great  amount 
of commentaries  in Sanskrit  classified  as bhasyas  (original text, word to word  translation, 
literar y translation  and commentary), vritti (analysis  and critique  of the text besides  the 
bhasya), tika or vyakhyana (stud y on the style  of the text),  anuvada (sum mary study) and 
tippani (glossary ).
There  is also a variet y of other  texts  that our readers  might  find interesting,  and that we 
will tr y to p resent  in future publications.
The alankaras are texts  of rhetor ics and aesthetics  on the art of language,  while  the 
subhasitas are collections  of educational  stories,  both in poetry and in prose:  the most 
famous example s are the Panchatantra and Hitopadesha.
Among  the kavyas (poetical  works)  in Sanskrit  we may mention  the Raghuvamsa  and 
Kumara  sambhava  by Kalidasa,  Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi,  Sisupalavadha by Magha  and 
Naishada  by Sri Harsha.  There are also kavyas in prose  (for example  Kadambari and 
Harshacha rita by Bhattabana)  and texts  that are compo sed by poetry and prose,  like the 
Champu  Ramayana  and Champu Bharata .
The natakas are theatre  works,  compos ed to express  the various  rasas or sentim ents 
through  stories.  The most  famous are the Sakuntala by Kalidasa,  Uttara  Rama charita  by 
Bhavabhuti,  and Mudraraksha sa by Visakhadatta.
399

Brihad  aranyaka  Upanishad  (2.4.10 ) summarizes this great scenario  in the following 
verse:  "Just  like the fire kindled  with damp firewood  produces  different  types of smoke, 
similarly  the supre me Self emanate s, through  its breathing,  the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, 
Sama  Veda, Atharva  Veda, Itihasaa, Puranas, Vidyas, Upanishads, Slokas, Sutras, 
Anuvyakhyanas  and Vyakhyanas."
The ocean  of Vedic  literature  is unlimited,  and has innumerable  waves,  just like the 
innumerable  divine  manife stations  (avataras) that appear  in this world  to re-establish  the 
proper knowledge and the principles  of religious ethics  (dharma) according to time,  place 
and circu mstanc e.
According  to the Vedic  parameters  it is also possible  that the eternal knowledge 
continues  to be mani fested  and expressed  in all ages,  not only in the past but also in the 
present  and the future.  However,  it is imperative  that the next texts  must strictly  be in 
accordance  to the funda mental teachings  of the Vedas, and that they express  a genuine 
vision  (darshana) that can easily be harmonized  with all the other p revious  scriptu res.
This is the reason  why Vedic  scriptu res can only be compiled  by rishis ("those  who 
directl y see reality") and not by ordinar y people,  who could  only invent  and fabricate 
imitations  of little value.
400

Roots
Written by
Kadambi Srinivasan
Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams
Tirupati
2019

ROOTS
By
T.T.D. Religious Publications Series No.1181
©  All Rights Reserved
First  Print : 2015
Re-print : 2019
Copies:1000
Sri Anil Kumar Singhal, I.A.S.,
Tirupati.
D.T.P.
Office of the Editor-in-chief,
TTD,Tirupati.
Printed at
Tirupati - 517 507.

Foreword
A book takes good structure when the author puts his ideas in a proper,
sequential and standard way. Here is a book for readers of all ages which enhances
the thirst to know about the Indian’s Ancient living and their contributions to the
fields of Philosophy, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Surgery, Plastic sur-
gery, Veterinary science, Economics, Political science, Education, Literature,
Poetry, Drama, so on and soforth.  Our ancestors had a unique and distinct iden-
tity in the fields of  Medicine, Mathematics, Geometry, Astronomy and Logic. The
entire world has accepted that the Indian civilization and its literature dates back to
the earliest period of History. Inspite  of  this, Indians are ignoring the original
quality and quantity of the ‘Medha’ or ‘Intellect’ of their ancestors. A friend shot a
question to the author about “What have the Indians been doing?” To counteract
the oral question the author has answered in a factual written form- “I chose to
unfold the various facets of Vedic culture including their literature, their philoso-
phy, their learning etc. The entire  book has been written with that question in
focus”.
The author has compiled the information collected from different sources
from the time of Vedas to 15th Century A.D. Inspite of such an industrious study,
the author humbly says that this book represents just the tip of an iceberg.  He also
states that there is a large scope for an extensive indepth research  in this context.
He submissively opines that- ‘A pride should be apparent on every Indian’s face
befitting our cultural background . The Author’s statement influences my senses to
thinkover it. His valuable ideas are appreciable. I am immensely happy to bring this
book to the vision of the public. I also urge the readers to think widely to imple-
ment certain ideas as a supplement to their life style, because India’s glory has
attracted the entire world and it is on its journey even today.
The author, belonging to the field of Physics and Instrumentation has put
forth his best knowledge related to Philosophy and Theism. I wish him all the best
and also hope that his dreams come true.
     In the service of lord venkateswara
        Tirupati.

About the book
Work on this book started almost eight years back during the winter of 2006. I
was having tea with a group of my friends at Chennai. The conversations slowly
turned towards ancient civilizations. A friend of mine had just returned after a
holiday in Egypt. He was very impressed with what he saw and what he heard. He
told us about the Pharaonic antiquities and the treasures of King Tutankhamen.
Suddenly he turned to all of us listening to him and shot a question – in contrast
what have the Indians been doing?
I felt as if he has slapped us. What have the Indians done? Sitting on their
hands?
Where shall I begin? Their contributions in Philosophy, literature, poetry, drama,
education, Mathematics, Astronomy, Medicine, Surgery, Plastic surgery, Veteri-
nary science, Economics, Political science – the list just goes on.
Gone is the old idea of an Aryan invasion. In its place, the world is accepting a
continuity of Indian civilization and its literature dating back to the earliest period
of history. The work done by the ancient Indian scholars in the fields of Medicine,
mathematics, geometry, Astronomy and logic are being recognized to be among
the earliest the world has seen. While trying to answer the question of “what have
the Indians being doing?” I decided not to go by a statistical route. Plenty of
information to engage in a lively argument is already available. I believe, that the
way in which we visualize any particular thing is based on the outlook we entertain
in respect of that thing. Usually we do not have a comprehensive idea of most of
the things in this world. When we think about a subject we regard it with some
blinkers limiting our vision of that subject, whereby we tend to ignore other aspects
which also go to have a strong bearing on the subject. While trying to answer the
question “what have the Indians been doing”, to get a more comprehensive idea, I
chose to unfold the various facets of Vedic culture including their literature, their
philosophy, their learning etc. The entire book has been written with that question
in focus.
Slowly, the world has started accepting the Indian civilization to be the earliest
leading the rest of the world in spiritual, material and scientific progress.
“India was the motherland of our race, and Sanskrit the mother of Europe’s
languages; she was the mother of our philosophy; mother through Arabs of much
of our mathematics; mother through Buddha of ideals embodied in Christianity;
mother through village community, of self-government and democracy; mother
India is in many ways is the mother of us all.” - Will Durant; American Historian
(1885-1981)

What I could present in this book represents just the tip of an iceberg. Will Durant
was correct in stating that India was the mother, not just of philosophy, but a
majority of other subjects as well. India’s glory was not like a wick that shone for
brief period and then got extinguished. It shone for thousands of years shedding
light on a number of subjects. In fact, the knowledge it spread, in many instances,
was not limited to people within the boundary of Bharat Varsha, but to the entire
world. Bhagavad Gita is a typical example. The concept of zero in the counting of
numbers is another. And there are many others as well.
In this book I tried to present available information from different sources. The
period covered included from the time of the Vedas up to the 15th century AD.
Greatest challenge faced was in fixing the dates. More work needs to be done by
our scholars in this context.
During ancient times the teaching was done at the Ashrams of the sage. These
Ashrams were located far away from the cities. Students, all Brahmacharins, lived
at the Ashrams. Subjects were not taught in modules or by a semester system.
Typically, the students were taught eighteen Vidyas –Four Vedas, six Vedangas,
two Mimamsas, one Nyaya and one Puranas / other scriptures; Along with this,
four other vidyas are also taught. Ayurveda (1); Dhanurveda (1); Gandharva Veda
(1); Artha Shastra (1). This brings the total of vidyas taught equal to 18. It is my
wish to bring about in this book, if not entirely (some of the vidyas were not
touched upon, to keep the book within reasonable size), an atmosphere of com-
prehensive learning available at the Guru Kulas in ancient India.
I don’t believe the aberration that my friend suffered was an isolated case. It
has to be accepted that the knowledge of general public regarding our literature,
our contributions has thinned out. I am not for a moment suggesting that the cur-
rent education / knowledge should be replaced by ancient learning. On the con-
trary, the current learning should supplement what we have achieved over the many
years. A pride should be apparent on every Indian’s face befitting our cultural
background.
I hope this book serves to remind the readers of our contributions in different
fields
June 2014.
SydneyV

Acknowledgements
Projects of any type are seldom solo efforts. Writing a book has entered into
this category. Behind the name of the author stand a team of individuals, some of
them technical experts, trying to make the book an acceptable product. In this case
it is no different.
My immediate advisors are from my own family – my wife Vedavalli, son
Ashwin and daughter Anusha. In addition my advisory group included my sister
Ms Jayalakshmi Chary, Sujatha, her husband Gopal, Dr. Saroja Srinivasan, my
brother Lakshmi Narasimha and his wife Vijaya. Observations, comments and ad-
vice from time to time were utilised for course corrections and presentation changes.
Their contributions have been invaluable and gratefully accepted.
My friend Ranganathan Narayan read almost all the manuscripts. His com-
ments and encouragement are being gratefully accepted. Ms Nikita Sharma did
enormous work in getting the documentation in order. Without her help I could not
have completed this work. I am grateful for her help.
I now come to a couple who made it all possible -my brother, Lakshmi Narasimha
and his wife Vijaya. Right from the moment they had a look at the book they were
convinced that it deserved publication. From that time onwards, the management
of the project was entirely in their hands. It is rarely that one witnesses such a
dedication and intensity of effort.  Without their help, it is doubtful whether I could
have got the book published.
Mr V.K. Agrawal, IAS read the manuscript and gave some valuable advice. I
remain grateful for the encouragement he gave in getting this book published.
I am grateful to Dr. Ravva Srihari, Editor in Chief at TTD publications who
retired recently, for his meticulous effort in going through this manual. I also remain
grateful to Prof. Lakshmanaiah, the current Editor in Chief, for his efforts in getting
this project properly vetted and then getting it approved for printing. I am thankful
to the then Executive Oficer, Sri M G Gopal Gaaru, IAS  and the present  Execu-
tive Officer, TTD Dr D Sambasiva Rao Gaaru, IAS  for their interest in the publi-
cation of this project.  I thank Sri Ramaraju,  for his interest in the publication of
this project.vi

CHAPTER – I HINDU SCRIPTURES & SANSKRIT LITERATURE 1
INTRODUCTION 1
ORAL TRADITION 2
CHAPTER II - CREATION 13
BASIS 13
BEGINNING 13
DITI’S SIN 14
KAPILA VASUDEVA 15
ATRI’S TAPAS 15
ARROGANT KING 16
DHRUVA’S TAPAS 16
KING PRITHU 17
KING BHARATA 18
DAKSHA’S DESCENDANTS 19
DAITYAS AND MARUTS 19
SOLAR DYNASTY 20
Trishanku 20
King Bhagiratha 20
LUNAR DYNASTY 21
Nahusha and his personal heaven 22
Kuru Vamsha and Kurukshetra 22
Sri Krishna and Balarama 22
CHAPTER III - VEDAS AND UPANISHADS 34
VEDAS 34
INTRODUCTION 34
Ananta 35
Anadi 35
Apourusheya 36
Purusha Sookta 38
Nasadiya Sookta 38
Vedas as the source of development 39vii

Vedas over the years 39
The revelation 40
An Overview 42
Animal Sacrifice 43
DIVISIONS WITHIN EACH VEDA 43
SAMHITAS 43
Rig Veda -Samhita 43
Yajur Veda Samhita 43
Sama Veda Samhita 43
Atharva Veda Samhita 43
BRAHMANAS 44
ARANYAKAS 44
UPANISHADS 44
VEDAS -  SUB DIVISIONS 46
Rig Veda Mantra Samhita 46
Mandala, Anuvaka and Sookta 46
Ashtak, Adhyaya and Sookta 46
Rig Veda Brahmanas 50
Aitareya Brahmana 50
Kaushitaki Brahmana 50
Rig Veda Aranyakas 50
Aitareya Aranyaka 50
Kaushitaki-Aranyaka 51
Rig Veda Upanishads 51
Yajur Veda Samhita 54
Shukla  Yajur Veda 54
Krishna Yajur Veda 54
Sama Veda Samhita 56
Atharva  Veda Samhita 58
INTERPRETING VEDIC TEXTS 60
Yajnika School 60viii

Nirukta School 60
Dharmashastric School 60
Mimamsa school 60
Aitihasika School 60
Parivrajaka School: 60
Vaiyyakarana School 60
KINDS OF KNOWLEDGE 60
Apara Vidya 61
Para Vidya 61
INTERPRETATION BY WESTERN PHILOSOPHERS 62
CHAPTER IV – DARSANAS 63
Nastika system: Charvaka Darsana 64
Astika systems 64
Nyaya system: 65
Vaiseshika system: 65
Sankya system 66
Yoga system 68
Purva Mimamsa: 68
Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta 69
Maharshi Veda Vyasa 70
CHAPTER V - PRINCIPAL UPANISHADS 71
INTRODUCTION 71
Isavasya Upanishad 74
Kena Upanishad 77
Katha Upanishad 80
Prashna Upanishad 83
Mundaka Upanishad 93
Mandukya Upanishad 99
Taittiriya Upanishad 110
Shiksha-Valli 112ix

Brahmananda-valli 115
Bhrigu-Valli 122
Aitareya Upanishad 123
Chandogya Upanishad 128
AUM Meditation 131
Meditation on Sama 132
Meditation on the Sun and Shandilya Vidya 133
Samvarga Vidya 135
Panchagni and Vaisvanara Vidyas 135
Panchagni Vidya 135
Vaisvanara Vidya 137
Teaching by Uddalaka to Svetaketu 138
Sanatkumara’s instructions on Bhuma Vidya 140
Dahara Vidya 145
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad 147
Maitreyi Vidya 148
Akshara Vidya 149
Ushasta-Kahola Vidya 151
Uddalaka-Aruni Vidya 151
CHAPTER VI - GITAS 154
BHAGA VAD GITA 154
INTRODUCTION 154
Essence of First Hexad 156
Essence of the Second Hexad: Bhakti Yoga 158
Essence of the Third Hexad 162
Bhakti and Prapatti 163
OTHER GEETAS 164
YOGA VASISHTA 164
CHAPTER VII - MISCELLANEOUS 166
DOES GOD EXIST? 166x

HOW OLD ARE THE VEDAS? 168
INTRODUCTION 168
Background 169
Invasion Theory 170
Facts vs Speculations 170
Literary Evidence 170
Scientific Verification 171
Sarasvati Factor 171
Evidence of port city Dwaraka 172
Astronomical Dating of Vedas 172
Shraddha 174
What is Shraddha ? 174
MANTRAS 177
CONSEVATION DURING VEDIC TIMES 180
Vedic Literature -  Aims & Achievements: 181
What the Vedic literature said 182
Energy and environment 182
Religion and ethics of conservation 183
Guidelines for Practice 183
Emperor Ashoka and his pioneering work 184
First “Veterinary hospital” in the world 184
Participatory Forest management 184
Religion as a tool 184
OBJECTS OF HUMAN ASPIRATIONS (PURUSHARTHAS) 185
Artha 186
Kaama 186
Dharma 186
Moksha 187
KARMA 188
Types of Karma 189xi

Sanchita Karma 189
Prarabda Karma: 189
Agami Karma: 189
Kriyamana Karma: 189
Sequence of Karma phal 189
Worthiness of the Karma 190
Fate and Fatalism 191
Conclusion 193
UNDERSTANDING – I 194
Who am I? 195
I am not my eyes, my ears 195
I am not my mind 195
I am not my memory 196
I am not my intellect 196
I am not ignorance 196
SANSKRIT NATAKA 198
Introduction 198
Characteristics of Sanskrit drama 199
Elements of Rupaka 200
Vastu (Plot) 200
Avasthas 200
Rasa 201
Abhinaya 201
Bhava 201
Neta (Hero) 202
Nayika (Heroine) 203
Other characters 203
Presentation of the play 203
Aim of Sanskrit drama 204
Languages 204
Immortal Playrights 204xii

Asvaghosa 204
Bhasa 204
Kalidasa 205
Harsha 205
Sudraka 205
Vishakhadatta 205
HINDU SYMBOLOGY 205
INTRODUCTION 205
The mystic Mantra “OM” 206
Shiva Linga 206
Shiva’s form 207
The twelve Jyotirlingas 208
Vishnu Worship 208
Saligrama Shilas 208
TILAKA 211
Shaivite Tilak 211
Vaishnavaite Tilak - Urdhvapundra 211
Pancha Samskaras 212
i. Thapa Samskara: 212
ii. Pundram 212
iii. Naamam 212
iv. Mantram 212
v.  Ijyai 212
Achamana and Prokshana 213
Offering food to God and Pancha Pranas 214
HINDU UPASANA AND RITUALS 214
Upasana or Worship 214
Puja 215
Do Hindus worship hundreds of Gods? 215
Idol worship 217
Homa or Havan 221xiii

How the Homam is performed? 221
Yagyas 222
REASONS FOR DOING SHRAADDHA 222
Prana 222
The Body 223
Pancha Pranas 224
Onward March to the Beyond 224
Departure of Soul 225
Soul’s journey after death 226
Shraaddha 226
CHAPTER VIII - SELECTED STUTIS 229
INTRODUCTION 229
MANTRAS 232
Saattwika Mantras: 232
Raajasika Mantras 232
Taamasika Mantras: 232
Gayatri Mantra 237
Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra 245
Ganapati Mantra 246
Shanti Mantras 247
Shree Sooktam 254
Purusha Sooktam 262
Narayana Sooktam 272
Mantra Pushpam 277
Aditya Hridayam 281
Gadya Trayam 286
Sharanaagati Gadyam 293
Emanations of Sriman Narayana 330
Shriranga Gadyam 335
Sri Vaikuntha Gadyam 344
Sri Vaishnava Mantras 357xiv

Pancha Samskaras 357
Thaapa Samskaram: 357
Pundra Samskaram: 358
Nama Samskaram: 358
Mantra Samskaras 358
Yajna (Yaaga) Samskaram 358
Ashtaaksharam 359
Dwaya Mantram 361
Charama Shloka 364
CHAPTER IX -   HINDU YOGA 370
INTRODUCTION 370
Karma Yoga 370
Jnana Yoga 371
Raja Yoga 371
Eight limbs of Raja Yoga 372
Yama 372
Niyama 372
Asana 372
Pranayama 372
Pratyahara 372
Dharana 372
Dhyana 372
Samadhi 372
Bhakti Yoga 372
Prapatti Marga (Bhara Samarpana Yoga or Nyasa Yoga) 373
CHAPTER – X -OF BODIES, SHEATHS, AVASTHSAS AND GUNAS377
INTRODUCTION 377
Bodies 377
Sheaths 378
Gunas, Avasthas and Vrittis 380
Gunas 380xv

Sattva Guna: 381
Rajo Guna: 381
Tamo Guna: 381
Avasthas 381
Jagrat Avastha (waking state): 381
Svapna Avastha (dreaming State): 382
Sushupti Avastha (deep sleep state) 382
CHAPTER – XI -   SANATANA DHARMA  388
DEFINITION OF DHARMA 388
CHANGING DHARMA 388
KINDS OF DHARMAS 390
Sanatana Dharma 390
Samanya Dharma 391
Basics of Dharma 391
Varnashrama Dharma 392
Ashrama Dharma 392
Yuga Dharma 392
CHAPTER XII - HINDU THEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION
393
INTRODUCTION 393
Advaita Philosophy of Sri Shankaracharya 394
Brahman, the only Reality 394
Anirvachaneeya Khyaati 394
Ajnaana or Avidya 395
Maya 395
Three Degrees of Reality 396
1.Praatibhaasika Satya: 396
2.Vyaavahaarike Satya 396
3.Paramaarthika Satya 396
Creation 396
Jiva 397xvi

Sadhanas and Mukti 397
Vishishtaadvaita  Philosophy of  Sri Ramanujacharya 397
Ontology 398
Metaphysics 399
Means of Liberation 400
Prapatti 401
State of Liberation 401
Tenkalai and Vadakalai Schools of thought 401
Dvaita philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya 405
Dvaita Philosophy 405
Tenets of Tattvavaada 405
Divine Hierarchy (Taaratamya) 406
Supreme Being and His Consort 406
Prakrti 406
Plurality and Classification of Jivas 407
Bhakti is the means for Salvation 408
Achintya Bhedabheda Philosophy of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu 408
Ultimate Reality 409
Creation 409
Lord appears in Different Forms 409
Philosophy 409
The Lord 409
The Jiva 409
Other teachings 410
Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy 410
Supreme Reality 411
Shiva, Shakti and Maya 411
Evolution of Tattvas from Maya 411
Binding the soul 412
Attainment of Shivatva or God realization 412
Jainism 413xvii

Soul (Jiva) or Living Being Substance 414
Non-Living (Ajiva) Substances 414
Asrava (Influx of karma) 415
Bandha (Bondage of karma) 415
Prakriti Bandha (type of karma) 416
Ghati karma 416
Aghati Karma 416
Sthiti Bandha (Duration of attachment) 417
Pradesa Bandha (Quantity of karma) 417
Punya (Virtue) 417
Paap (Sin) 417
Samvara (Stoppage of Karma) 417
Moksha (Liberation) 418
Buddhism 418
Karma 420
Re-birth 421
Soul 421
CHAPTER XIII -   SAMSKARAS 422
INTRODUCTION 422
ORIGINS 422
FORTY SAMSKARAS 423
PROMINENT SAMSKARAS 423
Garbhadana 424
Pumsavana 424
Simantonnayana 424
Jatakarma 424
Namakarana 424
Nishkrama 424
Annaprasana 424
Chooda Karma 424
Karnavedha 424xviii

Upanayanam 424
Samavarthana 425
Vivaha 425
Grahastya ashrama 425
Vanaprasta ashrama 425
Sanyasa ashrama 425
Anthyesthi 425
Pancha Maha Yagnas 426
Gunas 426
Ashrama Dharmas 427
Vivaha Samskara 427
Arrival of the bridegroom and honouring him 428
Maha Sankalpa 428
Kanya dana 428
Madhuparka 429
Tying of the Mangala sutra 429
Talambraalu 430
Kankana 430
Brahma mudi 430
Principal Homa ceremony 430
Panigrahana 430
Sapta padhi 431
Arundhathi Darshana 431
Pledges between the Bride and the Groom 431
Asheervad 431
Miscellaneous 431
CHAPTER XIV - SEERS OF KALIYUGA 432
INTRODUCTION 432
ALWARS 434
Poigaialwar: 435xix

Boodatalwar 436
Peyaiaalwar 436
Thirumazhisai Alwar 437
Nammalvar 437
Madhurakavi Alwar 439
Kulasekhara Alwar 440
Periyalwar (Vishnu-Chitta) 441
Goda Devi (Andal) 442
Tondaradippodi Alwar 442
Tiruppanalwar 443
Tirumangai Alwar 443
Divya Deshams 445
Geographic locations 446
The shrines 446
NAYANMARS 446
Tirumurais 447
Tirumantiram by Tirumullar 447
Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar 447
Padal Petra Sthalam 448
Shiva temples in Kerala created by Lord Parasurama 448
CHAPTER XV -    IN PURSUIT OF SUPREME REALITY 449
INTRODUCTION 449
SHABDA 451
PRAMEYA 452
Dravya 452
Jada 452
Ajada 453
Paraak: 453
Nitya-vibhuti 453
Dharmabhuta-Jnana 454xx

Pratyak: 454
Jiva 454
Nityas 455
Muktas 455
Bubhuksus 455
Mumuksus 455
Ishvara 456
Adravya: 457
Pramana: 458
Pratyaksha: 459
Anumaana: 461
Rules of Epistemology 461
CHAPTER–XVI-BRANCHES OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNIVERSITIES
470
INTRODUCTION 470
SULBA SUTRAS 471
VEDIC MATHEMATICS 473
Division operation 473
Vedic Numerical Code 476
JAINA MATHEMATICS: 477
GOLDEN PERIOD 477
IMPACT 478
EUROCENTRICISM 479
SOME PROMINENT MATHEMATICIANS 480
BAUDHAYANA (800 BC) 483
APASTHAMBA (600BC-540BC) 484
ARYA BHATTA-1 (476 AD – 550 AD) 484
His works 485
Arya Siddhanta 485
Aryabhattiya 485xxi

Gitikaapaada: 485
Ganitapaada: 485
Kaalakriyaapaada 485
Golapaada: 485
Mathematics 485
Place Value system and zero 485
pas Irrational 486
Mensuration 486
Indeterminate Equations 486
Astronomy 487
Motions in the Solar system 487
Eclipses 487
Sidereal periods 487
Trigonometry 488
His influence 488
Panchanga 488
VARAHAMIHIRA (505AD-587AD) 488
His works 489
BRAHMAGUPTA  (598-670) 491
His works 491
Algebra 491
Arithmetic 491
Series 491
Zero 491
Sum 491
Minus 492
Multiplication 492
Division 492
Pythagorean triple 492
Pell’s Equation 492xxii

Geometry 492
Interpolation formula 493
Astronomy 493
BHASKARACHARYA (1114-1185) 493
His works 493
Arithmetic 494
Algebra 494
Geometry: 495
Calculus: 495
Astronomy 495
Trigonometry: 495
MEDIEVAL PERIOD AND THE KERALA SCHOOL 495
MADHA VA OF SANGAMAGRAMA (1340 A.D – 1425 A.D) 496
His works 496
Mathematics 496
Astronomy 497
INDIAN CALENDER SYSTEM 498
Lunar calendar system 499
Tithi 500
Vaasara 501
Nakshatra 501
Yoga 502
Karana 502
The Months 502
Masa (Lunar Month) 502
Adhika Masa (Extra month) 503
Samvatsara 504
SOLAR CALENDER SYSTEM 505
Solar year 505
Solar months 505xxiii

Solstice division of the year 506
Solar days 506
Sub-divisions of the Solar day 506
Year Numbering System 506
Vikrama and the Shalivahana calendars 506
MEDICAL SCIENCE AND SURGERY 507
INTRODUCTION 507
ASHTANGA AYURVEDA 508
Shalya tantra 509
Shalakya 509
Bhoota Vidya 510
Kaumarya Bhrtya 510
Agada Tantra 510
Rasayana 510
Vajikarana 511
SAGE CHARAKA AND THE MAHARSHI ATREYA SCHOOL 511
Triguna: 511
Tridosha 511
Individual constitution 513
Body types 514
Mono types 514
Dual types 515
Equal types 515
Sapta Dhatus 515
Mala 516
Srotas. 516
Body anatomy 517
Diagnosis Process 518
Charaka Samhita 520
SAGE SUSHRUTA AND  BHAGA VAN DHANVANTARI SCHOOL 520xxiv

INTRODUCTION 520
SUSHRUTA SAMHITA 521
Surgery 521
Methods of diagnosis 521
Primary healing of wounds 521
Surgical procedure 521
Purva Karma (Pre-operative) Procedures 522
Pradhaana Karma (Operative Measures) 522
Paschaat Karma (Post operative care) 522
Bandages 522
Infection 522
Plastic Surgery 522
Haemostatic Methods 523
Thermal injuries 523
CHAPTER XVII - ANCIENT LEARNING 524
GURUKULA SYSTEM 525
TEMPLE COLLEGES 525
AGRAHARA INSTITUTIONS 525
CHAPTER XVIII -  ANCIENT UNIVERSITIES 526
UNIVERSITY AT TAKSHASILA 526
RISE OF BUDDHISM AND THE UNIVERSITIES 526
Nalanda University 526
Vickramasila University 527
Odantapuri University 527
Jagaddala University 528
Somapura University 528
Vallabhi University 528
TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND APPRENTICE SYSTEM 528
REFERENCES 529
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 531xxv

1 
 Chapter – I Hindu Scriptures & Sanskrit Literature  
Three religions are regarded as the oldest having come down to us from pre -historic 
times. They are Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism. Sanskrit, as defined by 
Panini, is the classical Sans krit which evolved from the earlier Vedic Sanskrit. Vedic 
Sanskrit is the language of the Vedas consisting of Samhitas, Brahmanas and 
Upanishads. The metrical hymns of the Rig Veda Samhita are regarded as the 
earliest composed by man.  
Prof. Max Muller whi le recording the first voice on a Gramophone chose the first 
Shloka of Rig Veda “Agni Meele Purohitam”. He proceeded to explain the reason for 
his choice - "Vedas are the oldest text of the human race. And Agni Meele Purohitam 
is the first verse of Rig Ved a. In the most primordial time, when the people did not 
know how even to cover their bodies and lived by hunting and housed in caves, 
Indians had attained high civilization and they gave the world universal philosophies 
in the form of the Vedas.”  
There are  two important aspects about the Vedas -  (a) Hindus regard that the Vedas 
have been received through revelation. It was not written by any man 
(Apaurus heya); and  (b) The Vedas are without a beginning and end.   
How is it possible? Swami Vivekananda explai ns. “ By the Vedas no books are 
meant. They mean the accumulated treasury of spiritual laws discovered by different 
persons at different times. Just as the law of gravitation existed before its discovery, 
and would exist if all humanity forgot it, so is it with the laws that govern the spiritual 
world. The moral, ethical, and spiritual relations between soul and soul and between 
individual spirits and the Father of all spirits, were there before their discovery, and 
would remain even if we forgot them”. The name given to the discoverers of these 
laws was”  Kavi" . The Vedas described them as kavayah satyasrutah  meaning seers 
who were the hearers of the truth. The Veda itself was called Shruti meaning 
revealed scripture. The sage who had a direct intuitional per ception is called 
Sakshath Krutha Rishi . The sage who heard it from his Guru and remembered it is 
called Shrutha Rishi.  
Veda have been divided into Karma Kanda  (section of works and rituals) and Jnana 
Kanda  (section of knowledge) the former associated with  the hymns and the later 
with the Upanishads . European scholars took up the ritualistic tradition and went on 
to make their own etymological explanation of the words resulting in arbitrary 
meaning for Vedic verses. In fact, what they were looking for in Veda was the early 
history of India, its society, institutions – in short a picture of the times. They then 
invented the theory (based on the difference of languages) of an Aryan invasion from 
the north, and an invasion of the Dravidian  India. The Indians th emselves had no 
memory of such invasions and there were no records of such events in their classical

2 
 literature. Yet, this appears to have persuaded the minds of some Indians in favour 
of this view. All this resulted in a chaos and a mutilation of dates of  historical events. 
As Aurobindo puts it “the Vedic religion was on this account only a worship of 
Nature -Gods  full of solar myths and consecrated sacrifices and a sacrificial liturgy 
primitive enough in its ideas and contents, and it is barbaric prayers that are the 
much vaunted, haloed and apotheosized Veda”. And we were left to trace our 
civilization and ancestors from among the ruins at Mohenjo Daro and Harappa. In 
recent years, Indian scholars have started work on the scientific dating of various 
even ts described in our Puranas. The Rishis, the poet seers of Veda, were men with 
a great spiritual and occult knowledge not shared by ordinary men. Among this 
enlightened group, there are a number of Rishikas (female Rishis) as well. Still the 
task is unfini shed. To be revealed is one thing, to preserve it and pass it on is quite 
another thing. The mantras acquire their powers by virtue of their acoustic energy of 
the syllables ( Shabda ). In addition, correct sequence of words, purity of the 
language, exact pr onunciation of the words, precise stress on syllables, measured 
pause between syll ables, appropriate tone, accent, modulation and pitch of 
recitation, proper breath co ntrol etc are very critical. In the case of written texts 
comparisons may be carried out much more easily.  How can you devise a system to 
control the requirements of Vedic texts?  In addition the requirement for memorising 
the entire Vedic texts e xisted. The Ashrams of the Rishis served as the learning 
centres and they were l ocated in forests . And maintaining large libraries was 
impracticable.  
Oral Tradition  
Systems have been devised to meet this challenge. It is astounding that large 
volumes of Vedic texts were preserved  by oral tradition for over thousands of years, 
safeguarding their purit y and entirety.  Svaadhyaya , the oral tradition, by which Vedas 
have been preserved, emphasizes the preservation of actual sound of the Vedas 
over their meaning and interpretation! Careful thought and planning have gone into 
devising methods to achieve the desired results. Oral methods have been around in 
other parts of the world as well but rarely has any other oral tradition been so 
vene rated and so well preserved as the Vedic tradition.  
Rishi Veda Vyasa categorised and compiled four Vedas so that they ar e more 
amenable to study and memorise. The task of preserving and perpetuating each 
branch of Veda in its entirety and purity was assigned to a specified Shakha 
(branch). The followers of each Shakha, identified as Shakhins  of that particular 
Vedic school,  were responsible for preserving their assigned part of Veda. Followers 
of each Shakha would learn and preserve one of the four Samhitas along with their 
associated Brahmana, Aranyaka, Upanishads and the Sutras such as Grhyasutra  
and Shra utasutra.  Today on ly a small number of Shakhas  have survived - among 
them are Sakala and Bhaskala. Siksha,  one of the six Vedangas that dealt with 
phonetics and phonology of Sanskrit laid down the rules for correct pronunciation of

3 
 Vedic Hymns and Mantras.  Along with this, s everal patterns of Vedic chants were 
devised to e nsure complete and perfect memorization of the text and its 
pronunciation including the Vedic pitch , accent. These patterns called  Pathaas 
ensured correct recital of the Veda mantra by weaving the mantras in to various 
patterns and complex combin ations of patterns. There are eleven acknowledged 
patterns or  Pathaas  Viz. Samhita or vakhyaa, padaa, krama, jataa, maala,  Sikhaa, 
rekhaa, dhvajaa, dandaa, rathaa  and Ghana.  For illustration, salient features of a few  
Pathaas  are given below  
 (a) Krama Paathaa:  The first word of the mantra is added to the second, the second 
to the third, the third to the fourth and so on, until the whole sentence of the mantras 
is completed. T he order of words will be 1 -2; 2-3; 3-4; 4-5 and so on.  
 (b) Jata Paathaa:  the first two words are recited together and then the words are 
recited in a reverse order and then again in the original order. Jata Paathaa is a play 
by twisting the Krama Paatha:   The order will be  
1-2-2-1-1-2; 2-3-3-2-2-3; 3-4-4-3-3-4; 4-5-5-4-4-5 and so on   
 (c) Ghana Paathaa:  This is one of the most popular form of recitations and requires 
years of learning and practice. A scholar proficient in recitation in this format is 
honoured as Ghana_ paathi.   In Ghana Paathaa  the combination will be: 1 -2-2-1-1-
2-3-3-2-1-1-2-3;  2-3-3-2-2-3-4-4-3-2-2-3-4; 3-4-4-3-3-4-5-5-4-3-3-4-5 and so on  
 By applying these stringent methods  of learning and complicated patterns of recital, 
each generation committed to memory long passages of  its assigned texts through 
incessant practice. This oral heritage spread over a number of  years, ensured that 
the form and content of the texts were retained in their pristine condition. It was 
transmitted, orally, to the next generation. This was how the  Vedic texts were 
retained in oral form, uncorrupted, over the centuries.  
Apart from the Vedas, ancient Sanskrit literature had a number of other manuals 
dealing with a variety of topics guiding individuals and societies to lead healthy and 
meaningful live s. The chart given below gives a brief summary of what was 
available. Foreign invasions and changing times have taken a heavy toll. Sanatana 
Dharma has been there for 1000s of years. During these years it has faced many 
challenges and yet it is still there . It is still relevant. I am confident that it will survive 
the current crisis and continue to offer guidance to its followers.

K.Srinivasan    4  
 Hindu Scriptures  
&  
Sanskrit Literature  
Vedas  
 
Rig Veda  
 Upa Vedas/ Applied 
know ledge  
Yajur Veda  
 Sama Veda  
 Adharva 
Veda  
Krisna  Yajur  
Veda  Shukla Yajur 
Veda  Vedangas  
 
Ayurveda  
Science of 
Health  Dhanurveda  
Science of 
War 
 Gandharva Veda  
Science of  
Music  
 Artha 
Shastra 
Science of 
Polity   Subhashitas  Naatakas  Alankaras  Kaavyas  Four Secular heads  
Smrithis  Itihasas  Puranas  Agamas  Darsanas  Shrut his 
 Six Orthodox 
heads  
Kalas  Hindu Scriptures  
&  
Sanskrit Literature

K.Srinivasan    5  
Rig Veda  
 
1 .. 2.. 3 …….21  Yajur Veda  
 
1 .. 2.. 3 …….109  Krisna  Yajur  
Veda  Shukla Yajur  
Veda  Sama Veda  
 
1 .. 2.. 3 …….1000  Adharva 
Veda  
Mantra 
Samhita  
or Hymns  
Brahmanas.  
Explanations of 
Mantras or  
Rituals  Karma  
Kanda  
Aranyakas  
Philosophical 
interpretations of 
rituals  Upasana  
Kanda  
Upanishads  
Spiritual truths  Jnana  
Kanda  1 .. 2.. 3 …….50  
Aitareya
a 
Sankh ayan
a Satapat
ha Taittiriya  
Maitrayana  Panchavimsa  
Shadvimsa  
Chandyogya  
Adbhuta  
Arsheya  Gopatha  Shakhas  / 
Rece nsions
Each of the 
Brahmanas  
has an 
Aranyaka  Each of the 
Brahmanas 
has an 
Brahmanas 
has an 
Brahmanas 
has an 
Aranyaka  
21 
Upanishads  109 
Upanishads  1000  
Upanis hads  50 
Upanishads  Rig Veda 
Samhita. The 
oldest and the 
best. Used by its 
priest Hotri  Yajur Veda Samhita. 
Mostly in prose. 
Used by its priest 
Adhvaryu  Sama Veda 
Samhita. Used 
by its priest 
Udgatri  Adharva Veda 
Brahma

K.Srinivasan    6 Limb s of 
Vedas  
Vedangas  
Six explanatory limbs  
 
Shiksha  
Knowledge 
of phonetics  
By Panini  Vyakarana  
Grammer  
By Panini  Chandas  
Meter dealing with 
prosody  
By Pingalacharya  Nirukta  
Philology or 
Etymology  
By Yaska  Jyotisha  
Astronomy & 
Astrology  
By Garga  Kalp as 
Method of Rituals – 
Srauta, Grihya  
Dharma, Sulba  
Kalpa is the method of the ritual  
Srauta Sutra : Explains the rituals of 
sacrifices.  
Grihya Sutras : Rituals in domestic lives  
Dharma Sutras : Deals with Ethics, 
customs and laws.  
Pratishakyas, Padapathas, 
Kram apathas, Upalekhas, Anukramanis, 
Daivasamhitas, Parishistas, Proyogas, 
Paddhatis, Karikas and Vyuhas  provide 
further elaborations in the rituals  
Sulba Sutras : Treats the 
measur ements necessary for laying out Asavalayana, Sankhayana  belong to  Rig Veda  
 
Mashaka, Latyayana, Dharyayana, Gobhila, Khadidara  belong to Sama 
Veda  
 
Katyayana, Paraskara  belong to Shukla Yajur Veda  
 
Apastamba, Hiranyakesi, Bodhayana, Bharadvaja, Manava, Vaikhasana 
and Kathaka  belong to Krishna Yajur Veda  
 
Vaitana, Kaushika  belong to the Adharva Veda

K.Srinivasan    7 Smrithis  Itihasas  
(Histories)  Puranas  Agamas  Darsanas  Shruthis  
 
1.Smrithis are secondary scriptures – next in importance to the Shruthis  
2.Shruthi  means what is heard. Smrithi  means what is remembered. The 
former  is a revelation and the later a tradition. The former is a direct 
experience by the great Rishis. The later a recollection of that 
experience.  
3.Upanishad is Shruti. Bhagavad –Gita is a Smrithi  
4.Smrithis or Dharma Shastras are written by sages.  
5.Shruhi is con sidered as the final authority. If there is anything in the 
Smrithi that contradicts the Shruthi , then the  Smrithi  is rejected    
6.Smrithis are the ancient sacred law codes of the Hindus. They 
suppl ement and explain the ritualistic injunctions called Vidhis  in the 
Vedas. Smrithis are based on the teachings of the Vedas.  
7.Smrithis have laid down definite rules and laws to guide individuals and 
communities in their daily conduct and regulate their manners and 
customs. The Smrithis  have given detailed instruction s, according to the 
conditions of the time, to all classes of men regarding their duties in life. 
The duties of Varnashrama  and all ceremonies are clearly given in 
these books. The object of the Smrithis is to purify the heart of the man 
and lead him gradu ally to the supreme abode of immortality.  
8.From time to time, a great law -giver would take his birth. He would codify 
the existing laws and remove those that have become obsolete. He 
would make alterations, adaptations, readjustments, additions to suit the 
needs of the time and ensure the way of living of the people would be in 
accordance with the teachings of the  Vedas . Of such law givers , Manu, 
Yajnavalkya  and Parashara  are the most celebrated. We thus have 
Manu  Smrithi, Yajnavalkya Smrithi, and Parashara Smrithi  
9.The laws of  Manu  are intended for the Satya Yuaga . Those of the 
Yajnavalkya  are for the Treta Yuga . Those by Sankha  and Likhita  are 
for the Dwapara Yuga . Those of Parashara  are meant for the Kali Yuga.  
 There are 18 main Smrithis  or 
Dharma Shastra s. 
The most important are of  
Manu, Yajnavalkya and 
Parashara . 
The other 15 are – Vishnu, 
Daksha, Samvarta, Vyasa, 
Harita, Satatapa, Vasishta, 
Yama, Apastamba, Gautama, 
Devala, Sankha -Likhita, 
Usana, Atri and Saunaka  
Ramayana  
Yoga Vasishtha  
 Hari Vamsa

K.Srinivasan    8 Smrithis  Itihasas  
 
Same class as Itihasas . There are 18 Main  Puranas  – all written by Veda Vyasa . There are an equal number of Upa Puranas  (Sub- Puranas ). Srimad 
Bhag avata Purana  and the Vishnu Purana are well known. A portion of the Markandeya Purana is well known as Devi Mahatmtya. The divine Lilas of Lord 
Shiva  are recorded in Tamil Puranas like Shiva Purana, Periya Purana, Shiva Parakramam and Tiruvilayadal Purana . The language of the  Vedas is difficult to 
grasp and assimilate.  Puranas  present philosophical truths and precious teachings in an easier manner for common people  
Main Puranas  & (No. of Verses)  
 
1 Vishnu Purana (23,000)  
2 Naradiya Purana (25,000)  
3 Srimad Bhagavata Purana (18,000)  
4 Garuda Purana (19,000)  
5 Padma Purana (55,000)  
6 Varaha Purana (24,000)  
7 Brahma Purana (10,000)  
8 Brahmanda Purana (12,000)  
9 Brahma Vaivarta Purana (18,000)  
10 Markandeya Purana (9,000)  
11 Bhavishya Purana (14,500)  
12 Vamana Purana (10,000)  
13 Matsya Purana (14,000)  
14 Kurma Puran a (17,000)  
15 Linga Purana (11,000)  
16 Shiva Purana (24,000)  
17 Skanda Purana (81,100)  
18 Agni Purana (15,400)  
 Upa Puranas  
 
1 Sanatkumara Purana  
2 Narasimha Purana  
3 Brihannaradiya Purana  
4 Sivarahasya  Purana  
5 Durvasa Purana  
6 Kapila Purana  
7 Vamana  Purana  
8 Bhargava  Purana  
9 Varuna Purana  
10 Kalika  Purana  
11 Samba Purana  
12 Nandi Purana  
13 Surya Purana  
14 Parasara Purana  
15 Vasishtha Purana  
16  Deva -Bhagavata Purana  
17 Ganesha Purana  
18 Hamsa Purana

K.Srinivasan    9 Smrithis  Itihasas  
 
The Agamas are theological treati ses and practical manuals of Divine worship. They include Tantras, Mantras 
and Yantras. They explain external worship of God in Idols, temples etc. All the Agamas treat of (1)  Jnana or 
knowledge (2) Yoga or concentration (3) Kriya or esoteric ritual (4) Ch arya or worship.They also give details on 
temple building, image making etc. The Agamas are divided into 3 sections – (a) Vaishnava (b) Shaiva (c ) 
Shakta. The Vaishnava or Pancharatra Agamas glorify God as Maha Vishnu. The Shaiva Agamas glorify Go d 
as Mah a Shiva. The Shakta Agamas or Tantras glorify the God as the Mother of the Universe _ Devi .The 
Agamas do not derive their authority from the Vedas but are not antagonistic to them. They are all V edic in 
Spirit and Character. For this reason they are consi dered authoritative  
Vaishnava   Agamas  
 
 Brahma  
Saiva 
Vasishta  
Kapila  
Gautamiya  
Narad iyaSaiva Agamas  
 
1.  28 in all  
2. The chief one is Kamika  
3. Each Agama  has a Upa  
Agama  
4. The Kashmir Saivism 
called “ Pratyabhijana”  is 
also based on these 
Agamas 
5. These are suitable for 
this age of Kali Yuga  
6. They are open to all 
castes and both sexes  Vaikhanasa  
Pancharatra  
Pratishthasara  
Vijnanal alitSakta Agama  
 
1.  Glorify Shakti  as the World Mother  
2.  There are 77 Agamas  
3. The texts are like Puranas  
4. Usually i n the form of dialogue 
between Shiva  and Parvathi  
5. Mahanirvana, Kularnava, 
Kualasara, Prapanchasara, 
Tantraraja, Rudra - Yamala, 
Brhma - Yamala, Vishnu - Yamala, 
Todala Tantra  are the important 
works.

K.Srinivasan    10 Nyaya  
( By Gautama 
Maha rshi) Vaiseshika  
( By Kanada Ris hi) Sankya  
( By Kapila Muni)  Yoga  
( By Patanjal ) Poorva 
Mimamsa  
( By Jaimini ) Uttara Mimamsa  
( Veda Vyasa ) Smrithis  Itihasas  
(Histories)  Puranas  Agamas  Shad -Darsanas  
(Six schools of philosophies)  Shruthis  
 
1. Itihasas, Puranas and Agamas  are meant  for the masses . Darsanas form the intellectual section of the Hindu writing.  Darsanas  are 
schools of philosophy based on the Vedas . They are meant for scholars having excellent powers of understanding, acute acumen, 
power of reasoning, subtle intellect a nd a very good understanding of the Vedas .  
2. The philosophy has six divisions. Hence, it is called Shad Darsana  – six different schools of thought. Each school has developed and 
systematized various parts of Vedas  its own way. Each system has its own Sutrak ara – a great Rishi  who has systematized the 
doctrines of the school and put them in short aphorisms or Sutras.   
3. The Sutras are short and terse. The Sutras , themselves, are very difficult to understand without the help from great teachers and Rishis.  
Thus,  there arose a number of eminent commentators are Bhashyakaras, who in turn produced commentaries on the original 
comme ntaries.  
A Sutra  or an aphorism refers to a very short and terse statement (without any ambiguity at all) embracing a ll the meanings and 
contai ning the complete essence of a large volume of knowledge. They are to be kept in memory at all times.   
4. The six Darsanas  are divided into 3 pairs – to help explain the philosophy of the Vedas  in a rationalistic manner. Nyaya and Vaiseshika 
form the fi rst pair, Sankhya and Yoga the second pair, Mimamsa and Vedanta the third pair.   
5. Panini  composed Ashtadhyayi , the greatest and perfect of all Sutra  literature. Panini is regarded as the father of all Sutrakaras . 
6. The six Vedangas  along with Shad Darsanas constitute the 12 sets of core  Sutra  literature. The others are, later compositions like 
Narada Bhakti Sutras, Shandilya Bhaki Sutras  etc 
7. Each of the Sutras, are supported by – a) Bhashya  (b) Vritti  (c) Varttika  (d) Vyakhyana (or Tikka)  (e) Tippani  
(a) Bhasy a is an elaborate exposition or commentary with word by word meaning of the aphoristic precepts togeth er with the 
individual views of the commentator or Bhashyakara . The best and exemplary Bhashya  in Sanskrit  literature is the one by  
Patanjali  on the Vyaka rana Sutras of Panini. Patanjali  is regarded as the father of Bhashyakaras.  Other highly regarded ones 
are – Bhashya  on Mimasa Sutra  by Sabara - Swamin, Bhashyas  on Brahma Sutra  by Jagadguru Shankaracharya  and that by 
Sri Ramanujacharya . 
(b) Vritti is a short g loss explaining the aphorisms in a more elaborate way, but not as elaborately as the  Bhashya. Bodhayana’s 
Vritti on Brahma Sutra is an example.   
(c) Varttika is a critical study on the Bhashya  highlighting the imperfections and ways of making it better. Notabl e Varttikas  are - 
Katyayana’s on Panini Sutras , Sureshwara’s  on Shankara’s Upanishad Bhashya  and Kumarila Bhatta’s  on Sabara Bhashya.  
(d) Vyakhyana or Tikka is a running explanation in an easier language of what has been said in the original Darsana or 
Bhashya . Vachaspati Mishra’s  work on Darsanas and Shankara’s Brahma Sutra Bhashya  is an example.  
(e) Tppani is very similar to  Vritti but less orthodox.  It gives explanations of difficult words or phrases in the original. Kaiyata’s

K.Srinivasan    11 Kalas  Darshanas  Shrutiss  Aagmass  Smrities Itihasass  Puranas  
A brief overview of some of the Sciences that existed and covered by Vedas is given below – 
1 Akshara Laksha : By Sage Valmiki . Subjects such as mathematics, geometry, alg ebra,trigonometry,minerology, hydels are said to 
have been treated. . This work comprehends earlier discoveries by Sage Kashyapa, Ganapati, Soorya, B rihaspati, Jaimini, 
Hanuman and others  
2. Shabda Shastra:  By Kandika Rishi. Deals with sound, its measureme nt, and methods of  mechanically rereproducing them.  
3. Lakshana Shastra : By Shaktayana. Science of determining sex  
4. Shakuna Shastra: By Sage Garga. Deals with omens – good and bad effects from sounds of birds, words of human beings  
5. Shilpa Shastra:  By sage Kashyapa. Handles the constructions of temples, palaces, halls etc. Earlier writers on the subj ect were – 
Vishwakarma, Maya, Maruti .  
6. Malinee Shastra : By sage Rishyashringa . Deals with flower arrangements  garlands, bouquets, hair -do’s in various s tyles for 
women, writing love messages on flower petals etc are said to have been included  
7. Supa shastra:  By Sukesa.   Deals with the science of cooking. It is said, more than 3000 dishes for people living in different parts 
of the world have been describ ed. 
8. Science of Kala orTime: By Lord Kartikeya.  Division of time into definite periods, auspicious and in -auspicious moments etc are 
said to have been handled.  
9. Samudrika Lakshana:  By Samudra Raja.  Topics handled are –Oceanography, living under and abo ve sea  
10.  Dhatuvada : By Ashwini Kumaras . The subject of metallurgy.  
11. Visha Shastra: By Ashwini Kumaras. The subject of 32 kinds of poisons, their properties, prepara tion, effects and antidot es are 
handled.  
12. Chitrakarma shastra  : By Bhima.  Deals wit h the science of drawings.  
13.  Malla Shastra :  Deals with gymnastics and Sports  
14.  Ratna Pariksha : By sage Vatsyayana. Handles the subject of testing gems  
15. Artha Shastra : By sage Vyasa.  Handles wealth creation and accumulation  
16.  Yantras : By sage Bharadwaja.  Deals vehicles for transportation – by lands, boats and ships  
17.  Mahendrajala : By Veerabahu  (serves Lord  Kartikeya ). The science of Magic

K.Srinivasan    12  
Subhashitas  Naatakas  Alankaras  Kaavyas  4 Secular heads  
1. Subhashitas refer to wise sayings, 
instru ctions or stories in prose or 
poetry.  
2. Notable ones are – 
 -Bhartrihari’s Subhashitas  
- Somadeva Bhatta’s Katha 
Sarit Sagara  
- Kshemendra’s Brihat -Katha - 
Manjari  
- Panchatantra  
- Hitopadesa  1. Kaavyas  refer to highly scholarly 
compositions in poetry,  prose or 
both 
2. Notable among the Poetical 
Kaavyas  are - 
- Kalidasa’s Raghuvamsa  and 
Kumara Sambhava  
- Bharavi’s Kiratarjuniya  
- Magha’s Sisupala Vadha  
- Sri Harsh’s Naishada  
3. Notable among the Prose 
Kaavyas   
are - 
- Bhattabana’s Kadambari  and 
Harshac harita  
4. Notable among those containing 
both Poetry and Prose are – 
 -Champu Ramayana  1. Naatakas  refer to scholastic 
dramas in Sanskrit. Characters in 
these dramas portray a number of 
moods ( Rasas ).  
2. There are 9 different Rasas . They 
are – Sringara, Veera, Karuna, 
Adbhuta, Haasya, Bhayaanaka, 
Bheebhatsa, Raudra and 
Santi. The Rasa Santi  is not 
portrayed in Natakas.   
3. Well known Naatakas  are – 
- Kalidasa’s Shakuntala  
- Bhavabhooti’s Uttara Rama 
Charita  
- Vishaka Datta’s 
Mudrara kshasa 1. Alankaras  refer to 
texts dealing with 
effective 
compositions in 
ornamental la nguage 
– both in p oetry and 
prose.  
2. They are even 
superior to the 
Kavyas  and Natakas  
3. The best among the 
Alankara Granthas  
are – 
-Mammata’s 
Kavyaprakasha   
-   Jagannatha’s  
 Rasagangadhara

Roots - Creation  
                                                                            13 Chapter II - Creation  
Basis  
Puranas  contain history of remote times. They are meant for common peop le 
and describe the times, troubles and triumphs of their heroes. A Purana  
usually gives prominence to a certain deity ( Shiva, Vishnu, Krishna ). Most use 
an abundance of religious and philosophical concepts in their narration from 
Bhakti to Sankya.  
Accordi ng to Matsya Purana , they deal systematically with five subjects called 
Pancha Lakshana.  They are –  
(1)Sarga - The creation of the Universe  
(2)Pratisarga – Secondary creations after dissolution  
(3)Vamsa – Genealogy of Gods and sages  
(4)Manvantara  – Creation of the hu man race and the first human beings  
(5)Vamsaanucharitam – Dynastic histories.  
A Purana, generally,  gives importance to a particular deity and treats other 
deities to secondary roles. This is to increase the faith in their particular Ishta -
Devata.  
The followin g section is based on Srimad Bhagavatam.  At same time, it is not 
intended to give complete details of the entire  Bhagavatam . The aim is to give 
a broad picture on the genealogy of prominent men and women of their times.  
Beginning  
There was a great deluge. The entire Earth was submerged in water. Lord 
Narayana was absorbed in Yoga nidra  after the Maha pralaya . He was 
reclining on the great serpent Adisesha.  The entire Universe had been 
withdrawn into Him and lay dormant in Him.  
The three Gunas Sattva, Rajas  and Tamas  were in equilibrium. So it was a 
long time. Then TIME caused a disturbance in the three Gunas  and the 
equilibrium was upset. Out of the navel of the Lord Narayana emerged a thin 
stalk. This grew into an immense lotus. Into that lotus entered the Lord in 
another form which was Brahma. Brahma  found that he had four heads. He 
then looked around and saw large expanse of water and nothing else. It 
seemed to him that the waves around appeared to be telling him to perform 
Tapas.  He then did the Tapas for  hundred years. All of a sudden, he saw the 
form of Lord Narayana  in his mind.  Brahma  realized He was the Purusha.  
Lord Nar ayana told him “I have set you the task of creating the world and the 
beings on it.

                                                                            14 Out of the mind of Lord Brahma were born the fou r Rishis Sanaka, Sananda, 
Sanatana  and Sanatkumara.  Brahma asked them to take up the task of 
creation and multiply. However, the minds of the Rishis were made up of 
attaining salvation. They refused to undertake the task of creation. Brahma  
was angry with them but he controlled it. However, his anger took up a form 
and emerged out of his forehead. The child began to cry as soon as he was 
born. The child asked for a name and a place to stay. Brahma told the child 
“Do not cry. Since you cried the moment you a re born, you will be called  
Rudra.  The heart, the senses, life, the sky, air, fire, water, earth, the sun, the 
moon and tapas are the places assigned to you. You can go now and produce 
many in your image”.  
Brahma then created ten sons out of his body. Thes e were – Atri, Angiras, 
Pulastya, Pulaha, Kratu, Bhrigu, Daksha, Marichi, Vasishtha and Narada. 
Dharma  and Adharma  were also born out of Brahma . Out of his heart was 
born desire and out of his brows anger. His shadow took a form and this son 
was named Kard ama. From his mind and body was created this entire world. 
The four Vedas were born out of his four faces.  
Brahma  then divided his body into two; one was male and the other female. 
They were called Svayambhu Manu  and Shatarupa.  As soon as he was born 
Svay ambhu Manu asked his father what he wanted him to do. Lord  Brahma  
commanded that the work of creation should be continued. At that time the 
Earth was submerged in water and the Manu  did not have a place to start.  
Brahma  then sought the help of Lord Narayan a who assumed the form of a 
boar in order to raise the Earth from below the water. He plunged into the 
ocean, located the earth, raised it on his tusks and began to climb. An Asura  
named Hiranyaksha  tried to stop His progress but he was killed.  
Svayambhu M anu and Shatarupa  produced five children; three were 
daug hters- Akuti, Prasuti and Devahuti.  The sons were Priyavrata  and 
Uttanapada.  
Akuti was married to a rishi by the name Ruchi, Devahuti to Kardama  and 
Prasuti to Daksha.  The children of these and their  descendants have 
populated the world.  Daksha  had thirteen daughters. He gave them in 
marriage to Kashyapa , son of Marichi. Diti  was one of them.  
Diti’s sin  
One evening just after Kashyapa  finished his evening worship,  Diti came to 
him and wanted him to ma ke love to her. Kashyapa  refused pointing out that 
evenings are sacred for the worship of Mahadeva.  However,  Diti was 
determined to have her way. As a result of her sin , Diti gave birth to two sons 
and both of them were wicked. They were known by the names  Hiranyaksha  
and Hiranyakashipu . It was this Hiranyaksha who was killed by Lord

                                                                            15 Narayana  in the form of Varahamoorthy.  Hiranyakashipu  also hated Lord 
Narayana  intensely. However, his son Prahlada  was a great devotee of the 
Lord. Hirany akashipu  persecuted e veryone including the  Devas . However, 
when he started punishing his son he crossed the limit. Lord Narayana  killed 
him manifesting in the form of Narasimha.   
Devahuti served her husband Kardama  with great devotion. They had nine 
daughters. Sage Kardama married his daughters to Rishis . Kala was given to 
Marichi; Anasuya  to Atri; Shraddha  to Angiras;  Havirbhu  to Pulastya; Gati  to 
Pulaha; Kriya  to Kratu; Khyati  to Bhrigu; Arundhati  to Vasishta and Shanti to 
Atharva.   
Kapila Vasudeva  
Finally, Lord Narayana  was born Devahuti’s son. He was named Kapila.  It 
was this  Kapila  who established the well known Sankhya Yoga. Kapila 
Vasudeva  was born to reveal Brahma Vidya  to human beings.  Kapila  teaches 
Atma Vidya  to his mother to help her realize the Lord. After the birth  of Kapila, 
Kardama  retired to a forest and spent his days in Tapas . After teaching his 
mother  Brahma  Vidya, Kapila  leaves home. Devahuti  spent the rest of her life 
on the lines taught by her son and attained liberation. The spot where she 
attained Brahman  became a holy spot. It is called Siddhapada.  Even gods 
visit this place. Sage Kardama’s next daughter,  Shraddha , was married to 
Sage  Angiras. They had a son and he was Brihaspati. Havirbhu  married Sage 
Pulastya and they had two sons; one was Sage Agastya  and the other was 
Vishravas . The son of Vishravas was Kubera.  Vishravas had another wife 
named Kaikasi. She was the mother of the famed Ravana, Kumbhakarna  and 
Vibhi shana. Kratu’s  wife Kriya  was the mother of Rishis named by 
“Valakhilyas”. Kyati,  wife of Bhrigu had two sons. One of them was the father 
of Mrikandu.  The other son was Sage Shukracharya,  the Acharya  of Asuras.  
Atri’s Tapas  
Daksha Prajapati  married Prasuti,  the second daughter of Manu .  They had 
sixteen daughters. Thirteen of the daughters were married to Dharma.  One 
daughter was given to Agni;  one to the  Pitris  and one was given to Lord 
Mahadeva.  
Anasuya,  daughter of Manu  was married to Sage Atri. Sage  Atri performed a 
great penance on the mountain of Ruksha.  He wanted a son from the Lord of 
the Lords who will be like Him. Pleased with his Tapas  all the three murthis - 
Brahma, Vishnu  and Mahadeva appeared before him. Overwhelmed by the 
simultaneous presence of the tri -murthis Sage  Atri worshipped them 
appropr iately. In response to the query from t he three murthis, the sage 
replied “I prayed for the best among you to grant me a son in His image. It is 
up to you to tell me who is the best from among you”.  Brahma, Vishnu  and 
Mahadeva  were amused by his words. “We are all aspects of the Brahman.  It

                                                                            16 is the same Brahman  who creates, preserves and destroys. We wanted you 
to realize the truth and that is why all three of us have come. You will be 
father of three sons, each one an  amsha  of each of us. They will become very 
famous and bring you a great name”.  The son born to Atri with the  amsha of 
Brahma  was the Moon; Datta  was the son with the amsha  of Vishnu and the 
son with the image of Mahadeva  was Durvasa.   
Arrogant King  
Daksha Prajapati’s  daughter, Sati, married Lord Mahadeva. Daksha  once 
performed a gre at Yagna  by the name Brahma Satra.  As the Yagna  was 
about to commence,  Daksha felt that Mahadeva insulted him. In an 
uncontrollable a nger he abused and cursed the Lord. In an atmosphere 
charged with anger and emotion the followers of Daksha  and Lord Mahade va 
exchanged curses. As a follow -up on this Yagna , Daksha  performed another 
where he pointedly did not invite Mahadeva. The Lord did not attend the 
Yagna  but allowed His wife to attend, since she was very keen. However, on 
arrival at the yagnashala , she di scovered that her father, Daksha,  ignored her. 
Others at the scene did not dare to defy Daksha.  Sati was furious at the insult 
targeted towards her husband. She spoke harshly to her father. Then by yogic 
power she burnt her body and was reduced to ashes.  
On hearin g about the tragedy at the yagn ashala , Lord Mahadeva  was not at 
all surprised but was very furious. He pulled a strand from his matted locks 
and threw it on the ground. Out of it was born Virabhadra glowing like fire. 
Mahadeva  ordered that the prou d Daksha  along with the  yagnashala  to be 
destroyed. Virabhadra  along with Pramathaganas rushed to the  yagnashala.  
Within a short time the place was destroyed and Daksha was killed.  
All the  Devatas  accompanied with Lord  Vishnu  and Brahma  went to Kailasa  to 
meet Mahadeva and pacify Him. He forgave Daksha  and who came back to 
life with the head of a goat. The Yagn a was completed.  
Dhruva’s Tapas  
Uttanapada , the son of Manu, had two wives; Suniti  and Suruchi. Suniti’s  son 
was Dhruva  and Suruchi’s  son was Uttama.  Surichi  was the favourite  wife of 
Uttanapada.  Under the influence of Suruchi the king treated Uttama with great 
affection and openly neglected Dhruva.  The child ran to his mother and 
complained.  Suniti  advised the child to take refuge in Lord Narayana.  He went 
away to a forest not knowing how to gain the grace of the Lord. Sage Narada 
decided to help the child. He initiated the Maha mantra “Aum Namo 
Bhag avate Vasudevaya” and told him to repeat it with his mind firmly 
concentrated on the Lord.  Dhruva  perfor med intense  Tapas  repeating the 
mantra.  Lord Narayana  was very pleased with the young devotee. He blessed 
the child that his wish to become the favourite  of his father will come true and 
his father will crown him as a King In addition the Lord told the boy  that He is

                                                                            17 assigning a place for him which will be eternal. The Sun and Moon will revolve 
round it. At the end of his life  Dhruva  reached Lord Narayana.  
King Prithu  
One of the descendants of Dhruva  was a tyrant named Vena. He would not 
listen to advice fr om his ministers and continued with his reign of terror. The 
Rishis  then invoked the God of death and  Vena  died. After the death of Vena,  
the land had no king to rule. Eventually with the help of penance of the Rishis 
a boy and a girl was born. They named the boy as Prithu.  The girl was named 
Archis.  From the lakshanas , the Rishis  knew that he was born from an amsha 
of Lord Narayana. Archis  was Sri Maha Lakshmi.  
When he was old enough, the boy was crowned as king. After he was 
crowned as king, the Rishis  called him Prithu, the great protector of the world.  
Prithu  noticed that his subjects were thin and emaciated. He concluded that 
Earth was not yielding enough. So he confronted Mother Earth and decided to 
punish her. Mother earth got frightened and explained  that as time passed 
sinful acts were being committed everywhere. In a fit of anger she decided 
that the people were not fit enough to enjoy the wealth provided to them.  
However, she promised that she will now agree to yield enough food for all 
people. Ev eryone then got what he wanted. King Prithu was very pleased with 
the earth and her bounty, that he made her his beloved daughter. Since then 
mother Earth came to called as Prithvi.  He was the first king that ever won the 
hearts of the people. From his tim e kings have been called “ Rajas”. “Ranj”  
means charm, “ Ranjayati iti Raja”. Prithu was the first Raja – “Adiraja”.  King 
Prithu  performed one hundred Ashvamedhas.  
King Prithu’s  grandson was  Havirdhana  who married Havirdhani.  They had six 
children and the el dest was Barhishat.  He married Shatadruti,  daughter of the 
lord of the seas. Ten sons were born to this couple and they were famed as 
Prachetas.  King Barhishat  believed in the performance of yagnays  and he 
performed many. Sage Narada took interest in him a nd initiated the Brahma 
Vidya  advising him that it was the way for salvation. King Barhishat  followed 
his advice.  
Prachetas,  the ten sons of King Barhishat,  were great devotees of Lord 
Narayana.  Lord Mahadeva was pleased with them and decided to help them.  
He taught them Rudra Gita  and asked them to repeat it with a steady mind in 
order to gain the favour of Lord Narayana.  They did that. The Lord  Narayana  
was pleased with their devotion and asked them to marry Marisha,  daughter 
of an Apsara.  He also told th e brothers that she will bear them a son whose 
fame will spread all over the world. All ten of them married  Marisha . A son 
was born to them and he was Daksha . It was the same Daksha Prajapati  who 
insulted Lord Mahadeva.  He was born as a human being for the  sin he

                                                                            18 committed. Prachetas crowned Daksha as the king and left for the forest. 
However, he too left for the forest to perform Tapas.  
We mentioned earlier that Svayambhu Manu  had two sons – Priyavrata  and 
Uttanapada.  We learnt earlier that Uttanapada’s  son was the famed Dhruva. 
Priyavrata  was the eldest son of the Manu.  However, he had no desire to rule 
the kingdom and left for the forest to perform Tapas.  Uttanapada  and later 
Dhruva ruled the land. However, when Daksha , their descendant, left for the 
forest, the land was without a ruler. Lord Brahma  went to Priyavrata  and 
persuaded him to take up the reins of ruling the kingdom. Priyavrata  married 
Barhishmati,  daughter of Vishvakarma.  Ten sons and a daughter were born to 
them. Agnitra  was the eldest son. T hree of his brothers left to the forest to 
perform Tapas. Agnitra  and his six other brothers ruled the seven islands. The 
daughter  Ojasvati  was married to  Shukra  and their daughter was Devayani.   
People were happy during his rule. Priyavrata  was interested  in tracing the 
path of the Sun. He equipped himself with a chariot fast enough to travel with 
the Sun. He travelled with the Sun around the Earth seven times. The moats 
formed by the quick progress of his chariot became the seven great seas. 
They were nam ed – Lavana, Ikshu, Sura, Sarpi, Dadhi, Kshira and Madhu. 
The earth divided into seven islands. They were named – Jambu, Plaksha, 
Shalmali, Kusha, Krauncha, Shaka and Pushkara.  
King Bharata  
Agnitra’s  son was Nabhi and he had no children. He performed a gr eat 
sacrifice where he worshipped Lord Narayana.  The Lord was pleased with 
Nabhi  and promised that he will be born as a son to Nabhi.  The child was 
named Rishabha. Rishabha  was crowned as the king after Nabhi. Rishabha  
married Jayanti  the daughter of Indra . They had hundred sons; the eldest of 
them was Bharata.  Bharata  was a great king and the land was called 
Bharatavarsha after him. After a long number of years, Bharata  decided to 
retire to the forest. He distributed his kingdom among his sons he went away  
to the  ashrama  of sage Pulaha  near Haridwar.  He worshipped Lord Narayana  
with great dev otion. His heart was filled with peace born out of renunciation 
and detachment. One day he rescued a new -born deer when her mother died. 
He brought up the deer with gre at care and was greatly attached to it. His 
meditation and prayers were all things of the past. And when he died 
Bharata’s  mind was on the deer. Since his thoughts were on the deer, 
Bharata was born as a deer. However, he had the privilege of remembering 
his previous birth. As a deer he travelled to holy places and finally died. And 
that was not the end of it all. Bharata was born again as a son of a Brahmin in 
the Angirasa  clan. He was disgusted and did not want any attachment with 
anyone. His thoughts wer e continuously on Lord Narayana and it did not 
bother him to do menial jobs. He was Jada Bharata . He wandered over earth 
till he obtained salvation.

                                                                            19 Daksha’s descendants  
Daksha , son of Prachetasa  brothers married  Asikni  and had sixty daughters. 
Of the ten were married to Dharma,  seventeen to Kashyapa,  twenty -seven to 
Chandra  and Bhuta, Angiras and Krishashva  married two each. Vishvadevas 
were sons of one of the daughters. Marutvati was the mother of  Marutvan  and 
Jayanta. Jayanta  was also called Upendra.Sanka lpa was one of the 
daug hters. Her son was also named  Sankalpa and he was the father of 
Kama.   
The daughter Vasu was the mother of the eight Vasus  Sarupa,  wife of  Bhuta  
became the mother of thousands of Rudras , eleven of whom were famous: 
Raivata, Aja, Bha va, Bhima, Vama, Ugra, Vrishakapi, Ajaikapat, Ahirbudhnya, 
Bahurupa and Maha.Kashyapa wives were Aditi, Diti, Dhanu, Kashtha, 
Arishta, Surasa, Ila, Muni, Krodhavasha, Tamra, Surabhi, Saram, Timi,  
Vinata, Kadru, Patangi and Yamini.  Aditi ‘s son was Vamana – one of the 
incarnations of Lord Narayana. Vamana  was born in the month of 
Bhadrapada:  Shukla Paksha: Dvadashi  and Abhijit  was the star under which 
the child was born. In later years this dvadashi will be known as Vijaya 
Dvadashi.  
 
The sons of Aditi were Vivasvan, Aryama, Pusha, Twashta, Savita, Bhaga, 
Dhata, Vidhata, Varuna, Mitra, Sakra and Urukrama.Dhanu had sixty one 
children. One of them was Vrishaparva.  His daughter Sharmishta  marries 
King Yayati , son of King Nahusha. Surabhi  produced cows and buffal oes. 
Tamra  gave birth to hawks, falcons and eagles . Krodhavasha  was the mother 
of serpents with fangs.  Ila produced trees.  Arishta  was the mother of 
Gandharvas. Kashta  produced animals without split hooves. Viprasiddhi,  son 
of Dhanu  married Simhika,  daught er of Hiranyakashipu.  They had hundred 
children which included Rahu  and Ketu. Muni  gave birth to  Apsaras  Patangi  
produced birds and Yamini gave birth to moths and similar short -lived insects  
Vinata was the mother of  Aruna (charioteer of Sun) and Garuda  who carried 
Lord Narayana  Kadru was the mother serpents. Famous among the sons 
were – Sesha, Vasuki, Takshaka  and Karkotaka  
Daityas and Maruts  
Hiranyaksha  and Hiranyakashipu  were the sons of Diti. She also gave birth to 
Maruts. Hiranyaksha was killed by Lord  Narayana  in the form of Varaha. 
Hiranyakashipu  hated Lord Narayana  for this. He persecuted all devotees of 
Narayana.   
Hiranyakashipu’s  son was  Prahlada  who turned out to be the greatest 
devotee of the Lord. When Hiranyakashipu started persecuting Prahlada , then 
the Lord killed him in the form of Narasimha. Prahlada’s  son was Virochana.  
And his son was the great asura king Bali. He defeats God  Indra  and

                                                                            20 becomes the Lord of the world. It was to subdue King Bali that Lord Narayana  
was born as Vamana. Bali  was involved in conducting a great Yaga. Vamana 
approaches Bali and asks for a boon. The boon the child was asking was for 
three paces of ground as measured by the child. Shukracharya, the preceptor 
of the King reveals to the King that the child is in fact Lor d Narayana himself 
and the boon should be refused. However, the king was excited to be in a 
position to grant a boon to the Lord of lords. He gives it. Vamana measures 
the earth and heaven with two paces and asks Bali a place for the third pace. 
Bali offer s his head. Lord Narayana  was very pleased with Bali and blessed 
him. 
Solar dynasty  
Aditi,  wife of sage Kashyapa , gave birth to twelve Adityas.  One of them was 
Vivasvan , the Sun god - Surya. Surya’s  son was Vivasvatha Manu.  Manu  had 
many sons and one of the m was Ikshvaku.  He was the founder of Ikshvaku 
dynasty; sometimes referred to as Surya Vamsha . In the line of Ikshvaku  was 
born Naabhaka . He became one of the greatest seers of his time. Naabhaka’s  
son was Ambarisha  and he possessed immense wealth. Yet he was aware 
that all the things of this world like riches are transient. He lived in this world of 
men without any bondage. He was a great devotee of Lord Narayana.  His 
encounter with the sage Durvasa  while practicing Dvadashi Vrata  is well 
known.  
King Puran jaya was one of the descendants of Ikshvaku.  He was a great 
warrior and was called by another name Kakutstha.  King Mandhatri was one 
of the descendants of this lineage and was regarded as a great monarch.  
Trishanku  
Satyavrata  was a later king in the Solar  dynasty. His son was Trishanku. 
Trishanku  wanted to reach heavens with a human body. He approached his 
Guru Vashishta  and resented his strange wish and cursed him to become a 
Chandala.  Vishvamitra,  the generous hearted agreed to perform a  Yagna  to 
send hi m to heaven. And he did perform the Yagna and the king was raised to 
the heavens. The devatas led by their king Indra resented it and threw him 
down. Vishvamitra got furious with the devatas and stopped Trishanku  in mid 
air. Further he went on create a new  heaven solely for the purpose of 
Trishanku.  As he was about to create a new Brahma,  the devatas pacified 
him. Trishanku lived in the special heaven.  
King Bhagiratha  
Trishanku’s  son was Harischandra . Another great king born in the Solar 
dynasty was King Sa gara. He had two wives; Sumati and Kesini. Sumati  had 
sixty thousand sons and Kesini  had one son named Asamanja. Asamanja  son 
was Amshuman  and he was greatly devoted to his grandfather.  Emperor 
Sagara wanted to perform Ashvamedha Yaga . Lord Indra  stole the  horse and

                                                                            21 left it in a cave where Sage Kapila was in Samadhi . Sixty thousand sons of 
the emperor went in search of the horse. When they found the horse in front 
of the sage, they mistook him to be the thief. Hearing the noise the sage 
opened his eyes and the sixty thousand princes were reduced to a heap of 
ash. Amshuman  went in search of the sixty thousand princes and the missing 
horse. He finally reached Maharshi Kapila  and fell at his feet. The sage told 
him to take the horse back to the emperor Sagara . He also told Amshuman 
that if water from Ganga could be used to wash the ashes of the princes, then 
they could ascend to the Pritriloka.  The only problem was Ganga  at that time 
was in the heavens. How do you bring it to the earth?  Both Amshuman  and 
his son  Dilipa  performed Tapas . Both of them died before achieving any 
success. Bhagiratha,  son of Dilipa,  was determined to bring Ganga  to the 
Earth. He performed tapas for a long time and Goddess Ganga  was pleased 
with him. However, she asked that when she come s down from the heaven to 
the earth what will be there to take up the force of her fall.  Bhagiratha  began 
to perform tapas once again to please Lord Mahadeva.  At last he got the Lord 
to agree to receive Ganga  on His matted locks. The rest is history. The s ixty 
thousand valiant sons of Sagara reached the loka meant for the Pitris.  
Raghu  was a king from the Solar lineage. His son was Aja. And Aja’s  son was 
King Dasharatha. Rama, Lakshmana, Bharata  and Shatrughna  were the four 
sons of King Dasharatha.  The famo us Purana Ramayana  written by Sage 
Valmiki tells deeds performed by the four brothers.  
Lunar Dynasty  
We have seen that Chandra  (also called as Soma ) was one of the sons of 
Sage Atri. Lord Brahma  made him the lord of the Oshadhis  (medicinal herbs) 
and of st ars. Soma  conquered the three worlds and performed the Rajasuya . 
He was very handsome. In course of time he became proud and arrogant. 
Soma  stole Tara, the wife of  Brihaspati  and refused to give her back. In the 
end Lord Brahma  intervened and restored Tara back to  Brihaspati . Tara had a 
son through Chandra.  He was named as Budha. Budha  married  Ila and they 
had a son named  Pururavas  and he becomes the first king in the Lunar 
dynasty – Chandravamsha.   
 
In the line of  Pururavas  was born a king named Gadhi.  His daughter named 
Satyavati married Ruchika , a Brahmin. Gadhi had a son by the name of 
Kaushika.  In later years Kaushika,  after performing great tapas , came to be 
known as Vishvamitra.  
 
 In course of time  Satyavati  had a son and he was named Jamadagni.  He 
married Renuka  and five sons were born to them: Vasuman, Vasu, 
Vasushena, Rumanvan  and Rama. Rama  was Kshatriya  by nature. He came

                                                                            22 to be known as Parashurama. It was he who nearly exterminated the entire 
Kshatriya clan.  
Nahusha and his personal heaven  
Purur avas had six sons, the eldest of whom was Ayu. His descendants were 
Nahusha, Yayati  and Puru. Nahusha was a very good king, performed many  
yajnas  and was fit enough to be Indra. As it happened, the  Devatas  came to 
Nahusha  with a request to officiate as Ind ra during a period when Indra  was in 
hiding. Nahusha  did that for a while and started becoming arrogant with the 
power and wealth at his disposal. He misbehaved with the Rishis and was 
cursed to spend his time as a python. He begs forgiveness and was told that 
he will be released from the curse by the Pandavas  in Dvapara Yuga .  
Nahusha’s  son was Yayati. Yayati  had two wives: Devayani,  daughter of  
Shukracharya  and Sharmishta.  King Yayati  had five sons – two from 
Devayani and three from Sharmishta.  The sons o f Devayani were Yadu  and 
Turvasu . Sons of Sharmishata were Druhyu, Anu  and Puru.  
Kuru Vamsha and Kurukshetra  
Puru was considered as one of the foremost kings of the Lunar dynasty. Kuru  
was another. So the  vamsha  was called Paurava vamsha  or Kuru vamsha . In 
this vamsha  was born King Dushyanta. Dushyanta  married Shakuntala. 
Shakunta  was born to the apsara Menaka  when she lived with Sage 
Vishvamitra . The son of Shakuntala  was Bharata.  One of the descendants of 
Bharata  was Kuru. Kuru  performed tapas in a spot named Kurujangala.  This 
spot came to be named as Kurukshetra.  The descendant in this line was king  
Shantanu  who was the grandfather of kauravas  and Pandavas.  
Yayati’s son Yadu  was not interested in ruling a kingdom and he was made to 
rule one of the smalle r kingdoms. He had three other sons - Kroshtu, Nala  and 
Ripu.   
Sri Krishna and Balarama  
In the line of Kroshtu  was born  Andhaka  and Vrishni.  A descendant of 
Andhaka  was Aahuka  whose sons were Devaka  and Ugrasena. Devaka  had 
a daughter by the name of Devaki.  She was given in marriage to Vasudeva,  
son of  Shura . The son of Devaki and Vasudeva  was Lord Krishna.  
Vasudeva had seven wives – Pauravi, Rohini, Bhadra, Madira, Rochana, Ila  
and Devaki.  Through Rohini, Vasudeva  had Balarama as his son.  
Vasudeva  had five sisters – Pritha, Shrutadevi, Shrutakirti, Shrutashravas  and 
Rajadhidevi.  Kunti Bhoja  was a friend of Shura  and did not have any children. 
King Shura  gave his daughter  Pritha  to his friend. Pritha,  from then on, was 
better known as Kunti.  She was the mothe r of three of the Pandavas - 
Dharmaraja, Bhima  and Arjuna.

                                                                            23 Given below is a chart in brief that gives the names of some of the familiar 
personages we come across in  Puranas. The Puranas  contain a detailed 
Vamsha Vriksha.

                                                                            24  
 
 Lord 
Sriman Narayana  
Lord 
Brahma  Four 
Vedas Dharma & 
Adharma  
Desire & 
Anger  
Rishi  
Sanak
a Rishi  
Sananda  Rishi  
Sanatana  Rishi  
Sanatkumara  8 Rudras  Rishi  
Atri Rishi  
Angirasa  Rishi  
Pulastya  Rishi  
Pulaha  
Rishi  
Kratu  Rishi  
Bhrigu  Svayambhu Manu  
Shatarupa  Rishi  
Narada  
Rishi  
Kardama  Rishi  
Vashishta  Rishi  
Marichi  
Daughters  
Akuti  
Prasuti  
Devahuti  
Sons  
Priyavrata  
Uttanapada  Rishi  
Ruchi  
Son 
Dhruva  Daksha  
Prajapati

                                                                            25 Daksha Prajapati 
& Prasuti  
Son 
Bharata  Rishabha  Nabhi  Agnitra  Priyavrata  Vishvakarma  
Daughter  
Barhishmati,  
Daughter of 
Indra  8 Rudras  
Rudra  
Bhava  
Sharva  
Ishan  
Pashupati  
Bheem  
Ugra  
Mahadeva  8 Wives  
Sati 
Uma  
Vikeshi  
Swadha  
Swaha  
Dik 
Diksha  
Rohini  16 
daug hters 13 daughters m arried 
Dharma  
1 daughter married 
Agni 
Pitris  1 daughter married 
Lord Mahadeva

                                                                            26  
 
Rishi Kardama  
&  
Devahuti  
Rishi  
Atri 
Rishi  
Angiras  
Rishi  
Pulastya  Daughters  
Kala 
Anasuya  
Shraddha  
Harirbhu  
Gati 
Kriya  
Arundhati  
Khyati  
Shanti  
Son 
Kapil a 
Vasudeva  
 
Kapila 
Vasudeva  
 Rishi  
Marichi  
Rishi  
Pulaha  
Rishi  
Kratu  
Rishi  
Vashishta  
Rishi  
Bhrigu  Rishi  
Atharva

                                                                            27  
Son 
Deva Guru  
Brihaspathi  Rishi Kardama  &  
Devahuti  
Daughter  
Kala Rishi  
Marichi  
Son 
Rishi  
Kashyapa  
Rishi  
Angiras  Daughter  
Shraddha  
Daughter  
Havirbhu  Rishi  
Pulastya  
Son 
Rishi  
Agastya  Son 
Rishi  
Vishravas  
Son 
Kubera  Vishravas +  
wife Kesini  
 Sons  
Ravana  
Kumbhakarna  
Vibhishana  Daughte r 
Khayati  Rishi  
Bhrigu  
Son 
Shukracharya

                                                                            28 Rishi Kardama  &  
Devahuti  
Daughter  
Anasuya  Rishi  
Atri 
Sons  
Chandra  
Dattatreya  
Durvasa  Svayambhu Manu  
Shatarupa  
Son 
Uttanapada  Son 
Dhruva  
Terrible King  
Vena  
Son 
 Great King Prithu  
(After whom the Earth has been named Prithvi)  
10 Sons  
Prachetas  
Son 
Daksha  Asikni  
60 Daughters  
10 Daughters  
Married to Dharma  17 Daughters  
Married to Sage Kashyapa  27 Daughters  
Married to Lord Chandra  6 Daughters (2 each)  
Married to Sages  
Bhuta, Angirasa, 
Krishashva

                                                                            29 Dharma  10 Wives  
Arundhati  
Vasu  
Yami  
Lamba  
Bhanu  
Marutvati  
Sankalpa  
Muhurta  
Sandhya  
Vishva  
 8 Sons  
Gods Vasus  
Aapa  
Dhruva  
Soma  
Dhara  
Anila  
Anala  
Pratyusha  
Prabhasa  
Son 
Vishwakarma  
Architect of the Gods  God  
Chandra  27 Wives  
The 27 Nakshatras

                                                                            30 Sage  
Kashyapa  13 Wives  
Aditi 
Diti 
Dhanu  
Kashtha  
Arishta  
Surasa  
Ila 
Muni  
Krodhavasha  
Tamra  
Surabhi  
Vinata  
Kadru 
  Sons  
Daityas (demons)  
Hiranyaksha  Sons  
Shraddhadeva  
Manu  
God Yama  
Yami  
Ashwini twins  
God 
Shanai schara  12 Sons  
Gods Adityass  
Vivasvan  
Aryama  
Pusha  
Twashta  
Savita  
Bhaga  
Dhata  
Vidhata  
Varuna  
Mitra  
Sakra  
Vamana  100 Sons  
Danavas  
Viprasiddhi  
Sons  
Rahu  
Ketu Mother of 
Yakshas and 
Rakshas  
Mother of 
Gandharvas  Virochana  
King Bali  Son  
Prahlada  
Daughter  
Simhika

                                                                            31  
Sage  
Aditi 
Diti 
Dhanu  
Kashtha  
Arishta  
Surasa  
Ila 
Muni  
Tamra  
Surabhi  
Vinata  
Kadru  
  
 Mother 
of  
Snakes  Mother of  
Trees, 
plants  Mother of  
Apsaras  Mother of  
Nagas  
Her 6 daughters gave 
birth to owls, eagles, 
vultures etc  
Mother of 
cows & 
buffalos  
Mother of  
Garuda   
& Aruna  (Sun’s 
charioteer)  Mother of serpents  
Adi Sesha, Vasuki,  
Takshaka

                                                                            32  
 
 Solar Dynasty  
Samjna  Sage Kasyapa 
& Aditi  
Vivaswana  
(Surya)  
Son 
Vaivasvata Manu  
One of 100 Sons  
Ikshvaku  
Son 
Kaakutsa  
King 
Kubalashva  
King 
Dridashva  
King 
Trayaruni  King 
Trishanku  
King 
Harischandra  
King 
Bahu  
King 
Sagara  
1st Wife 
Keshini 2nd Wife 
Sumati  
60,000 sons  King 
Panchajana  
King 
Anshuman  King 
Dilipa  
King 
Bhagiratha  
King 
Raghu  
King 
Aja 
King 
Dasharatha  
Lord 
Sri Ramachandra

                                                                            33  
 
 God 
Chandra  Wife Tara  
Son  
Budha  
Son  
Nahusha  
Son  
Yayati  
Wife  
Devayani  Wife  
Sharmishta  
2 Sons  
Yadu  
Turvasu  
Kings of  
Pandya  
Kerala  
Kola 
Chola  4 Sons  
Sahasrajit  
Kroshtu  
Nala 
Ripu 
Sons  
Vrishni  
Andhaka  In this lineage was born  
Lord Sri Krishna  3 Sons  
Druhya  
Anu 
Puru  
Kings  
Of 
Gandha rvadesa  
 
King Kuru  
Kuravamsha is 
named after him

34 Chapter III - Vedas and Upanishads  
Vedas  
Introduction  
  
The word “ Veda ” has been interpreted in a number of ways by scholars.  
(a)The word Veda  originates f rom the Sanskrit root Vid. “Vid ´ means to know. The 
word “ Veda ” then literally means knowledge.  (b) The word Veda  also means “to be”. 
It is concerned with “astiva” – existence. That which creates awareness in a man 
about his own existence is called Veda.    (c)Veda  could also be interpreted to mean 
“to think”.   The process of thinking awakens discretion in a man leading him to be 
wise and judicious. Thus the knowledge which helps him to distinguish between Sat 
and Asat is Veda .  (d)Veda coul d be interpreted to mean accomplishment. Thus the 
knowledge which helps a man realize his supreme goal is Veda.   
Veda has also been interpreted as ‘the means by which, or in which all persons 
know, acquire mastery in, deliberate over the various lores or live or subsist upon 
them.’  
Yet, the Vedas are not documents of yester years. The Vedas  have been accepted, 
without any dispute, as the most ancient book in the in the Sanskrit  world. They have 
been there for thousands of years. Many argue that Veda  is oldest book, not just in 
the Sanskrit  world, but anywhere in the world. We will come to this argument a little 
later in this section.  
The Vedic literature is composed of many books. The oldest texts are the four Vedas 
– Rig-Veda, Yajur -Veda, Sama -Veda and the Atharva -Veda.  It is said that the Vedas  
had 21, 109, 1000 and 50 branches respectively with over 100,000 verses. Today 
we may find only around 20,379 verses in total from these four Vedas.  
And interestingly, t hey are not considered to have been authore d by some poets or 
authors. They  are regarded as divine in origin and referred to as “ apaurusheya” . 
Veda is not an acquired knowledge. They are not products of reasoning or intellect.  
They have been accorded the position of revealed scriptures and are rev ered in 
Hindu religious tradition.  It is the sublime knowledge revealed by the Supreme 
Divinity to great Rishis  or Seers  (Drashtas ) during their meditation. These Rishis  
were merely instruments of God to spread His word.  The Vedas  are the God’s gift to 
the man. Shri Aurobindo  says they  contain the ‘divine knowledge’ revealed to the 
great Rishis  in their “Supra -normal Consciousness”. Whatever was ‘heard’ or 
‘revealed’ to the great Rishis  was presented in the Vedas  and the Upanishads.  From 
thereon, o ver the  Millennia the Vedas  have been handed over from generation to 
generation by oral tradition and hence the name “Shruti”  or “that which is heard”. For 
this re ason, the Vedas  are known as Shruti  literature.

35 A number of people think that the Vedas are solely meant for spiritual contemplation. 
This is not correct. Discussions regarding the relationship between Jiva and 
Paramatma  appear in the concluding sections of the Vedas – the Vedanta  or 
Upan ishads. Vedas also contain worldly and divine concepts. The Vedas were 
created for the welfare of the mankind. The motive of the Vedas is to help man to 
remain happy in the materialistic world – even though he might have failed to 
understand the main purpose of life in this world.  
Creation by the Lord is seen as a more meticulously planned effort than is commonly 
understood. Before the creation of living beings (both Chetana  and Achetana)  
questions such as – what will they breathe, what will they eat, how should they 
conduct themselves, how will they survive, how will th ey populate etc have all been 
addressed. The stage was set before the arrival of living beings. Further, man 
needed guidance on personal conduct and actions (what is a good conduct and what 
is not), interactions and his responsibilities (to the society, fa mily, ancestors).   
Before the creation of man, the Lord created Pancha Maha Bhutas  to fulfil the 
requirements of the physical body. Similarly, He presented the Vedas  for the sake of 
the embodied soul as a guide on other matters. T he Rig Veda is a storehou se of 
information on the lifestyle, religious, social and cultural practices of the people of the 
Vedic  age. The suitable aspects of living a happy and healthy life by practicing 
meditation and Yoga , etc. are mentioned in a detailed manner in the Rig Veda . 
Today, this text is revered by Hindus around the world, primarily in India and Nepal. 
Its verses are recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. 
The Vedas  are considered to be full of all kinds of knowledge, and an infallible g uide 
for a man in his quest for the four goals – Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha . As 
such, the knowledge revealed to the ancient sages bears the hallmark of a Divine 
source.  
Traditionally, the following features are attributed to the Vedas.  
 
Ananta   - Veda  is Anantha  – infinite. Only an infinitesimal portion of it is revealed to 
humans. This can be understood in the sense that knowledge is infinite. However, 
Veda  is the knowledge of Brahman, the True, Absolute and the Infinite. And the 
essence of Veda is sai d to be understood if one knows the infinite, i.e., opens up to 
the infinite Self.  
 
Anadi  -  Veda is Anadi, having no beginning or end. It said to exist eternally. It is 
referred to as the breath of Paramatma.  However, this is a poetic expression. This 
does not literally mean Paramatma  has a breath but just the way breath exists with a 
person's life similarly Veda  exists with God/creation.

36  
Apourusheya  - Veda is Apourusheya , not authored by humans. The seers are said 
to reveal Veda mantras to the world, the y are called “ Drastas”.  Vak exists in four 
forms and the learned know of them. Three are hidden and the fourth is what men 
speak. The four forms are - Para, Pasyanti, Madhyama  and Vaikhari. Para  is the 
eternal form of Vak. Pasyanti is when a seer envisions  the mantra. Madhyama is 
when it descends into mind plane. Vaikhari  is the expression. Thus the Veda 
mantras exist eternally, they are only revealed to the world by the seers.  
 
 Vedas  
Anantha  Anadi  Apourusheya  
Veda  is Anantha  – 
infinite. Only an 
infinitesimal portion of it 
is revealed to humans. 
This can be understood 
in the sense that 
knowledge is inf inite. 
However, Veda  is the 
knowledge of Bra hman, 
the True, Absol ute and 
the Infinite. And the 
essence of Veda is said 
to be understood if one 
knows the infinite, i.e., 
opens up to the infinite 
Self. Veda is Anadi, having no 
beginning or end. It said to exist 
eternally. It is referred to as the 
breath of Paramatma.  However, 
this is a poetic expression. This 
does not literally mean 
Paramatma  has a breath but just 
the way breath exists with a 
person's life similarly Veda  exists 
with God/creation.  Veda is Apourusheya , not 
authored by humans. The seers 
are said to reveal Veda mantras to 
the world, they are called 
“Drastas”.  Vak exists in four forms 
and the learned know of them. 
Three are hidden and the fourth is 
what men speak. The four forms 
are - Para, Pasyanti, Madhyama  
and Vaikhari. Para  is the eternal 
form of Vak. Pasy anti is when a 
seer e nvisions the mantra. 
Madhyama is when it descends 
into mind plane. Vaikhari  is the 
expression. Thus the Veda 
mantras exist eternally, they are 
only revealed to the world by the 
seers.

37  
The Vedic literature is also known by other name s such as – 
 
Nigama: Traditional wisdom transmitted from generation to generation  
Amnaaya: The root texts of Hindu tradition  
Trayi: Vedic texts comprising of versified mantras, prose mantras and 
melodies 
 
True, the sages might have acquired the verbal f orm during certain period in 
history. Indian scholars have dated even this verbal form to be anywhere 
between 6000 to 24,000 years B.C. The truths revealed by the  Vedas  are 
beyond the influence of time. Time or place can not affect the significance of 
the knowledge ‘contained’ in the Vedas . For that reason, the Vedas  are 
adjudged the Swatah Pramana  or self -evident. That means their truths do not 
need any proof, support or elaboration. Their validity is built -in. They 
constitute the first significant utteran ces on the lips of the man.  
 
Shruti, the revealed knowledge, is accepted as a means of gaining valid 
knowledge about the Reality. It is the Shabda Pramana . Discussions on this 
are presented in another section of this book. Vedas  formed the basis of 
religion and philosophy and even today they are authoritative in those fields 
for Hinduism . For this reason any other Hindu scripture must agree with the 
Vedas in order to be considered an authority. Schools of philosophy which 
reject the authority of the  Vedas  are considered “Naastika”,  while schools 
which a ccept Vedic authority, are considered “Astika ”.  
“The message that the Vedas  convey unites all worshippers as surely as the 
dogmas of the ignorant divide. Against such a background,  Hinduism  
developed an attit ude of comprehensive charity instead of fanatic faith. It is 
completely free from the attitude that a certain religious metaphysics is 
essential for salvation, and non -acceptance thereof is a heinous sin. In other 
words, it did not regard that its mission is to convert humanity to any one 
opinion.  Hinduism  does not believe in bringing about a mechanical uniformity 
of belief or worship by forcibly eliminating all that it is not in agreement with.  It 
does not say that  Moksha  is limited to only those who hold  a specific view of 
God’s n ature and worship. Such exclusive view is in -consistent with an all 
loving un iversal God ”.  
Worshippers of different Gods and followers of different faiths were taken into  
Hindu  fold. The addition of new gods to the  Hindu  pantheo n does not 
enda nger it. The main note of Hinduism  is one of respect and goodwill for 
other creeds. What counts is conduct and not belief. It accepts and allows 
each group to arrive at the truth by its own traditions and by means of

38 discipline of mind and m orals. Error in individuals is a sign of immaturity and 
not a grie vous sin.  
Vedas as the source of development   “ Ekam sat vipraha bahuda vadanti”  
- meaning The Real is essentially One only, though the sages speak about it 
variously owing to the planes  in which One is seen. Inadequate understanding 
by some western thinkers led to Hinduism being labelled  as “henotheism” – 
essentially suggesting opportunistic monotheism. This flies against the 
Upan ishadic explanation that all things and beings are God – because they 
form the body and function of the Brahman - “Sarvam Kalvidam Brahma”. The 
view presented by the Upanishads is that every prayer addressed to any of 
the gods and goddesses ultimately get directly referred to One Supreme 
Being. So common sense pol ytheism inherent in hierarchy is not in every 
sense co ntradictory to monotheism. While on this topic, one is reminded of 
two magnif icent Sooktas  – The Purusha Sookta  and the Nasadiya Sookta.  
Purusha Sookta  
It is the hymn of the cosmic person. It gives a ma gnificent description of the 
spiritual unity of the cosmos. It occurs in all Vedas with slight variations of the 
order of the mantras. This famous hymn acts as a synthesis of several Vedic 
concepts. The Sookta presents the Reality as both immanent and 
transcendent. The all encompassing Purusha , who is all heads, all eyes and 
all limbs, envelops and permeates creation from all sides and clearly stands 
above it as the glorious immortal ( Sahasra sirsa Purusha, Sahasraksa 
Sahasrapad, Sa bhumim visvato vrttva at yatista dasangulam, purusa evedam 
sarvam). The whole Universe is a small fraction of Him, as it were, for He 
ranges above it in His infinite glory. The divine personalities have merged in 
the One Supreme Purusha. The monism of metaphysics finds its 
transfo rmation as the supreme personality of God of religion. The Purusha is 
all that was, is and shall be. From Him proceeds the original creative will (later 
identified with Brahma) by which this vast Universe is projected in space and 
time.  
Nasad iya Sookta  
This is the 129th hymn of the 10th Mandala of the Rig Veda.  The Sookta 
presents the scene that existed prior to the creation. The Supreme Being is 
above all beings, and its existence is beyond all possible concepts about it. “In 
the beginning there was neith er existence nor non -existence, no realm, no 
sky, no air, no earth. There was neither mortality nor immortality. There was 
neither any form nor name. There was neither day nor night. Darkness 
concealed darkness. There was, however, just one thing - which br eathed 
breat hlessly by its own impulse. Other than that there was nothing. Who can 
tell whence it was born or was it born at all? From It the creation arose.

39 However, no one can give an account as to what happened and how it 
happened, for creation has not started by then. Everyone, including the 
Devas , came much later as a result of the creation. This is the central point of 
the Nasadiya Sookta .  This in turn led to the various ramifications of 
philosophic and rel igious thought in the Upanishads.  
Vedas as the source of development  
The Vedas  formed the basis for the later development of thought. The 
philosophic flights made by the Vedas  climaxed in the Upanishads . Vedas 
inspired in the formulation of the school of Yoga  which was codified in 
aphorisms by Patanjali. The visions of creation of the Universe expressed in 
the Vedas  helped in the rise of the Sankya  doctrine which regularised 
prevalent notions on cosmology and psychology. The logical trend found in 
the Vedas  stimulated the development of anvikshiki (application of reason) 
and the r ationalistic bias of certain systems among the Darsanas.  The 
accounts of sages and kings which the Vedas  bring out formed the basis for 
Epics and Puranas . The social rules and customs of the time formed the 
cornerstones in t he systematization of conduct and law in the Dharma 
Shastras.   
Vedas over the years  
Veda, which is a Shruti  literature, is treated as a supreme and an ultimate 
authority. The authentic Smriti  literature (which we will study a little later) has 
its basis in  the Shruti . Whenever, a difference arises between Shruti and the 
Smriti , the statement of Shruti  is accepted as the final word. From time to time 
Smrit i might undergo modifications, but the Shruti  cannot be altered at all.  
Rig Veda  is built around a scien ce of sound, which comprehends the meaning 
and power of each letter. All the other Vedas are based upon it and consist to 
a large degree of various hymns from it. Each and every letter in the hymns of 
the Rig Veda  is pronounced in such a way that the exact  meaning and power 
of the letter in it is clear and distinct from others. In Rig Veda  the hymns are 
penned basing on the science of sound in order to make the pronunciation of 
each letter sound more powerful.  
For several centuries, Vedas  had to be committe d to memory and were 
passed on orally from generation to generation. Manuscripts were sparingly 
used as memory aids. In this process, care has to be exercised to prevent 
errors from creeping in. A fool -proof method was devised.  
 Texts were used for aiding memorization and recitation of Vedas  with utmost 
fidelity. They were called “Lakshana Granthas ”. These texts include 
Padapathas, Ghanapathas, Kramapathas  and other Vikrits  or modification of 
the root text, phonetic treatises like Sikshas  and Pratisakyas . The modes of 
chanting prescribe the basics like how much time one has to take for reciting

40 a word, how to regulate breathing while reciting so that required vibrations are 
produced in the specific parts of the body which will yield pure word -sound. As 
a res ult, several Vedic  texts were transmitted over several millennia with 
utmost fidelity, together with accent.  
There is another reason for the great care the Rishis have taken for ensuring 
that the mantras are uttered exactly as they were intended to be. Th e power 
of the mantra lies in the manner it is uttered – on the sound and the vibrations 
it generates. The script cannot convey this. It has to be demonstrated and 
taught by the teacher to the pupil. Shruti is composed in Vedic Sanskrit  and 
Smritis  in laukika Sanskrit . There are some basic differences between these 
two types of Sanskrit.  In Vedic Sanskrit  the words have accent, akin to notes 
in music, and a word's meaning can change drastically simply by changing the 
accent of its letters. Therefore these w ords have to be heard properly from the 
guru.  
The revelation  
As we said, earlier, Vedas represent sublime knowledge revealed by the 
Supreme Divinity to great Rishis  or Seers  (Drashtas ) during their meditation. 
However, it is not as if that all of it was re vealed to one great Rishi . It is said 
that they have been revealed to a number of Rishis over a period of time. In 
the case of Rig Veda, it is believed, that around 400 sages were invol ved. 
Importantly, some of them we re women sages. The Rig Veda  is the on ly 
scripture in which the Divine Truths are revealed to women sages and in 
which hymns describing these revelations, find a prominent place in the Rig 
Veda  Samhita. There are more than 30 women sages in Rig Veda with 
specific hymns associated with them..  
Generally, around ten families have been identified as the original composers.  
They were – Kanvas, Angirasas, Agastyas, Grtsamadas, Vishvamitras, Atris, 
Vashishtas, Kashyapas, Bharatas  and the Bhrgus. All their work was in one 
stream and contained 1180 Shakhas  (recessions ). These sages were men of 
great intellect and they memorized the entire Vedas before communicating 
the knowledge orally to their disciples.  
During Maharishi Vyasa’s  time there were at least 1180 such Shakhas . Each 
Shakha was maintained an d passed on by the Guru to the disciples.  
The practice of oral communication and the teaching of Vedas continued for 
many centuries. Towards the end of Dwapara Yuga , it appeared as if the 
Vedas  may even have to face extinction! It was at this point in tim e that 
Maha rishi Veda Vyasa  appeared on the scene. His contribution in the 
compilation of Vedas  is an example of unparalleled  erudition. With great 
perseverance he searched and collected the works of all Rishis  on Vedas  up 
to that point in time and categor ized all of them. He compiled them into four

41 parts and they, in turn, came to be known as Vedas . The four Vedas  are – Rig 
Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda.  His contribution did not 
stop with the codification of the Vedas. He further authored 18  Puranas,  18 
Upa Puranas , Brahma sutras and the Maha Bharata . He still had time to teach 
the Vedas , thus divided, to his chief disciples.  
 
No Veda  Name of the disciple  
1 Rigveda  Paila  
2 Yajurveda  Vaishampayana  
3 Sama  Jaimini  
4 Atharvan  Sumantu  
 
It is said that during every Dwaparyug of the present Vaivasvat Manvantara,  
different Vyasas  have divided the Vedas twenty -eight times.  
Their names are given below – 
Dwaparyug  Veda Vyasa  Dwaparyug  Veda Vyasa  
1 Lord Brahma  15 Trayyarun  
2 Prajapati  16 Dhananja y 
3 Shukracharya  17 Krutunjay  
4 Brhaspati  18 Jay 
5 Surya  19 Bharadwaj  
6 Mrtyu  20 Gautam  
7 Indra  21 Haryatma  
8 Vashishta  22 Vajshrava  
9 Sraswat  23 Trinbindhu  
10 Tridhama  24 Riksh (Valmiki)  
11 Trishikh  25 Shakti  
12 Bharadwaj  26 Parashar  
13 Antarik sh 27 Jatukarn  
14 Varani  28 Krishnadwaipayana

42 An Overview  
In the Hindu tradition, Veda is a single collection of all mantras. Every mantra 
(verse) is one of the 3 types. (a) Rik – Mantra  of illumination in one of the 
several metres (b) Saman – Mantra with a meter which has to be sung  
according to the symbols indicated in the mantra. (c) Yajus  – mantra in 
rhythmic prose. When Veda is referred to as threefold ( Trayi) the reference is 
to these three types. Rig Veda Samhita and Atharva Veda Samhita have only  
Rik Mantras. The Sama Veda Samhita has only Sama mantras. But the Yajur 
Veda Mantra Samhita has both Rik and Yajur mantras.  Many of the Yajur 
Veda mantras  are found in the Rig Veda  Samhita  also.  
Yajur Veda Samhita has two types of recessions  (a) Krishna (mixed) Yajur 
Veda Samhita (b) Shukla  (pure) Yajur Veda Samhita . One of the peculiarities 
of Krishna Yajur Veda Mantra Samhita is – some of its anuvakas contain 
Brahmana passages in plain prose. It is one of the reasons for this Veda 
Samhita  being referred to as Krishna or mixed (i.e. mixed with Brahmanas ). 
The Shukla Yajur  Veda  does not contain any Brahmana passages.  
The mantras in the Yajur Veda  Samhita  give only the mantras to be chanted 
on various occasions. It does not give details of the rites to be p erformed 
alongside with it. These details are given in books called  Brahmana, and 
Sutra books  like Apasthamba. Each Veda Samhita has one or more 
Brahmana books associated with it. Aitareya Brahmana is associated with the 
Rig Veda. Taittiriya Brahmana is as sociated with Krishna Yajur Veda. 
Shatapatha Bra hmana is associated with Shukla Yajur Veda .  The Brahmana 
books are called Brahmana passages. They are in the form of long prose 
sentences. Typically each passage will explain (a) Explanation of the 
particula r mantra in the Sa mhita book. – from a ritualistic point of view (b) 
legends about the Gods (c) d etails of the rites,  and of oblations to the Gods 
(d) details of dakshina  to the priest (e) material benefits that you may expect 
by the performance of the ri tes. 
It is important to understand the meaning of mantras in the context of Vedas.  
By mantra we mean either (a) Rik mantra  adhering to a specific metre (b) 
Yajus mantra  being a short rhythmic phrase. Mantra rises from the innermost 
depths of the  Rishi  and is revealed to him. The mantra embodies a deep 
chunk of knowledge or wisdom. The Brahmana passage, on the other hand, is 
a lengthy prose passage of 50 to 100 lines with the purpose of giving details 
on ritualistic explanations. The seers of mantras are Rishis. However, the 
seers of Brahmanas  are only acharyas.  This means the Brahmanas  may not 
have been composed by Rishis . For this reason the Brahmana  passages 
have much less authority than the mantras.

43 Animal Sacrifice  
The key concept  of Veda is Yajna. Yajna  is not a mere ritual. It is a symbol of 
intense spiritual practice , both at the individual level and also at the collective 
level 
The question then arises as to whether “ Mantras of Veda Samhitas  support 
the killing of animals as part of the Yajna  rites?” . Writings from authorities like  
Sayana  appear to say “yes”. However, more modern intellectuals, like Sir 
Aurobindo  argue on the concept of “Inner Yajna ” and sacrifices are more 
symbolic in nature.  
 In the Hindu tradition Vedas  are regarded as the source o f all wisdom. These 
books contain the seed of the doctrine or t he philosophical thought which then 
blossomed into the teachings of the Upanishads .  
Divisions with in Each Veda  
 
Each Veda was further divided into four parts. This was done to suit the four 
stages in a man’s life . 
Samhitas  
The mantra portion of the Vedas is useful for Brahmacharins.  
Rig Veda -Samhit a  
They  are hymns in praise of the Vedic  Gods for attaining material prosperity 
here and happiness hereafter. They are metrical poems add ressed to various 
deities. They are called “ RiK”. The priest for the  Rig Veda Mantra Samhita  is 
called Hotri.  His function is to invoke deities to the sacrifice.  
Yajur Veda Samhita  
There are two Yajur Vedas . They are (a) Shukla Yajur Veda  (b) Krishna Yaj ur 
Veda.  The Samhitas  here are in prose form. They are called “Yajus”. The 
priest, Adhvaryu , makes use of this. He performs the sacrifice according to 
strict ritualistic codes and makes offerings to the God.  
Sama Veda Samhita  
This is mostly borrowed from the Rig Veda  Samhita . Sama Veda mantras are 
called “Saman”.  A Sama Vedic  priest Udgatri sings it.  
Atharva Veda Samhita  
 Priest titled Brahma uses this. Being well versed in all the Vedas, he 
supe rvises and guides the sacrificial rites. The Atharva Veda is comprised of 
both Riks as well as Yajus.

44   
Brahmanas  
 
Basically they provide a guide to people performing sacrifices. They are prose 
explanations of the method of using the mantras in a Yagna  or sacrifice. The 
Brahmanas are suitable for householders  
 There  are two Brahmanas for the Rig -Veda. They are Aitareya an d 
Sankhayana.  
 The Shukla Yajur Veda has Satapatha Brahmana. The Krishna Yajur 
Veda has two Brahmanas – Taittiriya Brahmana and Maitrayana 
Brahmana  
   Sama Veda has Tandya or Panchavimsa, the Shadvimsa , the 
Chandogya, Adbhuta, Arsheya and Upanishad Brahmanas  
 The Atharva Veda has Gopatha Brahmana  
Aranyakas  
They are intended for Vanaprasthas – people preparing themselves for the 
last stage of life have retired to the solitude of the forests. For them the 
phys ical performance of Yajnas  may not be easy. The Aranyaka  portion 
teaches methods based on the philosophical interpretations of the rituals.  
They appear at the concluding portions of the Vedas and contain the 
know ledge portion of the Vedas.  The philosophy of the Upanishads is 
sublime, pr ofound and soul stirring. They deal with the subject of Jagat, Jiva 
and Jagadishwara  and their relationship.  In the Vedas, we notice, (a) portions 
dealing with action or performance of rituals (referred to a s Karma Kanda ); (b) 
portions dealing with method of worship and meditation (referred to as 
Upasana Kanda ) and finally portions dealing with the highest knowledge or 
the know ledge of Brahman  (Jnana Kanda ). Basically, Samhitas and 
Brahmanas  const itute the karma kanda, the Aranyakas constitute the Upasana 
Kanda  and Upanishads  constitute the Jnana Kanda.  
Summarizing, the scheme of Vedic  learning is first studying and recitation of 
the hymns (Samhita)  followed by performance of Yajnas (Brahmana ), then an 
enquiry into the rationale behind the performance of these Yajnas (Aranyaka)  
and lastly, an enquiry into ‘Paramatma Tattwa’  and attaining its actual 
exper ience (Upanishad) . 
In many ways, the Rig Veda Samhita  though the oldest, constitutes the basis 
for the other Samhitas . As an example, consider the Samhitas  of Rig Veda 
(Sakala),  Yajur Veda (Madhyandina), Sama Veda (Kauthuma)  and Atharva 
Veda (Saunaka),  we find a number of mantras are repeated.  Rig Veda

45 mantras repeated in Sama Veda = 1800  Rig Veda mantras repeated  in Yajur 
Veda = 581  :  Rig Veda mantras repeated in Atharva Veda = 1260  
In the case of the Rig Veda, Sama Veda and the Atharva Veda,  there is a 
clear -cut separation of the Mantra collection from the Brahmana  portions. In 
contrast, the Yajur Veda  is of two  types: Shukla  (or white) Yajur Veda  and 
Krishna  (or black) Yajur Veda.  In the former, the Mantra and Brahmana  
collections occur separate from each other. In the latter, the Mantra  and the 
Brahmana  portions are intermixed. Thus, the Taittiriya ‘Samhita’  belonging to 
the Krishna Yajur Veda  has Mantras  interspersed with Brahmana  portions. 
Even the Taittiriya ‘Brahmana’  has both Mantras  and Brahmana  passages 
mixed with each other.  
 Coming to the Brahmana  texts, there is often no clear -cut distinction between 
the Brahmanas  proper and the Aranyakas,  or between the Aranyakas  and the 
Upanishads.  The Brahmana text proper often merges into the Aranyakas and 
many old Upanishads  are actually embedded in the Aranyakas.  
At this stage, it may be appropriate to understand some of the terms we come 
across frequently in Vedic literature . 
a) Mantras :  They are hymns sung in praise of Gods. In the Rig Veda  
each Rik is a  mantra.  
b) Sookta:   The Rig Veda Samhita  is in the form of verses called 
Riks. In later years  Riks came to be kn own as Slokas . A number 
of Riks or mantras  constitute a Sookta.  Examples are Purusha 
Sookta, Narayana Sookta, and Sri  Sookta etc.  
c) Sootra:  They are aphorisms or declarations using minimum 
number of words. It  contains the essence of the thought without 
any ambiguity. Examples are _ Brahma Sootra , Narada Bhakti 
Sootra, Patanjali Yoga Sootra etc.  
d) Shakhas:   The traditional source of information on the Shakhas  of 
each Veda  is Carana - Vyuha.   
The Vedic  literature that has come down to our times is attached  to various 
traditional schools of recitation and ritual called “ Shakhas ”. The Rig Veda  was 
then divided into 21 sections, the Yajur Veda into 109 sections ( recessions ), 
Sama Veda  into 1000 sections and Atharva Veda  into 50 sections. . Thus the 
whole Veda was divided into 1180 recessions . 
The tradition of recitation of Vedic texts originated in the north of India. 
Communities of Brahmins, over a period of time, migrated from one part of 
India to another. Thus the various Shakhas  of Vedas  were spread throughout

46 India. Today, we now have only two Shakas  of the Rig Veda, Shakala Shakha  
and Baskala Shaka , remain alive out of the 21 that existed at one time.  
Vedas  -  Sub Divisions  
Rig Veda Mantra Samhita  
The Rig Veda Samhita   is, generally, classified in two different schemes.  
Mandala, Anuvaka and Sookta  (known as Mandala - Sookta  scheme)  
Ashtak, Adhyaya and Sookta  (known as Ashtak - Adhyaya  scheme).  
Of these two schemes, the Mandala - Sookta  scheme is the most popular

47 The Rig Veda Samhita has been divided  into 10 Mandalas  (books). The Mandalas  were 
sub-divided into Anuvakas  (sections); the Anuvakas  were sub -divided into Sooktas  
(hymns) and the Sooktas  into mantras.   
Rig Veda Samhita  
Mandala  Anuvaka  Sookta  Mantra  Deities addressed  Composer family  Comment s 
M1 24 191 2006  Agni, Indra, Varuna, 
Maruts, Rudra, Mitra 
etc Kanvas, Angirasa, 
Agastya, 
Vishvam itra, 
Vashishta, Kasyapa, 
Bharata   
M2 4 43 429 Indra, Agni  Grtsamadas, Bhrgus   
M3 5 62 617 Agni, Indra, 
Vishvadevas  Vishvamitras, 
Angirasa, Bhrigu  3.62.10 i s 
Gayatri 
mantra  
M4 5 58 589 Indra, Agni, Usas, 
Brihaspati, Ashwins  Angirasa   
M5 6 87 727 Indra, Agni, 
Vishvadevas, Maruts  Atri, Angirasa, 
Agastya, 
Vashishta   
M6 6 75 765 Indra, Agni, Ashwin, 
Pusan, Usasa  Angirasa   
M7 6 104 841 Indra, Agni , 
Vishvadevas, Maruts  Vashishta   
M8 10 103 1716  Different Gods  Kanva, Angirasa, 
Agastya, Atri, 
Kasyapa,  
Bhrigu   
M9 7 114 1108  Soma Pavamana  Kanva, Angirasa, 
Agastya, 
Vishvam itra, Atri, 
Vashishta, 
Kashyapa, Bharata, 
Bhrigu   
M10 12 191 1754  Agni, other G ods Kanva, Angirasa, 
Agastya, 
Bhrigu  Purusha 
Sookta & 
Nasadiya 
Sookta 
are found 
in this 
Mandala  
Total  85 1028  10,552

48  
There were a few outstanding female Vedic writers who have composed the Hymns. A 
brief list is given below.  
Names of 
Rishikas  Veda 
reference  
(Mandala/S
ookta)  No. Of Riks  About the writer  Comments  
Vak Devi  10 / 125  8 Daughter of Rmbhirana  Known as 
Devi-Sookta  
Visvavara   6 Atri clan   
Aditi 10 / 153     
4 / 18           5 plus  
5th, 6th, 7th  Wife of sage Kasyapa. 
Daughter of Daksha 
Prajapati. Mother of 
Adityas & Devas   
Apala  8 / 91  8 Atri clan   
Yami  10 / 154  10   
Urvashi  10 / 95  7   
Lopamudra  1 /179  2 Princess of Vidarbha. 
Wife of great Sage 
Agastya   
Romasha  1 / 126  1 Queeen of Bhav a 
Yavya. Mother of King 
Svanaya   
Kadru, 
Ghosha, 
Juhu, 
Vagambrini, 
Paulomi, 
Indrani, Savitri 
and some 
others

49 The topics dealt with in the Rig Veda Samhita may be classified into 3 groups.  
1. The first group is in praise of the deities like Agni, Indra , Varuna, Mitra 
and others .  Although these deities appear as controlling forces of 
nature, they are, in fact, manifestations of One Supreme Reality. The 
famous mantra on this point ‘ ekam sat viprah  bahudha vadanti’  
meaning ‘Truth is one, sage’s call it by v arious names’ occurs in this 
Samhita.  
2. The second group is concerned with philosophical speculations like the 
origin of the Universe and the real nature of human beings. Although 
the Samhita is a book of laudatory hymns all the later ideas of Vedanta 
includ ing Jnan a and Bhakti are found there in a basic form. The 
worship of God with form and qualities - Sagunoposona  - is 
predominant. The proclamation contained in various mantras show that 
it teaches eka -devata -vada or monotheism and not polytheism. For 
examp le, the  Samhita  states that God creates the world out of Himself 
and rules over it; He is omnipresent (present everywhere), omnipotent 
(all powe rful) and omniscient (all knowing), He is ever perfect, infinitely 
compa ssionate, easily approachable by the dev otees ( Kalyana gunas ). 
He alone grants us Moksha.  However, the idea about actual process of 
creation of the universe finds a place only in the later Vedantic 
literature i.e. the Upanishads.  
3. The third group deals with several secular subjects like marriage,  war 
etc., which show the nature of society of those times. A just and 
equitable social order existed. However, social life was conditioned by 
spiritual consciousness. There was Samanvaya  or harmony of life here 
and hereafter.  Satya  (truth) and  Dharma  (righteousness) are glorified 
and Amritatva  (immortality) as the goal of life was accepted.  
The school of philosophical thought known as the Vedanta (Upanishads ) is 
also called Uttara -mimamsa. The founder of the Vedanta system of 
philos ophy was Maharshi Veda  Vyasa  (also referred to as Badarayana 
Vyasa ). The founder of Purva -mimamsa  school was Sri Jaimini , the disciple of 
Sri Veda Vyasa . Of these two the Purva -mimamsa  is generally understood to 
imply i nquiry into the  Mantra  portion of the  Vedas . The Uttara -mimam sa is 
understood to mean an inquiry into the Upanishad  portion of the  Vedas . In 
other words Purva -mimamsa  treats Karma kanda; Uttara -mimamsa  deals with  
Jnana  kanda. Brahma Sutras  of Sri Veda Vyasa  are termed as Vedanta 
Darsanas.  The Brahma Sutras  are the o utcome of harmonizing of the 
apparently conflic ting Upanishadic  texts.  
The Vedas, each of which has Samhita, Brahmana, Aranyaka  and Upanishad  
were again sub -divided into two parts viz. the Karma kanda  (work portion) and

50 Jnana kanda  (knowledge portion). Th e former ( Karma kanda)  leads man to 
the world of happiness and enjoyment in Svarga  or heaven. The Jnana kanda  
leads man to liberation or Moksha . The Samhita  and Brahmana  sections 
makeup the Karma kanda. Aranyaka  and Upanishad  sections form Jnana 
kanda. Bra hma Vidya  refers to that knowledge by which Brahman  is attained 
and it is dealt with in the Upanishads.  
The Vedas  have been divided into four parts ( Rig Veda  and others). Yet each 
of them has many branches. So also the Upanishads. In the Rig Veda  there 
are 21 branches. There are 109 branches in the Yajur Veda and 1000 
branches in the Sama Veda.  Adharvana Veda  has 50 branches. In each 
branch there is one Upanishad.  
Rig Veda Brahmanas  
The Brahmana of the Rig Veda  presents the procedure for Yagna  and tells 
how to use the Riks for yagnas . There are two Brahmana  texts namely 
Aitareya and Kausitaki. The  primary topics of discussion are the  Soma  and 
the Rajasuya Yagna . 
Aitareya Brahmana  
 It is also known as Ashvalayana Brahmana.  It consists of 40 Adhyayas  
(chapters) , which are further divided into eight Panchakas  or fifths. Tradition 
names Mahida Aitareya  as the author of the work. This Brahmana  deals 
chiefly with the Soma -sacrifice, besides the fire -sacrifice and the feast of the 
consecration for kings ( Rajasuya ).  
Kaushitaki Brahmana  
 It is also known as Sankhayana Brahmana. This also belongs to the Rig 
Veda, and consists of thirty Adhyayas . The first six Adhyayas  deal with the 
food-sacrifice (fire -laying, fire -sacrifice, new and full moon sacrifices and  the 
sacrifices of the seasons), while Adhyayas  7 to 10deal with the Soma -
sacrifice agreeing with the Aitareya Brahmana . The Kausitaki  Brahmana  is 
later than the Aitareya Brahmana .  
Rig Veda Aranyakas  
These texts do not deal with the details regarding the actual performance of 
various sacrificial ceremonies but essentially devote themselves to the 
expos ition of the philosophy behind the ritual.  
Each of the Rig Veda Brahmana is supplemented by an Aranyaka. They are 
(a) Aitareya Aranyaka (b) Kaushitaki Aranya ka. 
Aitareya Aranyaka  
It consists of 5 books with each one of them being called Aranyaka. Each of 
the Aranyaka has been sub -divided into  Adhyayas  or chapters. Each Adhyaya

51 has been sub -divided into khandas  or chapters.  The first book gives an 
explanation of the Mahavrata  from a ritualistic point of view.. The second book 
consists of two distinct parts. The first part deals with the importance of 
speech in human life, creative powers of Purusha  (Supreme Being) as 
material and eff icient cause of creation, importance of Prana  in life,  creative 
powers of God etc. The second book consisting chapters 4 to 6 and is the 
Upanishad par e xcellence. The third book contains the mystic meaning of 
various forms of the text of the Samhita.  The fourth book deals solely w ith the 
Mahanaamni verses. The fifth book consists of a description in Sutra  style of 
the Mahavrata  ceremony.  
Kaushitaki -Aranyaka  
It is also called by the name Shankhayana Aranyaka . This consists of 15 
Adhyayas . The first two treat the Mahavrata  ceremony. The 7th and 8th 
Adhyayas correspond to the 1st, 5th and the 3rd books of the Aitareya 
Aranyaka . The four Adhyayas usually inserted between them constitute the 
highly interesting Kaushitaki (Brahmana -) Upanishad . 
Rig Veda Upanishads  
Etymologically the word ‘Upanishad’  means that which is taught to the pupils 
sitting at the feet of their teachers. Thus the Upanishads are books of wisdom 
taught by the accomplished teachers to the deserving students. If there is any 
scripture in the world that has sustained the  spiritual thinking over the 
millennia, it is the Upanishads . All the schools of thought, religious 
movements that flourished in the later period s in Indian history have been by-
products  of the Upanishadic  thinking. The knowledge given in the Upanishads 
destroys ign orance of man and leads him to Brahman.  The number of works 
that go by the name Upanishad  and available today exceeds 200. The 
Muktikopanishad  gives a list of 108 Upanishads.  Sri Adi Shankaracharya  
selected 10 as the principal Upanishads.  Sri S hankaracharya was the earliest 
and the first to comment upon the Upanishads.  It goes to the credit of Sri 
Shankara  that through his masterly commentaries he brought out the 
Upanishads from o bscurity and made them accessible and intelligible to a 
wider audi ence.  
 
Sri Ramanujacharya,  who lived between 1017 and 1137 AD, did not comment 
on any of the Upanishads  but had enriched some of their concepts in his 
Vedantasangraha.  His follower Sri Rangaramanuja completed the task by 
commenting on all the major Upani shads . 
 
Sri Madhvacharyacharya who lived between 1197 and 1276 AD wrote brief 
commentaries on all the ten ancient Upanishads upon which his followers had 
also wr itten explanatory studies .

52  
Among the Upanishads, Isavasyopanishad  attracted the attention of t he 
maximum number of scholars and sages who had commented upon it over 
the centuries.  
The list of the major 15 Upanishads and the Vedas  they are associated with 
are given below -  
S.No  Upanishad  Associated Veda  
1 Isavasya Upanishad  Shukla Yajur Veda  
2 Kena Upanishad  Sama Veda  
3 Kathopanishad  Krishna Yajur Veda  
4 Aitareya Upanishad  Rig Veda  
5 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad  Sama Veda  
6 Prashna Upanishad  Atharva Veda  
7 Mandukya Upanishad  Atharva Veda  
8 Taittiriya  Upanishad  Krishna Yajur Veda  
9 Chandogya Up anishad  Sama Veda  
10 Mundaka Upanishad  Atharva Veda  
11 Jaabala Upanishad  Shukla Yajur Veda  
12 Svetasvatara Upanishad  Krishna Yajur Veda  
13 Kausitaki Upanishad  Rig Veda  
14 Pingala  Shukla Yajur Veda  
15 Mahanarayana Upanishad  Krishna Yajur Veda  
 
The br eakdown among the 108 Upanishads  is given below  
Veda  Number of Upanishad s 
Rig Veda  10 
Sama Veda  16 
Atharva Veda  31 
Krishna Yajur Veda  32 
Shukla Yajur Veda  19 
 
A brief description of the individual Upanishads will be given at a later section. 
The foll owing chart presents a summary on the divisions of Rig Veda

53  
 
 Rig Veda  
Rig Veda 
Samhita  
Mandalas – 10 
Anuvakas -  85 
Sookta – 1028  
Mantra  – 
10,552  Rig Veda 
Brahmana  
Aitareya 
Brahmana  
Kaushitaki 
Brahmana  Rig Veda 
Aranyaka  
Aranyaka  
1. Aitareya  6. Mudgala  
2. Kaushitaki  7. Akshamala  
3. Nada bindu  8.  Tripura  
4. Atmabodha  9.  hagyalakshmi  
5. Nirvana  10.  Bahvrichi

54  
 
Yajur Veda Samhita is a collection Yajus or the Mantras  in prose which gives 
procedural details to the Advaryu priest for performing Yagnas.  While both 
contain vers es for rituals, Krishna Yajur Veda includes the Brahmana prose 
discussions mixed with the Samhita. In the case of Shukla Yajur Veda it has a 
separate Brahmana sect, the Shatapatha Brahmana.   
 There are two major Shakhas  in the Yajur Veda  -  They are:  
Shukla  Yajur Veda   
 
The Shukla Yajur Veda  is also referred to as “ Vajasaneya Samhita”  Though it 
originally had 15 recessions , it now survives in two recessions  – Madhyandina 
Shatapatha Brahmana and Kanva Shatapatha Brahmana. The Madhyandina  
was divided into 14 Kandas containing 100 Adhyayas, 68 Prapathakas, 436 
Brahmanas and 7179 Kandikas. The Kanva was divided into 17 Kandas 
containing 104 Adhyayas, 435 Brahmanas and 6806 Kandikas.  Note it has no 
Prapathakas . 
Krishna Yajur Veda  
 
The Taittiriya Brahmana  in the Krishna Yajur Veda  has – 3 Kandas  divided 
into 8,8 and 12 Adhyayas  and a total of 17,480 sentences. Apart from this, the 
Krishna Yajur Veda Brahmana has Maitrayani Samhita  and an Aranyaka;  
Katha Samhita  with an additional Brahmana  and Aranyaka  and Kapisthala 
Samhita  and a few fragments of its Brahmana.  
The following table summarizes the divisions within the Yajur Veda.

55  
 
 Yajur Veda  
Shukla Yajur 
Veda  
Samhita   
(Vajasaneya 
Samhita)  Krishna Yajur 
Veda  
Madhyandina 
Shatapatha 
Brahmana  1) Maitrayaniya  Samhita +   an Aranyaka  
2) Katha Samhita + Brahmana + 
Aranyaka  
3) Kapisthala Samhita + Brahmana  
4) Taittariya Samhita + Brahmana + 
Aranyaka  
1. Katha                    12. Sarvasara                 22. Ekakshara  
2. Taittiriya               13. Sukharahasya           23. Akshi  
3. Brahma                 14. Tejobindu                 24.Avadhuta  
4. Kaivalya                15. Dhyanabindu            25. Katharudra  
5. Svetasvatara         16. Brahmavidya            26. Rudrahrudhaya  
6. Garbha                  17. Yogatattva                 27. Yogakundalini  
7. Narayana               18. Dakshinamurti          28.Panchabrahma  
8. Amritabindu         19. Skanda                    29. Pranaagnihotra  
9. Amritananda         20  Saririka                  30. Varaha  
10. Kalagnirudra       21. Yogasiksha            31. Kalisantarana  
11. Kshurika                                                    32. Sarasvatirahasya  
 Krishna Yajur Veda 
Samhita   
 
Brahmana  text integrated 
with Samhita  
Aranyaka 
Brhad 
Aranyaka  
 
1.  Isavasya   11. Advayataraka   
2  Brihadaranyak a 12. Pingala   
3. Jabala   13. Bhikshuka   
4. Hamsa  14. Turiyatita   
5. Parama Hamsa  15. Adhyatma   
6. Subala   16. Yagnavalkya  
7.  Mantrika  17. Satyayani   
8.  Niralamba  18. Tarasara   
9.  Trisikhibrahmana   19. Muktika  
10. Mandalabrahmana     
  Kanva 
Brahmana

56  
 
In its importance in Yagas and sacredness, Sama Veda Samhita  rank  next to 
Rig Veda .  However, Lord Krishna has put the Sama Samhita  on top of all the 
four Samhitas . Sama Samhita  consists of hymns chanted by Udhgatir priests 
at Sama Yagas .  Yet, it is not considered as an independent work. All the 
mantras of the Rig Veda  which are useful for the Udhgatir priest for chanting 
in the Yajnas  to ensure the grace of Gods have been brought together in this 
Veda. The Sama Veda Samhita  comprises of  1875 verses (Riks) out of which 
all but 75 are traceable to Shakalya Samhita of the Rig Veda.  
 Saman  is a mantra  of the Rig Veda  set to music. Unlike the mantras  of the 
other three Vedas , the mantras of the Sama Veda are simply known as 
Samans  having seven svaras . It is said to form the basis for the Indian music 
system. Of the many Samhitas  of the Sama Veda  (the Puranas speak of 1000 
Samhitas ), which were said to have existed once, we now have only three 
available to us today. Some people divide Samhita into 2 broad divisions – 
Purvarchika and Uttararchika. The marked difference between the melodies of 
Purvarchika and Uttararch ika is that the former is constituted on a single 
verse basis while the later is based on three verses.  As indicated earlier , 
Lakshana Granthas , are available  for aiding memorization and recitation of 
Vedas. However, in some cases, the accents are lost wit h time and the texts 
had to be recited without Vedic accents. For instance the Brahmanas of the 
Sama Veda lost their accents as early as 7th century C.E. Similarly, the 
Paippalada Samhita  is recited by its followers today without the Vedic accents 
(i.e., i n eka-shruti ). In the case of the Madhyandina Samhita , the oral 
intonations are not related to the accent of the written text.

57  
 
 Sama Veda  
Sama Veda 
Samhita 
Ranayaniya 
Sakha or 
recension Kauthuma 
Sakha or 
recension  Jaiminiya 
Sakha or 
recension  
Sama Veda 
Brahmanas  
1. Tandyamaha   or Panchavimsa Brahmana                                                                          
2. Samavidhana Brahmana                
Brahmana  
3. Arseya Brahmana                          
4. Devatadhyana Brahmana   Brahmana  
5. Mantra or Chandogya Brahmana  
6. Samhitopanishad Brahmana  
7. Vamsa Brahmana  
8. Jaiminiya Bhahmana  
9. Jaiminiya Arseya  
10. Jaiminiya Upanishad  Sama Veda Upanishads  
1. Kena                                  12. Kundika  
2. Chandogya                        13. Savitri  
3. Arunika                              14 Rudrakshajabala  
4. Maitrayani                         15  Jabaladarsana  
5. Maitreyi                              16 Jabali  
6. Vajrasuchi  
7. Yogachudamani  
8. Vasudeva  
9. Mahat  
10. Sanyasa  
11. Avyakta  
12. Kundika  
13.  Sama Veda 
Aranyaka  
Jaiminiya Aranyaka

58 Atharva  Veda Samhita  
 
Atharva refers to a Purohit  or pundit.   This Veda is said to have been brought to 
light by a sage named Atharvan. Hence the Veda is called Atharva Veda. This is 
also called Brahma Veda because it is assigned to the Brahma priest who 
supe rvises the conduct of the Yajna . The mantras in this Veda  appear both in 
prose and Verse form.  It is often said that this was not given the status of a Veda 
and was elevated to this position later.   This Veda has some special features 
and for that reason stands apart from the others. It deals more with things here 
and now than the hereafter and the sacrifices therein are used to achieve these 
results. The main theme of the Atharva Veda  is cure for diseases, rites for 
prolonging life, fulfilment  of one’s desires, statecraft, penances, magic, charms, 
spells and so rcery. While the Gods of Rig Veda  are approached w ith love, the 
Gods of Atharva  Veda are approached with fear and favours  are sought to ward 
off their wrath. Homage is paid to them to abstain from doing harm. Sophisticated 
literary style and high metaphysical ideas mark this Veda.  Of the many original  
Samhitas , only two are available today – (a) Shaunakiya (b) Pippalada.  The 
Shaunakiya Sa mhita has 5977 mantras arranged in 20 books, called “kandas” . 
The Pippalada Samhita  has about 7950 mantras  arranged in as many kandas.  
This Veda offers a better insight in to the culture and life of the Vedic  society. The 
reason is – it has hymns connected with wedding, agriculture, battle, medicine, 
domestic cerem onies etc. Significantly, dozens of hymns are devoted to Hindu 
spirituality and are, often, at par with the Upan ishads.   The following chart shows 
the spread of liter ature coming under the Atharva Veda. This Veda  had nine 
branches or resce nsions. Out of the nine, only two branches are available today 
– Saunakha  and Pippalada.  
The Atharva Veda Samhita has 5977 verses  spread over 20 Khandams  ( books 
or chapters). The Khandams  are further divided into hymns and they in turn 
house a group of mantras.   
There is only one Brahmana of the Atharva Veda that is existing today – Gopatha 
Brahmana. It has been divided into two m ajor parts – Purva Bhaaga and the 
Uttara Bhaaga. These, in turn, are divided into eleven sections called 
“Prapathakas”. The Purva Bhaaga exhibits more originality of content and 
glorifies the Atharvan and its priests. The Uttara Bhaaga  follows other 
Brahma nas in its content. It introduces legends related to Atharvan teachers.  
The Atharva Veda  has no surviving Aranyaka . One may regard the Gopatha 
Brahmana  as its Aranyaka.

59  
 Atharva Veda  
Atharva Veda 
Samhita 
 
(1)Pippalada  
(2)Tauda  
(3)Munda  
(4)Saunakiya  
(5)Jaayala  
(6)Jalada  
(7)Brahmadeva  
(8)Devadarsa  
(9)Chaaranyavaidya  
 Atharva Veda Upanishads  
1. Prasna  22. Devi  
2. Mundaka  23. Bhavana  
3. Maandukya  24. Bhasmajabala  
4. Atharvasira  25.Ganapati.  
5. Atharvasikha   26. Mahavakya  
6. Brahajjabala  
7.Nrsimhatapini  27. Gopalatapini.  
                                28.Krishna      
8. Narada  29. Hayagriva  
9. Sita  30. Dattatreya  
10. Sarabha  31. Garuda  
11. Tribadvibhuti  32 Mahanarayana  
12. Ramarahasya  
13. Ramatapini  
14. Sandilya  
15. Paramahamsa  
     Parivrajaka  
16. Annapurna  
17. Surya  
18. Atma  
19..Pasupatabrahma  
20 Pa rabrahma  
21. Tripuratapini  
 Atharva 
Veda 
Gopatha 
Brahmana  Atharva Veda 
None are available 
now

60 Interpreting Vedic Texts  
 
A number of methods have been used in ancient and mode rn times to 
interpret Vedic texts. Since the Vedic texts themselves  were heterogeneous, 
no single method is best suited to interpreting the entire Vedic literature.  A 
few examples are given below.  
 
S.No  School of 
interpret ation Comments  
1 
Yajnika School  This is a ritualistic interpretation of the 
Vedas. Samhitas, Brahmanas and 
Kalpasutras provide the needed support  
2 
Nirukta School  This is the etymological method of 
interpret ation of words and phrases 
occurring in the Vedas . The well known text 
explainin g this mode of interpretation is 
Nirukta of Yaksha.  
3 
Dharmashastric School  This provides legal instructions from certain 
verses of the Veda . 
4 
Mimamsa school  Followers of this school believe that all the 
Veda texts should be treated as a 
harmonious whol e. The correct meaning of 
the hymns can be understood if we consider 
the context, the relationship of various 
sentences and of words in those sentences.  
However, the method is mostly restricted to 
the inte rpretation of Brahmanas, Aranyakas 
and the Upanish ads. 
5 
Aitihasika School  The followers argue, that each mantra is 
related to an Itihasa.  So they interpret the 
concerned hymn or verses in conjunction 
with that Itihasa  
6 
Parivrajaka School:  Since Vedic Samhitas convey spiritual ideas, 
hymns can be expla ined in a spiritualistic 
way. 
7 
Vaiyyakarana School  Interpretation by application of rules of 
grammar.  
Kinds of Knowledge  
 
In Manduka Upanishad , a conversation between a disciple Shaunaka  and his 
teacher Angirasa  is described. Shaunaka asks a very profo und question

61  “O glorious one! Please tell me as to knowing what we shall come to know 
everything.” It is essentially a wish for omniscience.  In life a number of people 
invest a large part of their entire life, money and energy in pursuit of 
know ledge. At  the end they become humble and start feeling that they have 
after all learnt very little and there is a lot more to learn. Every such person 
shall have a profound respect to Shaunaka’s question.  
Angirasa, the teacher was very pleased with the question. H e begins his 
answer by classifying knowledge into two categories. They are (a) Apara 
Vidya  (b) Para Vidya.  
Apara Vidya  
Apara Vidya refers to all knowledge that we refer to as “worldly knowledge”.  
Apara Vidya is categorized as  a lower kind of knowledge. Un der this category 
comes all the modern day subjects like – Science, arts, commerce, 
manag ement, technology, engineering etc. In ancient days they studied what 
are called “Vidyas”. Vidyas include  – Four Vedas , six Vedangas, Meemamsa, 
Nyaya, Puranas  and othe r religious scriptures. These fourteen vidyas  together 
with Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, Gandharva Veda  and Artha Shastra  becomes 
eighteen.  Even these eighteen Vidyas  also come under the category of lower 
kind of knowledge – Apara Vidya”!  
Apara Vidya shall help us to make a living, have a dignified & respectable life, 
have a thoughtful intelligent mind, but never ever hope that you shall move 
towards omniscience. This is not the way for the fulfilment  of such an 
aspir ation. 
Para Vidya  
The second category of know ledge is referred to as Para Vidya. It is a  higher 
category of knowledge. The teacher says Para Vidya refers to that kind of 
knowledge by which the imperishable ( Akshara Brahman ) is known. This 
statement implies that there does exist a method and a traditi on by which we 
can realize that which is “permanent and imperishable”. Both the object of 
knowledge and methods to be pursued to realize the goal are entirely 
different. 
Though various words are used to define the  Akshara Brahman , none of the 
words can cle arly define the imperishable. Because use of a word limits the 
object and the Parabrahman is limitless.  In fact, the imperishable is not the 
object of our knowledge. He is the subject.  However, there is a very clear & 
definite way of knowing this subject ive essence. The teacher uses various 
pointers, like Adrekshyam  (not-seen), etc.  
The pursuit of Apara Vidya which includes deep study of Vedas, Vedangas 
and other Vidyas  will not lead us to realize the Akshara Brahman . Under the

62 careful guidance of a Guru,  Para Vidya can help us achieve this objective. 
Even though the meaning of Para and Apara are higher and lower knowledge 
the Upanishad says that both of them are required. Apara Vidya instructs one 
on the disciplines for gaining the necessary qualification  to be able to 
unde rstand and assimilate the Para Vidya. Without Apara Vidya, Para Vidya  
is impossible and without Para Vidya, Apara Vidya  is incomplete.  
Interpretation by Western philosophers  
Polytheism, monotheism, monism have all been read into the V edic hymns. 
Max Muller even coined the term “henotheism”, as the transitional stage 
between polytheism and monotheism in the hymns. In the opinion of some 
modern scholars the Vedic hymns reveal a gradual progress of philosophical 
thought i.e., from polythe ism to monotheism to monism!  
This major flaw in interpretation is not surprising when it is understood that 
such an opinion springs from viewing Indian philosophy through a Western 
philosophical looking glass.  
 The fundamental difference between Western p hilosophy and Indian 
philos ophy, especially the scriptures, is that while Western philosophy tries to 
uncover the real with the use of the intellect, Indian philosophy is basically an 
attempt to logically reconcile the world of experience with the spiritua l 
exper ience of the sages. The sages, such as  Yajnavalkya – had in fact 
experienced reality. Unlike Western philosophers they’re not speculating, 
analysing  with the help of reason what reality might be. They know what it is 
because they have experienced it . By using analogies they are trying to 
describe it. Indian scholarship is more interested in seeking the ‘fruit’ of Vedic 
studies, whereas the Western scholarship concerned primarily with the ‘roots’ 
of the Vedic texts and words.  
The chart presented earli er summarises the structure of the Sanskrit 
literature.

63 Chapter IV – Darsanas  
 
Darsanas are schools of philosophy mostly based on the Vedas. Darsanas 
appeal to the intellect, while Itihasas and Puranas appeal to the heart. 
Philosophy, like most other syst ems of thought in India, is based on religious 
experience, metaphysics and ethics, rather than on epistemology. That logic 
should legislate for our experience is an important thing and cannot be 
denied. However, it is equally important to see that logic sh ould find its feet on 
the ground and not allowed to soar in the sky without any let or control of 
facts. At the end of the day Yadaartha Jnaana is the main aim of all 
philosophizing.  Experience is manifold, and the truth about experience must 
embrace all facts falling within that experience. If segments of experience 
alone are accepted, denying the rest it will only result in a logical collapse. 
Talking about logic, the Indian school of logic is not a recent arrival on the 
Indian scene. Gautama  (6th Centu ry BCE or earlier) founded the Anviksiki 
School of logic. The Indian logic is the oldest and it was followed much later 
by the Greek and Chinese traditions.  
All metaphysical searches are after the Supreme Reality. Knowledge of the 
Real is possible. The que stion for us is – how do you apprehend the Supreme 
Reality. There are several theories of knowledge. Science takes its start from 
perceptual experience - undoubtedly the only type of experience of Reality. 
Yet, the existence of God transcends the condition s of space and time. ( desa 
– Kaala ). He cannot be known through ordinary perception or inference. The 
Supreme Being is beyond the pale of Pramaanaas  of perception and 
anumaana. It is only by the grace of Divine can the Highest be known, 
understood and ente red. Only then will that Perfect Being become a real 
being for the individual. That there is a higher demand on us, the parama -
purushaartha  (which means the demand to conceive, perceive and even 
experience the actual existence of the Supreme Reality), has been well 
documented.  We shall start the study of the different philosophical systems by 
understanding the terms that will be used.  
 Means of Right 
Knowledge  Comments  
1 Pratyaksham  That which is obtained by sense contact. Direct seeing 
is an example  
2 Anumana  Inferential knowledge. Seeing the smoke we infer there 
is fire  
3 Upamana  Argument based on similarity. Seeing an animal in the 
forest, the villager says it looked like a cow  
4 Shabda  Hearsay  
 
we shall now consider the different thoughts based on ( a) tattva or object of 
knowledge (Prameya) (b) source of right knowledge (Pramana) (c) Goal of life

64 (Purushartha). Indian thinkers did not divorce the goal of life (Purushartha) 
from their view of life (tattvajnana). It is not being pursued as – knowledge for 
knowledge sake.   
In India, there are basically 9 classifications of philosophies. However, some 
later scholars included Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita into the list of 
Astika philosophies. In this article we will discuss Charvaka Darshana from 
the Nastika system and the classical Shad -Darsanas (six philosophies) given 
below.  
1. Nastika  (a) Charvaka (b) Jaina (c) Buddha  
2 Astika  a) Sankya (b) Yoga (c) Nyaya (d) Vaiseshika  
                             (e) Purva Mimamsa ( f) Vedanta  (Uttara Mimamsa)   
The Nastika systems are those that deny the authoritativeness of Veda 
Pramana. They may accept any other human authorities. The Astika systems 
accept the authority of Veda as a conclusive Pramana. That is the basic 
difference.  
 Nastika system: Charvaka Dar sana  
It is said to have been taught by Charvaka, a pupil of Brhaspati. It accepts 
Pratyaksha as the only means of right knowledge (Pramana). This doctrine is 
a kind of sensory materialism. The life goal (Purushartha) is pleasure. Even 
temporary pleasure is  worth seeking. The means to get pleasure should not 
be unpleasant. Since God is not an object of perception, God does not exist. 
The world of nature works mechanically.  
Astika systems  
Six schools of philosophies have been mentioned above. They are divide d 
into three groups (1) Nyaya and Vaiseshika (2) Sankya and Yoga (3) Purva 
Mimamsa and Vedanta . Nyaya is considered as a pre -requisite for all 
philosophical enquiries. Vaiseshika is not very much in honour now. The 
Sankya is not a living faith. Yoga is practiced  in practical form. Vedanta is the 
most popular of all schools today.  Purva and Uttara Mimamsa discuss 
philosophy of Veda. Purva Mimamsa discusses the philosophy of karma 
kanda and Utt ara Mimamsa discusses the spiritual philosophy (esp. 
Upanishads). Nyaya, Yoga and Uttara Mimamsa say that there is an Ishvara 
the Lord of All souls. The other three are Nireeswara vaadas . They talk of 
Atman, but not of P aramatman. Nireeswara vaada is not necessarily 
Naastika  vaada and these Darsanas do lay an equal amoun t of stress on 
Dharma and that is the reason they are called Astika Darsanas and not 
because they accept a Parabra hman different from individual atman. They

65 differ in their basic tenets like Is hvara.  All these Darsanas  hold that atman is 
distinct from Man as (mind), Buddhi (intellect) and Prakruti (nature). They 
discuss the cause binding, what causes creation and whether creation is an 
appearance or true in a given state. They also differ in whether atman is 
identical with Brahman or not. Di fferentiating th ese and understanding the 
uniformity of these is very important both in understanding Hinduism as well 
as differentiating Hindu from non -Hindu ideology.  
Nyaya system:  
Sage Gautama was the author of Nyaya Sutras. This Darsana accepts four 
Pramanas – (a) Pr atyaksha (b) Anumana (c) Upamana (d) Shabda . The 
goal of life is Nisreyasa (freedom from consciousness of matter).  This 
school is known for its system of logic. Some scholars argue that the Greek 
philosopher Aristotle was influenced by the Nyaya philosophy . 
Nyaya system assists all other Darsanas. It is also known as tarka - a 
method of inference by which the opposite positions are shown to be 
untenable because they are absurd. It is greatly used in debate. They 
arrange all things of the world into certain k inds (Padarthas).  
The only means to arrive at “Nisreyasa” is through perfect knowledge. The 
soul’s connection with matter is the cause of its misery. It produces rebirths 
through activity in connection with matter which leads to desire. Perfect 
knowledge liberates the soul from its contact with matter. This removes all 
pain or dukha.  In the Nyaya Sutras Gautama clearly analyses the nature of 
Prakruti , of the soul and the Pramanas. Later Naiyayikas like Udayana 
explained the problems of Ishvara as the crea tor of the world and as the first 
expounder and maker of the Vedas. The world is created by God out of the 
materials in the form of atoms and the souls. This view suggests that the 
effect was not previously present in any form in the cause but was brought 
into being by God. This view is called Asat -karya - vada or Arambhavada.  
Vaiseshika system:  
This system is considered to be the first philosophy of Nature ( Prakruti ). Sage 
Kanada formed the basis for this system. This system accepts three 
Pramanas - Pratyak sha, Anumana and Shabda . Its goal in life is deliverance. 
This Darsanas is considered to be the first philosophy of Nature ( Prakruti ). 
With help of the Pramanas stated above it arrives at the knowledge of Six 
Padarthas. The six Padarthas are – (1) Dravya ( substance) (2) Guna 
(quality) (3) Karma (activity) (4) Samanya (generalities) (5) Vishesha 
(particularity) (6) Samavaya (inherent relations). Some include a seventh 
Padartha, namely Abhava (non -existence).

66 Nine kinds of substances form the Dravya - the Five  elements in the form of 
atoms or minute particles – Prithvi, Apas, Tejas, Vayu, Akasa, Manas, Soul, 
Time and Space form nine kinds of substances. Atoms can exist alone or in 
aggregate number. Time and space are divisible. Souls are infinite in number. 
All knowledge of objects is with the instrument of mind. Finite knowledge is 
with the help of Manas. It operates through the sense organs.  
 The creation of the world is due to the principle of unforeseen force (Adrista) 
not God. Nature thus aggregates and dis integrates. The material cause of the 
world is atoms (or other Dravyas). The efficient cause of the world is Adrista 
which brings about the activities or Karma into play. The souls are not 
products of union of the material atoms but self -conscious. Before their union 
with matter the souls are in a state of self which resembles unconsciousness - 
“pasanavat”.  It is held that their return to that state of bare selfness is Moksha 
(Nisreyas without consciousness of objects)  
Sankya system  
Sankya system was founde d by Sage Kapila. It is said to be one of the oldest 
metaphysical worldviews. The word Sankya means count and this system is 
called so because it describes the world in an enumerative way. The Darsana 
seeks to understand the Nature (Prakruti) from the poin t of view of individual 
psychological consciousness. Kapila Muni is regarded as the father of 
psychology. The system accepts three Pramanas - Pratyaksha, Anumana and 
Shabda. It is an Astika Darsana, as it accepts Shabda Pramana.  Its goal of 
life is liberat ion. Tattva -saakshatkara or True knowledge of the world is the 
source for liberation. This can be gained through Tattva - abhyasa or learning 
and meditation. Sankya does not emphasize on the exact method since it is 
by nature a philosophy. Contemplative sta te with the intent to know the Tattva 
is the source of knowledge. This is possible in Yoga through meditation and in 
the Jnana Marga through Sravana - Manana and Nidhidhyasana.  
 The cosmic principles of Sankya are of three kinds. (1) Avyakta (Un -manifest 
Primal nature. It is also called Pradhana, Maya, Mula -Prkruti). (2) Purusha 
(Absolute consciousness principle which is neither manifest nor un -manifest. 
This is the Self). (3) Vyakta (the manifest. This emanates because of the 
association of Purusha and Avya kta). The Sankya explains that Mula -Prkruti 
is the material cause out of which all elements of the outer world as well as 
the psychic organs or apparatus of the individuals arise by a process of 
evolution or manifestation. All these were in a subtle condit ion in the original 
state. The original matter is called Pradhana Avyakta because it is 
undistinguished, it has constant change as its nature or it is active; it 
comprises of three co nstituent Gunas; namely Sattva, Rajas and Tamas in a 
state of equilibrium . It is set into in -equilibrium by the nearness of the soul or 
Purushas. The intellect is the first evolute of Prakruti and is called Mahat or

67 the great one. It causes the evolution of ego -sense or self -consciousness. 
Evolution from self -consciousness is a ffected by the dominance of Gunas. So 
the dominance of Sattva causes the evolution of the five organs of perception, 
five organs of a ction and the mind. Dominance of Tamas triggers the 
evolution of five subtle elements – sound, touch, sight, taste, and smel l from 
self-consciousness. These five subtle elements cause the creation of the five 
gross elements space, air, fire, water and earth. Rajas is cause of action in 
the evolutes. Since the Sankya system explains the world as transformational 
manifestation of  Prakruti, it is said to uphold Parinama Vada.  
Prakruti is the creator of the phenomenal world. The beings are veiled from 
the sentient and eternal consciousness principle Purusha and they realise 
Purusha as they go through various phases of evolution. The  ignorance of the 
beings and their experiences of the phenomenal world are all creations of 
Prakruti. She is thus the veil of ignorance Herself and is therefore called 
Maya.  Sankya says, in the manifest world there are 25 principles in all. They 
are expla ined in 4 groups as follows -  
Group -1: Mula Prakruti:  She has no source. She is the source for the world.  
Group -2: Saptaka:  Mahat (intelligence principle. Born from Prakruti) + 
Ahamkara (Emanates from Mahat) + 5 Tanmatras (Subtle elements. They 
have source  in Primal nature. They are the source for Primal  elements). 7 in 
all. 
Group -3: Sodasaka:  (Sixteen Principles). 5 Primal elements of nature (earth , 
water, fire, air and sky) + 6 Jnanendriyas (including mind) + 5 Karmedriyas. 
16 in all  
Group -4: Purusha: Ch etana  
 The 24 principles up to group 3 are all Achetanas (not externally conscious). 
The eternal conscious principle is the 25th- Purusha or the Self. The 24 
princ iples of the Universe cause 3 kinds of experiences – Sukha (happiness), 
Dukha (grief) and Moh a (attachment and illusion). Beings are diverse, in their 
capabilities, in their Upadhis (faculties of experience). This indeed is the 
diversity of the Purushas. Purushas are multiple. Each Purusha goes through 
experiences and takes birth repeatedly until Kaivalya. Prakruti manifests and 
transforms. But She is insentient. Purusha is sentient but does not act. So, 
how can they experience. It is possible and can be explained through the 
analogy of blind and limping man (Pangvaandha Nyaya). If the blind man 
carries the limping man they can reach their destination.  Many principles 
proposed in the Sankya philosophy are accepted by the later systems like 
Vedanta. However, existence of Ishvara and the multiplicity of Purusha are 
not accepted.

68 Yoga system  
 Yoga Sha stra is one of the oldest systems. The author of Yoga Shastra is 
Patanjali. The system accepts three Pramanas - Pratyaksha, Anumana and 
Shabda. According to this system, liberation is the goal of life (Purushartha).  It 
is concerned with the activities of th e Chitta, which is said to be the cause of 
misery. Putting an end to the movements of Chitta is Yoga. It shows that the 
attainment of the ultimate state is the state of Samadhi, which is changeless, 
motionless, thoughtless state of consciousness. This is t he state of the soul in 
its perfect nature. Thus the nature of the soul in Yoga Darsana is identical 
with the state of the soul taught in the Sankya, as consciousness, changeless 
and activity -less. The control of mental modifications may have to be 
precede d by the control of the motor organs and sensory organs from running 
after objects which grant them their satisfaction and stimulation. Withdrawal 
from the objects of the senses is called Yama and Niyama. The principle of 
substitution of right kinds of tho ughts in place of wrong ones helps in the final 
suppression of mental activities. Thus Ishvara -dhyana or surrender to God 
becomes very necessary as Niyama.  Asana or control of physical postures 
also is insisted upon. Pranayama is a means to control the mi nd. These are 
all physical purifications leading to the control of Chitta. Pratyahara, dharana 
and dhyana are the further stages when the mind having been detached from 
the sensory and motor activities retraces to the control of the Ahamkara and 
Buddhi, wh ich is achieved by a gradual concentration on one single object 
and finally on  object at all.  Ishvara is accepted as the Guru of this path. Unlike 
the case in Sankya system, wherein Nature brings about involution, in this 
system Ishvara brings about libera tion of individual souls. Ishvara is not 
considered as the creator but as an exceptional spirit always the master of 
Prakruti and knower of it, on whom nature can hardly have any effect or 
influence. Knowledge of Prakruti is said to lead to liberation, but  this requires 
the aid of the ever -liberated Ideal Purusha.  
Purva Mimamsa:  
 
Sage Jaimini is the author of this system. The system accepts 6 Pramanas – 
Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda, Upamana (comparison), Arthapatti 
(implic ation) and Anupalabdi (non -apprehens ion). The goal of life is the 
attainment of heaven.  The Mimamsa system is a system of interpretation of 
Vedic texts. The philosophical view of the Purva Mimamsa system is the 
same as the Vedic literature. Its concern is with the fundamental faith in the 
sacrificial pe rformances ordained in the Vedic scriptures which is said to be 
Dharma. These sacrifices are said to produce results such as attainment of 
riches, happiness in this world and happiness even after death. Thus causal 
theory of the effect coming i nto being after the cause ceased to exist is an 
important innovation. The sacrifices when performed to the strict vidhis have

69 the power to bring about the desired results. Even the Gods addressed during 
the sacrifices have no power in denying the results! Vedic injunctions are 
regarded as self -evident and absolutely authoritative. Purva - mimamsa having 
ignored the Gods or subordinated them to causality, also dispensed with the 
God as an unimportant entity in his search for dharma or sacrificial 
performances  accor ding to the Veda. Vedas are considered as Apaurusheya. 
And Purva mima msakas went one step further – they believed granting 
authorship of Vedas is to commit it to mistakes. Then there were two schools 
of mimamsakas – (1) Kumarila Bhatta (2) Prabhakara . The first one tried to 
establish the self -evident authority of Vedas without postulating God or 
admitting his authorship of the Vedas. The latter asserted God and His 
authorship of the Vedas.  Thus the Purva mimamsakas accepted the complete 
validity of th e Veda, the ete rnity and reality of the souls and universe. They 
accepted the existence of God also, though not as the author of the Veda, but 
as its Teacher.  
Uttara Mimamsa or Vedanta  
 Sage Veda Vyasa is regarded as the author of this system. He wrote an 
authoritative text called Brahma sutras . It accepts 6 Pramanas – Pratyaksha, 
Anumana, Upamana, Agama, Ardhapatti and Anupalabdi. The ultimate goal of 
life is Moksha – the fourth Purushartha.  Vedanta is the philosophy of 
Upan ishads. Rishis were leading the disciple to the final experiences of the 
Ultimate Reality, which they called as Brahman. For the person who knows or 
attains Brahman it is a release from the bondage of Samsara. Badarayana or 
Veda Vyasa tried to bring about a synthesis or Samanvaya of Upan ishads. 
Yet there have arisen apparently divergent views such as Sri Shankara’s 
Advaita, Sri Ramanuja’s Vishishtadvaita and Sri Madhava’s Dvaita. Inspite of 
their di fferences there were acceptances on many points. Brahman is one 
Reality and He is pure and the ultimate Self – Sat Cit Ananda. He is beyond 
all description and determinations but He is indeed verily the power and reality 
that makes everything possible. Thus he is Nirguna, beyond all qualities and 
yet He is omnipervasive, omnipotent, omnibenefici ent and Ishvara and so on. 
He is subtler than the subtle and greater than the great. He is this immanent 
in all and transcendent to all. In other words He is both the material and 
efficient cause of the Universe. Brahman is everything – Sarvam Kalvidam 
Brahman. He is without a second – Ekam eva advitiyam. These passages 
from Upan ishads show the ultimate monism of Brahman. It is clear that 
Vedanta leaves much room for different levels of experience. The several 
Upasanas or met hods of meditation on Brahman ar e, in fact, are at once 
knowledge and medit ation for the attainment of Divyanubhava. Both Sri 
Ramanuja and Sri Madhava consider that the highest joy comes from 
devotion and service to God.

70 Maharshi Veda Vyasa  
A special mention about Maharshi Veda Vyasa and  his contribution to Vedic 
literature has to be understood by every Indian  
Maharshi VedaVyasa wrote all the 18 Puranas and the 18 Upa -Puranas as 
well. In addition he has written the massive Itihasa – the Mahabharata. He 
also wrote the Brahma Sutras. He has  organized and arranged the Vedas into 
four Vedas that we see today – Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva Veda.  
Every scripture in Hinduism begins with salutations to Bhagavan Sri Veda 
Vyasa. No name in Indian history invokes such reverential sentiment and stirs  
such widespread awe as that of this Rishi. He is the greatest seer, Guru, 
author, poet and philosopher the world has ever seen. He is regarded as an 
incarnation of Lord Maha Vishnu Himself. In India we celebrate Vyasa 
Poornima in his honour.

71 Chapt er V - Principal Upanishads  
 
The Upanishads  are part of a very long tradition of knowledge, which has been 
developing over many thousands of years. This tradition is not just a dead relic 
from the past. It is very much alive today. It is a l iving tradition that has been 
passed down in an unbroken line from teacher to disciple, through all the social, 
cultural, scientific and technological upheavals that have taken place.  
Our problem is whether this traditional knowledge  is helpful to us at p resent. Our 
exclusive devotion  to technical and economic interests in the contemporary age 
has obscured the concept of reality  and value. It is true that human nature is not 
altogether unchanging. It does change. However, it is also true that it does 
remain sufficiently constant to justify the study of ancient classics. The problems 
of human life and destiny have not been superseded by the stunning 
achievements of science, technology or commerce. The solutions offered by the 
ancient cla ssics, though conditi oned in their modes of expression by their time, 
have not been seriously affected by the march of modern achievements. The 
Upanishads , though remote in time from us, are not remote in thought. Disclosing 
the working of the primal impulses of human soul the se classics rise above the 
differences of race and geographical location.  
There is a view that Indian philosophy started with Upanishads otherwise known 
as Vedanta (end of the Veda or the concluding portion). Yet, there is a distinct 
difference between wha t is on offer between the Vedas and the Upanishads. 
Vedas deal with the three Gunas – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas. They have the 
three Gunas  as the motives to attain power, pleasure and heavenly residence. 
Vedas tell stories about various Gods; they prescribe rituals for making use of the 
Gods’ divine powers to attain prosperity and other objectives. In other words 
Vedas  taught the attainment of inferior ends ( Purusharthas) which are known to 
be closely connected with the three Gunas , rather than Moksha  which i t was the 
function of Upanishads  to teach. Though they both are from one single Shastra,  
Vedas  offer the means to attain transient good while the  Upanishads  teach 
means to attain the eternal good. It is in this sense, perhaps, some scholars saw 
in the Upan ishads germs of the pessimistic view since they discard the pursuit of 
social efficiency for the attainment of liberation from Avidya  (which comprises of 
all technical knowledge and hedonistic pleasure ends) and Samsara  for the 
transcendent condition of im mortality which can only be won by Vidya.

72 Yet Upanishads have not discarded the earlier portions of the Veda or the gods 
praised therein. Indeed they have on the other hand, tended to make clear the 
implications of the Veda  in such a way as to help the un derstanding of the 
enquiring mind.  
Having studied the about Vedas, the mantras  and the rituals  contained therein, 
we arrive at the concluding sections - the Upanishads. And the Upanishads leave 
all the cosmology and applied knowledge behind. It is not the b asic concern of 
the Upanishads  to describe world, or to achieve the various objects that people 
desire. Their basic objective is philosophy. In a brief and uncompromising way, 
they ask questions about knowledge itself. They are not interested with all the 
descriptions and the pictures that have been built on top of our knowledge. 
Beneath the pictures and descriptions, they want to find out just what we really 
know. They repeatedly question about what happiness really is. The question is 
blunt - Is it perman ently available once the objects that we pursue have been 
achieved?  
The Upanishads are rather plain and straightforward. They do not construct any 
complex system of ideas and beliefs.  Questioning such as this is not very 
common. For a resisting and a clo sed mind it appeared as a very complicated 
process not meant for an ordinary man. In fact, it progresses by asking questions 
– simple and straight forward. The search is for plain truth. Studying books such 
as Upanishads  was not very common as they were re puted to be difficult to 
unde rstand.  
Upanishads  are concerned with that knowledge which is common to all 
exper ience, anywhere. As they point out, this knowledge cannot be restricted to 
any names or forms or qualities. They can -not be bounded to any books or 
words - certainly not to any social classes or cultural systems or to any 
geographical l ocations. In the end it can only be taught and learned in one place 
– in each ind ividual’s direct experience. It is for this reason a lot of emphasis is 
laid on direc t learning from a teacher. Therein lays the universality of approach.  
Times have changed.  There is no longer any need to hide philosophical enquiry, 
from ordinary life and education. In recent times, Upanishads have begun to be 
translated and interpreted for ordinary people. A number of commentaries are 
now available for a common man. In the works of classical commentators, we 
find the great oral traditions of interpretation which have been current in their 
time. Centuries of careful thought lie behind the se traditions as they finally took 
shape. It would be a great mistake to neglect the work of the commentators. 
Chiefly due to the fact that there are words and passages in the Upanishads of 
which we could make little sense without the help of the commentat ors.

73 The Upanishads are most important and are equally difficult to understand. The 
difficulty arises because of the subjects they treat. They are not telling us a story 
like what the Epics and the Puranas do. Also, the Upanishads are not prayers 
offered t o some god which we can just chant every day as a routine of practice. 
They do not tell us how to perform rituals or gestures of worship as we do in 
temples or altars of adoration. They tell us something quite different from all 
these things. What is this difference which marks the Upanishads? They deal 
with our Self.  
The Upanishads  are not telling us about any god. Then, what is it that the 
Upan ishads  talk about? It is speaking about God, but not about the God that we 
usually think of in our mind accordin g to our upbringing, culture, language or 
tradition. It refers to God and it refers to nothing else. The 'do's' and 'don'ts' that 
fill the texture of every religion in the world do not appear in the Upanishads. 
Refe rences on something that has to be done a nd something that should not be 
done will not be found in the Upanishads. The question of this dichotomy does 
not arise in the Upanishads.  
Number of Upanishads  
There are 108 traditional Upanishads. Of these 10 are regarded as principal 
Upanishads. (1) Isav asya (2) Kena (3) Katha (4) Prashana (5) Mundaka (6) 
Mandukya (7) Taittiriya (8) Aitereya (9) Chandogya (10) Brhadaranyaka.  Sri 
Shankara bhagavatpada wrote commentaries on all these Upanishads as well as 
on Shvetashvatara, Kausitaki and Mahanarayana. Thes e together with Maitri, 
constitute 14 Upanishads. Some scholars regard 10 as the principal Upanishads 
and some others regard these 14 as the principal ones. All these belong to the 
Shruti literature.  
Some of the Upanishads  are associated with renowned sag es such as Aruni, 
Yajnavalkya, Balaki, Shvetaketu and Shandilya.  They are thought to be 
exponents of the doctrines attributed to them.  
The mode of transmittal of knowledge in Upanishads basically consists of a 
teacher and a taught because no Upanishadic st udy is complete without the 
presence of a Guru. As a result, in the Upanishads the contents are explained 
through the words of the Guru.  
In the Upanishads we come across “Vidyas”. Essentially, the Vidyas lead one 
from the unreal to the Real, from mortality  to Immortality. They lead the soul from 
the Moola -Ajnana  to the highest Brahman. Sri Shankaracharya  says in his 
Brahma -Sutra -Bhashya that even those who go to Saguna -Brahman (through

74 Vidya -Upasanas) will ultimately go to Nirguna -Brahman. We come across ab out 
28 Vidyas in the Upanishads  
A summary of the principal Upanishads  is discussed below – 
Isavasya Upanishad  
The Isavasya Upanishad  is the only one which occurs in the Samhita  portion of 
the Veda. All the others come as appendices or follow -ups of the Brahmanas  or 
the Aranyakas.  Therefore, there is a special intonation required in the recitation 
of the Isavasya Upanishad, as is the case with the Samhitas  of the  Vedas . We 
cannot read the verses casually, just like reading a book. There is a special 
modulati on and intonation of voice – swara , as it is called. This swara  aspect of 
recitation is not emphasized as much in the other Upanishads as is the case with 
the Isavasya  Upanishad.  It derives its name from Isavasya.  It is one of the 
shortest Upanishads and b elongs to the Yajur Veda . 
Four types of knowledge are imparted to us by this Upanishad.  
(a) The Creator pervade s the whole of creation.  
(b) Every one is to do one's duty.  
(c) Knowledge and action have to be combined and not be considered as 
 opposites.  
(d) We should vi ew God and the world as being in a state of harmony, not 
as opposed to each other. (There is no difference between creation 
and God.)  
 
(a) The first mantra of the Isavasya Upanishad says  :  
Isavasyam idam sarvam yat kim ca jagatyam jagat , tena 
tyaktena bhun jitha, ma gridhah kasyasvid dhanam    
This mantra says: "All this is enveloped by the Supreme Being." The 
creator whom we call God , manifests the universe, creates this 
universe. In what manner does He create the universe? It is a very big 
question and a c omplex one too. We shall not go into that now.  
Some conclusions that come out of  this are – there is something that 
cannot be divided into parts, which is infinite in nature, which is 
existing everywhere to such an extent that it may appear that is the

75 only thing existing. That only -existing thing is Ishvara about which 
Isavasya speaks about.  
The great sage of the Upanishad tells us " yat kim ca jagatyam jagat 
tat sarvam  – whatever is apparently moving or not moving –  all that is 
Ishvara." The Supreme Bei ng is not merely everywhere – He is also 
everything.  
Knowing this, we pass on to the second part of this Mantra -  
"tena tyaktena bhunjitha , ma gridhah kasyasvid dhanam " 
This says be happy without the sense of possessiveness in regard to any 
object. It is commonly believed that poss ession and acquisition lead to 
happiness. But the Upanishad says that possession  is not the way for 
being happy. In fact, there is no such thing as procession. For obvious 
reasons, a thing outside totally cannot become yours.  That which is 
capable of leaving you, for any reason whatsoever, cannot belong to 
you. A thing that is yours cannot leave you. Anything which can leave 
you one day or the other is not yours, and there is nothing in this world 
which will not leave you one day or the other. Therefore, it cannot be 
considered as yours. Therefore, renounce attachment. It is another way 
of saying r enounce the sense of possession.   
Happiness is a state of being and not a consequence of possessing. 
Therefore, enjoy and be happy.  
Summarizing - All this that you perceive, see, or contact through the 
sense organs is enveloped by God."  
One great thinker said that if all the scriptures in the world were 
destroyed and if only this mantra is available to us, we need not learn 
anything el se afterwards. Let this one mantra remain and all the 
scriptures be destroyed. This one verse is sufficient to save us:  
 
"Isavasyam idam sarvam yat kim ca jagatyam jagat, tena 
tyaktena  bhunjitha , ma  gridhah kasyasvid dhanam "

76  
(b) The second mantra says : "Everyone has to do something."  
While the concept of Absolute is the subject of the first mantra the 
concept of individuality is the subject of the second mantra.  
Very often a man may be tempted to think "I shall keep quiet because 
God does all things a nd He is all things"? This is an erroneous notion 
about yourself. A wrong concept about your individuality has crept in. 
The Upanishad  says “Do not be in a hurry. Go slowly. Do such things 
that will gradually widen the concept of your personality, or indiv iduality. 
Act in a way commensurate with the supreme universal personality of 
God Himself. This is done by the duty which is to be performed."  
That brings us to the question of “what is duty”?  You may do some work 
by way of participation towards the welf are of a larger whole. If you have 
done this considering it as your duty even while it involves personal 
sacrifice then that work has some value in it. It can be called duty.  
A person who has not understood the meaning of the first mantra will not 
underst and the meaning of the second mantra either. You will not be 
able to understand what duty is, in the sense of this self -sacrifice for the 
welfare of the whole, unless you know what the whole is. The ultimate 
whole is the Absolute being. Perform your duty a s a participation in the 
work of this evolutionary process of creation and not as an individual 
initiative on your part. In duty, you cooperate with the existent order of 
things. You do not start independent initiatives which will not be regarded 
as commen surate with the requirements of the organization of the 
universe.  
(c)  The third point that is driven into our minds by the Isavasya Upanishad is 
– Knowledge and action have to be combined and not be considered as 
opposites. In other words - that there is no c onflict between meditation 
and action, or knowledge and work.  
 
Many of us think that knowledge means knowing something – reading 
books, accumulating information, having a degree, and acquaintance with 
the sciences and the arts of the world. But, knowledge is not necessarily 
this. The inner essence is not gained by ordinary academic reading. True 
knowledge is the insight into the being of things, the Self of all things. A 
feeling of conflict between knowledge and action appear to arise because

77 of the feeling  that the aim of knowledge is not in harmony with the aim of 
work.   In actual fact, knowledge and action go together. Understanding 
must precede action, and action without understanding is a mechanical 
routine.  
One important point that we must remember is  – all actions are not 
libera ting. Only those actions that are performed without expecting any 
benefits for doing them, count for liberation. Both the means and the ends 
have som e connection. You can not adopt one kind of means and expect 
another kind of en d. Knowledge and action go together because action is 
nothing but the movement of knowledge itself. Everything that you do from 
the point of view of this knowledge of the Upanishad is God Himself 
working through you.  
(d) The fourth instruction is - There is no  difference between creation and 
God.   God is not outside the world, and the world is not outside God. God 
is not extra -cosmic, as some thinkers may tell us. The pervasion of God in 
all creation rules out any kind of extra -cosmic existence of God.  
Let us t ake the case of a potter making a pot. The potter is only an efficient 
cause; he is not the material cause. That is, he himself does not become 
the pot; he has an external material like clay. However, in the case of God – 
there is nothing like an external material. He is infinite and He is everything. 
The cosmos is His revelation. He is as He was – in the past and in the 
present and He will be in the same condition in future as well.  
The Divine who is the Nourisher and Ruler, Seer, Death and In -dwelling 
self, and our father and Supreme Light is the Foremost Fire or Will within 
us. He is undiminished in every one of his descents and is ever full:  
Purnamadah purnamidam purnatpurnamudacyate!  
Purnasya purnahtadaya purnam eva avasisyate !!   
Kena Upanishad  
Like the Isavasya , this Upanishad  derives its name from the opening word of the 
text, Kena –ishitam , “by whom directed.” It is also known as the Talavakara 
Upanishad  because of its place as a chapter in the Talavakara –Brahmana  of the 
Sama –Veda .  
Among the Upanishads  it is one of the most analytical and metaphysical; Its 
purpose being to lead the mind from the gross to the subtle, from the effect to the 
cause. By a series of profound questions and answers, it seeks to locate the

78 source of man’s being; and to e xpand his self –consciousness until it has become 
identical with God –Consciousness.  
It is in this Upanishad that we find the famous words  
“He who thinks he does not know It - knows It.   
 He who thinks he knows It - does not know It. "  
The true knowers t hink they can never know it (because of It is infinitude), while 
the ignorant think they know It.”  
 “Those who know do not speak; those who speak do not know.”  
 
It has four sections, the first two in verse form and the other two in prose. The 
verse form deals with the Supreme Unqualified Brahman,  the absolute principle 
underlying the phenomenal world and the prose form deals with the Supreme as 
God, Ishvara.  The knowledge of the Absolute is possible only for those who are 
able to withdraw their thoughts from the worldly objects and concentrate on the 
ultimate fact of the universe. The knowledge of Ishvara  puts him on the path way 
to deliverance in course of time. Such a worshipping soul gradually acquires the 
higher wisdom which results in the consciousne ss of identity with the Supreme.  
The Upanishad opens with a few basic questions put by a sincere and inquisitive 
student of Brahma Vidya  to his Guru.  He asks his teacher:  
1. Who commands and directs the mind to illumine its objects?  
2. At whose command does the life-force (prana) function?  
3. At whose will do men utter speech?    
4. What power directs the eyes and the ears (and other sense organs) 
towards their respective objects?  
An ordinary man hears, sees, thinks, and he is happy that he can do all this. He 
is not ke en to find out what stands behind the ear or eye or mind.  His conception 
does not go beyond the little circle of his bodily life. In fact, he has no interest to 
find out what really enables his senses and organs to perform their tasks. The 
sense organs lik e mind, eyes, ear, etc, are powerless by themselves. They 
require some power to make them function. What is that power? It is the source 
of all power which is described as Brahman or the Self. Brahman is the Supreme 
Reality on which everything rests.  The l ayers of transmission of energy from the 
Cosmic Soul to the individual soul, from the individual soul to the intellect, from 
the intellect to the mind, from the mind to the Prana, from the Prana to the body

79 and from there to the sense organs are not well k nown. Neither is the body really 
alive and active, nor are the sense organs capable of perceiving things as you 
imagine. Neither is it true that the Prana is  working of its own accord, nor can you 
think through the mind independently; nor is it true that y ou understand through 
your intellect; nor is it true that you are existing even as an individual isolated 
being, but for the fact of the power of the Universal Self.  
These physical eyes are unable to perceive that subtle essence which is called 
the Brahman .  Nor can it be expressed by finite language or known by finite 
intelligence, because it is infinite.   Our conception of knowing finite things is to 
know their name and form; but knowledge of Brahman is distinct from such 
knowledge. These physical eyes ar e unable to perceive that subtle essence 
which is called the Brahman.   Nor can it be expressed by finite language or 
known by finite inte lligence, because it is infinite.   Our conception of knowing 
finite things is to know their name and form (e.g. an elep hant); but knowledge of 
Brahman is distinct from such knowledge. Whenever we perceive an object 
through our senses (d irect perception, touch, smell etc) we try to recognize it by 
its species, quality, function or relationship  (jaati, guna, kriya, visheshan a). 
However, the does not possess any of these differentiating characters (like Jaati, 
guna  etc). Hence it is difficult to clearly describe the nature Brahman  to others. 
The Upanishad narrates a story to illustrate the point. Briefly it is given here -  
The Devas won an important victory over the Asuras.  The Devas were elated 
and started celebrating the victory and were shouting “ this victory is ours and the 
glory is ours only”.   The Great Being, God Almighty, thought, “These Gods, are 
thinking that  they have won the victory and all the strength comes from them. Let 
me teach them a lesson.”  This Great Being appeared as some frightening 
spectre and sat on the top of a tree, near the abode of the gods. The gods just 
beheld it. “What is this peculiarly structur ed spectre?” they wondered.  All the 
gods went to Indra and said, “Sir, something frightening is sitting on the top of a 
tree.” Indra called one of his emissaries, the God Agni, and said, “Go and find out 
what it is. Agni went and looked at this spectre , and It asked, “Who are you? “I 
am Agni, the God of fire. “Oh, I see. What can you do?.  I can burn anything to 
ashes. The whole earth I can reduce to ashes,” replied  Agni. “I see,” said the 
spectre . It placed a little piece of grass in front of Agni and aske d him to burn it. It 
was an insult to Agni. “You are asking me to burn  a piece of grass”.  Agni ran 
with great speed to burn it to ashes, but he could not even move it, let alone burn 
it. He tried again and again, and he failed in the attempt to burn the  blade of 
grass though he had the strength to burn the whole earth. He could not 
unde rstand  what had happened. He went back and told Indra, “I cannot 
understand who the creature is. “Se nd an other person.

80 Next Indra sent Vayu.  He too came back deflated and co mpletely baffled. Then 
Indra went personally to investigate. The spectre  had vanished. He met with 
Shakti  of the Universe.  She told “What  you saw was the Supreme Creator 
Himself. You were under the impression that you won victory over the demons. 
How wron g can you be?.  
What strength do you have? You cannot lift even a blade of grass. All the 
strength came from that Supreme Being. He was operating through you, and you 
felt that you did the work. In order to subdue your ego, the Creator came in this 
form and  taught you a lesson.” Having said this, the Goddess vanished from that 
place.  
Katha Upanishad  
`The Katha Upanishad is probably the most widely known of all the Upanishads. 
It has been translated into many languages. English, German, French and other 
write rs have all agreed in pronouncing it as one of the most perfect expressions 
of the religion and philosophy of the Vedas.  
There is no consensus of opinion regarding the place of this Upanishad in Vedic 
literature. Some authorities declare it to belong to th e Yajur –Veda, others to the 
Sama –Veda, while a large number put it down as a part of the Atharva –Veda.  
The story is first suggested in the Rig–Veda ; it is told more definitely in the Yajur –
Veda.  In the Katha Upanishad  it appears fully elaborated and interw oven with the 
loftiest Vedic teaching.  
 It contains the famous dialogue between Nachiketa  and Yama , the lord of 
departed spirits.  Nachiketa's  father, in a rage, inadvertently promises his son to 
Yama  as a sacrifice, and to keep his promise, promptly sends him to the doors of 
Yama's  abode. Finding Yama absent, Nachiketa  was kept waiting for three days 
at the doors, without food or water. Yama, on his return, apologizes to  Nachiketa  
as no guest is to be treated in such a manner in his household. He offers thr ee 
boons to Nachiketa . Return to his father in earth and the meaning of the 
sacrif icial fire were the first two boons granted without hesitation.  
Now for the third one, Nachiketa asked, "What happens to the soul after death? 
After the death of this body o r it may be after the death of the individuality itself – 
in either case, what happens to the soul?"  
The third boon was to explain the meaning of death, which even Yama, the Lord 
of Death finds it difficult to explain. Refusing to take alternative offers o f worldly 
blessings, Nachiketa's persistently questions about death and immortality. This 
forms the philosophical discourse in Katha Upanishad.

81 The Lord of Death, Yama , starts his reply by these words - "There are two paths 
available for every person in this world: the way of the good  and the way of the 
pleasant. The choice is up -to the individual to choose.  
The good is called “sreyas”  and the pleasant is called “preyas” . These are the 
two roads you can tread; you can either choose what is good or you ca n choose 
that  what is pleasant for you.  
Lord Yama  advises that the correct choice for a person to take is the first 
altern ative.  It is improper for any person to choose the pleasant path, because 
the good does not always look pleasant and the pleasant i s certainly not always 
good. That which appears as the pleasant is nothing but the reaction of the 
sense o rgans in respect of objects outside. The pleasantness is not something 
existing in the object outside. The pleasantness is only in the sensations – a 
reaction of the sense organs.  
Choosing the good is the correct path. But then what is good? It must always be 
good for you. It should not be a time variant. Good for some time and not so 
good at other times.  
 Is there such a thing?  
That which is commensura te with the needs of the soul may be regarded as 
good.  Why? The body and parts of the body are impermanent. The soul is 
permanent. The impermanent cannot satisfy the permanent. When we talk about 
“good for the soul” we are not referring social goodness or  conduct goodness. 
We refer to the spiritual goodness. It is not a goodness that lasts for some time 
only, or will apply to some people only, or suitable for certain conditions only. It is 
good for all conditions, for all times and for all individuals.  
Yet Nachiketa’s question was – what happens to the soul? We get a vague 
answer from the Katha Upanishad.  A more robust and satisfying answer is found 
in the Chandogya Upanishad and the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad . Tentatively 
Lord Yama  answers that when the body  is shed, one takes a re -birth. One can be 
re-born as anything, according to the thoughts and the feelings entertained by 
the person during the tenure of the person.   Thoughts that enter your mind at the 
moment of your death are very deciding. If you thin k you can cheat the system by 
enjoying a life with a gay abandon and yet come up with some appropriate 
thoughts at the last hour – you are mistaken. You never know when and how 
your last hour will come up. And the last thoughts are but an essence of all 
thoughts entertained in your life.

82 Why do you have to have re - birth? It is necessary to fulfil the desires that  you 
could not fulfil till date.  But in the realization of the Self, which is universal in its 
nature, desires get extinguished. All your desires melt in the light of the Self. This 
is Nirvana.  
What happens to the sou l after dea th?” is the question rai sed by Nac hiketa. 
“Ordinari ly, reb irth takes place ,” is the answer. And most peopl e in the worl d are 
ordinar y people , because everyone has a desire o f some kind or the other. 
Everyone is filled with egoism, a self -assertive nature; therefore, everyone will be 
reborn. If you have to be reborn, it is good to be born in more advanced 
circu mstances. If you live like a tree, you may become a tree. if you li ve like an 
animal, you may become an animal. If you conduct yourself in a humanitarian 
way, you will be reborn as a very good human being.  We said you will be re -born 
till all your desires are exhausted. What happens to the person who has no 
desires? Yama  says, I shall tell you about the man, the person who has no 
desires.  
He who has no desires of  any kind is called -“Nishkama ”. 
Apta-kama  is one who has fulfilled all desires.   Atma -kama  refers to one who 
loves only the Self.  
Only he who has love for the Un iversal Self can be said to have fulfilled all 
desires; every other person has some extraneous desire.  
What happens to such a person when he departs from the body?  
 He will not depart. We generally say the soul departs. In the case of  a Self -
realized soul , no departure takes place. It sinks then and there into the Absolute, 
like a bubble in the ocean. When the bubble in the ocean bursts, it does not 
travel some distance; it dissolves itself into the bosom of the sea.  
They become one with the very Existence , then and there, here and now. They 
neither have to go to heaven, nor to  Brahma -loka 
The question of going arises only because of the concept of space and time. A 
timeless Eternity, which is the true essence of the soul of a person, does not 
travel to any  place. It me lts instantly in to Pu re Ex istence. 
The Soul is Absolute and, hence, it enters the  Absolute. This is what we gather 
from the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad . So much detail is not found in the Katha 
Upanishad  .Many other things are ca sually me ntioned by wa y of a te ntative 
elucidation of th e answer expe cted by  Nachiketa .

83 Prashna Upanishad   
 
Prashna Upanishad  comes from the Brahmana portion of the  Atharva Veda 
belonging to the Pippaladasakha . It has 67 mantras spread over 6 chapters. The 
word “Prashna”  means question. This Upanishad,  like a number of other 
Upan ishads,  relies on the technique of questions and answers to explain a 
number of serious issues. It discusses more elaborately some topics dealt with 
briefly in the Mundakopanishad and for that reaso n it is considered as a 
commentary on that Upanishad.  Much of the Mundakopanishad is in the form of 
verses with only a few passages being in the prose form. The Prasna Upanishad 
is just the opp osite. 
Six students, interested in knowing Brahman, come to Sage Pippalada 
reques ting him to clarify their doubts. The sage asks them to take up penance for 
one year at his place and at the end of that period he will be willing to clarify all 
their doubts. The six students were (a) Sukesa,  son of Bharadwaja  (b) 
Satya kama , son of Sibi (c) Sauryayanee, born in the family of Garga (d) 
Kausalya, son of Ashwala (e) Bhargava belonging to Bhrigu gotra (f) Kabandhi 
the son of Katya.  
The text consists  of basically six questions asked of sage  Pippalada . His 
answers form a disse rtation on the question of creation, human personality and 
metaphysical principle in man.  
These students already knew about  Saguna  Brahman  or Brahman  with qualities 
(Apara Brahman ). Now they want to know  about Supreme Brahman - Brahman  
without qualities ( Para Brahman ). According to  then existing tradition they carried 
firewood in their hands to meet the  teacher Pippalada  who is described as 
Bhagavan  because of his great  qualities. An offering of firewood to a teacher is a 
symbol of respect,  humility and ke enness to learn on the part of a student.  
The six questions are given below - 
1. What is the origin of all created beings?  
2. Who protects and guards created beings and who among them is 
supreme? This  relates to the constituents of human personality  
3. How does the Chaitanya  (Prana) enter the body and get diverted into five 
channels? How does it leave the body? How does it sustain the universe 
without and within? This refers to the nature and origin of Prana.

84 4..  Which are the senses that operate in the three stages - the waking, 
dreaming and sleeping? Who is that in whom all these are established? 
This is about the  psychological aspect of the human personality.  
5.  What is the result of worshipping Omkara throughout one’s life? This is 
about Pranava Upasana.  
6..  Where is that Supreme Being, the Person of sixteen forms? This  relates to 
the  metaphysical principle in man.   
1st Question  - From where have all these creatures come?  
The first question was raised by Kabandi.  And the question w as – from where 
have all these creatures come?   The sage replied that Prajapati,  the creator, was 
desirous of a progeny. He performed austerities and then created the pair – 
Moon the matter (rayi - food) and the Sun, the energy ( Prana -). He thought the 
pair would produce manifold beings for him. Wherever there is manifestation of 
life and energy, it is due to the influence of the Sun. The Sun is being glorified as 
the nourisher of all  life, the illuminator of all forms of matter and the provider of 
energy fo r sustenance of life as well as matter. In addition, the  Shruti  says, our 
life, both within  and without, is nothing but a play of the Sun and the Moon.  
Time, represented by the Year, is indeed the Lord of Creation - Prajapati  . He has 
two paths - the South ern and the Northern. Those who perform Ishtapoorta 
(sacrifices and charitable works) the World of the Moon and after a while they 
return. Hence, those attached to the material life go to the Chandraloka.  They will 
return to this world again and again.  
In contrast, those who sought the Atman by austerity, abstinence, faith and 
knowledge attain the Aditya  by the North pole. They do not return. The soul goes 
through the Devayana (path of Gods) to the world of Aditya  and from there to 
Brahmaloka.  Eventually he  merges with the Brahman . This is known as Krama 
mukti  (gradual liberation)  
So far we have seen the glorification of Sun. Now the Upanishad talks about 
Prajapati – the Lord of creation. Time which is measured with reference to Sun is 
emphasized by calling  it Prajapati. Time is the field in which creation operates. 
Prajapati, indeed, is the time or the year / season/ month/ day/ night.  
2nd  Question  - Who protects and guards the created beings and who 
among them is supreme?  
The second question was raised b y Bhargava of Vidarbha .

85 The question was - Who protects and guards the created beings and who among 
them is supreme?  
The sage replies that the supporting is done by the Prana, the vital energy. 
However, the scriptures refer to Five Pranas. Though there i s only one Prana, It 
is an allegoric representation in order to make the functionality clearer. The Five 
Pranas, (Pancha Pranas) are –     (a) Prana (b) Apana (c) Samana (d) Udana (e) 
Vyana.  They function in maintaining the body. Even the mind is dependent  on the 
Prana. The mental activities are but the expressions of the same energy that 
function through the body and senses. The Upanishad  mentions that even the 
Vedas are also fixed in Prana (may be due to their recitation depends on the 
Prana or they have their original manifestation in Hiranyagarbha, the Universal 
mind or Prana ).   
Our bodies have five sense organs ( Jnana Indriyas)  and five organs of action 
(karma  Indriyas ). The body cannot function without these Indriyas . However, 
these Indriyas  are made of matter and hence they are inert. By themselves they 
cannot function. It is the  Prana  that keeps the body functionality going. Refer to 
the following table.  
 
No Name  Functions  Location  
1 Prana  Respiration - Inhaling and exhaling  Nose  
2 Apana  Evacuation  or excretion of waste  Anus & Genitals  
3 Vyana  Circulation – Pervades the nerves of 
the body  Entire body  
4 Udana  Reaction or pushing upwards. 
Maintains the heat in the body  Throat  
5 Samana  Assimilation or digestion of food  Central region of 
the body  
 
Prana is conceived as the nucleus of all energy both within the body and without 
in the larger universe. It is the power that vitalizes the matter in life. It is not just 
the air we breathe in and breathe out. According to some commentators, of the 
differen t forms of Prana,  it is Apana that controls the organ of speech; Vyana of 
hearing; Prana (breath) of seeing; and Samana , of thinking. If  Prana  leaves the 
body none of those forms can function and the organs will become inactive.  
The Prana  is invisible. Th e eye cannot  see it. Yet, the eye cannot  function 
without it. The ear cannot  hear it. Yet, the ear cannot  function without it. In the 
same way, other Indriyas cannot function without the Prana.

86  
3rd  Question  – What is meant by Prana and what is its Orig in? 
The first question dealt with the creation of the gross physical body. The second 
was concerned with the Prana which vitalizes the body and without which the 
body would disintegrate.  
By now the students are very curious to know more about the Prana. The student 
Aswalayana Kausalya raises a third question seeking further clarification on 
Prana – Its origin, entrance into the body, its functioning and departure from the 
body.  
The sage replies as follows – 
The Prana comes from the Self or Atman. An exampl e of the relationship 
between a body and the shadow cast by it is given here. The shadow does not 
have an existence independent of the body. You can neither catch it nor separate 
it from the body. It is merely a projection of the substance. Similarly, Pran a is a 
projection of the Self - Atman  
How does Prana  enter the body? A man’s present life is a result of his thoughts 
in his previous existence. And this body is a result of our desires, our decisions, 
resolutions and actions of our previous life. So the Upanishad  points out that the 
mind creates the body. As you think so you become. So this text makes a 
reference to the doctrine of rebirth – an important concept in Vedanta.  
The nucleus of all activities of the body is the Prana.  It gets its work done throu gh 
Upa-Pranas or secondary Pranas just as a king gets his work done by his 
subo rdinates. Each of these Upa-Pranas have their own work areas and they 
operate from specified action centres  so to say.  However, it must be noted that 
there is only one vital -breath or Prana. Different names are given to it on account 
of the different duties it performs in the body. The fivefold nature is a functional 
division. The following table indicates the locations at the physical level and the 
functions of the Pancha Prana s (five vital airs)  
The Prana dwells in the eye, the ears, nose and mouth enabling them to see, to 
hear, inhale and exhale and speak.  The Apana is in the organs of excretion and 
procreation and initiates the process of discharge of the wastes and procreati on. 
Between the Prana  and Apana , in the region of the navel is located Samana. The 
body energy and vitality produced by digestion is equally distributed by its 
function. The lotus like heart is the seat the subtle Atman known as Lingatma. 
From within the s pace of the heart seventy thousand energy channels branch

87 out. Prana moves  through  all these channels giving energy to all the limbs and 
senses. For this reason, it is also referred to as Vyana.  
As for the Udana, it raises by the Susumna -nadi (One  of the energy channels) 
which goes up to the top of the head taking the soul after it and departs the body. 
It reaches regions of the blessed or that of the condemned depending upon the 
good or bad actions performed. Evidently, Udana is the subtle aspect of the  
Prana which not only pervades the whole system, but also controls the Linga 
sharira (subtle body) in which the soul resides.   
 
No Name  Function  Location  Parallel at 
cosmic level  
1 Prana  Respiration - 
inhaling and 
exhaling  Moves in mouth & 
nose and dwells  in 
ear and eye 
(seven openings)  Sun 
2 Apana  Evacuation of 
wastes and 
procreation  Anus and genitals  Earth  
3 Vyana  Circulation – 
pervades the 
nerves of the 
body  Entire body  Air 
4 Udana  Pushing 
upwards - 
maintains heat 
in the body – 
leads the soul 
at death  Throat  Fire 
5 Samana  Assimilation & 
distribution of 
food Central region of 
the body  Space  
 
The Upanishad then goes on to state that the five forms of life -breath in the 
human body (microcosm or Vyashti)  has an equivalent macrosystem ( Samashti ) 
in the co smic counterpart. The table gives the details.  
The following is a pictorial representation

88  
 
Vedanta Categorizes all human wants into three categories - (a) desire for 
progeny (b) desire for name and fame (c) desire for wealth. Desire for  progeny 
points  to relationship with others in the society.  Pippalada  suggests that he who 
meditates on the truth that one’s own microcosmic form with its activity centres  is 
in a nutshell a miniature universe will find his relationship with others congenial. 
He attains  the immortal nature of  Prana .  
4th Question -  What ar they that sleep in Man ? What are they that remain 
awake in Him? Which diety is it that seeks dreams ? whose is the happess 
? In whom, again are all thse gathered together ?  
The fourth question is rai sed by  Sauryayanin,  belonging to the family of Garga . He asked 
– “Sir, what are they that sleep in man? What are they that remain awake in him? Which deity is

89 it that sees dreams? Whose is the happiness? In whom, again, are all these gathered 
together?”  
Cessation of physical activities distinguishes sleep from waking state. The 
waking stage is the period of our experience. Sense organs are active in this 
state. Sleep is not like waking state. Hence during the sleeping state all Indriyas  
(both Jnana Indriyas  (5 in number -ear, skin, eyes, tongue and nose) and Karma 
Indriyas (5 in number - speech, hands, legs, anus, genitals) - retire into their very 
source, the mind. Apart from the organs of knowledge and action even the 
instruments of perception, feeling and c omprehension also retire in sleep. The 
following table gives some details.  
 
No Name of 
organ  Function  Nature  Presiding 
deity  
1 Manas  Receives stimuli from 
the organs of 
perce ption from 
external sources  Indecision or 
doubt  Moon  
2 Buddhi  Analyses situation s or 
stimuli received & 
determines cognition 
faculty Decision 
making  Brahma  
3 Ahamkara  Sense of doer-ship & 
enjoyership  Ego Rudra  
4 Chitta  Recollection of past 
experiences or events  Storehouse 
or memory  Vasudeva  
 
The teacher explains this by giving an e xample of the Sun.  
The rays of the Sun appear as if they are withdrawn temporarily and deposited in 
the Sun’s orb for the night. At dawn the rays spring back.  
The flames of  Prana  alone remain awake at the time of sleep. Even while the 
senses remain inacti ve, the different Pranas keep watch over the body. 
Pippa lada compares the activities of the Pranas to that during the performance of 
Yajna. The mind as an important organ in this virtual Yajna , for it offers the 
senses and objects as oblations to the ever wakeful fire of Prana  and yearns for 
exper iencing the bliss of Brahman  in a dreamless sleep.

90 The question of ‘which deity is that which witnesses the dreams’ is also 
answered. The answer is the mind with the senses gathered into it that 
experiences the dre ams. .Dreaming is the feature of the mind and not that of the 
Self. When the senses lie dormant in sleep, the mind builds up in a dream a 
world of its own out of impressions gathered during the awakened state. All the 
different parts of the dream are impre ssions of actual experiences – may have 
been gathered at different times or different places. They are all curiously and 
fantastically linked together by the mind in sleep. In this state the controlling 
power of both reason and will is absent. So, in a dre am, you end up experiencing 
things or circu mstances you have never before seen or experienced.  In the 
Vedanta three states of consciousness are described.  
 
(a). Waking state : A person is conscious of the physical world outside  
(b) Dream state : A person is  conscious  of the inner world and objects created 
from impressions gathered during the waking state  
(c)  Dreamless sleep: Consciousness is free from duality of subject and object 
and one experiences the feeling of undifferentiated awareness.  
 These thr ee states are common to all – for both ignorant as well as enlightened. 
The sense organs do not function, the mind is inactive and the  Prana  keeps a 
watch over the body.  
There is a fourth state called Turiya, or pure consciousness or immortal. There 
are so me basic differences between these two states of dreamless sleep and 
Turiya. The following table highlights some of the differences.  
No Bliss during dreamless sleep  Bliss during Turiya  
1 The state is attained by chance  State attained after meditation  
2 Bliss is not permanent  Bliss is permanent and everlasting  
3 Consciousness experienced is 
covered by layers of ignorance  Consciousness is covered by the 
knowledge of Brahman  
4 The ignorant ones attain no 
fruits  The enlightened ones experience the 
knowledg e of the Brahman  
5 A normal person after waking up 
from deep sleep continues to 
lead his normal life of ignorance  The knower of Brahman never forgets 
his real nature and knows it as the 
bliss of the Brahman .

91 Explaining Sushupti, the state of deep sleep the teacher gives an example. Just 
like a bird after a daylong of flying goes to its nest, takes rest and returns fully 
refreshed we too go back to our resting place and come back refreshed.  
Jagadguru Adi Shankara explains that during the waking state we a re by our 
ignorance, desires and actions ( avidya, kama and karma) . Our ignorance leads 
to desires which in turn end up in our actions – some good and some bad. We 
get trapped in a cycle of Karya and karana. During deep sleep we are free from 
these.  
Our co ndition then is advayam, ekam, sivam and shantam  – there is no duality 
(advayam ); there is only one – consciousness (ekam ); there is then peace 
(shantam) and auspiciousness ( sivam).   All Indriyas ( all 5 organs of knowledge  – 
Ear, Skin, eyes, tongue and no se completely retire in sleep; also the 5 organs of 
action – Speech (Vaak), Hands, Legs, Anus and Genitals and inner instruments 
of perception  4 in number - Mans, Buddhi, Antahkarana and Chitta ) retire in 
sleep. During deep sleep the apparent false knowled ge of the external world 
disappears but not the real nature of the Jivatman. The Jivatman  realizes 
oneness with the Supreme Atman.  We then become Sarvam . The answer to the 
question – who is free from the three states, is the imperishable Atman.  
5th Questi on = to which world is attained by a person who meditates 
throughout his life, with a single minded devotion, on AUM  
Satyakama, son of  Sibi raises the 5th question. He asks, as to which world is 
attained by a person who meditates throughout his life, with a single minded 
devotion, on AUM  (sometimes spelled as OM). 
Some explanation on AUM  and meditation would be in order at this stage.  
AUM  
This single syllable incantation is regarded is the most powerful and significant of 
all mantras. It is accepted both a s one with Brahman  and ass the medium 
connecting man and the Supreme.  The sound of  'AUM'  is also called the 
'Pranava',  meaning that it is something that pervades life. The very central theme 
of Mandukya Upanishad is the syllable ' AUM ', through which the m ystery of 
Brahman  is gathered.  
Repetition of “Omkara ” is done on different occasions. We find this in the 
repet itions of simple mantras like “ Om namo Narayanaya ” or “ Om Namashivaya” . 
And Vedic mantras as well as hymns begin with “OM”. During sacrifices and  acts 
of penance w e notice that “OM” is repeated.

92 Sometimes “OM” is uttered and repeated independently – mostly by  sanyasins  
and advanced sadhaks . This is called “ Pranavopasana” . 
Meditation  
Meditation here refers to a continuous flow of mind towards Atman  excluding 
everything else. The principal disciplines for meditation as laid down in Patanjali 
Yoga Sutra are Yama and Niyama. They refer to methods of self control at 
physical and mental levels. Yama includes non -violence, truthfulness. Non -
stealing, chast ity of body and mind and non -receiving of gifts. Niyama includes 
outer and inner purity, contentment, austerity, study of scriptures and devotion to 
God.  
Indian thinkers have referred to the Supreme Being in two different ways – 
Nirguna Brahman and Saguna Brahman. In the Nirguna version the Supreme 
Being is attribute - less (has no form, smell etc) – He cannot be apprehended by 
our sense organs. In the Saguna  version, the Supreme Being has a form and can 
be apprehended by our sense organs.  
Though AUM  is onl y one syllable which is to be meditated upon by uttering it as 
one unit, it can be uttered and meditated upon by using the sounds produced in 
three different parts  (matras ) viz. A, U, M. While meditating the syllable as a 
whole leads to the Nirguna Brahman , meditating on its different  matras  leads one 
to the Saguna Brahman . 
The person who meditates on the first matra “A” (sound produced by 
pronoun cing the first letter) is born again in the mortal world endowed with 
austerity, cha stity and faith. He will enj oy the glory and power of spiritual life.  
This is possible because the matra A  in AUM  constitutes the essence of the 
hymns of Rig Veda.  
One who meditates on the second matra (sound produced by pronouncing letter  
U) is carried after death by the hymns of Yajur Veda  to the world of Moon or 
mind. After enjoying the pleasures of that world he returns to the mortal world 
once again.  
One who meditates on the Supreme Purusha  as constituted by the three 
syllables becomes united with the Sun. Eventually he is taken  to the Brahmaloka  
by the Sama  hymns.  
Essentially, the Upanishad indicates, when the letters (A, U, M) are employed 
separately the Sadhak  will be going through the cycle of rebirth. However, when

93 the three  matras  are blended together and meditated upon th e Sadhak  will reap 
the benefits as described above.  
6th Question  -  Whether there exists a person with sixteen parts ?  
Sukesa, son of Bharadwaja , told the Guru  that he was once asked by the Prince 
of Kosala whether he knows of a person with sixteen parts. He could not answer 
the question. Sukesa wanted to know where such a Purusha lives.  
Guru Pippalada  answers that the Purusha  with sixteen parts exists within our 
body and is our inner Self. The sixteen parts of the manifestation of the Self are 
as follows. (1) Prana , the life principle (2) Shraddha  (3) Space (4) Air (5) Fire (6) 
Water (7) Earth (8) The Indriyas  - 5 Jnana Indriyas  and 5 Karma Indriyas  
together are considered as one (9) Manas , the mind (10) Food (11) Vigor (12) 
Tapas, self discipline (13) Vedi c Hymns – mantras  (14) Karma , Sacrifice (15) 
Wisdom – meaning spiritual worlds representing different states of 
consciou sness (16) Name or distinct identity.  
The world of names and forms are all manifestations of the Purusha . As the 
flowing rivers, bound f or the ocean disappear into it on reaching it, are referred to 
simply as ocean so too these sixteen parts disappear into the Purusha.  
Sage Pippalada  concludes his instructions with this. The students worship him as 
they would their father.  
  
Mundaka Upani shad  
 
Mundaka Upanishad  belongs to the Atharva Veda  and has 64 verses ( mantras ) 
spread over three Chapters ( mundakas ), each of which having two sections 
(khandas ). It is regarded as a one of the Mukhya Upanishads and volumes of 
commentaries have been writt en on it.  
Lord Brahma was one of the first Divine beings. He imparted this Brahma Vidya  
to His eldest son Atharva. Brahma Vidya  is the fundamental science because it is 
the very substance of all knowledge, the different branches of which are all the 
lower forms of knowledge. Sage  Atharva  passed on the  Vidya  to Sage Angi. Angi 
then transmitted it to Satyavaha,  the son of Bharadvaja  who, in turn, gave this 
great science to Sage Angiras.  Mundaka refers to a person with a shaven head –
a Sanyasin.  It is meant fo r a person who has renounced everything. Absolute 
knowledge cannot be co -existent with worldly activity.  The truth that this 
Upan ishad  imparts is to be had through the inspirational initiation direct from a

94 Guru  who is well versed in the Brahma Vidya  and w ho has at the same time had 
the Brahma Anubhava,  is brought out very clearly in this Upanishad.  Sage  
Saunaka approached Angiras with due respect and asked “O Bhagavan, what is 
that through the knowledge of which everything becomes known?”  
Ordinarily, knowl edge of one thing does not imply knowledge of another thing. 
But then Brahma Vidya  is not a knowledge which excludes other kind of 
know ledge. It is the Knowledge of the highest cause, the knowledge of which 
means the knowledge of all its effects also.  
Sage  Angiras starts his reply by telling that two kinds of knowledge have to be 
acquired. These are (a) the lower (Apara Vidya ) and (b) the higher (Para Vidya ). 
The lower kind of knowledge consist of all the four Veda s – Rig, Yajur, Sama  and 
the Atharva,  the Vedangas – Siksha , (phonetics) , Kalpas  (rituals), Vyakarana 
(grammar),  Nirukta  (etymology), Chandas  (prosody) and Jyotisha  (astronomy). 
The higher kind of knowledge is one through which the imperishable is attained.  
The lower kind of knowledge pertains to divinities, their worship and the different 
methods of attaining excellent regions through the performance of meritorious 
deeds like prayer, sacrifices etc. However, the imperishable Brahman is reached 
only through the higher kind of knowledge – Brahma Vid ya. The essential 
difference between the two kinds of knowledge is that  :  
(a) In the case of lower Vidya  it gives rise to performance of actions to gain 
knowledge of the divinity and then follow it up with efforts to attain that 
divinity.  
(b) In the case of hi gher Vidya , all action ceases before the attainment of 
knowledge. Knowledge does not mean knowledge of any particular divinity 
or the connection between the knower and the known. It is the knowledge 
of the Knower himself. Brahma Vidya is the technique enab ling one to 
reach Absolute experience. This knowledge is attained through a great 
effort from the  Sadhak  in the forms of Viveka, Vichara, Vairagya and 
Abhyasa. Absolute Spirit is experienced as existent everywhere, without 
distinctions, by those who have r isen to the level of spiritual 
consciousness. This is the object of higher knowledge or Para Vidya .    
If the Absolute Brahman is the sole object of our pursuit, then what about this 
world that we find ourselves in? Is it worthless? Sage Angiras further ex plains – 
as the web comes out of the spider and is withdrawn, the plants grow from the 
soil and the hair from the body of man, and so does the Universe (consisting both 
of animate and inanimate beings) spring from the Eternal Brahman. The world is

95 an emana tion from the Brahman. We are living and moving in divinity manifesting 
as this world.  
Sage Angiras proceeds to give an outline of the emanation of the world. 
Brahman expands by means of austerity, and from It primal matter is produced; 
from Matter Prana is produced; from that Prana, the mind, truth, the regions and 
the effects of actions.  
In the second Khanda, Angiras deals with the nature of lower Vidya . Limitations 
and criticisms on Apara Vidya  are intended to make one conscious of its 
impe rfect state a nd then proceed beyond it. The sacrificial rites and rituals 
prescribed in the Karma Kanda  of the Vedas come under Apara Vidya. In order 
to reap the full benefits of the rites or rituals, they will have to be performed 
flawlessly and with great care – exac tly as per rules prescribed in the scriptures. 
Failure to do so will result in disastrous consequences. In any case the path of 
the lower Vidya  is one of Samsara  and Samsara is of the form of pain – and has 
to be rejected by intelligent people. The fruits of sacrificial rites, even when best 
performed, are finite and transient. Steeped in ignorance, rating themselves to be 
great and learned the deluded ones (the performers of these rites) go through the 
Samsara  endlessly. Rituals of worship and good deeds c ertainly result in good  
Karma . However, the Karma  has not adequate to get us across the sea of 
Samsara.  Preparing to receive the highest knowledge, the seeker should forsake 
all forms of desire. Then in order to gain the knowledge of the eternal, the seeke r 
should approach a Guru, who is well versed in scriptures and established in 
Brahman . The  Guru  will impart the knowledge of the  Brahman  by which alone the 
Impe rishable Being is realized.  
Continuing the discussions, the Sage Angiras  gives an example. From a blazing 
fire countless sparks of various kind, but of similar form, shoot out. Similarly, from 
the Imperishable Being, different kinds of beings emerge, and return to it later on. 
The beings emerging from the Supreme differ from one another in their thin king. 
But the Absolute Self in all individuals remains  unaffected. Life is made possible 
because of this dependence of individuals on the Supreme Self.  
Thus far the Sage has explained the objects and nature of Apara Vidya. They all 
end up in Samsara.  The U panishad traces all experiences back to the ultimate 
cause. This ultimate cause, Purusha , forms object of Para Vidya  or Brahma 
Vidya.  From this Purusha  proceed the vital energy Prana , the mind, the senses, 
Aakasha , air, fire, water and the all supporting E arth. The universe, including all 
subjects and all objects, is only a condition supported by the Absolute, on the 
basis of which appearances are experienced by the cognising individual and 
without which the universe has no reality. The Upanishad  gives a de scription of

96 the Universal Self like this - his head is the shining region of the heavens; his 
eyes are the sun and the moon; his ears are the quarters of space; his speech is 
the Veda full of knowledge; his vital energy is the universal air; the whole 
universe is his heart; his feet are the lowest earth.  
This is a metaphorical illustration of the all inclusive nature of the Universal 
Being. The Universe is not His creation but His manifestation - His incarnation. He 
remains as its inner controller – Antary amin.  From Him proceed the sky, the Sun, 
Moon, showers of rain, all vegetation on Earth. Earth is the essence of food. 
Food produces energy and from energy all beings are produced. All Vedas came 
forth from Him. So too are austerities connected with sacrif ices and the sacrifices 
themselves. From him are born Gods of diverse descent. In Him are found the 
oceans and the mountains; all rivers flow in Him in their various forms. Plants 
and the various tastes connected with food —all form the different parts of t his 
Cosmic Body in which resides the Universal Self or the Virat-Purusha. The whole 
universe is Purusha  alone. Actions and penances also are this immortal 
Supreme Self. The Absolute Self is not really experienced by any individual as it 
really is. Only its  effects are experienced.  
If the whole Universe is Purusha alone, it means that differences are unreal. 
Sage Angiras then urges the disciple that the Supreme Being is the only real goal 
to be attained in life. He then proceeds to advice on how to attain t his goal. OM is 
the bow. The individual self is compared to an arrow. One should place this 
arrow sharpened by meditation on the bow. Brahman  is the target. Drawing the 
bow with the mind fixed on Brahman  hit the target. Constant meditation on  OM 
allows the  individual consciousness to take the form of OM itself which is 
unlimited in nature. The meditator ultimately becomes the object of 
meditation. OM being the symbol of  Brahman , meditation on OM leads to 
realization of Brahman.  The sage declares that the imm ortal, non -dual Supreme 
Self is the bridge to i mmortality.  
Where is his Brahman  located? He who is Omniscient and all knowing is 
established in the ether of the heart. He is seated in the core of every individual. 
This does not mean that the Atman  is situ ated somewhere in space. It just 
means that it is felt as existence by the individual through the mind which defines 
one’s pe rsonality. Because it is the mind that reflects the Atman , the presence of 
Atman  is felt only where the mind manifests itself.  
When the knots of the heart are broken, all doubts are cleared the evil effects of 
actions perish and the Supreme Being is beheld. The knots are Avidya, Kama 
and Karma. Avidya is ignorance. Kama  is the medium. Karma is the effect. 
These three binding factors confine experience to an individual personality.

97 When ignorance, which is the root cause of all troubles, is destroyed by 
know ledge phenomenal experience is put to an end.    
Summing up the sage tells that on Him neither the sun shines, nor the moon nor 
the stars; not even the lightning; what to speak of this fire; when He shines 
everything shines after Him.  By His light this whole universe is illuminated.  
na tatra sūryo bhāti, na candra -tārakam, nemā vidyuto bhānti, 
kuto’yam agni ḥ, 
tam eva bhāntam anubhāti sarvam, tasya bhāsā sarvam,ida ṁ vibhāti.  
This mantra Mundaka -2  (2:2:10) is recited while performing Harati  in our daily 
pujas.   
The immortal  Brahman  is everywhere - above, below, to the right and the left. The 
Upanishads  conclude that Brahman alone is the Absolute Reality.  
The concluding chapter of this Upanishad gives us the right understanding of the 
Paramatma  and the Jivatma - the Supreme Self and the i ndividual self. It 
illustrates their unity, their distinction and their relationship with each other.  
Two birds, united always and known by the same name, closely cling to the 
same tree. One of them eats the sweet fruit, the other looks on without eating.  
The two birds are the Jiva and Ishvara, both existing in an individual compared to 
a tree. The body is compared to a tree because it can be cut down like a tree. 
The body is the field of action and experience and it is the fruit of actions done 
already. D ue to the limiting factors like Avidya, Kama and Karma the Jiva has to 
experience the results of its actions. The fruits enjoyed by the Jiva are of the 
nature of pleasure and pain. However,  Ishvara  is not limited by such adjuncts 
and has no actions whatsoe ver to perform. As such He does not have to 
experience the results for any actions. In the mantra, the Lord is designated as 
having a golden hue. This is to signify that His nature of knowledge is eternally 
inherent in Him – even as the colour of gold is s omething inherent in it.  
When the individual has the vision of the Supreme Being the Jiva becomes free 
from blemishes, attachments and sorrows and gets united with the Absolute. The 
Supreme Being is manifested in all beings. Knowing this the wise man does  not 
speak of anything else. The man’s delight then lies in the Self only. Brahma 
Varishtha is one who has realised Brahman  and whose action consists in Self 
knowledge preceded by renunciation of external consciousness. The Atman is 
attained through truth,  penance, correct knowledge and Brahmacharya  (self-
control), observed continuously and without break. The Atman is beheld within in

98 the form of light and purity by the realised souls who are freed from all kinds of 
sins. The popular meaning of  Brahmacharya  is continence. However, it really 
means leading a life befitting the nature of  Brahman . It is, in other words, Charya 
or moving/ acting / conducting oneself in accordance with the law of Brahman - 
which is the unity of existence. Such control is not merely  the abandonment of 
objects but is the absence of  taste for the objects. Bondage is not caused by the 
existence of objects but by the connection of the mind with those objects.  
“satyam eva jayate nān ṛtam, satyena panthā vitato devayāna ḥ, 
yenākramanty ṛṣayo hy āpta -kāmā yatra tat satyasya  
parama ṁ nidhānam.”  
Truth alone triumphs, not falsehood. Through truth the divine path is spread out 
by which the sages, whose desires have been  completely fulfilled, reach 
supreme treasure of Truth. Here the “ Truth ” being referred to is more than the 
conventional truth speaking. Truth is a symbol of perfection and a representation 
of the Divine Being. Adherence to truth, therefore, means embracin g the 
universal nature of the Reality. Through Truth the consciousness blossoms into 
more e xpanded experience, but untruth attempts to stifle consciousness 
altogether. The sages got a vision of this Truth because they were absolutely 
free from such d efects  as deceit, delusion, fraud, pride, vanity and falsehood. 
They found the co nsummation of their desires and aspirations in this Absolute 
Truth. They became first desire -less and then sought the Truth. Desire breeds 
falsehood, and desir eless-ness gives rise to Truth.  
The Supreme Being is to be realized within the lotus of the heart. It is not 
grasped by the eye, not even by speech, nor by the other senses. It is not 
poss ible to know it through deeds. He, who meditates upon it with absolute purity 
(Sattva ) of mind, as the indivisible Being, beholds it through the serenity attained 
in knowledge. Lot of groundwork needs to be done before reaching this point. To 
start with practice of virtues like truth is absolutely necessary, to be followed by 
the withdrawal of the senses and concentration of mind, leading to Tadatmyata , 
or absorption in the object of meditation.  
Whatever is desired by a liberated sage of purified mind will come true. This is 
because Sankalpa  of the sage (knower of Self) is rooted in Satya or Truth. 
Therefore let all those who seek their own good revere and worship the sage.  
The Absolute Self is not to be obtained through discourses, through intellect, or 
through much hearing. Whom one wishes to attain, i.e., the Self or the Atman, by 
him alone is  It attained. The Upanishad  sets forth certain pre -requisites of

99 meditation on the Atman.  The Sadhak should have intense devotion and the 
requisite mental strength and moral power without which concentration would be 
imposs ible. Attachment to worldly objec ts should be given up. Works done for the 
sake of personal gain will not help in the realisation of the Self. Realizing 
everywhere the all -pervading Brahman, deeply absorbed in contemplation of His 
being, they enter into him, the Self of all. As rivers flo wing into the ocean lose  
themselves in the ocean, casting off name and form, so the knower, freed from 
name and form, attains the Divine Purusha who is higher than the high.  
This concludes the Mundaka Upanishad.  
Mandukya Upanishad  
 
The Upanishad  has been r evealed to a great sage -teacher Manduka . The 
Upan ishad belongs to the Atharva  Veda. It contains just twelve verses . Yet it 
occupies a very important position in Vedantic literature because it underlines the 
essence of the entire Advaita Vedanta. In fact, o ne of the Mahavakyas “ayam 
atma Brahma ” is derived from the Mandukya Upanishad . It is said that Mandukya 
Upanishad  alone is adequate for an aspirant to achieve liberation.   
The theme of this Upanishad  is the exposition of the mystic syllable AUM ( or 
OM).  It is aimed at training the mind on meditation.     
The Upanishad commences with a solemn declaration:  
Mantra 1: Pranava or Omkara  
Om ityetadaksharam idam sarvam,  
tasyopavyakhyanam bhutam bhavat  
bhavishyaditi sarvam omkara eva . 
Everything is OM, indeed me aning –all this, whatever is visible, whatever is 
cognizable, whatever can come within the purview of sense -perception, inference 
or verbal testimony, whatever can be comprehended is all OM. OM is Pranava. It 
is the Bija-mantra  for all mantras  be it Vaidik a or Tantrika . . OM is both a Nama  
and a Rupa , name as well as form. The Absolute Supreme is the  Rupa  (form) of 
OM which is the Nama  (name). It is not merely a sound, though it is also a 
sound, and a very important aspect of OM that one has to bear in mind  is that 
OM is not merely a chant or a recitation, a word or a part of human language but 
it is som ething more than all this. It is something which exists by its own right. We

100 do not create OM by a chanting of it, but we only produce a vibration sympatheti c 
with the vibration that is already there by its own right and which is called OM. 
OM in essence is a cosmic vibration. It is not a chant made by us. It is said that 
OM is a Universal vibration with which creation commenced.  
 aum ity etad ak ṣaram idam sar vam, tasyopavyākhyānam    
bhūtam bhavad bhavi ṣyad iti sarvam au ṁkāra eva  
yac cānyat trikālātīta ṁ tad apy au ṁkāra eva.  
Names go with the form. And for this reason all names in this world are 
peris hable. When the form goes, so does the name. But Universal for m is 
imperishable. Then the Universal name is also imperishable. Thus OM is 
Akshram.  All that is past, that which is present and that which will be in the future 
is OM.  
Mantra 2. Individual and the Absolute  
 sarva ṁ hy etad brahma, ayam ātmā brahma    
so’ya m ātmā catu ṣ-pāt. 
The mantra contains three statements – 
1.All this is verily Brahman  
2.This Atman is Brahman  
3.This Atman  has four quarters or padas.  
We shall examine these statements.  
“Sarvam hyetad brahma :” All this is, verily, Brahman. Thus begins the secon d 
Mantra. "All this creation is just the Absolute alone", is the real meaning of this 
statement. All that can be regarded as what you call this universe is that 
Brahman.  
“Ayam atma brahma ”: The Upanishad  goes one step forward. It declares that this 
Atman, (individual self) is also Brahman . Here you have; as it were, the 
quinte ssence of all Upanishadic  teaching, the last word of the Vedanta , as you 
may call it, the culmination of the wisdom of the sages. The Universe which 
appears proximate to our senses, th is Jivatma  (Individual Self) of ours which also 
appears proximate to us and that Brahman which seems to be far away from our 
reach are all reconciled with the Absolute.

101  
“so’yam ātmā catu ṣ-pāt” 
This subject, this Atman (Individual Self) is regarded as fou rfold (four footed as it 
were) for the purpose of analysis. The fourfold of the Atman described in the 
Mandukya Upanishad  are the four aspects in the study of the Atman, and not 
four distinguishable, partitioned quarters of the Atman.  We have the physical,  the 
subtle, the causal and spiritual aspects as the four aspects to be studied while 
analysing the nature of the Atman.  These four stages are called Jagrat, Swapna, 
Sushupti and Turiya  – the waking state, the dreaming state, the sleeping state 
and the tra nscendent spiritual state. These are the four states of consciousness 
and the study of consciousness is the same as the study of Absolute Brahman. 
Study of consciousness is the subject of this Upanishad .   
Mantra 3. Waking state  
 jāgarita sthāno bahi ṣ-prajñaḥ sapt āṅga 
ekonavi ṁśati -mukha ḥ sth ūla-bhug vaiśvānara ḥ 
prathama ḥ pādah.  
The first quarter is Vaisvanara . Its field is the waking state. Its consciousness is 
outward -turned. It is seven -limbed and nineteen -mouthed. It enjoys gross 
objects.  
We commence the  study by taking into account all reality as presented to us. The 
mind will not accept what it does not see or understand. The Mandukya 
Upan ishad , therefore, takes this aspect into consideration and commences the 
work of analysis of the self from the found ation of sense -perception and mental 
cognition based on this perception.  
 
 Sense perception comes through shabda, sparsha, roopa, rasa, gandha – 
sound, touch, shape or forms, taste and smell through his respective sense 
organs. We do not see Ishvara, Brah man, Omkara, Pranava  etc. We hear about 
all these but cannot see, hear or touch any of them. We cannot accept them 
unless a satisfactory explanation is given in regard to the visible. This immediacy 
of consciousness the sensory fact presented to us in our day to day life is called 
waking life or Jagrat -avastha . All experience we have gained is confined to 
waking life. To us life means waking life. In the words of Dr. S. Radhakrishnan 
“The waking state is the normal condition of the natural man, who without  
reflection accepts the universe as he finds it. The same physical universe bound 
by un iform laws presents itself to all men”.

102 Let us now try to understand the way we begin to know the world as it appears to 
us in the waking life. Its special feature is “Bahihprajnah ”. It is conscious of only 
what is external to us and not what is inside us. Our sense organs can 
exper ience the outside world and not  what is within us. This is the peculiarity of 
the waking consciousness. The Upanishad  says this consciousnes s is Seven -
limbed and has nineteen mouths. This consciousness is called Vaisvanara.   
It may be appropriate to understand the meaning of some of the words we will 
come across.  
Jiva – refers to Individual soul  
Visva  – Individual soul in waking state.  
Virat – Universal or macrocosmic aspect of Ishvara  
The sum total of all Visva  is Virat. The sum total of all physical bodies is Virat. 
The totality of gross universe is also Virat 
Whatever exists in one’s own body also exists in the Universe. The human body 
is a miniature Universe.  
From the point of view of this Upanishad  there is no unbridgeable gulf between 
Jiva and Ishvara . The seven limbs referred to in this Upanishad  is a definition of 
the Cosmic self described in the Chandogya Upanishad . We just said that in the 
waking consciousness the Jiva is aware of only external objects. This is true of 
Ishvara  also. Both are Bahihprajna  (outwardly conscious) with a subtle 
difference. We will come to this little later.  
For the Paramatma,  the seven limbs are – 
1.the shini ng regions of heaven may be regarded as His head.  
2.His are eyes are the Sun and the Moon.  
3.Air is His breath  
4.Fire ( Ahavaniya  fire, one of the three fires of the Agnihotra  sacrifice) His 
mouth  
5.Sky is His body.  
6.Water is His urinary organ (kidney or bladder)  
7.Earth is His feet.

103 This is the Universal Atman, Virat , from the point of view of the waking 
consciousness. This is what Arjuna  saw as described in the eleventh chapter in 
Bhagavad -Gita. Just as we have consciousness animating our physical body, 
Virat is animating the physical Universe. This Virat is called Antaryamin  because 
He is immanent in all things. For this Virat-Purusha  there is no difference 
between living being and dead matter. He is present in the inanimate as well as 
in the animate by means of w hat are called the Gunas of Prakruti  – Sattva , Rajas  
and Tamas  – composure, activity and inertia. When He manifests Himself 
through Tamas  alone, we call it inanimate existence.  
Such objects as stone, rock, which, from our point of view, do not seem to hav e 
any consciousness animating them, and are examples of the Virat-Purusha  
through Tamoguna Prakruti , a quality of Prakruti  in which Rajas and Sattva  are 
hidden; Tamas  is predominating over Rajas and Sattva.  When  Rajas  and Sattva  
slowly reveal themselves mo re and more in larger quantity and extent, there is 
animation and life creeps into existence. From the inanimate we come to the 
animate. The first manifestation of life is through what we call Prana – the vital 
sustaining power in all living beings.  Prana  is functioning in the world of plants, 
vegetables, etc. But plants do not think as animals do. The function of thinking 
belongs to a higher order of Reality which we call as the animal world, with all its 
instincts and sensations. We now notice a greater d egree of the manifestation of 
Reality. There is a level of Sattva  in the humans, where we have not only 
functions of breathing and thinking, but also of understanding, logical 
discrimination etc. This is a level higher than that in the animals. We have to  
reach a still higher level than ordinary humans to reach the realm of Ananda  or 
Divine light. And A nanda is equivalent to Chit and Sat – Consciousness and 
Being. At this level Sat, Chit  and  
Ananda  become one. At this level only Shuddha -Sattva  prevails – no mixing of 
Rajas  and Tamas. So we see distinctions in the realm of Jivas . The Virat, 
Vaisvanara, does not have any distinctions. While for humans the awareness is “I 
am, and you are also there”, for the Virat it is “I am and there is no world outside 
me”.  
According to the Upanishad the description is as if He has seven limbs. At the 
microcosmic level of Jiva the Upanishad  tells us it has nineteen mouths. The 
function of the mouth is to consume things. In this sense our eyes, nose etc 
through which we tak e in vibrations may be regarded as mouths. There are 
nineteen functional organs of this wakeful consciousness which help us establish 
contact with the outside world. They are – 
a)Five Jnanendriyas  (Ears, skin, eyes, tongue and nose).

104 b)Five Karmendriyas  (Mouth , hands, feet, genitals and anus).  
c)Five Pranas  (Prana, Apana, Vyana, Udana  and Samana ). 
The four -fold Antahkarana chatushtaya  (Manas -mind; Buddhi - Intellect, Chitta 
(subconscious mind or faculty by  which things are remembered); Ahamkara 
(egoism or self arr ogating principle ).  
These are the nineteen mouths of the Jiva referred to in the Upanishad . With the 
help of these nineteen instruments we absorb the physical world outside us into 
ourselves. Our physical -consciousness not equipped to absorb anything supe r-
physical. Our counterpart at the cosmic level is Vaisvanara.  Virat, under the order 
of Ishvara, having entered the microcosmic body and having the intellect as his 
vehicle, reaches the state of Visva . The he goes by several names of – 
Vijnanattma, Chidab hasa, Visva, Vyavaharika Jiva  etc. 
Now coming back to Bahihprajna,  or outward consciousness, while both the Jiva 
and Ishvara  may be regarded as outwardly conscious, there is a subtle 
difference. While the consciousness relates itself to other objects and p ersons, it 
becomes the individual Jiva.  In this process, the  Jiva binds itself to the external 
objects – called Samsara.  This leads to a desire and likes and dislikes. In the 
case of the Virat there is no desire. It only has an awareness of the physical 
cosmos. There is one other difference is. In the case of the Virat the whole 
Universe is comprehended in its consciousness. That is not possible for the Jiva.    
Mantra 4.  Dream State:  
 svapna -sthāno’nta ḥ-prajña ḥ sapt āṅga ekonavimśati -mukha ḥ 
pravivikta -bhuk taijaso dvītiya ḥ pādah.  
The second quarter is Taijasa. Its field is the dream state. Its consciousness is 
inward -turned. It is seven -limbed and nineteen -mouthed. It enjoys subtle objec ts. 
  
During dream, the mind creates various kinds of objects out of the impressions 
produced by experiences of the waking state. The mind reproduces the whole of 
waking life in dream through the force of Avidya  (ignorance), Kama  (desire and 
imagination) a nd Karma  (action). The mind is the perceiver and it is also the 
perceived in a dream. The desires that are not satisfied during the waking state 
are gratified in the dream state. Dream is the state during which the Atman  is 
referred to as Taijasa .  The Svapna Avastha  (dream state) is that state in which 
the senses are at rest. Here the object of experience is consciousness consisting 
of vasanas (affinities ), the impressions of the past experience. The dream -state 
experience is called the experience of the s ubtle. Sutratman or Hiranyagarbha ,

105 under  the order of Ishvara having entered the microcosmic body subtle body and 
having the mind as his vehicle, reaches the Taijasa state. He goes by various 
names – Taijasa, Pratibhasika  and Svapnakalpita.   
 
The dreamer creates a world of his own during state. Mind alone works 
independently in this state. The senses are withdrawn into the mind. Mind also 
withdraws itself from the outside world and plays in the dream with vasanas and 
Samskaras. It enjoys objects made up of  fine ideas which are products of desire. 
The difference between dream state and the waking state is – In the dream state 
there is the subtle experience by Taijasa  in the form of vasanas, whereas 
exper ience in the wa king state is with the gross.  The world  of dream being 
subtle, pr ojected only by the mind, is regarded as Pravivikta, Sukshma,  non-
physical; – this is so both in the case of Taijasa  and Hiranyagarbha.  While 
Hiranyagarbha  has Cosmic Knowledge, the Jiva has no such knowledge. 
Hiranyagarbha  is Ishvara's  form, and Taijasa  is Jiva's  form. Thus is the twofold 
mystery which dream bo lsters up before us . 
In the dream state, the state of consciousness by which subtle objects are 
perceived is called Antahprajna  or inner perception. The Visva , or the 
Jagari tasthana , is Saptanga and Ekonavimsatimukha ; and so is Taijasa,  or the 
Svapnas thana.   The seven limbs and nineteen mouths reference is relevant in 
this state as well.  
 
Mantra 5; Deep sleep state  
yatra supto na ka ṁ cana kāma ṁ kāmayate  
na ka ṁ cana svapnam paśyati tat su ṣuptam  
suṣupta -sthāna ekī -bhūta ḥ prajñ ānā-ghana evānanda -mayo  
hy ānanda -bhuk ceto -mukha ḥ prājñas t ṛtīyaḥ pādah.  
 
The third quarter or condition is Prajna.  whose sphere is deep sleep, in whom all 
experiences have become one, who is essentially  a mass of consciousness, who 
is full of bliss, who enjoys bliss and who leads the way to the knowledge of the 
two other states.  When Jivatma  experiences deep sleep, the functions of the 
nineteen organs come to a stop. The Jiva does not see or hear anythi ng. There 
is no functioning of the mind. Egoism is also absent. However, the veil of 
ignorance, avidya,  persists.  
 
Under the orders of Ishvara  he who is coupled with Avyakta,  enters the 
microcosmic Karana  body and reaches the state of Prajna.  The other n ames for 
Prajna  are – Avicchinna, Paramarthika, Sushupti Abhimani.  Just like a bird, tired

106 after roaming, goes back to its nest – so too the Jiva tired, after actions during 
the waking and dreaming states, enters Ajnana  and enjoys the bliss. All the 
know ledge of the waking and dreaming state enter into a oneness. Visva  and 
Taijasa  have entered a condition of oneness. The experiences of the waking and 
dream state are not annihilated but remain in a seed state. They become a 
dense mass of consciousness during  deep sleep - Prajnanaghana.  
 
In deep sleep the mind is involved into its cause – Avidya . For this reason there 
is this veil of ignorance between the individual soul and the Brahman .  Therefore 
the Jiva cannot attain the knowledge of  Brahman  during deep sl eep state. The 
bliss enjoyed is termed Avidya Avrita Sukha – bliss enveloped by ignorance. 
When you wake up from deep sleep  - you enjoyed the sleep but did not know 
anything. The remembrance when you get up from deep sleep that the Sakshi or 
the witness o f three states exists. That Sakshi  is Brahman.  
 
You do experience bliss during deep sleep – but not the highest bliss of  
Brahman, the Nirvikalpa Samadhi. Only thing achieved is freedom from 
unhappiness. When you wake up from deep sleep, man is still ignor ant and 
affected by the worldly objects. And that is why you do not attain Brahmajnana.  
Compare this to the state of a sage coming out of Samadhi . The sage  has full 
knowledge of the self and is not affected by worldly objects. That is the difference 
betwee n deep sleep and Samadhi.    
 
Mantra 6;   Ishvara  
 eṣa sarveśvara ḥ eṣa sarvajña ḥ, eṣo’ntāryami e ṣa 
yoniḥ sarvasya prabhavāpyayau hi bhūtānām .  
The word Sarvesvara  means Lord of all meaning the physical and supra -physical 
Universe. All mental and physical  worlds come out of  Ishvara  and He controls 
everything. He is omnipotent and as such He is the source and end of all 
creation.  
Prajna is the causal state of the Universe. Macrocosmically, we regard this  
consciousness as the creator of the whole Universe.  Microcosmically also, the 
same consciousness is the creator of the internal world of the Jiva. The 
descri ption of Sarvesvara (omnipotent) and Sarvajna (omniscient) cannot be 
attributed to Jiva – since the Jiva is neither omnipotent nor omniscient. Yet the  
Upanishad  does not make a distinction between the individual and the Cosmic, 
and harm onizes the relation between Jiva and Ishvara.  The causal condition of 
the Jiva, namely Prajna , is regarded only as a part of the cosmic causal state of

107 Ishvara . Just as t he whole world has come out of Ishvara, so also the waking and 
dream states have come out of deep sleep.  
The Prajna  is the knower of all as He is in all beings. He is Antaryamin  (i.e.) the 
inner ruler and governor all beings from within. He has entered in to all beings 
and directs everything from within. He is the source of all. From Him proceeds 
the entire world. While He is the origin of all, He is also the place of dissolution 
for all beings.  
Ishvara does not exert from outside to create the worlds. He does not want any 
instruments or materials to work with while creating the worlds. He is 
Omnip otent. He wills it and everything comes into being. He is both the material 
and i nstrumental cause. . He projects this world and in the end withdraws it within 
Himself.    
Mantra -7; The Transcendent Presence  
 nānta ḥ-prajñam, na bahi ṣ praj ñam, nobhayata ḥ-prajñam  
na prajnañ ā-ghanam, na prajñam, n āpraj ñam;  
adṛṣtam, avyavah ārayam, agrāhyam, alak ṣaṇam,  
acintyam, avyapadeśyam, ekātma -pratyaya -sāram,    
prapañcopa śamam, ś āntam, śivam, advaitam,  
caturtham manyante, sa ātmā, sa vij ñeya ḥ.  
Abstruse theories regarding Brahman cannot easily be grasped by men of 
ordinary learning. Two techniques have generally been employed to make it 
easier for them to grasp  
1.Explain the unknow n by giving examples from day to day life  
2. Explain the unexplainable by denying the known entities. It is called  “Neti  
Neti “(not this; not this) technique. In this case, the sage  employs  the second 
technique.  
We have so far discussed the three states of consciousness – waking state, 
dream state and the deep sleep state. The seventh mantra i n the Mandukya 
Upanishad  adopted the “Neti Neti”  technique to explain Turiya,  the fourth state of 
consciousness. Turiya  cannot be described in words. It is the trans cendental 
state that has to be realised through meditation. Atman  is beyond the reach of 
senses.  It has no qualities, colour, shape or form. You cannot touch it or smell it. 
For this reason it is indefinable. Yet Atman  is the sole essence of the 
consciou sness of the Self.  The fourth stage of Turiya  is distinct from the waking 
state, the dreaming state, the intermediate state between waking dreaming

108 states and the deep sleep state. It is pure consciousness. Turiya  is distinct from 
Ishvara . Turiya  or Brahma n has no relation with the world. However, Ishvara  
governs the world.  Brahman  is free from Maya  whereas Ishvara  is with Maya.  
Swami Sivananda  explains that strictly speaking “ Turiya  is not a state. Turiya  or 
Brahman  is an e mbodiment of peace and bliss. It is the substratum for the other 
three states”. It is absolute existence, knowledge and bliss.  
Mantra -8 - Atman as Pranava  
so’yam ātmādhyak ṣaram au ṁkaro’dhimātram pādā mātrā  
mātrāś ca pādā akāra ukāra makāra iti.  
In the previous mantras the Atman has been described from the view point of the 
four states – waking, dream, deep sleep and Turiya. In this mantra it is being 
describ ed from the viewpoint of sound AUM.  This will help meditation on AUM. 
Earlier it was said that the Self can be seen in four states or quarters (padas);  
visva – the waking state, taijasa – the dream state, prajna – the deep sleep state 
and turiya – pure co nsciousness. Turiya is the real nature of the Self.  
The first three states (padas ) of the Self are represented by the three letters 
(matras )of  AUM . Hence this mantra  says that the padas and the matras are the 
same. Turiya  is beyond description; so it is amatra - beyond the matras.  Some 
people may question as to why the same idea is being repeated in two different 
ways. The reason for that is that a few people may find it difficult to absorb the 
concepts given in the previous mantras . Those people may conce ntrate on AUM  
as the symbol of Ultimate Reality.  
Mantra -9 - AUM syllable  
 jāgarita -sthāno vaiśvānaro’kāra ḥ pratham ā 
mātrā’pter ādimattvād vā’pnoti ha vai  
sarvān kāmān ādiś ca bhavati ya eva ṁ veda.  
The word Om represents the Atman . So the  matras  of Om represent the different 
conditions in which the Atman manifests itself .  Matra  “A” (Akaara ) represents the 
first condition. – Vaisvanara.  Just like “A” pervades in all letters of alphabets so 
also Vaisvanara  pervades all things in the Universe. Just as “A” is the first letter 
in AUM , so also Vaisvanara  is the first condition of  Atman . The waking state is 
the first of the three states. He who knows it has all his desires fulfilled .

109 Mantra -10 
 svapna -sthānas taijasa ukāro dvitīyā  
mātrotkar ṣāt ubhayatvādvotkar ṣati ha vai  
jñāna-saṁtatiṁ sam ānaś ca  bhavati  
nāsyābrahma -vit-kule bhavati ya evam veda.  
Now, the  Upanishad proceeds further to a comparison of the second syllable of 
Omkara , namely 'U', wi th the second phase of the manifested Atman , namely, 
Taijasa. Ukara  is the second syllable of Om, which can be compared with the 
second Pada  or foot of the Atman.  The Ukara  is regarded as Utkarsha  or 
elevated in the sense that it is beyond Akara,  and comes  after Akara. We can 
compare, in meditation, Ukara with Taijasa , the dreaming consciousness. Just as 
“U” is in between waking and sound sleep, Taijasa  is also in between Visva and 
Prajna. He who knows this attains supreme knowledge. He is treated equally b y 
all. Anyone ignorant of Brahman is not born in his family.  
Mantra -11 
 suṣupta -sthāna ḥ prājño mak āras t ṛtīya mātrā    
miter apīter vā minoti ha vā ida ṁ 
sarvam apītiś ca bhavati ya eva ṁ veda.   
The Upanishad, then, proceeds with the comparison between  Makar a and the 
deep sleep state of consciousness. Makara  is the third Matra  of Om, and it is 
comparable with Prajna,  the third state, causal, of the Atman. Visva  and Taijasa 
are, as it were, measured by Prajna in Pralaya  (involution) and Utpatti  
(evol ution). Visva and Taijas a sink in Prajna  during sleep and emerge out of him 
afterwards. This is symbolically represented as being measured by Prajna . When 
the syllable Om is repeated continuously, the letters “A” and “U” appear to merge 
themselves in “M” and emerge out of it again Prajna  is identified with the letter 
“M”. He who knows this will be able to measure all. He will be able to know the 
real nature of this world. He will be able to comprehend all within himself.  
Mantra -12 
 amātraś caturtho’vyavahārya ḥ prap añcopa śama ḥ sivo’dvaita  
evam au ṁkāra ātmaiva, sa ṁviśaty ātmanā’tmāna ṁ ya evaṁ  
veda ya eva ṁ veda.  
That which has no parts is called Amatra. Omkara  is Amatra.  It is the fourth 
quarter. It is pure Atman.  The benefit derived from realising the Atman – is tha t

110 he attains immortality. He is not born again.  Visva  merges in Taijasa, Taijasa  in 
Prajna  and Prajna  dissolves itself in Turiya Atman – Brahman.  
This concludes the Mandukya Upanishad.  
Taittiriya Upanishad   
This Upanishad  is very popular, chiefly, owing to  the fact that it is still chanted 
during Hindu religious ceremonies with proper swarams  and intonations in all 
parts of India. In addition, it speaks of the rules of conduct beginning from 
student life to the fourth Ashrama – Sanyasa life revealing the de pth of 
significance at each stage. It is divided into three parts according to Sri 
Shankara .  They are:  
The special feature of the second chapter , Brahmananda -Valli is that it proclaims 
that Brahman is Anandamaya  or Supreme Bliss. This chapter is the most 
impo rtant among the three inasmuch as it deals directly with Brahmajnanam  
which is the sole purpose of the Upanishad.   
The special feature of the third chapter, Bhrigu -Valli is the mention of the five 
sheaths, Koshas, of the Atman.  The concept is mentioned  in other  Upanishads 
like Brihadaranyaka  and Chandogya . However, Taittiriya  handles it much more 
explicitly. The Vedantic doctrine of the three bodies (causal, subtle and gross) 
and the five sheaths or  Koshas  is directly based upon utterances in this 
Upan ishad.  It gives the most beautiful idea of leading the mind from the gross to 
the subtle and then to the subtler till the subtlest of all, the  Atman .

111  
 
Taittiriya 
Upan ishad  
Shiksha -valli Brahmananda -valli Bhrugu -valli 
The Guru gives clear instructions  
to aspirants on character building . He 
teaches the rules of right conduct / living 
to prepare them for the attainment of 
Brahma Jnana.  Each Valli (chapter) is 
divided into Anuvakas or sections. Each  
Anuvaka  contains one or more mantras.  
This Valli has 12 Anuvakas .  It has 29 
mantras . Deals with the bliss of 
Brahman. The order of 
creation is described in this 
Valli.  
It has 9  Anuvakas  and 9 
mantras  This section gives 
descri ption of the Five 
Koshas  or sheaths.  
It has 10 A nuvakas  and 14 
mantras.

112 Shiksha -Valli 
1.Sections 1 and 12 contain peace chants. The utterance of t hese chants 
propitiates the Devatas  (Gods). The spiritual paths are rendered smooth 
through their grace. All obstacles will be removed. You will have a good 
health and a good meditation  
2.Section ( Anuvaka ) -2: Though the meaning of the text of the Upanis had is 
important, correct pronunciation of the mantras  is critical. The power of the 
mantra  lies in the sound and not in the text. Incorrect pronunciations rob the 
efficacy of the mantra  and in the worst case may lead to disastrous 
cons equences. For this r eason, in the early days, learning Sanskrit is not 
merely reading books but chanting it under the guidance of an experienced 
Guru.  
3.Section ( Anuvaka ) -3:It teaches on how to meditate on the combination of 
words. The word Samhita  refers to conjunction of  two word or letters of the 
Vedic  texts. While reciting Vedic  chants, the students get deeply involved in 
reciting and they find it difficult to direct their mind on the meaning of the 
texts that they are reciting. In order to draw the mind from the sound to the 
text, the mind is made to meditate over some symbolic significance given to 
the letters.  
4.Section ( Anuvaka ) -4: It consists of mantras  and rituals to be done by those 
who aspire for Divine knowledge and wealth. It starts with an invocation by 
the disciple praying for knowledge and worldly possessions. The prayer is 
addressed to  “Pranava”  (Om) the sound symbol of the Supreme Brahman.  
The Anuvaka also contains a prayer by the teacher – “As water flows from 
high to low, as months join to become a yea r, let good disciples come to me 
from everywhere”. All the different mantras and sacred texts are considered 
as different branches (i.e.) expressions of the Divine Om. Since no great 
merit can be acquired without self -purification, the utterance of the sac red 
Pranava is recommended to purify the mind from all sins.  
5.Section ( Anuvaka ) -5:In this section the Upanishad teaches the secret of 
meditation on Brahman in the shape of Vyahritis.  One can obtain Self -
realisation by meditating on the Vyahritis.   The w ords “Bhuh”, “Bhuvah”, 
“Suvah”, “Mahah”, “Janah”, “Tapah ” and “ Satyam”  are called  even Vyahritis 
or “Sapta Vyahritis”.    Besides the three Vyahritis “Bhuh”, “Bhuvah”, “Suvah”, 
there is a fourth Vyahriti names “Mahah” . This was discovered by 
Mahachamasya. The Vyahriti “Mahah ” is Brahman and it pervades all the 
other Vyahritis.  Among the worlds, heaven etc, are only the limbs of Mahah. 
The Vyahriti Mahah  should be meditated upon as Brahman . The four 
Vyahritis  should be meditated upon in four different ways. Therefore, there 
are in all four times four i.e., sixteen aspects of Vyahritis .  This kind of

113 symbolic med itation of the Pranava (Shabda Brahman ) is known as Pratika 
Upasana.  
6.Section ( Anuvaka ) -6:  The details of meditation are given in this 6th 
Anuvaka  – the nature of entity to be meditated, path by which Brahman can 
be attained, fruits of meditation and the way to meditate are explained.  
 In the 5th Anuvaka, the object to be meditated upon is a symbol – the 
Vyahriti.  In the 6th Anuvaka the object of m editation is Brahman.  Brahman  
pervades the whole body. It is difficult for beginners to concentrate and 
meditate on this all -pervading body. So the  Rishis  have prescribed the cavity 
of the heart as His seat. . This will make the job of meditating on the 
Brahman easier for the beginners. Heart is also a vital centre for the human 
being. Hence it is regarded as the most suitable  location for meditation on 
the Brahman . The heart is like a lotus with its head bent downwards. Here 
resides the Pursha (Brahman).   
The Upanishad  then goes on to describe how a Yogi leaves his body at the 
time of his death. A very important Nadi known as Sushumna Nadi  opens out 
above the heart. The Nadi is the path to reach Indra , the lower Brahman.  It is 
the way for the realisation of Brahman.  The Yogi enters the Sushumna Nadi  
with the help of Udana Vayu  and leaves the body opening the skull. He then 
becomes one with the Hiranyagarbha.   
The nature of Atman  is always described in our scriptures as of golden 
effulgence, electric bril liance etc. This is done to import the idea that physical 
objects are perceived with the help of physical lights. In the same way, all 
perception becomes possible through the light of the Atman.  Besides, it 
becomes very helpful for Sadhaks  to contemplate u pon the Atman  as a flame 
of light located in the inner region of the heart. Meditate upon Brahman  as 
posses sing the qualities described above. This is the instruction of the 
spiritual pr eceptor, Mahachamasya  
7.Section ( Anuvaka ) -7: The main objective of t he Upanishad  is to teach the 
highest truth that everything is Brahman . To make it easier, the aspirant is 
taken step by step towards this truth. In this Anuvaka, meditation is taught 
through a symbol of Panktas  or fivefold sets of objects. These fivefold s ets 
are found both within the body and the outside world. The two should be 
contemplated as identical with each other. Together they constitute the 
Universe which is a manifestation of Brahman.

114  
 
8. Section ( Anuvaka ) -8:  
This teaches meditation for superior students through the symbol AUM . 
Earlier we have seen meditation on Brahman  through Vyahriti utterances. 
It was followed by meditation on Brahman  via Panktas . Now the 
Upan ishad talks about meditation meant for the highest class of aspirants. 
You s hould meditate on the syllable AUM as being Brahman.  AUM  is a 
mere sound. And as such it is insentient in itself and cannot be conscious 
of the worship offered. Yet as in the case of worship offered to an idol, the 
Lord is aware of the action of the worshi pper. He will dispense the fruits to 
the Sadhak.   
9.  Section ( Anuvaka ) -9:  
In this Anuvaka , the Shruti  emphasises that the study of the Vedas must 
be combined with the practice of prescribed duties in the form Nitya and 
Naimittika Karmas.  A great emphasi s is laid upon the study and also on 
the teaching of Vedas.  He must be righteous and truthful. He should 
control his senses and worship the Lord. He should perform Agnihotra and 
honour guests. He should perform social duties.  Adhibhuta   
Objects that are 
external and  gross. 
Prana  
(1) Prana (2) Vyana (3) Apana 
(4) Udana (5) samana.  Loka pankta  
(1) Earth, (2) Sky, (3) Heaven, 
(4) Primary quarter, (5)  
Interm ediate quarters . 
Devatas (1) Fire, (2) Air, (3) Sun, 
(4)Moon , (5)Stars  
Bhutas (1) Waters, (2) Herbs, (3) 
Forest trees , (4)Space, (5)Atman  Senses (1) Eyes, (2) Ears, (3) 
Mind, (4) Speech, (5) Touch  
Dhatu (1) Skin, (2) Flesh, (3) 
Muscle (4) Bone, (5) Marrow  Adhyatma  
internal and subtle  Panktas (Sets of Fives)

115 10.Section ( Anuvaka ) -10:   After ensuring that the details regarding right 
thinking and right actions as per the details given in the previous Anuvaka  
have been strictly followed, divine visions and intuitive knowledge of the 
truth which leads to Moksha  occur to him. By now the Sadha k is free from 
desires.  The Anuvaka  contains a statement by an enlightened sage, 
Trisanku,  describing his spiritual experiences. The Rishi  has seen in his 
divine vision the Mantra  which describes his spiritual experiences.  The 
recitation of this Mantra  leads to purity and spiritual progress. The aspirant 
should repeat this mantra  with faith and devotion.  
11. Section ( Anuvaka ) -11:  In this Anuvaka, the Guru gives the final 
instru ctions to the students who have completed their study under the 
preceptor. T he Guru exhorts the disciple: Speak the truth. Do your duty. 
Never swerve from the study of the Vedas. Do not cut off the thread of the 
offspring. After completing the studies, the students return home to 
embrace the householder’s life – which is the prope r place for the 
discharge of worldly duties.  
12. Section ( Anuvaka ) -12: The twelfth section contains a peace chant at the 
end of Shiksha -Valli 
Brahmananda -valli 
This second chapter, Brahmananda -valli, provides us with the essence of the 
entire Taittiriya Upanishad.  
In the first chapter, Shiksha -valli, the students were initiated into different 
methods of concentration in the pursuit of Brahma Vidya . In this second 
chapter, the teacher leads them into the process of Self -Discovery. As the 
nucleus of such d iscovery is the individual seeker himself, the different layers 
surrounding this core in the form of concentric circles are analyzed and laid 
open with a view to make the seeker aware of his innermost real identity or in 
other words to make him recognize his own personality.  
For the purpose of this scientific analysis, the Upanishad  for the first time in 
the Vedanta literature considers the individual as an entity consisting of five 
different sheaths of matter, each covering the other with varying degrees  of 
grossness, the outermost being the grossest. This theory in technical 
language is known as Pancha Kosha or five sheaths. Before we take up the 
mantras  proper a bird’s eye view of the Pancha Kosha  analysis is presented 
below to make the subject easier t o follow.  
The personality of a complete man comprises of five layers which are referred 
to in Vedanta  as Pancha Kosha . ‘Kosha' means a covering or sheath. Pancha 
Kosha means the Five Sheaths. The scabbard of the sword covers the sword. 
It is of the same s hape as the sword. It indicates the presence of the sword, 
even though it covers the sword from one's sight. The scabbard is always

116 different from the sword and does not affect the sword in any way. Similarly 
the Soul or the Self is covered by the five she aths. Hence the Self or the Soul 
is generally referred to as the In -dweller.  
The chapter starts with a peace chant. This prayer is for a mutual good feeling 
between the preceptor and the disciple.  
1.Section ( Anuvaka ) -1: This section starts with the decl aration that “the 
knower of the Brahman attains the Supreme” ( brahmavit apnoti param”).  In 
reference to that is the following hymn repeated: Satyam, Jnanam, Anantam 
Brahma. Brahman  is Truth, Knowledge and Infinity. This sentence defines the 
nature of the Brahman  and also exhausts the definition of Brahman.  It is to be 
noted that these adjuncts are defining the Brahman  and not qualifying Him. 
The qualifying adjuncts serve to distinguish the object from all others of the 
same species. On the other hand, the d efining adjuncts aim to distinguish the 
thing from all else in the whole world.  
Also, these three words are not connected with each other but are 
indepen dent of each other. That is – Satyam  is Brahman , Jnanam  is Brahman  
and Anantam  is Brahman . Satyam refe rs to Him as changeless. In contrast 
changing forms are referred to as Vikara . The word Jnana  refers to 
knowledge or abs olute consciousness. By Infinite is meant – where one sees 
nothing else and knows nothing else.  
In reference to the individual being, th is Pure consciousness is called 
“Praty agatman”,  the inner soul. Again in reference to the Universe, it is called 
Brahman or Paramatman .  From the Brahman was born Akasa.  Akasa is that 
thing which has sound as its attribute and affords space for all objects  that 
have a form. From that Akasa  comes into being Vayu – the air – with two 
properties (a) the property of touch which is its own (b) the property of sound 
belonging to Akasa . From Vayu,  the air, is born fire having three attributes 
comprising of two pre ceding attributes of sound and touch and the attribute of 
“colour or form” which is its own. From Fire came water which has four 
attributes – taste which is its own and the three preceding attributes of sound, 
touch and form. From water came Earth with fiv e attributes – smell which is its 
own together with four preceding ones of taste, sound, touch and form.

117 Bhuta - Guna  Matrix is given below : 
  
  Herbs, plants and vegetables came from Earth; food from the herbs.  
 
It is true that all creatures without exception are modifications of Food. And a ll 
of them are descended from Brahman.  Yet, human beings among them are 
an exception from other creatures. Why?  (1) Human being alone are qualified 
and entitled to perform Karma  and acquire knowledge (2) He alone is 
comp etent to follow scriptural teaching s. (3) He alone seeks God (4) He is 
endowed with intelligence, reason, judgement and discrimination (5) He 
thinks, reasons, reflects and meditates. (6) He knows what is good and what 
is evil; what is right and what is wrong (7) Man alone wishes to attain t he 
innermost Brahman  by knowledge (8) By meditating upon  Koshas one after 
another, he realises their true nature. (9) The Shruti tries to lead the aspirant 
from the grossest a spect (the body) to subtler and subtler aspects until he can 
grasp the subtlest – the innermost Atman.  
For the purpose of analysis the Shruti considers the individual as an entity 
consisting of five different sheaths, each covering the other with varying 
degree of grossness, the outermost being the grossest. Technically, these are 
referred to as Pancha Koshas.   
2. Section ( Anuvaka ) -2: All creatures born on Earth are products of food. 
After they are born they live and grow by food. At the end they are dissolved 
or absorbed in food. This is the cycle. For this reason food is called  
“Jyeshtam ”- the first cause of all living beings. Food is also referred to as  
“sarva aushadham” – a cure for everything. If a person worships on all food as 
Atman  he will obtain all food. The exposition of the first of the “Koshas”,  the 
Annamaya Kosha  is comp leted.  The Shruti  proceeds to show that the 
individual soul is identical with Brahman  who is within and beyond the five 
sheaths starting from Annamaya  Kosha  (food -sheath) down to Anandamaya  
Kosha  (bliss -sheath). These sheaths are different layers of our p ersonality.  GUNA  
B 
H 
U 
T 
A Akasa  Sound      
Vayu  Sound  Touch     
Agni  Sound  Touch  Form    
Apah  Sound  Touch  Form  Taste   
Prthvi  Sound  Touch  Form  Taste  Smell

118 When we are at the gross level we are happy with material things; when we 
are at the mental level we become thoughtful and imaginative; when we are at 
the intellectual level we enjoy intellectual pursuits. For all these we need some 
external su pport. But when we are at the level of bliss, there is nothing but 
bliss. Nothing supports that bliss. We are completely absorbed within 
ourselves. We are not aware that we have a body or mind or intellect.  
The Annamaya Kosha  is also referred to as Sthula Shareera . The body is 
called  Annarasa , the essence of food, because it is the personification of what 
we eat and which gets transformed into muscles, bones etc.  
Within the Sthula Shareera, gross body, is the Sookshma Shareera , the 
subtle body. It consists  of several layers. After discussing about Annamaya 
Kosha, the Shruti proceeds to explain the nature of Prana  and the Pranamaya 
Kosha.  Just as in the previous case, Pranamaya Kosha is also falsely 
identified with the Atman.  The Pranamaya Kosha is more subt le than the  
Annamaya . The vital forces of the Pranamaya Kosha perform the different 
functions of the body – digestion, circulation of blood, excretion etc. The 
whole physical body is pervaded by the Pranamaya Kosha. Discussions about 
Koshas  appear elsewher e in this book.  
3. Section ( Anuvaka ) -3: Whether they are human beings or animals, the 
organs follow Prana,  the vital breath, which enables the organs to perform 
their respective functions. Inside the Pranamaya Kosha  there is Manomaya 
Kosha.  Manomaya Kos ha is made up of Vrittis or Sankalpas ( thoughts). It is 
subtler than the Pranamaya Kosha . It controls the Pranamaya Kosha .  
4. Section ( Anuvaka ) -4: Inside the Manomaya Kosha  there is Vijnanamaya 
Kosha. Vijnanamaya is the determinative knowledge. The dete rminative 
knowledge is an attribute of the intellect. It is the determinative faculty which 
guides the mind and enables it to come to the right conclusion. When the 
mind is in doubt, Vijnanamaya comes to the aid and helps in determining on 
what should be d one. While Manomaya is composed of Vrittis , or states of 
mind, Vijnanamaya  is the owner of the states of mind. It is an agent of all 
thoughts.

119 5. Section ( Anuvaka ) -5: Inside the Vijnanamaya Kosha  there is 
Anandamaya Kosha .. This Kosha  is made up of lat ent impressions of love 
and other forms of happiness. The Anandamaya  is the seed body or causal 
body (Karana Shareera ) This body functions during deep sleep. It is the 
Anandamaya self who feels “I am happy”, “I am the doer”. When the mind is 
purified by au sterity, knowledge, pious and devotion it becomes free from 
“Tamas”.. The joy manifests itself in a higher and higher degree in the mind 
and is rendered purified and clear.  
A description of the five sheaths has been given in order to make us realise 
that the Supreme Brahman is beyond the Five sheaths. He lies within the five 
sheaths and is also the Self of them all.  
Manas  (mind) and intellect ( Buddhi ) are products of Jnana Shakti . There is 
Iccha Shakti  also in the mind. A desire arises in the mind due to Ichha Shakti.  
Through Jnana Shakti  man gets the knowledge on how to possess the 
desired object. Through Kriya Shakti  man exerts and possesses the object.  
The Annamaya Kosha  constitutes the gross physical body ( Sthula Shareera ). 
It operates during the wakin g state. The Pranamaya, Manomaya  and the 
Vijnanamaya  constitute the subtle or astral body. This operates during the 
dreaming state. Anandamaya Kosha  constitutes the causal body ( Karana 
Shareera ). It operates during the state of deep sleep. During deep slee p the Brahman  
Maya  
Illusory power made up of  
3 Gu nas 
Sattva Guna  
(Purity)  Rajas Guna  
(Passion)  Tamas Guna  
(Darkness)  
Annamaya Kosha  
(Inertness)  Pranamaya Kosha  
(Power of action)  Manomaya Kosha  
 
Vijnanamayamaya 
Kosha  
 Anandamaya Kosha

120 thin veil of Anandamaya Kosha  separates the individual soul from the 
Supreme soul, Brahman . 
6. Section ( Anuvaka ) -6: After discussing the sheaths surrounding the 
indweller, the Upanishad now takes up a dialog about the indweller Himself. 
The sectio n starts with handling the doubt regarding the existence or non -
existence of Brahman.  The Upanishad goes in great detail regarding the 
origin of creation . If somebody has no faith in the existence of Brahman then 
he leads a sensuous life. He is vicious. He  has no right conduct. This world is 
everything for him. He identifies himself with the physical body and other 
Koshas thus mistaking them for real Self. He gets caught in the abyss of 
ignorance. He goes through the endless cycle of Samsara  (births and dea ths). 
The doubt regarding the existence of Brahman arises, primarily, due to the 
reason that Brahman  is beyond the sensuous experience. So the argument 
goes that what is not seen does not exist. This argument is un -tenable -
because the  Shruti  declares that  Akasa  and everything else in the creation 
have been born out of  Brahman . It is common experience in the world that a 
thing exists if something else is born from it. If the objects in this world are 
products of nothing, then they could not be perceived by the senses. But we 
are able to perceive all the objects of creation. It stands to reason to say that 
Brahman  exists.  
The Upanishad  says that before creation, Brahman  brooded over the matter 
and made Tapas . He thought about the arrangement of the world to b e 
created. He created this universe with space, time, names and forms, wherein 
all beings enjoy according to the nature of their Karmas . He then entered the 
names and forms and became many as the seer, hearer and thinker. The 
Shruti  denotes the Brahman  as not only the efficient cause of creation but 
also the material cause for it. This combination of two different kinds of 
causes in one Being is poetically described that having created the Universe, 
He entered into it. The Shruti  also reveals in a wonderfu l way the truth about 
Reality . The crucial test of the Real is our abiding consciousness of it – that 
which appears as existent in our consciousness for all time and is not negated 
by any another experience is Real. The Universe appears so real to us. If t hat 
be so, then how much more real must the cause from whom it has derived its 
Reality.  
7. Section ( Anuvaka ) -7: - After the dissolution (Pralaya ), everything was in 
an undifferentiated and un -manifested state of existence. Brahman  
transmuted Himself int o visible or manifested Universe by His own inherent 
power without any extraneous assistance. Brahman  is both the material and 
efficient cause of the universe. For this reason Brahman is called “ Sukrita” - 
meaning self made. This Brahma n is bliss itself.  A ll sensual pleasures are 
only refle ctions of that supreme bliss of Brahman . In addition, all physical 
actions in this world are made possible only because of Brahman.  Therefore,

121 the seeker must believe that the Lord does exist and provide joy for everyone.  
The Shruti goes on to give a number of reasons for us to believe in the 
existence of Brahman.   
8.  Section ( Anuvaka ) -8: Vayu  (wind), Agni (fire), I ndra (Lord of the Devas ) 
are Yama (Lord of death) are all lords by themselves.  They preside over 
differen t functions of the Universe. They regularly perform their functions 
accor ding to certain laws. The regular discharge of their functions is possible 
only if there is a controller. Therefore, Brahman, their cause and controller 
exists. Their existence is ent irely dependent on Him. They discharge their 
duties, as if they are afraid of Him.  
The Devas  are thirty three in number. They are the receivers of oblations 
offered while performing the sacrificial rites. They are: - (a) Vasus -8; (b) 
Rudras -11 (c)  Aditya s -12 (d) Indra  (e) Prajapati.  The Shruti  tells that – the 
Being who is the Innermost Self, Atman,  of the man is the same as the One 
who gives energy and light to the Sun. He is also the same as the One in all 
the Devas.  Becoming one with Brahman  is the go al of life. Knowledge is the 
means for attaining this end . Moksha  is eternal and it cannot be obtained by 
rituals.  
9. Section ( Anuvaka ) -9 - This verse gives a summary of the whole teaching 
contained in Brahmananda valli.   Brahman  is beyond the scope of speech and 
thought.  The speech has the power of describing only those objects of this 
world that are conditioned by name and form.  
Similarly, the mind has the power of knowing only those objects which have a 
name and form. But Brahman has no name or form . As such He is 
indescri bable and incomprehensible. He who knows the invisible, unqualified, 
un-nameable Brahman, which is sinless, which is free from desires, which is 
free from the relation of enjoyer and enjoyment , which is eternal is not afraid 
of any thing. The cause of fear, created by ignorance, has disappeared.  
The knower of Brahman is not affected by such thoughts as – “why have I not 
done what is good”, “why have I done evil actions?. This is because he 
understands that good and bad are but diffe rent manifestations of the same 
Atman. Dharma and Adharma are different aspects of the same Brahman.  
This ends Brahmananda Valli.

122 Bhrigu -Valli 
Bhrigu Valli of the Taittiriya Upanishad explains the knowledge of Brahman  
through a dialogue between a teacher and a student.  
1. Section ( Anuvaka ) -1 - Bhrigu approaches his father and teacher Varuna  
to seek knowledge of Brahman.  Varuna tells his son that Eye, ear, mind and 
speech help perception. These are the gates to the perception of Brahman . 
They are the gat es to the magnificent city of Brahman (Brahmapuri). You 
have to enter into the city of Brahman through these gates.  Varuna  then 
proceeds to give a description of Brahman.  “Brahman is that from whom all 
living beings are born; by Him when born they live; at  the time of dissolution 
(Maha pralaya ) they enter into Him”. The teaching given by Varuna  to his son 
is incomplete. Of all aids to the attainment of Brahman , penance is a pre -
eminent aid. So Sage Bhrigu  performed penance. The  Smriti  says “one -
pointedness of mind and the sense organs is indeed the highest penance”.  
2. Section ( Anuvaka ) -2 - Bhrigu  came to know that food is Brahman , 
because all the creatures are from food, they live by food and while departing 
they enter food.  Food is the material cause of the Food -sheath – Annamaya 
Kosha  ( i.e) physical body. So Bhrigu  concluded that food is Brahman  
because it has distinctive marks of Brahman . He was not happy with this 
result of his investigation. He approached his father for further enlightenment. 
Once ag ain his father recommends Penance as the means to realise 
Brahman.  
3. Section ( Anuvaka ) -3 - Bhrigu reflected over the matter for a second time 
and did penance. He came to the conclusion that Prana  or life is Brahman.  
Life is the cause of birth of physica l body. It is also the cause for its 
sustenance. When Prana  departs from the body, death takes place. Prana  
only e nergises the body. It is only through Prana  that the mind and senses 
function. As Prana  is the efficient cause of birth, sustenance and death of 
body – surely life must be Brahman . Yet, Bhrigu  was unhappy with this 
conclusion. The re asons are (a) Prana  is non -intelligent ( Jada ). (b) It has a 
beginning and an end. It cannot be Brahman . He returned to his father.  
4. Section ( Anuvaka ) -4 - His fat her once again advised Bhrigu  to do 
penance. And Bhrigu  did. He thought that mind is more subtle than the 
physical body and Prana . It is intelligent also. Thought only leads to action 
and su stains life. Through thought only man reincarnates and takes bodie s. 
The e ntrance of Prana  into the womb is dependent on mind only (by an act of 
mind only man comes into this body ( Prasna Upanishad ). Death takes place 
when the man gives up by thought all attachment to the body. So mind is the 
cause for the birth, sustena nce and death. Therefore Mind must be Brahman . 
Yet, Bhrigu  was not satisfied. Mind has a beginning and an end. It has no self -

123 luminosity. So how can it be Brahman ? Once again Bhrigu  returned to his 
father for further enlightenment.  
5. Section ( Anuvaka ) -5 - Bhrigu  reflected over the matter for the fourth time. 
Vijnana  or Knowledge is subtler than the mind. Knowledge accomplishes 
sacrifice. It is the cause for the birth of the body through its acts. It controls 
and directs the mind, the senses and the body  and propels them into action. It 
also acts as cause for the sustenance of the body. It causes dissolution by 
enga ging in battle and brings about death. Knowledge takes the subtle body 
after death to other regions and brings it back again to this earth. Kn owledge 
appears to answer the requirements of Brahman  and hence it must be 
Brahman . Once again Bhrigu  was uneasy with the conclusion. Knowledge is 
the agent of all actions of the Jiva and also the enjoyer of the fruits of actions. 
It is ass ociated with pai n. It is not pure. It is not free from the conditions of life 
– sorrows, miseries, troubles etc. Akasa and other elements cannot be 
produced by knowledge. Therefore knowledge cannot be Brahman .  Bhrigu 
returned to his father. He was asked to do more penanc e 
6. Section ( Anuvaka ) -6 - This time Bhrigu  understood that Bliss is Brahman . 
From Bliss all beings are born. They live by Bliss. While departing they enter 
Bliss. This is the knowledge learnt by Bhrigu . His father, Varuna , slowly led 
him to these conclu sions.  
7-10 Sections ( Anuvaka ) -7 to 10   -  These later sections of this chapter 
include contemplation of Brahman through the symbol of food. Food is 
glorified as food is the basis for any living being. The Shruti says – do not 
speak ill of food. Do not abandon food. Accumulate plenty of food for the 
distribution to travellers. Do not turn away anybody who seeks shelter.  
Brahman should be meditated upon as being satisfaction in rain ; as power in 
the lightning; as fame in the cattle; all things that exis t in Akasa should be 
contemplated as Brahman.  
 Aitareya Upanishad   
The Aitareya Upanishad  forms part of the Aitareya Aranyaka  of the Rig Veda.  
It is divided into six sections or Khandas (when peace chant is counted as a 
Khanda ). With such counting, the Up anishad came to be referred to as 
“Atmashatka”.  This refers to six sectioned dissertation on the Atman. The 
Upan ishad derived its name from its author “ Mahidas Aitareya ”. In a symbolic 
language, the Upanishad”, describes the creation of the Universe. In es sence 
the Upanishad says – 
Atman is the only Reality  
Treats evolution through hunger and thirst, of food, of the  entrance  of 
the Self into the body  
It deals with the conception and the three births of man

124 One is released from the cycle of birth and death  through  knowledge of 
Brahman  
Atman and not Prana is the only cause of everything  
Whole Universe is a manifestation of Brahman  
Individual soul is identical to the Supreme soul  
 
The Shruti indicates that it is very difficult to practice Brahma Vidya  withou t 
absolute renunciation. Sri Adi Shankara  agrees that sanyasa  is necessary for 
attaining self -realisation.  
Part -1; Chapter -1 
The first section describes creation. It uses the word “ Brahman” for Universal 
consciousness and “Atman”  for individual conscious ness.  
In the beginning, before creation started, there was nothing save Atman.  The 
Universe was one with the Atman – it was in an un -manifested or “Avyakta”  
state It had no manifested difference of name and form. Then, Atman 
,omniscient by nature, thought  I shall create. The purpose of creation is for the 
enjoyment of the results of Karma by living beings. At this stage, it may be 
appropriate to explain some of the terms that we normally come across.  
Take the example of a craftsman, potter, making pots. To  do his job, the 
potter requires three things.  
1.Raw material clay is needed by the potter. This is called the material 
cause . 
2. Instrument needed to shape the raw material – potter’s wheel. This 
called instrumental  cause.  
3.Intelligence needed to make the po t. Here it is the potter. He is referred 
to as the efficient cause.  
 
There is nothing outside of Brahman. He is everything. As such He has no 
material to build the worlds. He is omniscient and omnipotent. He becomes 
both the material and efficient cause i n building the Universe. The mighty 
juggler creates Himself as other than Himself in the form of Universe. As 
such, creation is interpreted as a developmental course rather than bringing 
into b eing something not hitherto existent. In other words, there is no such 
thing as creation. It is only a projection of what lies in a potential state 
(Avyakta , as stated early). At the end of the previous cycle (at the point of 
dissolution) the totality of beings at that time remains in the form of vasanas . 
At the start  of the new cycle, these vasanas  are projected by the Supreme 
Being according to the quality of their actions (karma ). The point to be noted 
is that although “creation” is the will of Brahman , the end result is not based 
on His whims and fancies but by the  nature of the past actions of the created

125 beings.  
He created the five rudimentary elements ( Pancha Mahabhutas ). He then 
created four fields for the functioning of this Universe. These are identified in 
the Upanishad.  
1.Ambaha  – it is the world that contain s water that supports life. It is above 
the heavens  
2.Marichyaha  - the sky or the inter -space below known as Marichyaha . 
And it permeates various regions – because the Sun’s rays pervade it.  
3.Maram  – This is the Earth. It is called Maram  because all creature s die 
here.  
4.Apah  – The world of waters.  
He thus created the four worlds wherein all living beings could enjoy the fruits 
of their Karma.  Having done that, He wanted to create rulers for the protection 
of the worlds. Thus thinking, He lifted up “Purusha” f rom the waters and gave 
him a shape by joining appropriate limbs. He wanted to give this lump the 
shape of a man.  
A hole in the shape of a mouth manifested itself from that mass. From the 
mouth came out the organ of speech and from speech the fire – the 
controlling deity of the organ.  
Then the nostril separated out. F rom the nostrils, the organ of breath; from 
breath, air -the controlling deity of the organ.  
Then the eyes were separated out; from the eyes, the organ of sight; from 
sight, the sun - the contro lling deity of the organ.  
Then the ears were separated out; from the ears, the organ of hearing; from 
hearing, the quarters of space - the controlling deity of the organ.  
Then the skin was separated out; from the skin, hairs, the organ of touch; 
from the h airs, plants and trees, air -  the controlling deity of the organs.  
Then the heart was separated out; from the heart, the organ of the mind; from 
the mind, the Moon - the controlling deity of the organ.  
Then the navel was separated out; from the navel, the  organ of the Apana; 
from the Apana , Death, Varuna  - the controlling deity of the organ.  
Then the virile member was separated out; from the virile member, semen, 
the organ of generation; from the semen, the waters - the controlling deity of 
the organ.  
Part-1;  Chapter -2

126 When this part of creation was over, all the divinities, Agni and the rest, so 
created fell into the great ocean of Samsara, filled with waters of miseries 
resulting from ignorance, desire and Karma. The world (Samsara) is always 
compared to an ocean owing to the difficulties in crossing it. Then the 
Supreme Atman subjected them to hunger and thirst. The divinities said to 
their creator: “Give us an abode residing in which we may be able to enjoy our 
food”. The Supreme Being brought a cow a nd then a horse and the deities 
were not happy. Finally, the Supreme Being brought a human being. The 
deities were happy and entered the human being through his various organs.  
Fire becoming speech entered the mouth. Air becoming Prana (smell) entered 
the nostrils. Sun becoming sight entered the eyes. The deities of quarters 
becoming sound entered the ears. Herbs and trees becoming hair entered the 
skin. Moon becoming the mind entered the heart. Death becoming Apana 
entered the navel. Water becoming semen entered the regenerative organ. 
Hunger and thirst also sought an abode. They were made co -sharers with 
other deities.  
Man is the best of God’s creation. Man is endowed with higher intelligence, 
discrimination and reasoning. Animals do not have these attri butes. The 
human body alone is referred to as “Karmayatana”. Karmas  can be done by 
this body alone. All other bodies are “ Bhogyayatana”  – bodies intended for 
sensual enjoyments alone.  
Part-1; Chapter  -3 
Having created the worlds and the protectors, the Lo rd turned His attention to 
creating food for all of them. He brooded over the water, already created, and 
out of it was created the food. The water referred to here stands for the five 
elements. Different senses urged by hunger and thirst run after the foo d to 
catch it. In the end it was caught by the out -breath called Apana through the 
cavity of mouth.  Apana is one of the five forms of life -breaths . It regulates the 
digestive system.  
After finishing His tasks thus far, the Lord thought “How can all these live 
without me? Who am I? What is my nature? Whose ruler am I? If I do not 
enter the human body and be witness of the bodily and mental activities - then 
no one will know or care to know of My existence or My nature. He entered 
through a door or cleft call ed “Vidriti” . Ishvara enters the body as Jivatman 
and has three abodes corresponding to the three states – waking, dreaming 
and deep sleep. The Supreme Self dwells in each of these. The right eye is 
His dwelling place while we are awake; the mind is His dw elling place while 
we dream; the lotus of the heart is His dwelling place in the deep sleep state. 
Having born in the form as Jiva He realised the unison of elements with Him.

127 Therefore the Supreme Lord is called as “Idandra”  or directly as “Indra”.  In thi s 
mantra anything other than the Atman is denied.  
Part-2; Chapter -1 
Creation continues through procreation. In this section the creation of the 
human body is described. It is described as three births of the Jiva. The 
person is a germ in the semen which is the vigour drawn from all the limbs of 
the father. Thus the first conception of Jiva is in man, in the body of the father. 
He then deposits the semen in the womb of the mother. This is the first birth 
of the Jiva or man travelling in Samsara.   The seed becomes one and 
insepar able with the woman and does not cause any suffering to her. She 
carefully nourishes the embryo while taking care that she is properly 
nourished. She then nourishes the child after its birth. This is the second birth 
of the Jiva.  
The father nourishes the child just before and after the birth by performing 
such natal ceremonies as Jata Karma  etc. In fact, the father is nourishing his 
own self, since the father is born in the shape of the son. The religious 
Samskaras  which are performed  during pregnancy and after child birth 
enables them to tread the path of righteousness. Having discharged his duties 
the f ather gets old and departs from this world. After departing he is born 
again. This is his third birth.  
Thus procreation is done for t he continuation of the world, but not for 
obtaining emancipation. Man is caught in the wheel of births and deaths. On 
account of ignorance he is hurled in the ocean of Samsara . At some stage he 
realises, through strenuous struggle, the  Atman  as described i n the Shrutis 
and attains emancipation like Rishi Vamadeva . The  Rishi  attained self 
realis ation while he was in the womb of his mother. He came to know of the 
births of all gods like Agni, Vak  etc. This was due to his meditation in his 
previous births.  
Part-3; Chapter -1 
Seekers of Brahman long to get rid of their Jivabhavatva  – which is 
imperm anent and is subject to the cycle of birth and death. They long to 
obtain unive rsal selfhood “Sarvatmabhava”  with the help of Brahma 
Vidya. (science of self). They beg an to enquire: “Who is this Brahman?”. How 
shall we worship Him like Sage Vamadeva  did and obtained immortality?  
Here we have two Brahmans – (1) The individual soul (2) Universal soul. They 
are both the Atman of this body. But only one of them must be the Atman  fit to 
be worshipped or meditated upon. Then who is He that is to be meditated 
upon. Then a thought regarding the differentiation between the two arose. Out 
of these two one of them serves as an instrument of cognition. With the help

128 of various s enses it makes us perceive everything. This is not the real object 
for meditation. On the other hand, the Atman who stands behind all senses 
and the mind must be meditated upon. What is meant by this? The basic 
question is – who is it that cognises? The an swer is: By that which having 
become sight sees form; by that which having become hearing, hears sound; 
by that which having become sense of sound smells odours; by which having 
become organ of speech utters speech consisting of names such as cow, 
horse et c. having become sense of taste knows what is sweet and what is 
not.  
It is consciousness, mastery, knowledge of arts comprehension, retentive 
power of mind, perception, fortitude, reflection, independent power of thinking, 
distress of mind caused by disea ses etc, memory, volition, application, any 
pursuit for maintenance of life, desire – all these are indeed the names of 
Consciousness (Prajnanam). “ What is called Prana  is indeed Prajna  and what 
is called Prajna  is indeed Prana ”: Brahman is distinct from t he senses, sense -
perceptions, mind and the various  Vrittis  of the mind. It is the unchanging, self 
luminous, self -existence, constant witness of all mental modifications.  
He is Brahman.  He Is Indra. He is Prajapati.  He is all these Gods. He is the 
five gr eat elements. He is all that is born – egg born (oviparous; like birds), 
womb born (viviparous; like men), sweat born (like lice), sprout born, horses 
cows, elephants, men; whatever ever else that breaths, moves or flies and 
those which are immovable – all these are guided by wisdom and are 
supported by wisdom. In fact, the Universe has Wisdom for its guide. Wisdom 
is the basis or stay of all. Truly, Wisdom ( Prajnanam ) is Brahman.   
Atman who is of the nature of consciousness is the lower Brahman (Apara 
Brah man) and is referred to as Hiranyagarbha.  He is the cosmic  Prana  and is 
the life principle ( Kriya Shakti ) dwelling in all living bodies. He is described as 
Prana or Prajnanatma.  He is all these Gods - Prajapati,  the first born, who has 
a body and form from whom all protectors of the world are born. From 
Hiranyagarbha down to the smallest living creature, Brahman receives 
different names and forms under conditions of different bodies. When one 
attains knowledge of Brahman the appearances and plurality vanish.  
This ends the Aitareya Upanishad.  
Chandogya Upanishad  
 
Chandogya Upanishad  is one of the primary Upanishads . Together with the 
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad  it ranks among the oldest Upanishads . While 
Brihadaranyaka Upanishad  is the largest among the Upanish ads, Chandogya  
is the second largest.  It is associated with the Kauthuma Shakha  of the Sama 
Veda . It is part of the Chandogya Brahmana , which has ten chapters. The first

129 two chapters of this Brahmana  deal with sacrifices and other forms of worship. 
The re st of the eight constitute the Chandogya Upanishad.  
The name of this Upanishad  is derived from the word  Chanda  which refers to 
a poetic meter in which it is written. This long  Upanishad  is interspersed with 
many stories to illustrate its teachings. Just a s the Mandukya Upanishad  
focused on the meaning of Om, so also this Upanishad begins with an 
instru ction that one should meditate on OM, as a loud chant, the Udgitha.  
“The e ssence of all beings is the earth”, it continues, “the essence of the earth 
is water, the essence of water is plants, the essence of plants is a person, the 
essence of a person is speech, the essence of speech is the hymn of the Rig 
Veda , the essence of the hymn is the chant, and the essence of the chant is 
the Udgitha  which is Om. Speec h and breath are held together by Om.  
The importance of Chandogya Upanishad  is due to the fact that it directly 
deals with the true nature of Brahman,  the Supreme Self and its identity with 
the Individual Self. It is an ancient and authentic source on the fundamentals 
of Vedantic  philosophy. Sri Veda Vyasa and Sri Shankaracharya  make 
maximum references to Chandogya Upanishad  in their works. Of the 28 
Vidyas  we come across in  Upanishads , 17 are contained in Chandogya 
Upanishad . It gives an idea of the broad spectrum of its coverage.  
The diagram that follows clarifies the structure of the Upanishad.   
Though the Upanishad  mainly deals with of Non -duality, yet in it are described 
forms of Upasana  (meditation and worship) as the means for attaining good 
results – results almost as good as Liberation. These forms of Upasana  purify 
the inner sense organs and thereby become illuminative of the true nature of 
Reality. It becomes clear that for the realization of Brahman , the Savikalpaka  
form of meditation will be usef ul. For this reason the Upanishad sets forth right 
at the start detailing various forms of Upasana  of Brahman.  .In the first 
chapter of Chandogya, Upasanas  which form part of Sama Veda  are detailed. 
In the second, the ritual of Sama  is detailed. In the thi rd, the Upasana  of 
Surya  known as Madhu Vidya, Gayatri Upasana  and Shandilya Vidya  are all 
given. In the fourth, Samvarga Vidya  and the sixteen -phased Brahma Vidya  
are taught. In the fifth three more Vidyas – Prana, Panchagni  and Vaiswanara  
are elaborated.  
A brief summary what is contained in the Upanishad  is being covered here.

130  
 
 Chandogya Brahmana  
Chapters 1 &2 are Brahmanas  
Chapter -1: Chandogya Upanishad has  
13 Khandas (sub chapters)  
Chapter -2: Chandogya Upanishad has  
24 Khandas (sub chapters)  
Chapter -3: Chandogya Upanishad has  
19 Khandas (sub chapters)  
Chapter -4: Chandogya Upanishad  
17 Khandas (sub chapters)  
 Chapter -5: Chandogya U panishad  
24  Khandas (sub chapters)  
 
Chapter -6: Chandogya Upanishad  
16 Khandas (sub chapters)  
  
Chapter -7: Chandogya Upanishad  
26  Khandas (sub chapters)  
 
Chapter -8: Chandogya Upanishad  
16 Khandas (sub chapters)

131  
Chapter -1    
AUM Meditation  
The first chapter – beginning with the words ”One should meditate upon the 
syllable “OM”,  the Udgitha , has been devoted to the treatment of th e manner 
of meditation of the constituent factors of the “ Sama”  - which leads to various 
results. Towards the end, the  Upasana  of Stobha  syllables has been 
described.  
The first chapter of Chandogya Upanishad  contains thirteen khandas. In these 
thirteen kh andas, the Upanishad depicts the importance and greatness of the 
syllable “AUM”  
The first Khanda deals with the Upasana of Udgitha  – the syllable AUM. The 
Upanishad tells that syllable AUM  should be meditated upon. What is the 
reason? “ The essence of all beings is the Earth; the essence of earth is 
water; the essence of water is plants; the essence of plants is a person; the 
essence of a person is speech; the essence of speech is Rig Veda ; the 
essence of Rig Veda  is Sama Veda ; the essence of Sama Veda  is Udgitha  – 
which is AUM”.   
The 2nd Khanda  ordains that Udgitha  should be meditated as Prana.  It further 
goes on to tell a story to explain the holiness of Prana  and how it remains 
untouched by evil while all other senses get tainted by evil. In the 3rd Khand a 
it is stated that Udgitha should be meditated upon as Sun and Vyana . The 4th 
Khanda  reveals about meditation on AUM. It tells the story about how the 
Devas meditated upon Svara (AUM) and became immortal. The 5th Khanda 
tells that one who meditates on the  Sun and its rays and its rays as separate 
from each other or Prana and its functions as separate (such as speech) from 
each other would beget many children. In the sixth Khanda one more 
Upasana on Udgitha  for obtaining all -round health is indicated. In th e 7th 
Khanda  we are told that AUM should be meditated as Purusha.  Here the 
equality of AUM,  Purusha  (present in the right eye) and the Sun is indicated.  
The 8th khanda narrates the story of Pravahana.  Here, three wise men – 
Silaka son of Salavat, Chaikita yana  of the line of Dalbhy a and  Pravahana  the 
son of Jivala , all versed in the Udgitha,  discuss about Udgitha.  The syllable 
AUM is generally used to indicate assent. When a person assents to 
something, he would say OM (meaning yes). Now assenting to someth ing or 
giving permission to something is gratification. Thus a person meditating on 
AUM, indeed, becomes a gratifier. The 9th khanda is a continuation of the 8th 
with the wise men continuing their discussion on Udgitha.

132 The 10th khanda offers a clarificat ion on the merits derived when one performs 
the sacrifice knowing the meaning of the syllable AUM. When a person 
performs the sacrifice with full faith, knowing the true meaning of Udgitha he is 
rewarded with far greater benefits than one who goes about th e routine not 
knowing the meaning and the significance. In the 10th chapter we find the 
story of Ushasti,  son of Chakrayana,  reduced to a stage of abject poverty. He 
was forced to beg food from a keeper of elephants. The keeper offers him 
beans from out of  a bowl he was eating. However, Ushasti refuses to drink 
water offered by the elephant keeper. The significance is explained as follows. 
No demerit falls on a learned man, when, under trying conditions, he is forced 
commit a mean act e.g. eat unclean food.  However, the action will be judged 
faulty if it was performed while other alternatives (that are not mean) are 
available to save his life.  In khanda -11, the story of Ushasti continues and it 
is brought out that one ought to meditate upon the deities of Prastava, 
Udgitha  and Pratihara  (parts of Sama  sung by the priests in the Vedic rituals) 
in the shape of Breath, Sun and Food respectively. In khanda 12, Sun is 
meditated upon as the “Lord of Food”. khanda -13 describes the result of 
meditating upon the le tters of Stobha (which forms part of Sama)  
Chapter -2 
Meditation on Sama  
Chapter -1 deals with meditation on parts of Sama. In chapter -2, the Shruti  
discusses meditations on the full body of Sama  (that is,  Sama  with all its 
parts). This chapter has 24 khanda s. The full body consists of five parts. For 
this reason it is referred to as Pancha Vidha Sama.  One needs to meditate on 
the fivefold Saman as the five worlds. The five parts are –Earth is the syllable 
Him, Fire is Prastava;  Sky is Udgitha, the Sun is Pratihara, Heaven is 
Nidhana, -This is with reference to ascending regions. The meditation of whole 
Sama is good. The excellence which did not belong to that covered in 
chapter-1 is covered by this meditation of the whole Sama.  
From the 2nd to 7th khanda,  the Upanishad instructs that the Five -fold Sama  
be meditated upon with different references such as – Regions, Rain, water, 
seasons, animals and finally as sense organs.  
The 8th khanda  now talks about the Seven -fold organs of Sama.  Two more 
organs, in addition  to the existing five, are brought into light, namely – Adi and 
Upadrava.  The fruit of Upasana of the Seven fold Sama for the worshipper is 
that he will never face scarcity of food.   The 9th khanda talks about fruits of 
meditation of the Seven fold Sama vi ewing it in the movement of Sun in the 
sky.. The worshipper attains the form of the Sun.  In the 10th khanda, we read 
about Upasana of syllables of Seven -fold Sama (Sapta Vidha Sama 
Nama kshara (Upasana).

133 Chapters 11 to 21 describe how some Sama mantras ar e to be viewed.  
In the 23rd khanda, we are told that there are three branches of duty.  
(1)Sacrifice, Study and Charity.  
(2) Austerity  
(3) Student to spend his life in the house of his Guru. Any person who has 
fulfilled his duties as mentioned above obtains the world of the virtuous. 
However, fulfilling these duties or meditating on  Sama  alone does not 
fetch him Immortality. Immortality can only be achieved by firmly 
grounding himself on the Brahman.  
Prajapati  brooded on the worlds (performed meditation and penan ce). From 
them three -fold knowledge evolved. On further brooding, three syllables – 
Bhuh, Bhuvah , and Svah  issued. These are called Vyahrtis . He continued 
brooding on the Vyahrtis  and the syllable “Om” issued, which is Brahman . 
Just as all leaves are attac hed to the stalk all speech is attaché to the syllable 
“Om”.  
In the 24th khanda the Upanishad  explains that the morning oblation belongs 
to the Vasus ; the mid -day libation to the Rudras and the evening libation to 
the Adityas  and Visve -devas.  
Chapter -3.  
Meditation on the Sun and Shandilya Vidya  
This chapter has 19 khandas . Out of the 19, the first eleven khandas  deal with 
the Upasana of  the Vedas , the Sun, Vasus, Rudras, Maruts  etc. This is known 
by as Madhu Vidya.  The 11th khanda details the benefits of t he Vidya . The 
12th and 13th khandas  deal with Brahman  through Gayatri . The 14th khanda  
states about the Shandilya Vidya.  Shandilya  was a great Rishi and he had this 
revelation of the Supreme Being. This meditation begins with a proclamation 
of the  all-comprehensiveness of the Brahman -“Sarvam Kalvidam Brahma”  
“Sarvam khalvida ṁ brahma tajjalāniti śānta upāsīta | atha khalu 
kratumaya ḥ puru ṣo yathākraturasmipuru ṣo bhavati tatheta ḥ 
pretya bhavati sa kratu ṁ kurvīta - 3.14.1  
This is a very famous passage in the Upanishad.   We have to meditate that 
everything comes f rom That, everything is sustained in That and everything 
returns to That. Inasmuch as it is the cause of all things, every effect in the 
form of this creation is contained there. There is no separation between the 
cause and the effect. In other words, ther e is an undifferentiated relationship 
between the cause and the effect. This means we, as thinkers, are vitally 
connected with the Brahman  on whom we have to think. We can think on

134 something outside us and we can also think on the whole Universe which is 
outside us. But how can we think on something in which we are ourselves 
involved? The mind refuses to think when the meditator is part of that which is 
being meditated upon. There is no such thing as mind thinking itself.  
The individual is an embodiment of action performed through his will. And 
whatever we will, we become that. We have affirmed something very intensely 
in our previous life, and the reward of those affirmations is the present series 
of experiences we are going through. The corollary is – if we want to become 
the Absolute itself, we should spend our thoughts centred on Brahman.  The 
Upanishad  goes on to give some further details as to how we should conduct 
our meditation in our present life.  
The whole world is permeated by this Being. The Self o f this Being is as vast 
as space – askasatma;  all actions are its actions – sarvakarma (it is the 
fingers of God working through these phenomena of nature); anything you 
smell is an activity of That Being – sarvagandha ; all tastes are its activity – 
sarvarasah. This great Being is in one’s own heart and is as fine and subtle as 
one can conceive. It is subtler than the rice, grain, and mustard seed. At the 
same time it is as vast as the whole creation.  
Sandilya , who was a great sage, proclaims this great kn owledge: “This great 
Being whose actions are all the actions, whose desires are all the desires, 
whose functions are all the functions through the senses, is inside me and It is 
That which is inside everything.”  
The 15th khanda describes for begetting long  life and valour for one’s son. It is 
told that a well disciplined son is necessary for the salvation of the father. 
Hence, it becomes necessary to find out how longevity for the son could be 
obtained. This khanda  deals with meditation and Japa required fo r this 
purpose. The 16th khanda deals with meditation required for one’s own 
longevity. It is called Purusha Vidya . 
In Purusha Vidya  a person is described as the sacrifice. The first 24 years is 
regarded as morning oblation, the next 44 years as mid -day ob lation and the 
third 44 years as the third oblation. The Vidya  says that anyone who knows 
this Vidya  lives for 116 years without sickness or disease. The details of this 
Vidya  are given in the mantras  1 to 7 of the 16th and 17th khanda  of chapter -3. 
The 18th khanda  deals with meditation on Brahman.

135 Chapter -4    
Samvarga Vidya  
The first, second and third khandas deals with the story of king  Jaanashruti  
and Rishi Raikva. The king was well known for his charity and goodness of 
heart. He was a great sage as we ll. One night he saw some flamingos flying 
past. He overheard the birds speaking about a Rishi Raikva , the man with a 
cart, and his greatness. The king was greatly interested in meeting with this 
Rishi . He commissioned a search for the Rishi and with great  difficulty his 
messengers located the Rishi.  The king went and met with Rishi Raikva  and 
offered him great wealth and his daughter in marriage with the request to 
teach what he knew. The Rishi  finally agreed to teach after he was convinced 
about the king’ s sincerity. The Rishi initiated the king into the mystery of 
meditation on the all -absorbing Being. Because of the character of all -
absorption, the great Being on which Rishi Raikva  was meditating came to be 
known Samvarga.  The Rishi explained of a symbol ic cosmic air where - 
everything is absorbed into it, everything rises from it, everything is 
maintained in it and everything goes back into it. It is on this Vayu,  the great 
deity that Raikva  was meditating. Due to fear of this great Being, the planets, 
the stars and the Sun direct their courses in a given manner. The fire burns 
due to fear of It and the rain falls due to fear of It. Death performs its duty due 
to fear of It. At the m icro-cosmic level, inside the individual there is the  Prana 
operating  in a similar role. The Samvarga Vidya  teaches on how the external 
and internal contro lling factors could be brought together in meditation  and 
envisaged as a single Reality.  
The 4th to the 9th khanda deals with the story of Satyakama  his efforts to know 
Brahm an and the teachings he received. Khandas 10 to 15 deal with the story 
of Upakosala and his progress in learning about Brahman . The 17th khanda 
deals with penances for mistakes commited during a sacrifice . 
Chapter -5;  
Panchagni and Vaisvanara Vidyas  
Panchagni Vidya  
The Panchagni Vidya  is detailed in Chapter V – khandas  3 to 10. Basically, it 
deals with a common phenomenon in our lives – the phenomenon of life and 
death. Though we witness birth and death in our everyday life, we do not 
know why people are born and why they die. The causes are not known. The 
Upanishad, in these meditations, tries to introduce us to a new type of 
know ledge which could be the solution to our sorrows.  
Once again the Upanishad  commences with a story. Svetaketu Aru neya  
becomes very arrogant after completing his  Vedic  studies. He goes to the

136 court of the king of Panchaladesa, Pravahana  by name. The king notices the 
arrogance of Svetaketu and asks him 5 questions. (1) Do you know where 
people go after they die (2) Do you know where people come from when they 
are r eborn (3) Do you have any idea of the paths by which the soul ascends. 
The paths are known as Devayana  and Pitriyana.  What are the differences 
these two paths (4) Why is it that the yonder world is not overflo wing with 
people (5) Do you know what are 5 oblations that are offered and how the fifth 
oblation as liquid becomes a human being. Svetaketu  did not know the 
answers for any one of them. In great agony and frustration he rushes to his 
father and narrates h is humiliation. His father confesses that he also does not 
know the answers for these questions. The curious father,  Gautama , then 
goes to the court of the king, as a humble student, seeking answers to these 
questions. The knowledge that the King, Pravahan a, passed on to the father 
has been called “ Panchagni Vidya ”.  
The five fires, called the Panchagni , mentioned here are not actually fires in 
the physical sense. They are meditational techniques. The fire itself is 
symbolic of a sacrifice which one perform s through contemplation.  
What are the five fires?  
(a) Celestial region (Heaven)  
(b) the Atmosphere (consisting of rain and wind)  
(c) the Earth  
(d) Man  
(e) woman  
are conceived as the five stages of fire.  
 
These five stages of fire become the object of meditation kn own as the 
Panchagni -Vidya . These fires together with five acts of the Universe are 
conceived of as sacrifices. What are the five acts of the Universe?  Fire, fuel, 
smoke, flame, coals and sparks are the five acts.  
The Upanishad  tells us that the whole uni versal activity of creation may be 
conceived of as a kind of sacrifice – Yagna.  In a Yagna no ritual  is isolated. 
They are all inter connected and form a single comprehensive act. In a similar 
way the whole universal manifestation is a continuous inter con nected 
process. On that basis, births, deaths and other phenomenal experiences are 
not isolated factors. True knowledge is obtained when we reach a stage at 
which we can find the connection between the visible effects that we 
experience, with the invisible  causes that produced them. This Vidya explains

137 the ph enomenon of birth and death. While telling us about the birth, the Vidya  
talks about the stages of descent of the soul into the physical body which it 
puts on when it comes to the world The journey of t he soul after it leaves the 
body is also detailed. The Upanishad, in its exposition of the Panchagni -
Vidya , takes the standpoint of the wider background that operates behind 
every event in the phenomena of natural processes. Things are not what they 
seem t o be; there is a deeper significance behind every visible process or 
activity in N ature.  
The departure of the soul is briefly given below – 
When the Jivatma leaves the body, the following also leave – 
The five senses of knowledge (Jnana Indriyas). (2) Th e five senses of action 
(Karma Indriyas) (3) Mans (Mind) (4) Mukhya -Prana  (Principal vital air). When 
the Mukhya Prana  departs the other Pranas  also depart (5) The five elements 
– Ether, Air, Fire, Water and Earth in subtle form.  
The power of speech stops.  A person may be able to think but cannot speak  
The thinking function stops. Life may still be there  
The Prana  reaches the soul or Jivatma . After this the soul joins with the five 
gross elements ( Panchabhutas ). They all depart from the body  
Those who have performed well during their life time go to Chandraloka  and 
enjoy themselves there. When they have nearly exhausted the rewards for 
their good deeds they return to earth – with some residual Karma.  The souls 
return the way they went. From the heaven to eth er, ether to air, to smoke, 
then mist, to cloud and from the cloud he rains down. He is born as rice, corn, 
herbs, tree etc. This as food is eaten by man who passes it on to a woman. 
The family he is to be born into is regulated by the remainder of Karma.  
Chandogya Upanishad  written by Swami Krishnananda  and “What becomes 
of the soul after death” by Swami Sivananda  are excellent references on this 
topic . 
Vaisvanara Vidya  
The Vaisvanara Vidya  is detailed in Chapter V – khandas  12 to 18. The  
Upanishad tries t o bring a greater understanding regarding the Atman and the 
Supreme Brahman . Once again a story is told to drive home the point. Six 
wise men learned in Vedic lore, themselves great meditators, could not come 
to a conclusion as to the final destination of their meditations. The names of 
the great men are – Prachinasala Aupamanyava, Satyayajna Paulushi, 
Indradyumna Bhallaveya, Jana Sarkarashya, Budila Avastarasvi and Aruni 
Uddalaka. They decided to approach King Ashvapati,  a great meditator on the 
Principle called Vaishvanara.

138 The king Ashvapati  asked each one of them a single question – “What is it 
that you are meditating already?”. Their answers are given below.  
Aupamanyava: I meditate on Heaven as the Supreme Being  
Satyayajna: I meditate upon the Sun as t he Supreme Being.  
Bhallaveya: I meditate upon the Cosmic Air as the Supreme Being.  
Jana Sarkarashya: I meditate upon the all -pervading space as the Supreme 
Being.  
Budila Avastarasvi: I meditate upon the water as the Supreme Being.  
Aruni Uddalaka: : I medit ate upon the Earth as the Supreme Being.  
The king then addressed them and said “You are all very sincere in your 
meditations. But all of you have not realised that you have committed errors in 
your meditations. In fact, you have made two mistakes.  
1. You hav e considered some parts of whole as the whole. You have 
considered the finite as the infinite. The mind is accustomed to think in 
only finite objects.  
2. The second mistake you are making is – you are considering Atman  as 
an object, as if it is outside you. W hen you say Space, water etc, 
realise that all of them are outside you. How can Atman  be outside 
you? How can your own self be external to you? Self cannot be outside 
itself; it cannot be an object of itself. Two points you have to learn. A 
finite thing ca nnot be regarded as Infinite. External thing cannot be 
considered as the Self. Whatever you have obtained through these 
discrete meditations can be obtained through a single total meditation 
on Vaishvanara Atman.  If you can envisage in a comprehensive way 
from the highest to the lowest, and if it can be the  Atman  and the 
Supreme Self at the same time, then that is Vaisvanara Atman.  
Chapter -6:  
Teaching by Uddalaka to Svetaketu  
There lived a great sage by the name of Uddalaka. He sent his son Svetaketu 
to a gurukul to study. The son underwent the whole course of education. – 
Vedas, Shastras and scriptures. As it quite often happens Svetaketu  became 
arrogant with his knowledge. The father, Uddalaka , noticed this. He called his 
son and asked him whether he has studied everything? The father then asked 
him “Do you know That, by knowing which, everything is known? Do you 
know That by which unheard becomes heard and the un -thought becomes 
thought?. The son went pale and replied that he had never heard, let alone be

139 taught, such things. He then humbly requests his father to enlighten him 
further on the topic.  
The dialog that follows between the father and son forms the basis of 
Uddalaka’s teaching on the oneness of the Self.  
Uddalaka  says that by knowing one lump of  clay all things made of clay are 
known. You call the manufactured articles as pot, mug, jug etc. The 
differences lie in the shapes that you see and the names you call them by. In 
other words, these differences that arise are due to the concepts in your mi nd.  
Sage Uddalaka continues.  
 In the beginning, there was a single Reality, without a second. There was 
nothing outside it; or different from it. Some people say that in the beginning 
there was non -existence and that the Universe was born out of it. That is 
impossible. You cannot have existence be born out of non -existence. Then 
the Supreme Being or Sat, thought to Himself “let me be many”. Then out of 
Himself, He projected the Universe. Having thus projected, He then entered 
into every being and everythin g. All that is, has its self in Him alone. He is the 
subtle essence of all. Names and forms came into existence on account of 
this action of multiplication.  
The bees go to different flowers and collect the essences of those flowers and 
what they have coll ected is called honey. This mass of honey cannot 
distinguish the essence of one flower from another. Everything has become 
indistinguishable. Similarly, all creatures when they reach that One Existence, 
whether in dreamless sleep or in death, know nothing of their past or present 
existence. All distinctions vanish. The pure Being is the Self of all and is 
behind all your activities, behind your sleep, behind your birth, death and 
indeed behind the whole process of Universal evolution. “O Svetaketu, That 
thou art ( Tat Tvam Asi ). 
Uddalaka continues with his teaching. The rivers flow in different directions – 
east or west and finally enter the Ocean. In the end they do not know from 
which river they came from. Similarly, all beings in creation tend towards the 
ocean of the ultimate Being. When they go there they cannot distinguish 
themselves, for they become one with the Being. This is the Reality, this is the 
Being of all things, and you too are that –“ Tat-Tvam -Asi”  
Uddalaka goes further. Look at this big tre e. If someone cuts off one of its 
branches, some juice will flow from the severed branch indicating that life is till 
there. If another branch is cut off, the result will be the same and life 
conti nues. And what is life? It cannot be defined. One day the w hole tree may 
dry up indicating the departing of life from the tree. Death does not mean

140 death of the life principle itself. In this example, it just indicates that particular 
form is dead.  
Though the bodies may be many, the shapes may be many the Self is only 
one. That you are Svetaketu – Tat Tvam Asi”.  
Svetaketu was excited and requested for more of the knowledge his father 
was teaching him. Uddalaka asked his son to bring a fruit from the Nyagrodha 
tree (Banyan tree). He then asked his son to break it o pen. He asked what 
“what do you see inside it. The boy replied “I see small granules”. Now, split 
the small seed, the father asked. With great difficulty the son managed to split 
the seed. Now what do you see, the father asked. The son replied that he 
cann ot see anything. Uddalaka told Svetaketu  that the large tree grows from 
the subtle essence that cannot be seen by the naked eye. Is it not a miracle? 
So is this vast Universe. The essence of the whole Universe is the Self of the 
whole Universe. And that Svetaketu , “That art thou”  
Uddalaka then asked his son to bring a little salt and put it in a cup of water. 
He then asked his son to return the next day. He asked Svetaketu to bring the 
salt back from the water. He could not because the salt has become one with 
water. The father then asked his son to taste the water which he did and told it 
tastes salty. Uddalaka explained that in the same way, though we cannot see 
Brahman in this body, He is indeed there. Though the salt cannot be seen in 
the water, it can be verified by other means. So is the case with Brahman.  
When a man is fatally ill, his relatives gather around him and ask him “ Do you 
recognise us? If the senses are active he would recognise them. Once the 
senses are withdrawn into the mind, he can thi nk but not speak. Towards the 
last stages, the mind stops its functions and he cannot think. At this stage the 
mind is withdrawn into the Pranas.  The will only be breathing and thinking and 
sensing ceases. Finally, the breath also gets withdrawn. When Pran a is gone 
mere heat or fire is there. When heat is also withdrawn into the Supreme 
Being there is no consciousness and there is no bodily life.  
Chapter -7:  
Sanatkumara’s instructions on Bhuma Vidya  
Narada  is a Divine sage who has fulfilled all his responsi bilities and attained 
all knowledge. There was practically nothing that he did not know. In addition 
he was a great saint and sage. Yet he felt inadequate and suffered from a 
lack of peace. This renowned person now comes as a humble disciple to 
Sage Sanatk umara – son of Lord Brahma and requests the master to teach 
him. What follows came to be known as Bhuma Vidya.  
The previous chapter discussed about the unity of Being and Self. This 
teaching is meant for a disciple of the highest grade. It has not discusse d

141 anything about lower Realities an account of which may be needed for 
disciples of a middle grade. True, the lower reality is not excluded from the 
higher one, as the higher includes the lower, and the highest is everything and 
is all -inclusive. Yet a cla rification from a Master like Sanatkumara  will be 
greatly cherished by the mankind.  
Sanatkumara enquires as to what Narada wants him to teach. He further says 
“Let me know what you have already learnt. If there are any gaps, I shall tell 
you that”. Narada humbly gives a full list of all the branches of learning that he 
has studied and mastered. It was an impressive list. Sanatkumara looks at 
him intently and replies “All these are only names. This knowledge is nothing. 
Name enables you to have an idea of th at object. Name is known but the 
contents are not known and as such we do not have a control on the object 
just knowing its name. This is the status of theoretical learning. However, 
though this may be theory, it is not without any utility. It has an impor tance in 
that it is the beginning of knowledge. This is the first step” Namopassava ”. 
Therefore meditate on “Name” as Brahman.   
Narada  then asks “Is there anything superior to Name”  
Sanatkumara  replies “Yes, there is. And that is Speech. Everything that one  
learns – Vedas, sciences etc has speech as its background. Speech is the 
cause for the name. The cause is superior to effect. Speech is superior to all 
objects of sense, the Five elements, pleasure, pain, virtue, vice, good bad and 
all objects of knowledg e and, in fact, every subject that Narada has 
know ledge of. The Master told Narada  to meditate on Speech as Brahman”.  
Narada then asks “Is there anything beyond speech”. Yes, there is, 
Sanatk umara answers. It is the Mind.  
Mind controls speech. Mind is the cause of all expressions. Just as a folded 
palm can contain two small fruits, the mind can contain within itself both 
speech and name. The mind is responsible for anything that we achieve in 
this world, because what we call world is nothing but the field o f experience. 
So, Narada meditate on the Mind as Brahman, the Absolute. We should 
control the mind completely and rule over it, by identification of our true Being 
with everything that the mind can think of. This is one stage in the process of 
meditation.  
Narada  persisted and asked “Is there anything superior to the mind”. 
Sana tkumara replied “Yes, surely there is. Sankalpa  is greater than the Mind”.  
Behind the mind there are forces more concentrated in their nature. There is 
this creative will operating a s a directive intelligence for the mind. It is termed 
as “Sankalpa”.  So Sanatkumara told Narada to meditate on Sankalpa.  
Narada was thrilled. He asks “Is there anything more than will”

142 There surely is. It is memory replies the Master.  
The will cannot opera te unless there is a cohesive force behind the functions 
of thought. This function of the mind which we call as will would not be 
poss ible unless there is another capacity which we call as memory. There are 
two essential criteria needed before the will can  be directed. (a) Capacity of 
remembrance or retention of experiences (b) an awareness of the target 
towards which the will is going to be directed. This function which is precedent 
to the rise of will is called Chitta . Beyond the will is the power of memo ry and 
retention. Everything is rooted in memory.  
Sanatkumara directs Narada  to meditate on Chitta as Brahman.  
Narada then asks “Is there anything beyond Chitta”  
Sanatkumara  replies “Yes, there is, Narada.  It is Dhyana (concentration).”  
Concentration is f ixity of mind. Wherever we find stability of any kind we will 
discover concentration. The Upanishad says that Earth contemplates – on 
account of its stability and fixity of character. Whoever obtained success, 
whether he is a God or human being, obtained it through the power of 
concentration of the mind. Nothing in life has any sense or meaning when 
concentration is absent.  
So Narada  meditate on concentration ( Dhyana)  as Brahman.  
Narada pursues and asks “Is there anything superior to Dhyana”.  
Vijnana (understanding) is superior to Dhyana  replies Sanatkumara.  
The problems which one will face in the practice of concentration will have to 
be understood beforehand. Hence Understanding is superior to 
Concentr ation. In life the meaning that we discover is based on the 
understanding we have derived from our experiences. Where the 
understanding is not there the meaning is absent.  
Narada  asks is there anything superior to  Vijnana ? 
Yes, Balam  (Strength) is superior to Vijnana.  
The Master says that mere understanding in theoretical form is of no use – as 
it is application of theory in one’s brain. There is need to connect one’s 
unde rstanding with realities of mind. So strength is superior to understanding. 
Strength means a blend of functions of mind with the functions of the body.  
Is there something greater than strength asked Narada.   
That which gives strength is superior to strength. That is called as “anna” – 
Food. Sanatkumara  continues – Water is superior to food. Here it refers to

143 water principle. In general subtle r principles are superior grosser ons because 
they are more pervasive in character. You will notice that water principle is 
superior to Earth principle.  
 Meditate on water principle  
Fire principle is superior to water. Hence meditate on Fire.  
Air principl e is superior Fire. Space (Akasa) is superior Air.  
So meditate on Akasa.  
Is there anything superior to Akasa.  
Yes, Smara  is superior to Space (Akasa). Consciousness of self existence 
which we feel as identical with our own consciousness ( Smara  refers to this 
consciousness) is superior to space. If we ourselves are not there then there 
is no question space being there.  
Now Hope (or aspiration for betterment) is superior to Space. So meditate on 
“Asa”.   
In answer to Narada’s further questioning Sanatkumara says Life is superior 
to Asa. Without life everything is meaningless. The greatest knowledge is the 
knowledge of life – not merely the knowledge of objects of sense.  
Sanatkumara declares that he who knows the eternal truth is the true knower. 
When a man h as realised the eternal truth he declares it. But to realise, he 
has to first reflect upon it. A man with faith and reverence reflects on eternal 
truth. A person who struggles to achieve self -control attends on a Guru. Once 
he attains self -control he finds  joy in it. There is no happiness in the finite. The 
source of true happiness is infinite – neither the mind nor the external world. 
And what is happiness. “Happiness is plenum, happiness is completeness, it 
is totality and it is absolute”. The term Bhuma  is used in this Upanishad. 
Roughly translated it implies absoluteness in quality as well as quantity, 
uncontaminated, permanency of every type, immortality, infinity and eternity. 
Brahman of all the Upanishads is the same as  Bhuma  mentioned here in this 
Upanishad. That alone is happiness.  
Sanatkumara  then goes on to define Bhuma. “ Where one sees nothing 
except one's own Self, where one hears nothing except one's own Self, where 
one understands nothing except one's own Self, that is Bhuma, the Absolute. 
Where one sees something outside oneself, where one hears something 
outside oneself, where one understands or thinks something outside oneself, 
that is the finite."  
Narada asks where Bhuma  is located.

144 Sanatkumara  replies that “It sis self -supported, self -complete and self -
existent. It is not a relative Being. It is an absolute Being. It is everywhere. 
The whole cosmos is filled with it.  
He who knows and meditates upon the truth of the Self realises that the whole 
Universe issues from it.  
Given below is a ske tch to summarise the various levels of realities discussed 
between Sage Sanatkumara  and Sage  Narada . 
 
 Speech  
Name  Sankalpa  
Mind  Dhyana  
Chitta  Balam  
Vijnana  Water  
(Anna ) Food  
(Akasa )Ether  
Fire Asa (Hope)  
Smara  Faith  
Life Steadfastness  
Understanding  Happiness  
Activity  
Bhuma  
Infinite  Bhuma Vidya

145 Chapter -8;  
Dahara Vidya  
Dahara Vidya  occurs in the Chandogya Upanishad, Chapter 8; Khanda -1 
This is one of the greatest of the Vidyas . The all -pervading and all -inclusive 
nature of the Self is stressed upon in this Vidya.  In this meditation, the 
medit ator feels the whole universe as his Self and excludes nothing from the 
One Self. This Vidya further explains the identity of the external an d the 
internal, the objective and the subjective, the macrocosmic and the 
microcosmic, the universal and the individual -Brahman  and Atman.   
The Upanishad tells us that there is a city of  Brahman , the Absolute, within 
our own Self. A very small lotus like a bode exists in our own heart. In this little 
abode there is little space that shines by its own light. This is the city of 
Brahman. What is inside this city of Brahman ? Do not be fooled. Do not be 
under the impression that it is geometrically small. That w hich is inside can 
magnify itself to any extent. The whole of the heaven and the Earth can be 
found i nside this little space. The principle of Five elements – Earth, Water, 
Fire, Air, Ether and whatever else you can find outside are present inside this 
little space. The Sun, Moon and stars can be found inside our heart. The 
Upan ishad also says that whatever you cannot see outside can be seen 
within this space. The reason for this is our heart is the true representative of 
the Ult imate Reality. The outer wor ld cannot be regarded as such a 
representative. Why do we say that? The outer world is only that aspect of 
Reality which can be comprehended by our senses. Whatever the senses are 
incapable of grasping cannot be contained in the external world. Our 
experie nce is limited by our senses. All investigation in the field of spirituality 
is internal only and not external.  
Absolute is Universal in its nature. And this makes it very hard for the mind to 
comprehend. This chapter confines itself to the heart of the i ndividual. When 
we talk about heart, we are not talking about the physical heart. Heart here is 
just a symbol representing the consciousness which is located within this 
body. Though located within the body, it cannot be limited or contained on 
account of its super -physical nature. Not only that. This heart which we are 
about to discuss is a mysterious thing.  What is the mystery? To start with - 
whatever we desire is available in one’s own heart. The objects of one’s 
desire are contained here and shall be available for experience, the moment 
they are invoked in an appropriate manner.  
What happens to this heart when one gets old or when the person dies? Does 
it also wither and die? The Upanishad clarifies – this heart does not get old, 
does not die or get de stroyed. That is because it is the city of God. In fact, 
what we refer to as heart is the Atman. As Atman, it is free from any affliction,

146 sorrow, aging destruction etc. It feels no hunger, no thirst and is self -existent. 
It asks for nothing because whatev er it desires will materialise at once. It’s will 
is pure in character and uncontaminated by any falsehood. However, the 
more this will of the human being is drawn out, the more does it get 
contam inated by the evil of externality. And the more does it get contaminated 
the more difficult does it become in contacting objects of one’s desire. By the 
same reason the more inward we go towards our own Self, the greater will be 
the strength of our will and consequently the greater will be our chances in 
obtaining objects of our desire. This will happen when our consciousness, will 
and thought functions are rooted in Truth. This is the meaning of Satya -kama  
and Satya -sankalpa.   
Upanishad tells us about the power of the will of a person who has Self -
realisation, and the capacity that person has. Nothing is impossible for that 
person. If he wants to see his forefather in the other world, he can see him at 
once. His wish will be fulfilled instantly. There is one condition though. The will 
has to be exercised in a proper  manner. The will has to be in -tune with the law 
of the Atman.  
In the case of people who are not rooted to Truth, their actions are limited by 
factors outside their control – similar to the case of subjects under a king. 
There will be a limit on what such conditioned people can achieve. The 
external conditioning force may be due to the king, as in this example, or due 
to some powerful laws of nature. Karma is a very powerful law of nature. It 
leads one to re -birth and suffering. So the actions performed by an individual 
yield only transient results. As a consequence, o ur actions in this world bring 
about conditions which give us conditioned happiness. Limited results follow 
all actions.  
Actions performed in this world produce transient results. Not only tha t, 
virtuous actions do produce beneficial results in the other world. But those 
results are also transient in nature. Just as secular actions produce limited 
results in the secular world, so do religious acts and virtuous deeds produce 
limited r esults in t he other world. Even if we perform a wealth of virtuous acts 
in this world and after death reach shining regions of paradise, they will yield 
only limited experiences, because, after all, all these experiences are action -
born.  
However, it is different in t he case of those great people who know what this 
Atman is. They are not limited by the outside laws. As the knowers of the 
Atman, Upanishad says, they know what the ultimate Reality is. Then the law 
of the outside world becomes the law of the inside world.  The law of the 
Atman is the law of the Universe. Therefore, there is absolute freedom for 
those who are knowers of this great secret. Whatever they will, it expresses 
itself in e xperience at once.

147 When we understand the Reality, there is no such thing as this world and 
another world. There are not many worlds; there is only one vast continuum of 
experience. Extending this thought, when we talk about people who have left 
this world, those who are yet to be born - we are only talking about them 
whom we carry  in our own heart, in the Ether of our consciousness. The 
various Lokas , in the so -called external Universe  are present in our heart. 
They can be invoked from within us by the strength of the mind. The greatest 
obstacle to this perception of the Universe a rises when the Consciousness 
gets locked up in a body. Explaining differently, - in every kind of cognition 
there is a cognition of Reality. However, we mistake the Being for objects on 
account of the habit of the mind to define things in different ways.  
The moment the consciousness is freed from bodily attachment, it rises 
upwards like a flame of brilliance. There is a composure. This composure 
which has arisen on account of freedom of consciousness from bodily 
shackles is Samprasada.  At this stage one rec overs his real nature and 
shakes off the notion of connections with bodies. This is the real Atman free 
from all enta nglement. This is immortal. This is also what we call as Brahman. 
What we call as Truth, is Brahman.  
What is Satyam? The Upanishad says Sa tyam is – Sa-ti-yam. The first letter 
stands for immortal; the second for mortal; the third yam refers to that which 
holds them together. That which holds mortal and immortal together is 
Antaryamin. The Supreme Reality holds the subject and object together - 
meaning consciousness matter. The means for realisation of the great Truth is 
being explained. The word Brahmacharya is used. The conduct of Brahman is 
called as Brahmacharya. It is a total abstraction of the senses which 
recognises itself alone, to the exclusion of everything else. Self control is the 
highest austerity that can be practiced. A person with no control over his 
senses cannot enter the city of Brahman.  
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad  
  
This Brihadaranyaka Upanishad  is the oldest and the greatest of all the 
Upanishads. Sri Shankara’s Bhashya  on this Upanishad  is the best among his 
commentaries. The theme of this  Upanishad is to establish the unity of  
Brahman and the  Atman . It comprehends both the Upadesa  and revelation of 
the true nature of the mystic  experience of the Brahman - Atman  identity and 
the Upapatti  or logical explanations of that great doctrine of Advaita  through 
the employment of dialectic modes argumentation.  
The Upanishad  consists of three Khandas . The first one is called Madhu 
Khanda.  It conveys the main teaching of the  Advaita  doctrine and is of the 
nature of Upadesa.  The second Khanda  is called Muni -Khanda . This gives 
logical arguments and explanations confirming the soundness of the

148 Upadesa.  The third one is called Khila -Khanda and de als with certain 
Upasanas.  
The Upanishad  consists of : 
(a) 3 Khandas  
(b) 6 Adhyayas (chapters)  
(c) 47 Brahmanas (sections)  
(d) 427 verses or mantras  
It is in this  Upanishad  that we  come across the famous  Pavamana mantra 
“asa to ma sad gamaya; tamaso ma jyotir gamaya; mru tyor ma amrutam 
gamaya” (Lead me from the un -real to the real; from darkness to light; 
from death to immortality - Refer Madhu Khanda; Udgitha Brahmana; 
Mantra 28:  1 -3-28).  The Upanishad  is very voluminous. So we will be 
dealing with, not the entire Upani shad , but only with some selected 
sections of it.  
Maitreyi Vidya  
This is a narration of a conversation between the great sage Yajnavalkya  and 
his wife Maitreyi.   
 
The sage tells his wife “I am going to retire from the life of a householder and 
enter into the fourth order in life (Sanyasa). I now intend to divide my property 
between you and Katyayan i (second wife) before I take up to renunciation”. 
For this Maitreyi responded “you propose to divide the property between the 
two of us. Is it possible for us t o be happy by possession of material comfort 
and property? If I am the  owner of the entire earth, and if the wealth of the 
whole world is mine, will I be perpetually happy, or will there be some other 
factor which will intrude upon my happiness in spite of  my possession of the 
values of the entire world? Is it possible to attain immortality through wealth”.  
Yajnavalkya  told the truth “No, you cannot be happy. Yes, you will be 
comfortable – but you will be in the same state in other respects. Immortality 
is not possible through possessions.” Maitreyi  then asks that if it is insecure to 
start, then what good can she get from the riches that her husband is 
proposing to give her. She then requests her husband to tell her as to what 
she should e ngage herself in s o that she will be eternally happy. Yajnavalkya  
was happy to hear the question. The whole subject turns into a discourse on 
eternal and temporal wealths. Wealths such as physical, social, comfort giving 
objects go under the category of temporal wealth. In the case of such kind of 
wealths, possession is conditioned by time. On the contrary, Permanent 
wealth is not conditioned by time.  The sage explains that not one person or

149 wealth is dear in this world, but what is dear is that condition which is 
imagined to be present after possession of the object or that relationship.  
 
Yajnavalkya  goes on with his exposition to Maitreyi.  Neither the husband is 
dear to the wife, nor the wife is dear to the husband. What is dear is a 
cond ition which they try to bring abou t in their mind by that relation. That 
condition is always missed, and so the happiness expected never comes. He 
advises Maitreyi that it is the Atman  which is to be meditated upon. Anything 
outside you cannot belong to you and cannot satisfy you. It will leave you and 
event ually bring sorrow to you. It is the Atman  that appears as all these 
things. This point is not grasped by the mind.  Yajnavalkya  brings home the 
point that the effect cannot be known unless the cause is known – because 
the effect is a man ifestation of the cause. The sage gives an example. The 
sound made by a percussion instrument cannot be properly identified if the 
instrument is far away and not visible to the eyes.  Smoke sparks are emitted 
from the fire ki ndled with wet fuel. In the same  way the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, 
Sama Veda , mythology (purana ), the arts ( vidya ), the Upanishads , verses 
(slokas ), aph orisms (sutras ), elucidations ( anuvyakhyanas ) and explanations 
(vyakhyanas ) are all a part of breath of this Infinite Reality. All these hav e 
been extracted from t he Supreme Self.  Yajnavalkya  then said that when a 
lump of salt is dropped into the water it immediately gets dissolved and then it 
cannot be separated. From there -on samples of water taken from anywhere 
will taste as saltish. In a similar way, when the individual Self comes out as a 
separate e ntity from the elements its separate existence gets destroyed. After 
it becomes one with the  Absolute Self it does not have consciousness. 
Individuality arises by identification of the Self, t hrough ignorance, with the 
elements. Where there is consciousness of the Self, individuality is no more. 
As long as there is duality – one sees the other, one hears the other, one 
smells the other etc. However, for an enlightened soul “the all” is dissolve d in 
the Abs olute Self. In such a case who is there to be seen by whom etc. By 
what shall we reveal the intelligence that reveals all?  
Akshara Vidya  
By the 3rd chapter of this Upanishad  we are entering  central portion of this 
Upanishad. One king Janaka  was a great knower of the self. This king was 
curious to find out as to who was the most learned person in his country. He 
then organised a huge sacrifice in his palace and thousands of sages, saints 
and scholars from all over the country were invited. He ann ounced in an open 
court that the wisest among them will be awarded 1000 cows and other 
riches. No one from the stunned audience made a move. Sage  Yajnavalkya 
was in that court and he ordered his disciple to take the cows to his house. 
This move by the sage  upset all the other learned men at the venue. One

150 after another they started putting questions to Yajnavalkya . Using this debate 
as a basis the Upanishad  reveals some of the profound truths.  
Gargi , the daughter of Vachaknu,  addressed  the sages in the hall  and said “ I 
shall ask Yajnavalkya two questions. If he is able to answer them, then no one 
from among you can ever defeat him. He will be the great expounder of the 
truth of Brahman. Addressing Yajnavalkya,  she said I dart two pointed arrows 
of questions  at you. Be prepared to answer them. That of which they say is 
above the heaven and below the earth; that which is between heaven and 
earth as well; that which was in the past, that which is in the present, and shall 
be there in the future. If there is som ething like that, on what is it founded?”  
The Sage answered that it is un -manifested Ether – “avyakrita Akasa”. And 
Gargi accepted the answer.  
Her second question was “ In what is the un -manifested Ether rooted?”  
The Sage answers, that it is the imperisha ble Absolute. The great ones call it 
as Akshara.  It is not gross because it is not visible as an object; it is not subtle 
because it is not different from the gross. You cannot call it long; you cannot 
call it short, because it is not in space. It cannot b e called as possessed of 
any colour, because colour is the perception of the eyes. And it is already 
ruled out as being an object of any kind. So it has no colour. It cannot be 
associated with anything; it cannot be related to anything. It stands by itself . It 
cannot be regarded as the cause of anything, also. It does not cast a shadow. 
It is light by itself.  It is not darkness also, because it sees everything. It is not 
space; it is not air; it is not water; it is not earth; it is not an object; it is not 
individual; it is not you; it is not me.  It stands by itself. It has no space. You 
cannot grasp it through the senses of taste, sight, hearing, etc.  It has no eyes; 
but it sees everything. It has no ears; it hears everything. It has no speech, 
but it speak s, and all the languages are known to it. It has no mind; it thinks all 
things. It has no Prana ;  it does not breathe. It is not an individual being. It has 
no mouth. It has no organs. It has no measure of any kind, sensory or 
psych ological —It is not insid e; it is not outside. It does not consume 
anything —and it is not consumed by anyone. Neither it wants anything, not is 
wanted by an ybody. Nothing is an object to it, and it is not an object to 
anyone. Such a my sterious thing is the ultimate Reality This is  the Para 
Brahman.

151  
Ushasta -Kahola Vidya  
 
The debate at King  Janaka’s  place to identify the wisest among those 
asse mbled continues.  
It was Ushasta’s  turn to pose a question to Yajnavalkya . He asks “the 
transmigration of the Self based on his merits and de -merits has been 
adequately documented. The question arises as to whether the individual self 
within all that migrates from body to body exists or does not exist. If it exists 
what is it like?”.  
Yajnavalkya answers - “This is yourself that is within all” Ex plaining within all, 
the Sage says “that which breaths through the Prana is the individual self of 
the body and organs. It is that principle distinct from the body and organs 
which make them function.” Pressed for further explanation, Yajnavalkya says 
“you cannot see that which is the witness of the vision. You cannot hear what 
which is hearer of hearing; you cannot think that which is the thinker of the 
thought; you cannot know that which is the knower of knowledge. This is 
yourself that is within all. Eve rything else but this is perishable”.  
Kahola Kausitakeya  continues with the questioning. His question was very 
similar to that by Ushasta. . Yajnavalkya gives a different answer. The Atman 
is a tremendous Reality. Once you have known it you will never ask f or 
anything else. It is Atman that frees you from the tortures of hunger, thirst, 
sorrow, confusion, old age and death. It is the absence of the realisation of 
this Atman that makes us grief -stricken in many ways. Our experiences in this 
life bas ically are  psychological, biological, social etc. Atman is transcendent to 
all these. Having known the Atman people renounce everything. For most of 
us, there are basically 3 desires – (a) build a family with children (b) 
accumulate wealth (c) work and build name an d fame. People who have 
realised Atman no longer want them. They live like mendicants. Having 
renounced learning of every kind, he becomes like a child. This is the 
consequence of immense learning and realisation. You may ask “How does a 
man who has realis ed Atman conduct himself? The Upanishad says that there 
is no set limit for this great person. Whatever standard he sets forth will 
become a standard for ot hers to follow. You may imitate him but he is not 
expected to imitate others”  
Uddalaka -Aruni Vidya  
We now arrive at a very important section of the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.  
It is here that we come across the famous Antaryamin Brahmana .

152 It was the sage Uddalaka’s  turn to question Yajnavalkya.  He had basically two 
questions for which he wanted explanation s. (a) “All the worlds, all beings are 
strung in a thread. What is this thread? (b) Do you know about the immanent 
principle, the Antaryamin?”  
Yajnavalkya explains as follows. The Supreme Vital force of the cosmos is 
regarded as the thread on which everyth ing is strung. All bodies in this world 
are formed in the mould of this Vital energy. The Vital Force has taken the 
shape of all forms which includes forms of the outside world and forms of all 
individual beings. That Universal Vital Force is the thread. I n the case of the 
individual body it is the power which holds the bodies in proper positions. And 
every body, individual or otherwise, is strung on this thread and controlled by 
it. It is His Will and His Action that appears outside as the action of the pe ople. 
This Vital Force holds the limbs of the body in unison and synchronised when 
the body was alive. When the action of this Vital Force is withdrawn, at the 
time of death, the parts of the body fall apart - because this Vital principle is 
absent.  
Now to the second question related to the immanent principle. It is the 
Antaryamin – the one that controls everything from within. The discussion is 
now moving towards a principle which is capable of controlling anything yet 
cannot be seen or known!. It is called  the internal Reality of the cosmos – 
Antaryamin. Yajnavalkya says that the Vital principle is inside this very earth 
holding the earth as a compact completeness. It is the cause of the very 
existence of earth and the earth is not aware of its presence. In  fact, the 
whole earth is the body of this principle. It is sitting inside the earth and 
working. And this is your own Self. It is the Immortal Being This Atman, which 
is your A tman, which once again is your own Self is the Internal Ruler. It is 
immortal. In fact, it is the only thing that is immortal – everything else is 
mortal. When ev erything is active, this is not active. This is the goal of 
everyone. This is the Antaryamin. It is the true Ruler of everyone - Earth, 
Water, Fire, Air, Ether, the physical organs etc. All the gods, all the celestials, 
all elements are controlled by this Antaryamin. He is internal to all beings – 
you, me and everything else. Internal organs like – Prana, eyes, ears, mind 
etc are also controlled by Him. In fact, t here is no se parate group of gods, or 
celestials, other than this. There is no world, or universe, outside this. And 
there are no individuals external to it. No gods, no world, no individuals! All 
these three sets of apparent reality are only the manifestations, or rat her 
appearances, of this one Supreme B eing. 
What we call as Antaryamin is the Atman, the Self, the Consciousness. You 
cannot see it, but it sees you and everyone. It can hear everyone and yet no 
one can hear it. If anyone thinks, it is that which thinks; i f anyone hears, it is 
that which hears; if anyone sees, it is that which sees. If anyone understands 
anything, it is not you or I that understand, it is that which understands. If

153 anyone does anything, it is that  which does it. This is the Reality and 
everything else is useless.  
This concludes our brief examination of the famous Brihadaranyaka 
Upan ishad.

154 Chapter VI - Gitas 
 Bhagavad Gita   
In today’s world , prominence is given to Science and Technology and their 
applications. They provide co mfort to citizens. Equal stress should be laid on 
humanities also. The concepts of right and wrong do not belong to the domain 
of science. Yet a study of ideas based these concepts are essential as human 
action and happiness depend on them. The Bhagavad -Gita is valuable guide 
of the supreme ends of life.  
Every scripture has two sides - one temporary and perishable and the other 
eternal and imperishable. The perishable side belongs to the times of the 
commentators and to the people of that period and the par ticular country in 
which it was written. The eternal truths or messages the scriptures present 
are applicable to all ages and countries. The vitality of the scripture consists in 
its power to produce from time to time commentators who confirm the truths, 
from their own experience, relevant to their period. Bhagavad -Gita has been 
recognised for centuries as an orthodox scripture of the Hindu religion 
possessing equal authority with the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra  with the 
three together forming the triple ca nnon ( Prasthana -Traya ). All Acharyas are 
obliged to justify their special doctrines by an appeal to these three 
author ities. The Upanishads contain many different suggestions about the 
nature of the Absolute Reality and its relation to the world. The Brah ma Sutras  
are terse and obscure. On the other hand the Gita gives a more consistent 
view.   
A number of eminent scholars, in modern times, have written books on the 
Gita and some excellent versions are available in English as well. However no 
translation o f Gita could bring out the dignity and beauty of the original. Its 
melody and magic of phrase are difficult to recapture. Commentaries on the 
Gita were written by the famous Acharyas - Sri Shankaracharya, Sri 
Raman ujacharya  and Sri Madhvacharya. They wrote commentaries in support 
of their own traditions ( Sampradaya ) and in refutation of others. In this short 
article we are not attempting a detailed analysis of this great poem Gita 
consisting of 700 verses. We will try to bring out a summary of the hexads 
with explan ations based on the Vishishtadvaita  doctrine. Again this article is 
based on the English translation of Sri Ramanuja Gita Bhashya  by Swami 
Adidevananda . Sri Yamunacharya wrote a brief analysis ( Gitartha Samgraha ) 
of the teaching of Gita. Sri Ramanu jacharya  commented on the entire Gita on 
the lines set by Sri Yamunacharya.  
According to Sri Yamunacharya , as given in his Gitartha Samgraha, Gita  of 18 
chapters is divided into 3 Hexads. The first hexad, consisting a group of six

155 chapters, deals with the  Individual Self. The means of attaining it consists in 
Jnana Yoga  and Karma Yoga . The next hexad deals with the Supreme Lord 
Sriman Narayana,  the seat of all power and auspicious attributes. Salvation 
can be achieved only through His grace. None the less,  one has to be worthy 
to be the recipient of His grace. The worthiness is attained through the 
practice of Bhakti which develops with the dawn of knowledge of the Self 
preceded by the performance of duties ( Karma Yoga ). In the last hexad 
details of earlier  chapters are treated for completing them. Following is a 
summary of topics covered in each chapter.  
 
Chapter -1:Bhagavad -Gita opens with a description of the scene of the battle 
field at Kurukshetra where the Kaurava and Pandava  armies were gathered 
ready to start the war. Surveying the opponents gathered for the battle,  Arjuna  
was overtaken with grief, compassion and perplexity. He was confused as to 
what Dharma  was and what Adharma  was. He takes refuge at the feet of Lord 
Krishna  for his help and direc tion. 
Chapter -2  In order to remove Arjuna’s delusion, Sri Krishna imparts the 
knowledge of Sankya and Yoga. They comprehend in their scope the eternal 
self and disinterested activity  
Chapter -3 The need to perform works without attachment to any fruits o ther 
than the pleasure of the Lord and for the protection of the world is stressed  
Chapter -4 The chapter treats matters such as – The Lord’s nature; the 
varieties of Karma Yoga  and the eminen ce of knowledge in it . 
Chapter -5 The ease and fast efficiency o f Karma Yoga ; the mode of 
know ledge of Brahman i.e. the individual self are elaborated.  
Chapter -6 The teaching in this chapter includes – Practice of Yoga  
(conce ntration and meditation), the four -fold divisions of Yogins  and the 
means to success in Yoga  
Chapter -7 This chapter discusses – Exact Knowledge of Himself; His 
concealment by Prakruti  and the surrender to Him in order to overcome this; 
also classifies various types of devotees.  
Chapter -8 In this chapter are discussed – distinctions of what are to  be 
unde rstood and acquired by each of the three classes of devotees  
Chapter -9  In this chapter are discussed – The Lord’s eminence; His 
undimi nished supremacy as the Divine even when He appears as an 
incarnation; the excellence of Mahatmas who seek God  alone; the discipline 
of Bhakti .

156 Chapter -10  The chapter discusses – infinite auspicious attributes of the Lord; 
His absolute control over everything so as to generate Bhakti in the minds of 
aspirants.  
Chapter -11 Vishvaroopa darshana  given to His devot ee, Arjuna  
Chapter -12 The superiority of Bhakti Yoga  is taught; details of qualities to be 
acquired; modes of Sadhana  to be practiced are given by the Lord.  
Chapter -13 The chapter discusses – nature of the body; means for the 
realisation of the self; nat ure of self; cause of bondage; discrimination 
between self and body  
Chapter -14 In this chapter are discussed – Gunas and their binding effect; 
how to eliminate their hold  
Chapter -15  The Supreme person is declared to be other than the self; He 
pervades, sustains and rules over Universe.  
Chapter -16  Discusses distinction between Divine and demonic natures in 
order to establish what is truth and what is right conduct.  
Chapter -17 This chapter discusses - What are ordained by Shastras  and what 
are not.  
Chap ter-18 This last chapter discusses – mental state required for ascribing 
the agency to the Lord; the necessity for developing Sattvic quality; spiritual 
culmination of discharging one’s duties;  Bhakti Yoga  which forms the essence 
of Bhagavad -Gita.   
Essen ce of First Hexad   
Sri Ramanujacharya  starts the Gita - Bhashya  with salutations to his 
predecessor , Sri Yamunacharya . It is then followed up with glowing 
descriptions of Lord Narayana’s  attributes. The Acharya  points out that though 
the purpose of his inc arnation was to relieve the burden on Earth, an equally 
important re ason was to be available to all common men and women and give 
them an o pportunity to see Him with their own eyes and take refuge in Him. 
Such oppo rtunities do not come frequently – but may  be once in a Yuga.  
The actual commentary starts with Arjuna surveying the Kaurava warriors 
facing him. When he saw his grandfather, teachers, cousins and friends 
facing him he was grief stricken. He saw that the war would lead to the ruin of 
an e ntire cla n and perishing of its ancient values. He threw his bow and 
arrows and sat with his heart overwhelmed with grief. He saw a great accrual 
of sin in waging the war and lost all desire for it.

157 Sri Krishna  points out that the resolve to abstain from his duty a s a Kshtriya  
leader was born out of a false notion that man is only a body ( Prakruti ) and 
the destruction of the body amounts to destruction of an entity known as man. 
This false notion can be removed by the knowledge of the truth about oneself. 
And this t ruth is that one is essentially Atman. Sri Ramanuja  refers to it as 
Brahman.  According to the Vishishtadvaita  School the Realities are  
Supreme Being:  Cit - Acit visistam  (qualified by both consciousness 
and unconscious entities)  
Prakruti : Acit visistam  (qualified by insentience only) Atman  or 
individual soul: Cit visistam  (qualified by only consciousness only)  
The individual soul Atman , is Anu (atomic) in the  Ramanuja system. Its 
individuality is not lost even in a liberated state. In the liberated state its 
attributive consciousness ( Dharmabhuta -Jnana ) becomes fully extended and 
has no o bstructions. He becomes Vibhu  (unlimited) and in this sense is 
Brahman.  Commenting on Gita Ch.13,12 – “Anaadi matparam brahma na sat 
tan n asaad ucyate”  Sri Ramanuja himsel f gives a justification for interpreting 
Brahman as Atman.  “Mat-para” means one with me (Ishvara) as one’s 
superior. The one here refers to Brahman (i.e) the Atman who is a Sesha of 
Ishvara. Atman is associated with the quality of “infinite extensiveness” in its 
pristine state. Under the load of Karma it is conditioned to be within the body. 
This condition is only temporary and is true when it is under a state of 
bondage. When the Atman is liberated from bondage it regains its unlimited 
state and for this r eason can be described as Brahman.  
In its essential nature, the Atman  is unaffected by any of its transformations of 
its material vestments such as body -mind. Thus weapons cannot cut it, fire 
cannot burn it, and wind cannot dry it. In fact nothing can des troy it. Not 
understanding this truth, Arjuna  wanted to abandon his duty and take to a 
hermit’s life. To free Arjuna , his friend and disciple, from the false identification 
of the Essence in man with the body Sri Krishna preaches to him that the path 
that Arjuna  wanted to follow will only lead him infamy on Earth and perdition 
thereafter. That is the price one pays for abandoning one’s Svadharma  (duty 
in life).  
The real path to higher evolution lies through karma Yoga  and Jnana Yoga  – 
the paths of work and  knowledge. Though they look different as paths, in fact, 
they seek the same end. Jnana Yoga  consists in the cultivation of a mental 
attitude that is exclusively riveted on the Atman.  It will need fortification 
through a long practice of Karma Yoga . Though  the path of Jnana Yoga  is 
theoretically possible, in practice, however, it is impossible for anyone with 
body consciousness to follow it. Even if one succeeds to at least claim a 
partial success, the chances of the mind being blown away by the Vasanas  or

158 tendencies of the mind. On the other hand Karma Yoga  is suited to all 
aspirants. It consists in the discharge of all works ordained by the scriptures 
(3 kinds are there – daily obligatory duties, occasional duties, and desire 
prompted duties). Karma Yoga  consists in performing all these duties without 
an eye on the fruits. To maintain such an attitude one must have the 
know ledge of being the Atman  at the core and not the body. This is where 
Jnana Yoga  is needed.  
Sri Krishna  advises that even those competent  to practice Jnana Yoga  should 
resort to Karma Yoga  for 2 reasons – (a) there is nothing in it that obstructs 
the growth of Jnana  (b) One will set an example for a vast majority to follow.  
So Sri Ramanujacharya  advocates a combination of these two  Yogas  for the 
harmonious development of one’s spiritual life.  
Essence of the Second Hexad: Bhakti Yoga  
Chapters 7th to 12th are covered by the second Hexad. In this Hexad the 
doctrine of Bhakti  is elaborated. In the Vishishtadvaita  system Bhakti  is built 
on the f oundation of Jnana and not a preparatory discipline to  Jnana as in the 
Advaita  system. In addition the meaning of  Jnana  differs vastly between the 
two systems. In the Advaita system it is the intuitive understanding that the  
Jiva is one with the Ishvara.  However, in the Vishishtadvaita system it is the 
understanding that one is the  Atman  and not mere body -mind. One who has 
achieved it is referred to in the  Gita as Sthita -Prajna.  An aspirant who has 
achieved this state gets a continuous memory of Ishvara . And Ishvara  is the 
over-lord (Sesi)  to whom the aspirant is liege (Sesha). This understanding of 
one’s correct relationship with Ishvara  is the higher aspect of  Jnana  that helps 
devotion to attain fullest maturity. When the Jiva gets established in Atman  
consciousness ( Atmaavalokana Buddhi ) then a continuous and unobstructed 
flow of consciousness towards Lord Narayana  starts occurring. This is Bhakti  
in its highest form and described by expressions such as Para -Bhakti  and 
Parama Bhakti.  Unless this is achieve d, the load of Karma  obstructs the flow 
of memory towards the Lord.  
Before a stable Bhakti  gets established, some preparatory work could be 
practiced. The practice of Karma Yoga  ably informed by Jnana Yoga  in the 
practice of the 3 kinds of works indicated earlier can be performed as an 
offering to Purushottama,  the Supreme Being. These can be done by all 
aspirants at any stage. There are other aids to devotion like worship of 
images in te mples, visiting holy places etc.  
The description of Supreme Being take s centre stage in the second Hexad. 
He is the origin, support and dissolving ground of the whole Universe. Though 
He is distinct from and unaffected by it, He is one whole with the animate 
nature ( Jiva) and the inanimate nature ( Jagat ) forming His two powe rs or 
Prakr itis. These two powers ( Jiva- Jagat ) constitute the Cosmos which forms

159 His body. The body -soul ( Sarira -Sariri ) relationship between Ishvara and His 
Prakritis  is used by Sri Ramanuja  to explain the Mahavakya  (“Tat Tvam Asi”)  
of the Vedanta. Tat T vam Asi  (meaning That Thou Art) declares some kind of 
identity between the Supreme Being (“Tat” ) and Jiva (“Tvam”).  Sri Ramanuja  
interprets that the relationship between Ishvara  and Cosmos as a whole on 
the one hand and every Jiva on the other hand is expl ained by his body -soul 
(Sarira -Sariri ) doctrine. The mighty  Ishvara  who is the in -dweller in the cosmic 
body is also in -dweller in every Jiva. “Tat”  refers to  Ishvara  as the in -dweller of 
the Cosmic body, and “Tvam” refers to the same Ishvara as the in -dweller of 
the Jiva. Thus all bodies, Cosmic and Individual are held together in an 
indissoluble relationship ( Aprthak -siddhi ) in one and same  Ishvara.  As an 
example, waves which we see as distinct from water in the ocean as a whole 
cannot be separated from t he ocean. It can have no existence separate from 
the ocean. Similarly, in the relation between Ishvara  and the Jiva-Jagat , the 
distinction between them is eternal and in the nature of things.  
As the Jiva-Jagat  constitutes His body and are His Prakaaraas  (modes) He 
can be called the material cause of the Universe (for, this Universe is 
completely moulded by His will). He is also the instrumental cause of the 
Universe ( Nimitta -Kaarana ) in its evolution and dissolution. The Karmas  of the 
Jivas are what make t hem work in a particular way. But the sanctioning will of 
God is essential for the fulfilment of the Karmas.   
Bhakti  is generated by contemplation on the Divine mystery and majesty. His 
mystery consists in that He manifests this Universe of both living and  non-
living beings and also dwells in them as their Soul. At the same time, it is not 
He that is contained by them but it is He who contains them. He pervades 
everything without being affected or limited by them. His will is their support 
from without and His pervasion from within. And His majesty consists in being 
the All -creator. He is the only Being free from the hold of Karma.  Also it is He 
who distributes and makes operative the Karma  of all beings up to Brahma. At 
the end of the Cosmic cycle, the whol e Universe dissolves into His Prakrti  
(Nature) and become latent in it. At the beginning of a new cycle it comes out 
of that nature. The Universe constitutes His body both in the latent and patent 
conditions. And He has absolute control over it. These acti vities do not bind 
Him in any way or at any stage.  
His majesty is further declared by an enumeration of His  Vibhutis  (glorious 
manifestations) which cover all faculties and entities in the Universe. It is 
declared that He supports this entire Universe by a  fragment of His Being. To 
those who are steadfast in their devotion to Him, He bestows that illumination 
of understanding by which they come to Him.  
He is not only a God of mystery and majesty, but also a God of love to whom 
the devotees are very dear. To  those who adore Him by an act of supreme

160 self-surrender, He is like a loving father forgiving all their short comings. He 
accepts all worship and grants their fruits. Even those who worship other 
deities, without knowing that Narayana  is the Supreme Being , are, in fact, 
worshipping Narayana  only. His worship is very simple. The sole requisite is 
devotion. Lord Narayana  accepts with joy even a flower, leaf or water from a 
pure hearted devotee. He says “whatever you do, whatever you eat, whatever 
you offer i n sacrifice, whatever you give in charity, whatever austerity you 
perform- do that as an offering to Me”. This is real renunciation, Sanyasa , and 
one who does this is freed from the bonds of Karma . He will attain liberation 
and go to Him. His grace extends  even to sinners and those considered unfit 
for emancipation. It is declared “Even a confirmed sinner, if he worships Me 
with unwavering faith and devotion, must indeed be considered righteous, for 
he has taken the right resolve. Soon he will become righte ous and attain to 
lasting peace. No devotee of mine will ever perish”.  
The Gita divides devotees into four classes. (a) Aarta (one seeking relief from 
misery). (b)  Jijnasu  (One in quest of Atman). (c) Artharthi  (one seeking worldly 
objects) (d) Jnani (the knowing one. According to Gita all these devotees are 
generous ( Udarah ). But Jnani is considered by the Lord as His own  Atma  
(self). Jnani , in fact, has no quest. He feels supreme satisfaction in the 
realisation of his servant ship ( Seshatva ) to God. Such a devotee is as dear to 
the Lord as a calf is to the mother cow. This conception of the Jnani  
emphasises the inseparable closeness to the Lord but not the oneness of the  
Jiva with the Lord. The Lord speaks of such devotees as His very self. Lord 
Narayana is the only means for attaining Him.  
Arjuna  becomes curious and wanted to experience the Supreme Divine. Lord 
Krishna  grants him the special power to perceive the Cosmic form of the Lord. 
In that limitless form Arjuna  sees the whole Universe with the infini te Prakrti  
and countless Jivas ; he also sees Devas, Asuras, Gandharvas  and many 
others; in addition he sees all that our ordinary understanding reveals as past, 
present and future; he also sees the battle of Kurukshetra  which is yet to be 
fought and many w arriors on both sides rushing headlong into His fearful 
mouth to meet with destruction. Lord Krishna explains that what Arjuna  is 
seeing is His manifestation as Time, in which all beings are generated, 
sustained and consumed. Arjuna was made to understand that the fighting 
and destru ction is being done by the Lord Himself and Arjuna’s  involvement is 
only to be a semblance of His instrument in the task. The glory of the Cosmic 
form fills  Arjuna  with awe. He prays to Lord Krishna  to appear as his usual 
gentle  form. Sri Krishna resuming the gentle form informs  Arjuna  that the form 
he has wi tnessed is very difficult to behold and only those who take refuge in 
Him with unswerving devotion will be able to know this form in truth.  
Chapter -12, which forms the conclu sion of the 2nd Hexad begins by a query 
from Arjuna as to which of the two is a better knower of Yoga –

161 (a)    those who adore you in utter devotion considering you as he 
supreme end  
(b)     those who meditate on the Akshara  (the indestructible) and Avyakta  
(the U nclear). In Advaitic  interpretation Akshara  and Avyakta  are 
interpreted as changeless and formless.  
According to  Sri Ramanujacharya  these word describe  Jiva in its pristine 
nature. The Jiva is further described as Anirdesya  (not subject to verbal 
defin ition), Sarvatraga  (pervading everywhere) and Achintya  (not graspable 
by thought). The Lord gives a clear answer. (a) Both these aspirants 
ultimately reach the same goal. (b) For an embodied being (one with body 
consciou sness) task of concentration on the rea l self and feeling that it is his 
real nature is very difficult (c) Resignation to the Lord is easier and is a direct 
path. In this case the Lord Himself becomes the redeemer.  Sri 
Ramanujacharya  clarifies that success in practices such as  Dhyana  
(meditati on or continuous one -pointed thought),  Jnana  (knowledge of the self) 
and Abyasa  (repeated pra ctice to remember the Lord) can be achieved only 
after the effects of sinful Karmas  have been eliminated. This achievement is 
possible only through works done as o ffering to the Lord, without an eye on 
their fruits. Thus Karma -phala -tyga is the genesis of all spiritual development. 
For one who has achieved this and having absolute faith and spirit of 
surrender to the Lord, the pure path of devotion is possible. Such  a devotee is 
not required to follow Jnana Yoga.  From the second Hexad we get two views 
of the Divine nature –  
a) Its transcendence (Paratva)  
b) Saulabhya (easy accessibility). How are they to be reconciled?  
 
His Paratva comes out from such ideas as – not ea sily accessible to such 
divine beings as Lord Brahma and Lord Shiva; manifesting the whole 
Universe with a fragment of His Being and not affected by it at all; His being 
the will o perating the whole Universe including periodic dissolution into its 
causal c ondition and bringing it back to a manifested state etc  ; Side by side is 
depicted His Saulabhya (easy accessibility). Easy accessibility does not mean 
cheap accessibility. It means He reveals Himself easily to those who yearn for 
Him and have unswerving d evotion to Him. Such a devotee is called a Jnani. 
Jnani depends on God like a calf does on its mother cow. His Saulabhya is 
also is also shown during His role as an incarnation. . For the world welfare 
He is born as a man while still retaining His divinity . Sri Ramanujacharya 
describes this as Jagad -upakriti -maanusha. His easy accessibility is given 
with an e xample. When a lame man wants to mount an elephant, the elephant 
bends its knees to enable the man mount it. The elephant has not lost its 
elephantine nature.

162 Essence of the Third  Hexad   
This Hexad covers chapters 13 to 18. In this Hexad a more detailed 
examin ation on Atman, Prakrti  and the Supreme Being takes place. A more 
detailed examination on how the Gunas  of Prakrti bind the Atman  is 
presented.  In the 13th chapter  Prakrti  is demonstrated as the object that is 
seen (Kshetra  or the Field). The Purusha is demonstrated as the Seer 
(Kshetrajna  or the Field -knower). From the 14th chapter to the 17th, the three 
Gunas - Sattva, Rajas  and Tamas  and their fun ctioning on all aspects of 
human life are elaborated. This explains on how  Prakrti  maintains a hold on 
the Purusha. Extreme dom inance of Tamas generates a demonic nature 
which leads the soul to “N araka”, whose three gates are described as – 
sexuality, ange r and greed.  The 15th chapter is called as Purushottama Yoga  
and is a very important chapter. It is clearly pointed out that there are three 
entities; (1) Kshara  (the changeful body -entangled Jiva) (2) Akshara (the 
changeless  Atman, also described as  Kutas tha (this refers to liberated Jivas  
taken as a whole and are of uniform nature of bliss -consciousness. They are 
unaffected by any change like the body -bound souls (Ksharas ). (3) 
Purushottama - the Supreme Being who is above all spirits, both liberated and 
un-liberated (Kshara  and Akshara ). He pervades the three worlds and 
maintains them all by His will. Lord  Krishna  declares Himself to be that 
Purushottama,  distinct and superior to both  Kshara  and Akshara.   
In the 18th chapter it is maintained that Sanyasa  (renunciation) and Tyaga  
(abandonment) are identical in their real meaning. Krishna gives His view that 
abandonment of fruits alone is valid. Yet holy acts like worship, charity, 
austerity and ordained duties should never be given up as they form the 
means for the purification of the aspirants mind. The four Varnas  are 
explained as character types according to the dominance one or the other of 
the three Gunas.  Duties in life allocated in scriptures to the different character 
types are meant for their higher evolution. They have to be discharged 
conscientiously as offering to God. By discharging one’s duties ( Svadharma ) 
as worship to the Lord, man obtains greater spiritual competence.  
The meditation process for attaining the Brahman  to be followed by one who 
has attained this state of purification is next described. Once Brahman  
consciousness is attained, devotion of the highest order for the Supreme 
Person naturally flows from the consciousness of such a devotee. He will then 
realise who He is and how great H e is. Through that Supreme Devotion he 
enters into Him. It is stressed that it is not knowledge but devotion born out of 
it is the cause for Mukti.  In the succeeding verses,  Gita ascends to a 
crescendo of its teaching. In chapter 18, Verse 66 we come acros s the well 
known Charama Sloka , quoted below – 
Sarvadharmaan parityajya maam ekam saranam vraja |  
Aham thvaa sarva paapebhyo Moksha yishyaami maa sucha: ||

163 “Completely relinquishing all Dharmas,  seek Me alone for refuge, I will relieve 
you from all sins.  Grieve not.” Some clarification is essential here. 
Relinquishment here does not mean giving up of all devotional duties. In this 
instance, relinquishing all Dharmas  means the complete relinquishment of the 
sense of agency, possessiveness, fruits in the pr actice of Karma, Jnana  and 
Bhakti Yogas . It is in realising the Lord as the agent, object of worship, the 
means and end in the pursuit of Moksha.   
Bhakti and Prapatti  
In his Gita Bhashya, Sri Ramanujacharya  does not clearly state his views on 
the Prapatti marga.  However, his views come out clearly in his Gadya Traya . 
Bhakti  refers to practising love of God, taking in various positive aids in such 
practice, with the idea that if we take those aids as the means, we can thereby 
attain Him.  Prapatti means the a cceptance of one’s utter helplessness to be 
redeemed by any means that one could adopt, and resigning to the Lord both 
as the means and end.  In the Vaishnava  tradition these two are illustrated by 
what are called Markata Kishora Nyaya  and Maarjala Kishora Nyaya . In the 
Markata Kishora Nyaya a baby monkey holds on tightly to its mother while 
being transported from place to place. Its safety depends on how tightly it is 
holding on to the mother. In the case of Maarjala Kishora Nyaya  the mother 
cat carries the  baby without any effort from the baby. The case of Prapatti 
marga is similar to the Maarjala Kishora Nyaya.  The devotee’s absolute 
resignation to the Lord makes the Lord both the means and end.  
Other than this, there are other distinctions, in terms of fo rm and 
requir ements, between the Bhakti marga  and the Prapatti marga . The Bhakti 
marga  described by Sri Ramanujacharya  is open only to those who are 
eligible for the Upanishadic way of Upasana . Performance of ritualistic works 
prescribed for the twice -born classes along with Jnana Yoga  (meditation on 
the diffe rence between Atman  and body -mind) is essential. Only when this 
Jnana Yoga  is practiced will the Karma Yoga  be really detached. Both these 
disciplines require the study of Vedas  and Upanishads . Study o f Vedas  and 
Upanishads  is open only to the twice born. This would mean the practice of 
these two di sciplines is restricted to the twice born classes. Bhakti  is the end 
product of the practice of  Jnana and Karma Yogas . From this it is seen that 
the competen ce of the Bhakti Yoga  is restricted to a small section of the 
people.  
Does that mean there is no way for the liberation for the vast majority of 
people? Yes there is. It consists in Prapatti , the absolute surrender to the Lord 
that we talked about. This marga requires no  Vedic  studies, rituals or 
Upan ishadic  meditation. Absolute faith and trust in God is adequate. Thus the 
Lord is made both as the means and the end.  Gita has many passages which 
yield this meaning. Refer to chapter 32, verse 9. Lord Krishna says “By taking

164 refuge in Me even men of evil birth, women, Vaisyas  and also Sudras  attain 
the Supreme state”. The classes referred to are not eligible for Vedic 
Upasanas  and for that reason excluded from Bhakti marga.  
If these verses are taken together it  will be evident that Gita does not insist for 
redemption on Vedic Upasana or ritualism. Sharanagati to the Lord alone is 
adequate.  
Other Geetas  
 
There are a number of other Gitas  
``Gita means a song. There are several other Gitas in Hindu Scriptures in 
addition to the Bhagavad Gita. However, Bhagavad Gita is the most popular 
and well known one  
Following are some – 
(1) Anu gita    
(2) Ashtavakra gita( 
teaches sanyasa)    
(3) Avadhoota gita 
(teaches sanyasa)   
(4) Bhikshu gita   
(5) Bhramara gita 
(Bhagavatam)   
(6) Bodhya gita   
(7) Brahma gita I 
(skandha purana)  
 (8) Brahma gita II(Yoga 
vasishta)   
(9) Devi gita   
(10) Ganesha gita 
(Ganesha purana)  
(11)  Gopika gita 
(12) Guru gita  
(13) Hamsa gita   
 (11)  Gopika gita 
(14) Hanumad gita   
(15) Harita gita   
(16) Iswara gita (Kurma 
purana)   
(17) Kapila gita(reg 
Hatha yoga)   
(18) Manki gita   
(19) Parashara gita   
(20) Pingala gita    
(21) Rama gita 
(adhyatma 
Ram ayana)  (22) Ribhu 
gita  
(23) Rudra gita  
(24) Sampak a gita    
(25) Siva gita   
 (26) Sriti gita 
(Bhag avatam)   
(27) Surya gita (teaches 
visista advaita)  
 (28) Suta gita (skandha 
purana)   
(29) Uddhava gita   
(30) Uttara gita(teaches 
sanyasa)   
 (31) Vasishta gita  
(32) Vibhishana gita  
(33) Vicakhyu gita   
(34) Vr itra gita   
(35) Vyasa gita (Kurma 
purana)   
(36) Yama gita ( 
Nrsimha purana)   
 (37) Yama gita (Agni 
purana)   
(38) Yama gita (Vishnu 
purana)  
 
Yoga Vasishta  
 
Yoga Vasishta  is one of the revered spiritual texts like the Bhagavad Gita.  It 
was written by the celebrated Maharshi Valmiki. It is one of the longest texts

165 in Sanskrit after the Mahabharata. It consists of 32,000 shlokas including 
numerous short stories and anecdotes to illustrate its contents.  
Prince Rama  returns from touring the country. He returns  in an utterly 
disillusioned mood. King Dasaratha expresses concern to Brahmarishi 
Vasishta.  The sage begins his discourse to Rama.  This discourse comes out 
as Yoga Vasishta. Yoga Vasishta  is divided into six parts –  
1.Dis-passion  
2.Qualification of the seeke r  
3.Creation  
4.Existence  
5.Dissolution and  
6.Liberation . 
Brahmarishi Vasishta  is one of the Saptarishis . He is the Manasa putra  of God 
Brahma. Arundhathi  is the wife of the sage. Apart from the monumental Yoga 
Vasishta,  he has written another treatise on astro logy by the name “ Vasishta 
Samhita”.  
Brahmarishi had an ashram in Ayodhya spread over 40 acres. Today all that 
remains is a small ashram in about one fourth of an acre. The ashram has 
within it a well that is believed to be source of river Sarayu.  Many spi ritual 
minded people visit this ashram and find enormous spiritual energy around 
this well .

166 Chapter VII - Miscellaneous  
 Does God exis t? 
 
Most of the people worship God, and nearly all of us do pray to Him at some 
point in life or other. The Hindu syst em does not insist that we should pray a 
certain number of times per day or month. Nor does it insist that we should go 
to the temple a certain number of times. In fact, it does recognize that we are 
involved in Samsara  and this calls for our active involv ement in duties other 
than praying.  
Keeping this in mind, as Hindus, we can offer our prayer in simple words or in 
more elaborate ritualistic manner. We can offer our prayers from home as 
well. Prayer can be offered in any one of the three different forms  – (a) 
Kaayika (physical) (b) Vachika  (oral) (c) Maanasa  (mental).  
According to the Bhagavata Purana , the practice of devotion could take nine 
different forms. They are – (1) Hearing about God ( Kaayika)  (2) Singing about 
His greatness ( Vachika) (3) Rememb ering Him ( Maanasa ) (4) Serving Him 
through the service of  all beings as His embodiments ( Kaayika, Vachika, 
Maanasa ) (5) Worshipping Him in Holy images ( Kaayika, Vachika), (6) Paying 
obeisance to Him ( Kaayika, Vachika, Maanasa ) (7) Practicing the attitude  of a 
servant  towards Him ( Kaayika, Vachika, Maanasa ) (8) Cultivating loving 
intimacy with Him ( Maanasa ) (8) Surrendering one’s, body, mind and soul to 
Him ( Kaayika, Vachika, Maanasa ). 
Yet, with all this, under severe stress, with nowhere to go, and in sh eer 
desperation we get a fundamental doubt – Does God exist? Does He exist at 
all anywhere or are we accepting this blindly? We feel guilty when this thought 
arises. But there are a number of others - atheists, agnostics and others who 
will raise this ques tion anyway.  
This is not a question that has been raised just today. It has been raised by a 
number of people at different times. You just have to read the Puranas . Also, 
this is not a problem faced by the Hindu religion only. Other religions have 
also be en facing this question. A number of books have, in fact, been written 
on this subject. The matter has now been thoroughly complicated and 
confused. At times, one wonders, whether the question is being raised purely 
with a spirit of enquiry.  
Vedas are the Holy Scriptures and authoritative texts for the Hindu religion. 
How does our traditional Vedic system approach this question?  
Before trying to answer, one has to understand what the definition or 
Lakshana  of God is. Never give a proof or evidence of existe nce or otherwise

167 before clearly defining what you are after. What do you mean by the word 
God? After knowing exactly what we are looking for, we will be in a better 
position to answer the question. If not, it will lead to a greater confusion.  Each 
one of us have our own concept of God and to answer the question we have 
to know what the concept of God is.  
Vedas have a very clear definition of God and there is no ambiguity there. The 
Lakshanas of God is – Chaitanya Swaroopa; Jnaana Swaroopa; Prajnaana 
Swaro opa; Vignaana Swaroopa; Chidroopa.  
Chaitanya, in English, is referred to as Consciousness. And what is 
Consciousness? This is also defined in our scriptures. Consciousness is that 
principle because of which we are aware of everything around us. That 
Consciousness is God. It is awareness. So the question of “Does God exist” 
may now be rephrased as “Does Consciousness exist?” All our experiences in 
this world are due to our consciousness. In other words, the world of 
experience of ours is the result of our co nsciousness. Every experience of life 
or every activity of life is possible because we are endowed with 
consciousness.  
Lord Krishna in Bhagavad Gita says  
Utkraamantam sthitam vaa api bhunjanam vaa gunanvitam  
vimudhaa na anupashyanti pashyaanti Jnaana ca kshusah  (15-10) 
Meaning – 
“The deluded are those who misconceive the body as the Atman.  They are 
incapable of discriminating between the two. They can not see the Atman 
either while it is residing in the body or when it is leaving it. However, those 
who possess the eye of knowledge perceive the self as being different in all 
cond itions”.  
If consciousness refers to awareness, then the question of “Does 
consciou sness exist?” may be rephrased as “Are you aware of everything 
around you?”. Is there anyone in t his room who is not aware of things around 
him? We are all conscious beings and are aware of everything around us. So 
the existence of God is proven. We are in the proximity of God all the time.  
The next question that might arise is - what is the nature o f this 
consciou sness? What is His Swaroopa ? Science has not been able to come 
up with an answer. It is not a material, physical, chemical or a biological 
principle. Nor is it a neurological principle. Science does not have an answer 
to the question of – what is the nature of consciousness. However, our 
scriptures have an a nswer.  
Lord Krishna  says –

168 Yasmaat ksaram ateeto ham aksaraad api chottamah  
ato’ smi loke vede cha prathitah purushottamah (15-18) 
Meaning - 
As I transcend the perishable and am also s uperior to the imperishable. I am 
well known as the Purushottama  (the Supreme Being) in both Vedic and 
secular literature.  
In Kathopanishad , one of the major Upanishads , we find Yamadharmaraja 
enlightening his pupil, Nachiketa , on the nature of God. He say s – 
“He, who has known, that (i.e. Atman ) which is without sound ( Asabdam ), 
without touch ( Asparsam ), without form ( Aroopam ), without taste (Arasam ), 
eternal and without smell ( Agandhavat ), without beginning or end, beyond the 
great ( Mahat ) and unchangi ng, is freed from the jaws of death” Chapter 1, Valli 
3, 15  
Yamadharmaraja further proceeds to describe Brahman  to his student as 
follows – 
Yena roopam rasam gandham shabdaan sparscha maithunaan  
Yete naiva vijanaati kimatra parishishyate yetuth vai thatu  -  
Chapter 2, Valli 1, 3 
“The Brahman is at the back of all sense perceptions (form, taste, smell, 
sound, touch and sexual pleasure) mind and intellect.”  
The God or consciousness is a non - material and non -energy principle. This 
non- material principle  is beyond all the laws that govern the matter. In 
addition, all the objects in this world, big and small, living or non -living, are 
governed by “Time and Space”. But this Chaitanya , which is God, is not 
governed even by Time or Space. Therefore the script ures use the word 
Ananta Chaitanya  with reference God. Hence, in answer to the question on 
the form of God, it is said Ananta Asanga Chaitanya Swaroopa”  
This Asanga, Ananta Chaitanya  which is a non material principle and which is 
in every one of us is God.  This visible body of ours, including all its internal 
parts like hands, legs, brain etc are all activated by the invisible Chaitanya, 
which is God.  
 How old are the Vedas ? 
        Indus Valley Civilization, Aryan Invasion of India and other stories  
 Intro duction  
The Vedic culture has been pervading the Indian subcontinent for thousands 
of years. The antiquity and continuity of this culture can be seen from the

169 recordings in the oldest annals of mankind – the Vedas. One naturally 
wonders – how old are the Vedas? The study of history is important. The 
antiquity of a culture’s history and the achievements of its people provide the 
nation with an identity and a sense of self esteem.  
While the chronological establishment of Indian history is important, politica l 
considerations in India took precedence when its rulers discovered that 
carefully implanted distortions would serve them well in subjugating the proud 
Indian race.  Western indologists misrepresented the historical data available 
and put forth theories b ased merely on speculation and pre -conceived beliefs. 
This served a social and political purpose of domination, proving the 
superio rity of western culture and religion. At the same time, the Hindus were 
made to feel that their culture is not the great thin g their ancestors had said it 
was. In fact, some of the Indians felt ashamed of their culture, that its basis is 
neither historical nor scientific. As a result, they started believing that the main 
line of civilization was first developed in the Middle Eas t, and then in Europe. 
The thought has grown that the Indian culture is peripheral and secondary to 
that developed elsewhere. Western Vedic scholars participated in the 
carefully o rchestrated strategy of discredit, divide and conquer the Hindus.  
As a resu lt, the compelling reasons for the Aryan Invasion theory were neither 
literary nor archeological but political and religious. This is all history. More 
relevant is what the Hindu scholars and Archeologists are doing about it. If 
they accept the misrepresen tations of their own culture silently and passively, 
the state of affairs will continue and they will have no one to blame except 
themselves. One has to feel that misrepresentations of their culture are not a 
matter to be taken lightly. A number of Hindus read and accept whatever that 
was written by the scholars like Max Muller, Monier Williams and others. It is 
about time that Hindu scholars carefully study the information and evidence 
available and try to establish the dating of the Vedas.  
Background  
Acco rding to currently established chronology, it all started with the invasion 
of a so called Aryan Race around 1500 B.C.  The invaders, described to be 
light skinned tribes from central Asia, ruthlessly and forcefully subdued the 
original inhabitants, dark s kinned Dravidian of the land. They proceeded to 
impose on the locals an alien language and culture. The invading hordes 
settled down on the banks of river Sindhu  (Indus) and within few centuries 
(1200 B.C) compiled the Vedas . Subsequently the Brahmanas, Sa mhitas, 
Puranas  and numerous other scriptures were composed. The inference is that 
the text of the Rig Veda  was composed by them during the early stages of 
their pre sence in India, when they were still busy invading, conquering and 
establishing settlements  all over the Punjab and the northwest, later to spread 
out all over northern India. .Where does the Ramayana and the Mahabharata

170 fit in? A probable date of 1000B.C to 300 B.C was allocated. This so called 
pre-Aryan  civilization is said to be evidenced by the large urban ruins of what 
has since been called as “Indus Valley Civilization” The ruins of this early 
Indus Valley Civilization dated 3000 BCE are at Harappa  and Mohenjodaro . A 
British a rchaeologist Wheeler was supposed to have been the first who 
forwarded the Aryan Invasion theory. Suggestions then existed which 
indicated that the V edas were indeed composed by tribes, the so called 
Aryans, outside of India!! They then brought the Vedas to India.  
Invasion Theory  
The date of invasion is quoted as 1500 B.C. How was this date arrived at? 
Well known scholars of the nineteenth century believed in Biblical chronology. 
According to this the date of creation of Earth is widely supported as 4000 
B.C. The flood was dated around 2500 BC. Keeping these two dates t he date 
for the Aryan Invasion was speculated at 1500 BC. Since the Indus valley 
culture was earlier than this, they concluded that it had to pre -Aryan. Western 
Indologists also made questionable interpretation of the Rig Veda , ignoring 
the sophisticated c ulture presented within it.  In the end, the Vedic culture was 
said to be that of the primitive nomads who came out of central Asia. The 
hypothesis of an Aryan invasion was based the conflicts between the light 
skinned Aryans and the dark race of “Dasyus”  described in the Vedic 
literature. This aspect is said to have been reinforced by the skeletal findings 
in the excavated sites in the Indus valley. Let us now examine how the facts 
line up.  
Facts vs Speculations  
Literary Evidence  
For the Indo -Aryan  invasion of India no direct evidence is available. Indian 
Vedic scholars like Sri Dayanand Saraswati  and Sri Bala Gangadhar Tilak  
rejected the Aryan Invasion theory based on literary analysis.  If the invasion 
theory is correct, then it would call for conc rete evidence regarding  
a) Foreign lands  
b) Migration from foreign lands to India  
c) References to non -Aryan aboriginal inhabitants  
d) References to conflicts between the so called Aryan invaders and 
the non -Aryan  aboriginals  
A thorough examination by scholars like Shrikant G. Talageri revealed that the 
Rig Veda itself does not contain one single reference which provides the 
actual evidence in respect of any of the four points mentioned above. All 
concl usions have been arrived at based on inferential s peculation. Not  a

171 single re ference  suggesting that an invasion occurred appears in the 10552 
verses of the Rig Veda. Also the Rig Veda does not contain any reference to 
any fo reign place west of Afghanistan from where these invaders were 
supposed to have come.  Once agai n the Rig Veda contains no reference to 
people spea king non -Indo-European languages – which is what non -Aryan 
basically means.  
Ambedkar arrives at the following conclusions,  
1) The Vedas do not know of any such race as the Aryan race.  
2) There is no evidence i n the Vedas of any invasion of India by the Aryan 
race and its having conquered the Dasas and Dasyus  supposed to be 
the natives of India.  
3) There is no evidence to show that the distinction between Aryans, Dasas 
and Dasyus  was a racial distinction.  
4) The Vedas do not support the contention that the Aryans were different 
in color from the Dasas and Dasyus . 
Scientific Verification  
A number of statements and materials presented in ancient Vedic literature 
can be shown to agree with modern scientific finding s. A number of 
archae ological findings and their analysis have brought the Aryan invasion 
theory in serious doubt. In fact the Aryan invasion theory, as it is presented, 
raises a paradox. On the one hand we have a vast Vedic literature without 
any a rchaeol ogical findings associated with them. And on the other hand we 
have 2500 archaeological sites from Indus - Sarasvata civilization without any 
literature associated with them. As evidence started pouring in, it became 
more evident that the two cultures (that  of the invader and the invaded) are 
one and the same. The paradox, then, ceases to exist.  
Sara svati Factor  
The largest concentration of Vedic culture appears in an area of Punjab and 
Rajasthan near the dry banks of ancient Saraswati and Drishadvati rivers . The 
Vedic culture was said to have been founded between the banks of these two 
rivers. The mighty river Saraswati was lauded as the main river in the Vedas. 
Vedic people were fully acquainted with this river and revered it. It was one of 
the largest rive rs then. However, the river Saraswati dried up. When did it dry 
up? Several independent studies indicate the period to be 1900 B.C.E. What 
sort of studies was conducted? Using modern scientific methods, such as 
satellite imagery and dating techniques, it c an be shown that the ancient 
statements of the Vedas are factual, not mythical as erroneously propagated. 
High resolution satellite images have verified descriptions in The Rig Veda of 
the descent of the ancient Saraswati River from its source in the Himal ayas to 
the Arabian Sea. The Saraswati River and its civilization are referred to in the

172 Rig Veda more than fifty times, proving that the drying up of the Saraswati 
River was subsequent to the origin of the Rig Veda, pushing this date of origin 
back into a ntiquity, casting further doubt on the imaginary date for the so -
called Aryan Invasion.  The significance of this date is that the composition of 
the Rig Veda must be well before that.  
Evidence of port city Dwaraka  
Marine archeology has been utilized off t he coast of Gujarat to discover the 
ancient port city of Dwaraka. Marine archaeological findings seem to 
corrob orate descriptions in the Mahabharata of Dwaraka as a large, well -
fortified and prosperous port city, which was built on land reclaimed from the 
sea, and later taken back by the sea.  
Apart from Dwaraka, more than thirty -five sites in North India have yielded 
archaeological evidence and have been identified as ancient cities described 
in the Mahabharata. Similarly, in Kurukshetra, the scene of the g reat 
Maha bharata war, Iron arrows and spearheads have been excavated and 
dated by thermoluminence to 2,800 B.C.E., the approximate date of the war 
given within the Mahabharata itself.  
Astronomical Dating of Vedas  
Examination of the Rig Veda,  Puraanas  provi de dates of events that took 
place thousands of years back. Since these dates contradicted the prevalent 
views of European historians, the Sanskrit texts were academically attacked 
with a view to disprove the authenticity of the contents. Max Muller, tried  to 
interpret the astronomical evidences as imaginary,”pious frauds” created by 
cunning Brahmanas . Numerous references were considered as unauthentic 
and unreliable.  
Let us examine how this dating is done.  
There are 4 Special days in a Tropical Year  
(a) Winter Solstice (Starting of Uttarayan ); 
 (b) Spring Equinox ( Ugadi );  
(c)  Summer Solstice (Starting of Dakshinayanam ); 
 (d) Autumn Equinox.  
The Earth takes 365.25 days to cover one full orbit around the Sun. And that 
is 360 degrees. In one day the Ear th covers 0.9856 degrees. This is referred 
to as the tropical Year .   
A sidereal year  is the time taken by the Earth to orbit the Sun once with 
respect to the fixed stars.. Hence it is also the time taken for the Sun to return

173 to the same position with res pect to the fixed stars after apparently traveling 
once around the elliptic. It was equal to 365.256363004 days  at noon 1 
January 2000. One sidereal year is roughly equal to 1 + 1/26000  or 
1.0000385 tropical years.  
The difference is caused by the precessi on of the equinoxes (meaning that 
the Earth wobbles on its axis).  The effect of this is - that roughly for every 60 
tropical years we will fall short of the sidereal year by 1 degree. More exactly 
for every 71.6 years we are short of the sidereal year by o ne degree. In India 
we follow a 60 year cycle and each year has a name ( Prabhava to Akshaya ). 
So, once in every (71.6* 360), which equals 25,776 tropical years we are 
short by 360 degrees or one full cycle. In addition the Sun takes 960 years 
(say 1000 yea rs) to step through a Nakshatra.  In very rough terms, an 
equinox or solstice will occur at immediately the previous Nakshatra in about 
1000 years later. And we have 27 Nakshatras  in the Hindu calendar.  
As an example (Ref “Dating of Ramayana and Vedas by Dr . P.V . Vartak”).  , in 
the year 1998 A.D the Sun at the summer Solstice (21st June) is in Aardra.  
During the time of Ramayana, it was in Swaati . The precession has an anti -
clockwise direction. So we have to count in reverse direction from mid Swaati 
195” to  Aardra 65.5”. It comes to 129.5”. Taking the rate of precession at 71.6 
years per degree we have (129.5 * 71.6) = 9272.2 or 9272 years. Subtracting 
1998, we get 7274 B.C years as the date of Ramayana.  
A number of modern day scholars have done work on astr onomical dating of 
Puranas and Vedas . Dr. P.V. Vartak has written an excellent book titled 
“Scientific Dating of Ramayana and Vedas”. It is recommended for reading.  
In conclusion, it has been believed that there is no evidence to determine the 
dates of eve nts in the Vedic / Ramayanic era. Some historians of the past 
even refuse to acknowledge that Rama and other characters from the 
Ram ayana even existed.  However, more evidence is coming to light to 
indicate dates for various events and for the Vedas as wel l. To decipher the 
astronomical encoding has not been a trivial task, and not many have 
attempted to do so. It should be noted that the ancient Indians had a prefect 
method of time measurement.

174  
Dates in Ramayana as Calculated by Dr. P.V. Vartak  
 
Incide nt Date  Hindu Calender  
Rama’s Birth  Tuesday, 4th Dec 7323 
B.C Uttaraashadha  
Chaitra Suddha 9th 
Puna rvasu  
Bharata’s Birth  Wednesday, 5th Dec 7323 
B.C Chaitra Suddha 10th 
Pushya  
Lakshmana & Shatrugna’s 
Birth Thursday, 6th Dec 7323 
B.C Chaitra Suddha 11th 
Aslesha  
Marriages  Friday, 7th April 7307 B.C  Bhaadradpada Suddha 3, 
U. Phalguni  
Exile to Forest  Thursday, 29th Nov 7306 
B.C Chaitra Suddha 9th, Pushya  
Dasharatha dies  Wednesday, 5th Dec 7306 
B.C Chaitra Pournami  
Ravana’s death  Sunday, 15th 7292 B.C  Phalguni, Amavasya  
Rama’s return to 
Bhara dwaja’s Ashram  Saturday, 5th Dec 7292 
B.C Chaitra Vadya, 5th  
Rama’s entry in Ayodhya  Sunday, 6th Dec 7292 B.C  Chaitra Vadya, 6th  
 
Veda / Upanishad  Approx Date  
Rig Veda  23920 B.C  
Taittiriya Braahmana  8000 B.C to 4 650 B.C  
Mahabharata  5480 B.C  
Prasnopanishad  5761 B.C  
Isopanishad  5480 B.C  
Vishnu Purana  1906 B.C  
Maitraayaniya Upanishad  1909 B.C  
Kausitaki Brahmana  2320 B.C  
Susruta Samhita  1710 B.C  
Matsya Purana  2000 to 1600 B.C  
Chankya lived  370 B.C and 283  B.C 
Kalidasa lived  About 500 CE  
Varaha Mihira lived  About 520 A.D  
 
Shradd ha 
What is Shraddha ?  
It is a very subtle qualification and is often misunderstood; it is commonly 
translated as Faith or belief. This translation has created a lot of confusion 
and problems. In the modern concept Faith is invariably associated with 
superstition – blind belief, without any enquiry. It has become a demarcatory 
word between religion and science. Faith is generally associated with religion 
and is regarded as a “friend” o f religion. Faith is regarded as an enemy of 
science – because you believe it without conducting any enquiry. In this

175 situation where Religion considers Faith as a friend & Science considers Faith 
as an enemy. So we are landed with a view that Religion and  Science are 
enemies!!  
The scientists say that in Faith you accept things. This means you accept 
things without enquiry. Where ever there is faith, there is no enquiry -there is 
no questioning. However, science is based on questioning or enquiry. In other  
words, Science depends on enquiry for progress. When enquiry stops - 
progress of science also stops. Since the view of science is that Faith accepts 
things without questioning, it is stopping the progress of science. So wherever 
there is faith, science is  not possible. When there is no science there is no 
progress. On this basis it is viewed that Faith belongs to the stone ages & 
Science belongs to the age of enlightenment. Many people are afraid now to 
say that they are religious – because they fear they may be considered as 
belonging to the dark ages. At the same time they want to pose as scientists, 
as rationalists; pose that they do not take anything lying down but have spirit 
of enquiry, have a spirit of questioning. So people want to avoid the word 
Shraddha & keep away from it.  
Is that the truth? We will now examine.  
First, the traditional word Shraddha cannot be translated as faith at all. There 
is no English equivalent for Shraddha at all. Let us look at it in another way. 
What actually does the wor d Shraddha refer to? Shraddha refers to a unique 
form of knowledge which is arrived at after a very subtle form of enquiry. What 
is the subtle form then? It is a form of enquiry which is rarely, if at all, 
employed these days. And this subtle form of enqui ry is not just today’s 
evolution. Our sages have been using this form of enquiry for 1000s of years. 
This form of enquiry was being used by them to gain special knowledge of 
impo rtant things.  
What is that enquiry? It asks the most fundamental question? An d what is that 
question? The question is, let us say –“Is there a world existing in front of 
you?”.  Yes, that is the question. If I say that it is existing –then a next 
question comes up. And that is “how do I know it is a fact and not a fiction? 
Have you  seen anyone conducting this type of enquiry? Most people do not 
make this enquiry? Even modern scientists do not make this enquiry but take 
it for granted or accept it. In such a case, our seers would call these modern 
people as superstitious.  
Our seers have raised this question and arrived at a very important 
know ledge. They accept that the world exists and they also accept that the 
world is a fact because it is revealed by our sense organs. The world revealed 
by the sense organs is taken as a fact, beca use we consider the sense 
organs as valid sources of knowledge. Then another question comes up –

176 how do you know that the sense organs are valid sources of knowledge? 
Sense organs are valid sources of knowledge because they are the primary 
sources of knowl edge. The next question then is -why do we say primary 
sources of knowledge are valid. The answer is – validity or correctness is 
inbuilt in every primary source of knowledge. Therefore, validity or 
trustworthiness is the i ntrinsic nature of every primary source of knowledge. 
As you notice, we have arrived at this answer by a series of queries or 
questions. Validity is inbuilt in every primary source of knowledge.  
 
In Sanskrit, validity inbuilt is called “ Swatah pramaanya”.   
 
This understanding or knowledg e you arrive at is then called “ Swatah 
pramaanya jnanam ”.  This understanding “Swatah pramaanya jnanam” is 
called Shraddha. So Shraddha has nothing to do with superstition at all. We 
have 5 sense organs or primary sources of knowledge. Each one is 
independ ent. The primary source of knowledge in our tradition is called “Upa 
Jeevya Pramanam”.   Jnanam of swathah pramanyam of an upajeeya 
pramanam is called Shraddha. Whatever is revealed by a sense organ is an 
ultimate fact. Science also says this.  We are not qu estioning an existing world 
because it is an “Upa Jeevya Pramanam”.  So Sraddha is not superstition, it is 
not belief, it is not against enquiry; it is a knowledge born e out of a deep & 
fundamental enquiry. Then how can Shraddha be an enemy of enquiry? In 
fact, it promotes enquiry. In our tradition, we have thousands and thousands 
of books of enquiry – Siddhi grandhas, Vichara grandhas. In fact, all our 
tradition is based on dialogue - not monologue. It is not as if – I say so and you 
better listen. The teach er promotes enquiry. The person who does not have 
Shraddha has not made a fundamental enquiry and has taken things for 
granted & and such a person is superstitious. It is a knowledge that is 
esse ntial before you start studying the scriptures.  
 
We have 5 Pr imary sense organs and every sense organ reveals a unique 
fact. We then have 5 primary sources of knowledge. The knowledge revealed 
by each sense organ is valid by itself. No other source is required for 
validation. The ears have no right to challenge the knowledge revealed by 
eyes. We do not say “I believe” the ship is green. We just say ‘ ship is green”.  
If you are interested we can offer one more primary source of knowledge – 
Upajeevya pramanyam.  Take it only if you are prepared to use it as a primary 
source of knowledge. If you do so, it will expand your field of knowledge. And 
that is the Vedas. They are a blessing given to us by our seers. Use it as the 
sixth primary source of knowledge. Veda is an Upajeevya pramanam.   
One primary source of knowledge w ill not obstruct a second one. It will not 
hurt the knowledge gained through the others. Every primary source of

177 knowledge will expand your horizon of understanding – provided you treat it 
as a primary source of knowledge. If you have Shraddha, we are prep ared to 
offer Veda as a primary source of knowledge. Our scriptures refer to Veda as 
Pratyaksha  – to indicate that Veda is a Primary sense organ. Vedas as you all 
know are called Shrutis – revealed to our ancient highly respected seers. 
These seers are a f ew and selected ones and do not suffer from any physical 
disability. They are also totally unbiased. So we can rely on what they 
communicated to us. This method is used even today – though in a different 
field – in legal cases. We take the words of the witn esses as true. The 
opposition tries to make the witness look unreliable. The accused is also put 
to death on the basis of witness produced.  If someone says he does not want 
to use the Vedas as the primary source of knowledge his horizon is limited. 
The cho ice is his. This does not mean that we disrespect or disregard other 
religions. Mahatma Gandhi said it best – 
 
"The truest test of civilisation, culture and dignity is character and not clothing. 
My religion forbids me to belittle or disregard other cultur es, as it insists under 
pain of civil suicide upon imbibing and living my own.”  – Mahatma Gandhi  
 Mantras  
 
Planet earth where we all live is a wonderful place. Apart from being the 
abode for millions of living beings, it is also a storehouse for a whole lo t of 
energy sources. No one can say for certainty that we know each and every 
one of the energy sources.  
Human beings have been trying for many years to gain control of the energy 
sources and then put them to use. Work done towards this is in the realm of 
scientists and engineers. Some are put for good causes and some others for 
disastrous causes.  
Much before the modern day scientists appeared on the scene, the Rishis  
from India have also been trying to find ways and means to identify, access, 
and put to u se energies or Shaktis  available in abundance in the Universe. 
For this reason they could be referred to as seer scientists. There is one basic 
difference though. Whereas the modern day scientists relied on machines and 
computers for their research work, t he tools the seer scientists employed to 
gain control have been vastly different. Spiritual powers and Mantra Shakti  
were predominantly the tools they used.  
This difference in approach directly results in differences in their outcome. 
The work of the mode rn day scientist, being the result of human endeavor can 
not escape attendant shortcomings such as inadequate design, bugs etc. 
Resulting failures may lead to disastrous consequences. On the other hand, 
the work done by the Rishis is carried out at the sup er-physical levels. One

178 should not imagine that work done at super -physical levels is haphazard and 
unpredictable. Law reigns supreme in every sphere - physical or super -
physical. So the work done by the Rishis conforms to and is governed by the 
laws of na ture. One good thing about the laws of nature is that all processes 
eventually revert to equilibrium or a stable position. And this safeguard always 
ensures that things do not get out of control. Otherwise the Universe would 
not have survived for so many y ears.  
While trying to understand the work done thousands of years back by the 
Rishis , we will first deal with Shaktis  in general and then follow it up with the 
means used to access them.  
At the start of c reation when manifestation took  place, the primary  
differenti ation is into Consciousness and Power ( Shakti). This Shakti , in turn, 
different iates further into innumerable powers corresponding to the 
multifarious fun ctions which have to be performed in a manifested universe. 
Each power or Shakti  is matched  by a corresponding function of 
consciousness. These Shaktis  and associated consciousnesses are the Devis  
and Devatas  of Hind uism. Each function and power is given a particular name 
and form. On further investigation the seer scientists found out that each  
Devata  is the presiding deity for a particular combination of sounds. This 
combination of sounds is called a mantra.  For each Devata  there is a specific 
mantra . When mantra  Shakti  is awakened by Sadhana , the presiding Devata  
responds.  
Now what is a mantra  and how are they constructed and wh o is eligible to 
construct them?  
Mantra is composed of certain letters arranged in a definite sequence of 
sound of which the letters are the representative signs. Mantra  must be 
intoned in the proper way according to Svara (rhythm) and Varna  (sound). 
Bija–Akshara  is a seed letter. It is a very powerful mantra. All Devatas have 
their own Bija-Akshara . Generally, the Bija-Mantra  consists of a single letter. 
Sometimes it constitutes of several syllables. Though the Bija-Mant ras have a 
significant inner meaning, they may not convey any on their face. The form of 
the Bija-Mantra  is the form of the Devata signified by it. Examples of some 
Bija-Mantras are given below.  
Five Mahabhutas  (Ether, Air, Fire, Water and Earth) Ham, Yam,  Ram, Vam, 
Lam 
Parabrahman           Aum 
Shiva                        Haum  
Mahalakshmi           Shreem  
Saraswati                  Aim 
Ganesha                 Gam

179 The basic principle underlying a mantra  is that this Univers e of ours is made 
up of different kinds of vibrations and energies working at different planes. We 
are familiar with the vibrations and energies that we experience in our every 
day lives at the physical plane – for example light, sound. However, the 
ancient Rishis  have identified presence of vibrations and energies at the 
super -physical levels. They have also discovered that thoughts, emotions and 
even subtler worlds (sookshma lokas) , to which reference is made frequently 
in our religious literature, are ba sed on vibrations and energy plays. Further 
invest igation by the Rishis revealed that not only all manifested worlds are 
based on various kinds of vibrations and energies but all these vibrations, in 
turn,  are connected with one another and can be traced to one fundamental 
all e mbracing vibration.  This primary vibration is the source of all other 
vibrations and is called “ Naada”.  The Ultimate Reality which is responsible for 
Naada  is referred to as Shabda Brahman .  
Another fact that has to be understood i n the theory of mantra yoga  is the 
existence of a relationship between vibrations, forms and consciousness.  
Sounds are vibrations. Vibrations give rise to definite forms. Combination of 
sounds creates complicated forms. When a tuning fork is kept in touch  with a 
metal plate carrying sand particles, the particles arrange themselves in a 
particular from. The form is unique to the frequency of the tuning fork. This is 
an experiment most of us might have conducted at schools. More elaborate 
experiments have be en conducted by scientists to study the relationships 
between sound and forms. The conclusions are – (1) Sounds produce shapes 
(2) Particular notes give rise to particular forms (3) If you desire to produce a 
particular form then you must produce a note of  definite frequency.  
A particular vibration will keep elements of a form together and the form will 
fall apart when the vibration ceases. These vibrations need not necessarily 
take place in the physical plane – but they may take place on different planes 
depending on the nature of the form and the life acting as the soul for it. The 
repetition of Panchakshara  mantra produces the form of Lord Shiva. The 
repetition of Ashtakshara  mantra produces the form of Lord Narayana . The 
repeated repetition of the mantra  produces in the mind, the form of the Devata  
connected with the mantra . And this form in turn becomes the center of our 
If vibration is related to both form and consciousness then we can use 
vibration to do two things – (a) use vibrations t o produce different kinds of 
natural phenomena (b) bring about changes in consciousness.  
Tantric literature gives a number of mantras  which can be used to bring about 
some specific desired results. It just utilizes powers hidden in certain 
comb ination of sounds to yield the desired results. Mantra Yoga , on the other

180 hand, utilizes powers hidden in certain combination of sounds for the un -
folding h uman consciousness. Japa , which refers to physical or mental 
repetition of mantras produces vibrations in diffe rent planes and enables the 
Saadhaka  to reach deeper layers of consciousness.  
How are mantras  constructed? Mantra  is essentially a combination of sounds. 
Sounds can be represented by the alphabets of a language. Hence mantras  
are constructed by arranging t he letters of the alphabet in certain 
combin ations with necessary directions for their exact and correct 
pronunciation. O bviously, this can only be done by a person who knows the 
subtler properties of the different sounds. No one can predict the effect 
produced by a certain combination of sounds without a thorough investigation 
and experimentation. These experiments have to be performed both on the 
physical and super physical planes. It is then obvious that only great Rishis 
who know the effects produced by  sounds and their combinations are 
qualified to construct mantras  and pass them on to the Saadhakas  for their 
Japa . The particular Rishi who has discovered or constructed the mantra after 
the necessary investigation is called the Rishi  of that particular m antra. 
Naturally, the power of the mantra  is dependent on the potency of the sound 
combinations used and the investig ations on its pronunciation and effects 
carried out by the Rishi.    
Japa is nothing but the repetition of a mantra. The verbal repetition i s called 
Vaikhari Japa.  Repetition in a whisper is called Upamsu Japa . Mental 
repet ition is called Manasika Japa . The Japas have been listed in the 
increasing order of their potency. There are rules prescribed to be followed 
during Japa . Strict adherence i s called for.  
What is the difference between a Mantra  and a Prayer? Mantra  Shakti  
depends on the potency of the sound combinations. But prayer, which is an 
equally powerful tool, depends on the devotion of the Saadhaka . Imagine on 
what can be achieved by t he combination of a mantra  and a prayer. Is there 
one such. Yes there is. Gayatri  is a combination of a mantra  and a prayer.  
Consevation during Vedic times  
“……… Such wealth I have seen in this country, such high moral values, 
people of such calibre, that I do not think we will ever conquer this country, 
unless we break the very backbone of this nation, which is her spiritual and 
cultural heritage, and , therefore , I propose that we replace her old and 
ancient ed ucation system, her culture for if the India ns think that all that is 
foreign and English is good and greater than their own they will loose their self 
esteem , their native self -culture and they will become what we want them , a 
truly dominated nation"  
Lord McCauley Monday 2nd February 1835

181 British  were not the first to occupy India. The country was occupied, 
plundered and ruled by a number of conquerors. Each employed their own 
technique to quickly subjugate the people. Brutal, subtle and psychological 
methods were employed. The end justified the m eans.  
The prevailing notion is that forestry as a “Science” and “Practice” originated 
in the Western Europe and further advanced in North America. . However, the 
truth is – principles of Forest conservation and sustainable management were 
fully entrenched  in “pre -historic” India. Forestry traditions have been 
documented in religious texts in India for a long time. The Upanishads and 
Vedas contain several references to directives on the use of resources based 
on r eligious teachings and with a deep sense of ethics. The Vedas, 
Upanishads  and Puranas  strongly bring home the point that the ultimate 
responsibility for preserving the Earth’s resources rests on mankind.  
Vedas  are authoritative documents for the Hindus. Some people think that the 
Vedas  only talk ab out the Supreme Being and our relationship with Him. That 
is not exactly the case. Vedas address a variety of subjects – Science, arts, 
Drama, Medicine, engineering, Love, warfare, economics etc. A section of 
topics at the end of each Veda  (Rig, Yajur, Saa ma, Adharva ) deal with the 
Supreme Being (Parabrahman ) and His relationship with Jeevas  and Prakruti 
(matter). These terminal sections are appropriately called Vedanta  (that which 
comes at the end of Vedas) . They are also referred to as Upanishads.   
The ti me line of Vedic civilization which gave rise to these scriptures is 
thought to be between 8000 to1500 BC.  
We will address the current topic in the following sequence.  
What the Vedic literature aimed at achieving  
What the Vedic literature said  
Guidelines for Practice  
Emperor Ashoka  and his pioneering work  
First “Veterinary hospital” in the world.  
Participatory Forest management  
Religion as a tool  
Vedic Literature  -  Aims & Achievements : 
a)  On conservation, they are aimed at preventing over -exploitation of 
land, forest and resources to ensure sustainability of resources.  
b)  Conservation ethics stress the need to harness renewable sources of 
energy (like solar energy)  
c)  Refrain from acts that result in the depletion of forests for obtaining 
firewood.

182 d)  Ecological balance is sought to be derived from an understanding of 
the interdependence of biotic (dealing with living organisms) and non -
biotic (dealing with non living organisms – light etc) components.  
e)  The religious texts show a lot of importance to vital  natural resources 
such as water, and water resources.  
What the Vedic literature said  
According to Upanishads , resources must be utilised to create wealth. 
Exce ssive exploitation of the Earth must be forbidden. It says:  
“Wealth must not be despised – that should be the vow  
Wealth must not be wasted   -  that should be the duty  
Wealth must be developed manifold – that should be the determination  
The Earth should be treated as a wealth by itself “  
Taittiriya Upanishad (3/7 -9) 
Isopanishad  further goes on to  say 
“You should nurture yourself  
with only that portion of resources  
which has been showered upon you.  
Must not covet anything more than that, for after all to whom do these natural 
endowments really belong to?”  
Isopanishad Verse -1 
Energy and environm ent 
Verses in ancient literature exhibit the importance given to harnessing natural 
resources.  
………..harness all round  
the energies held fast by stars  
and the earth. Collect all over the nutrition  
inherent in the tress and make use of all  
energies availab le in running waters.  
Rig Veda (6/47/27) & Yajur Veda (29/53)  
“   …….may we, with the help of bright solar energy  
be free from all wrongs committed against the inviolable earth,  
so that wealth can be produced”  
Rig Veda (5/82/6)

183 Religion and ethics of co nservation  
During the Vedic period, the importance of maintaining the man -nature 
balance appears to be the dominant thought in our scriptures. Conservation 
ethics also places emphasis on the equitable sharing of the benefits of natural 
“wealth should be equitably distributed  
among all people. And for that matter  
one must treat all persons as being the same as one’s own self”  
Srimad Bhagavata (7/11/10)  
Guidelines for Practice  
The Hindu idea is that the whole world is a forest. To keep this world  as it is, 
we have to keep this world forest intact. From this stems the concept of 
cultural landscapes such as – forests, groves, sacred corridors etc.  
1.Vedic traditions affirm that every village will be complete only when 
certain categories of forest veg etation or trees are preserved in around 
its territory. Examples are – Mahavan, Shrivan and Tapovan.  
2.Mahavan or the great natural forest is, perhaps, equivalent, to 
“protected areas” of today. It adjoins the village and provides a place 
where all species can co -exist. If the original forest is cleared, for some 
reasons, it required that another kind of forest be established in its 
place.  
3.Shrivan  (forest of wealth) provides essential goods and services to 
humans and live stocks. Examples are – fodder, timbe r, roots, herbs 
etc. It also maintains soil fertility, air and water quality besides 
providing shelter.  
4.Tapovan  is the home for the sages. Being sacred, no animal or tree 
could be harmed in these forests. It is set aside as a place for the 
practice of reli gion.  
In the post –Vedic  period, this tradition continued; in addition to considering 
landscapes as valuable and sacred, additional units were added. Examples 
are – temple forests, monastery forests, sanctified and sacred trees.  
Later Vedic  periods sought  to exemplify the bond between the Indian people 
and the trees. Varahamihira’s  book Brhat Samhita  (700 AD) describes the 
relationships between irrigation tanks and trees. He provided detailed 
technical instruction on tank construction and prescription on s pecies to be 
planted on the embankments.

184 According to him, the banks of the tanks should be shaded (planted) with 
mixed trees. Arjun, Banyan, Mango, Pipal, Java plum, Ashoka and Mahua 
have been mentioned.  
A number of books have been written. Parashara’s  book (400 BC ) “Krishi 
parashara”  (agriculture); Kashyapa’s  book (800AD) “Kashyapiya Krishisookti” 
are the notable examples.  
Emperor Ashoka and his pioneering work  
During Emperor Ashoka’s reign (273 -232 BC) planting of medicinal herbs and 
trees beside shade trees along the roads and fruit plants on the waste lands 
was mandatory. One of the rock edicts of the emperor issued in 257 BC 
illustrates this practice. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available he 
had them imported and grown.  
First “Veterinary hospital” in the world  
A landmark development occurred during Emperor Ashoka’s  reign. He 
established hospitals for the medical treatment for humans and animals. Thus 
the first veterinary hospital in the world was established.  
Participatory Forest managemen t 
During the Vedic age, each village was responsible through its Panchayat,  or 
a committee of five elders, for maintaining the forests in its territory. Implicit in 
this is the concept of participatory forest management, which forms the main 
component of t he forest management paradigm today. Also no village would 
be complete without its woodlands in and around the houses. Every village 
must have a cluster of five great trees “Panchavati ” – symbolizing the five 
primary elements – Pancha Mahabhootas ; Earth, W ater, Fire, Air and Ether.  
Religion as a tool  
Several trees and shrubs were regarded as sacred because of their medicinal 
qualities as well as their proximity to a deity. Pipal  is a very good example. 
Sometimes threads are tied around certain trees, to se ek a boon. Parijatha  is 
considered a divine tree. During Chaturmasya , the four months of rainy 
season of July to October, it is believed that Gods will rest on the plants and 
trees. During this period the tress are worshipped and never cut. If cutting is 
absolutely necessary, it is only done after asking forgiveness by chanting 
mantras.  
Indian religious literature is replete with ideas of forest conservation, utilisation 
and regeneration.

185 References:  
1. “Nature resource conservation and Environmental mana gement” – Ashish 
Ghosh  
2. “Forestry in Ancient India: Some literary evidences on Productive and 
Protective aspects – B.M. Kumar  
 
Objects of Human Aspirations (Purusharthas)  
 
Every intelligent man seeks to know 2 things (a) the world around him (b) 
more abo ut himself. The point is that you cannot understand the world without 
knowing something about yourself. At the same time you cannot know and 
understand about yourself excluding the world – you are part of this world. 
Man has been trying to understand both these. Study of the world has taken 
the shape of Science. And study to know himself has taken the shape of 
psychology.  Indian thinkers did not separate the goal of life from the view of 
life. Your view of life matures by what you want to achieve in your li fe. Your 
view of life leads you to attain some goals of life.  
In Sanskrit, the word Artha has many meanings. In this context, it means 
“goal”. What is sought after by everyone is called Purushaartha. Purusha in 
this case does not refer to a male person on ly. It also refers to females as 
well. In fact, Purushaartha, here refers to Manushya artha .  In essence, we 
would like to discuss about the goals sought after by all human beings. What 
about animals and plants? Don’t they have goals? It is true that human  beings 
have a number of features that are also found among the animals. For 
example – Ahaara  (food ), Nidra  (sleep), bhaya  (fear), procreation  etc. Yet, 
they do not possess the rare gifts such as – intellect, far sightedness, 
planning etc. Intellect or Bud dhi is the difference. When a human being does 
not employ his buddhi – he is equivalent to an animal ( buddhya vihina 
pashubhih samaana ). Foresight is power.  
Planning for the future is a natural consequence of Buddhi at work. For the 
improvement of our fut ure, we think and we plan. We plan for both the short 
term and long term goals to be achieved. These goals are Purushaarthas.   
We may have hundreds of goals to be achieved in our lives. All the goals 
have been classified into 4 categories. They are called “Chaturvidha 
Purushaarthas ”.

186 Artha  
So what is the first Purushaartha? It is Artha.   This first Purushaartha  starts 
very early in life.  This word also has many meanings. In the present context it 
means “security”. Security for survival. All measures that  you take, which will 
allow you to survive come under this category. For example – Food, Clothing, 
shelter, health, wealth are all measures taken to provide you “survival”. These 
measures you take require planning. Planning requires foresight. Foresight is  
power. You then have secondary levels to provide you more security. 
Children, Insurances, Pensions etc. At some stage we pass the minimum 
required levels of Artha  for security and start hoarding.  
Kaama  
The second Purushaartha is “Kaama”.   This refers to comfort. It is not 
esse ntial as the first Purushaartha. But it is nice to have them and enjoy. 
Entertai nment, comfort etc are all there to provide you pleasure. In fact, it is 
not money alone that rules the world. Pleasure is a more powerful force than 
property. Sri Ramakrishna says “ Kamini and Kanchana are the two most 
powerful forces of ignorance”  
 
All human beings love pleasure. They seek pleasure both immediate and 
distant. Nature exists to be enjoyed and her capacity to entertain seems to be 
infinite  (Bhuma). It is for this reason it is called Bhumi.  In the first 
Purushaa rtha we noticed that its usefulness lies in providing security or 
shelter. In this second Purushaartha, men and women look for its “capacity to 
entertain”.  
In real life pursuit of any thing may be done in moderation. Kama, when 
pursued without limits is dangerously corruptive - except in one case of God -
love. The process of turning lust into God -love can be done by one method 
only – regulating activities according to the limits set by D harma. That takes 
us to the next Purushartha – Dharma.  
Dharma  
The third Purushaartha is “Dharma” . Human conduct is different from the 
animals because it knows the difference between right and wrong. Our Rishis 
have told that man has a duty to natural eleme nts, bhutas, as well as to all 
other creatures in the world. We are asked to perform yagnas or sacrifices to 
5 classes – Bhuta Yagna, Athithi Yagna, pitruyagna and Deva yagna.   
Dharma is defined as an invisible form of wealth. What do you mean by that? 
Some people refer to it as “ Good Fortune - Adrishta”. Money, housing etc are 
visible form of wealth. Dharma is an invisible form of wealth. Even then, this 
invisible form of health, Dharma, can be acquired by appropriate                    
means. However, fo r acquisition you have to start working in this

187 present life. Since it is possible to acquire or achieve it, it is a goal.  Dharma 
contributes in two stages.  
(1)  In first stage, it contributes to our well being in this very life itself.  
 (2) Dharma will contribute in our next birth also – especially at the very 
early stages of our next life.  
 All of us know that the early stages of our life are not under our control. 
Parentage, wealth, social surroundings, health are not in c ontrol of the child. 
Dharma performed in this life will give us a good start or advantage in the 
early stages of our next life. We also hear now that the experiences in the 
childhood influence our adult lives as well. However, we are not in a position 
to control our childhood experiences. How my parents will bring me up, what 
sort of surroundings I will live under, what educational opportunities will be 
available to me –will not be under my control. The invisible wealth, Dharma 
that I collected in my previo us life will decide my present childhood 
opportun ities and experiences. The childhood experiences will determine my 
future adult life. So Punya sampaadana  is a very important goal. There are a 
number of ways by which you can earn Dharma Purushaartha  – the invisible 
wealth. The three human goals ( Purushaarthas) – Dharma, Artha and Kaama  
have many things in common. So these 3 put together are referred to as 
“Preyah”.  So Preyah  refers to Dharma + Artha + Kaama Purushaarthas . Out 
of this the Dharma is very powe rful. So people refer to the three as – Dharma, 
Artha and Kaama.  
 
Moksha  
The fourth Purushaartha is Moksha.  Now Moksha means freedom from 
slavery. Slavery from what? It is slavery from the Preyah – the three 
Purushaa rthas. It is an internal freedom. Why d o you refer to the 3 
Purushaarthas as leading to slavery?  Take the case of Artha Purushaartha.  
When you do n ot have enough wealth or children  you start feeling the lack of 
it. You start thin king about the “lack” continuously. Eventually, the feeling of 
lack leads you to have a feeling of emptiness. You cannot get rid of it from 
your mind. Any kind of feeling a “lack” is a slavery. Any object by virtue, of its 
absence that can create emptiness is capable of enslaving me. Similarly, 
when you have too much of  it – instead of the lack you start feeling the strain. 
Too much money, too many houses to manage, too many children etc also  
puts pressure on you. This pressure  you cannot get rid of. Both start preying 
on your mind. When you examine it you will see conti nuous thinking of the 
Preyas lead e ither to a feeling of vacuum or of strain. And you become a 
slave of it. So some objects create problems due to their absence. And some 
other objects create problems due to their presence. There are some objects

188 that crea te problems both by their presence and absence. All these will 
eventually make you a “Daasa”  – a slave .  Quite often, man is caught up in 
Samsara – the problems of Artha; the limitless pursuit of Kama and confusion 
about Dharma drives him to desperation. H e may seek to an escape from 
society and start to retreat  to forests and Ashrams. Thus Vairagya beco mes 
the first step towards Moksha. Nivrtti, turning from nature to spiritual nature , 
only comes to  those who have suffered the agonies of life in  the fields  of 
Artha, Kama and D harma. But a renunciation like this provides just a freedom 
from the oblig ations of the three Purusharthas. This is not yet absolute 
freedom. In fact, the next stage is Nirvana. It is attained by right thought and 
meditation and is hel ped by – ahimsa, kindliness, purity, and renunciation of 
the ways of this world. This is also described as Brahmanirvana. At this stage, 
the individual soul feels one with the Supreme Self. It is referred to as 
Kaivalya – meaning Freedom from all limitatio ns. What is essential is the quiet 
surrender (Saran agati) to the Supreme spirit. Moksha is not the result of 
individual effort alone but a gift from Parabrahman –  mere fruits of Karma 
alone will not lead you Moksha  but the grace of the Divine is the deci ding 
factor.  
Karma  
 
"As is his desire, such is his purpose; as is his purpose, such is 
the action he performs; what action he performs, that he procures 
for himself"  [Brihadaranyaka Upanishad , IV, 4, 5] .  
The concept of Karma is a unique contribution from  Hinduism to the world. 
The concept of Karma, determining the fate of individuals comes originally 
from the Vedas. The Hindus believe in Karma more than on anything else.  So 
we should know more about Karma.  
The two pervasive features of all nature, co nnection with the past and creation 
of the future, are present at the human level. The connection with the past at 
the human stage is denoted by the word Karma in the Hindu systems.  
Simply stated – it is cause and effect. Every action – small or big produ ces 
results . Karma is the action and Karma -Phala is the fruit. The whole Universe 
is held together by a number of rules – called Dharma. The action of 
individ uals is called Karma. Each individual acts according to his nature called 
Swabhava. The Dharma of  the Universe provides that certain previous karma 
must lead to a new karma or results. This chain of karma is called by us as 
FATE – and every Hindu seeks salvation from it.  
According to this concept, the future of an individual depends upon what he 
does or does not do with his life. In other words previous actions lead to 
subsequent action – karma and karma phal. The Hindu theory is that thought

189 and feeling, as well as actual speech or deeds ( Manasa, Vaacha and karma) - 
all form part of the karma and crea te effects. The chain of Karma, the 
bondage of works, continues from hour to hour and from birth to birth – which 
is the Hindu fate and from which the Hindus seek salvation. There are a few 
things about karma we should know about.  
 
Types  of Karma  
 
Sanchi ta Karma :  It is the sum total of the accumulated Karma of 
previous lives. It is the burden of your past. This needs to be exhausted at 
some stage in your spiritual journey  
Prarabda Karma:  It is that part of the Sanchita Karma which is currently 
activated  in your present life and which influences the course of your 
present actions. Depending on the nature of your present actions, you are 
either exhausting it or creating more karmic burden for yourself.  
Agami Karma:  It is the karma that arises out of your c urrent life activities. 
You will experience the consequences of it in the coming lives. In fact, it is 
added to the Sanchita Karma.  
Kriyamana Karma:  This is the Karma whose consequences will be 
experienced by you in the near or distant future in your curre nt life.  
Sequence of Karma phal  
The sequence in which you will experience the Karma phal will not be  known 
to anyone except the Lord. You can not expect to make a donation, go  home 
and look forward to receiving the benefits for the good actions you have done.  Every action, small or big 
yields a result  
Karma Phal  - Two types  
Drsya Phal – meaning 
visible result  Adrsya Phal  – meaning 
invisible result  
Punya  
Leads to Sukham  Paapa  
Leads to Dukham

190 Worthiness of the Karma  
The lord is the sole judge of the worthiness of your actions and He will decide 
the Karma phala.  
The whole Universe – the various parts constituting it, the individuals (both 
human and non -human) is held together by a number of rules of action – 
called Dharma.  The action of the parts and individuals is called Karma. Each 
individual, be it a man or animal, has a Swabhava or nature according which it 
acts. But beyond and above all these minor laws is the great dharma o f the 
Universe which provides that certain previous karma or action must lead to 
certain new karma or results. This is the chain of karma, the bondage of 
works, which is the Hindu Fate  from which the Hindus seek salvation.  
 
From this understanding, Karma i s not so much a principle of retribution as 
one of continuity. Good produces good and evil will produce evil. It 
emph asizes the importance of right action. The law of Karma is not to be 
confused with either a hedonistic or judicial theory of rewards. It is  just a result 
for your action. Also, you may notice that the Supreme Being did not initiate 
the action which has given you this result.  It was entirely your decision to take 
action in the manner you did and you are now reaping the rewards for it.  
 
At the  time of death, every individual loses his physical body only. The subtle 
body, called Self, will continue. Along with the Self is packaged the 
unrewarded Punyas and Paapas. These Punyas and Paapas have to produce 
Sukham or Dukhams. So another physical bod y is required. There can be no 
interaction with the world without the physical body. And there can be no 
experience of Sukham or Dukham without interaction. Punarjanma is getting 
associated with a new physical body. Mind you - the Self is still the old one 
(Self has not changed but body has changed). While experiencing sukham 
and dukham in the new body, the individual performs more actions and 
cons equently acquires more Punya and Paapa. Many of these get 
unrewarded and t he individual gets ready for still  another new body. This is 
called the cycle of birth and death – Samsara. God does NOT determine the 
type of birth and the type of e xperiences. Both are decided by the Punya and 
Paapa. When did all this start?  From Anaadi -kala. How do you break this 
cycle? On ly Moksha will break this. This is the Law of karma. You have to 
think about it and unde rstand it. Claiming ignorance will not help. 
Understanding the law of karma has some advantages.  
a) It explains the differences and disparities in living beings. Why are 
innocent children born handicapped? This is because of – Paapa  
b) I can accept my suffering even though I have not done any mistakes in 
this Janma.

191 c) I can take charge of my future. My future will depend on my present 
actions. I  understand that (a) the  world does not determine my future  
(b) God does not decide my future. I alone am responsible for my 
future.  
d) The answer to the question – why do evil fellows enjoy and good 
fellows suffer. The evil fellow is enjoying the punya of their past. The  
good fellow is suffering due to his past Paapa.  
e) Accept suffering as a means of exhausting the Paapa.  
f) Science talks about visible physical order. Karma talks about invisible 
moral order.  
 
Fate and Fatalism  
The average Hindu does believe in Fate. Th e popular belief is that Lord 
Brahma, the creator, writes on the forehead of every being before they are 
sent out into this world. This leads us to think that everything in a man’s life 
has been predetermined. Nothing is left for the man to do. This is cal led 
fatalism. 
 
In ancient India, there were some schools that believed in Fatalism ( Niyati  or 
determinism). One such well known sect was known as Ajivaka sect . Gosala  
was the head of this sect. He lived during the times of Buddha and, in fact, he 
had many discussions with Buddha. Buddha finally moved away from him. 
According to Ajivakas, there is no place for free will. All human effort is a 
waste of time. Every being is subject to fate and had to live accordingly.  
 
Hinduism does not support Fatalism. That means – it does not support the 
theory that everything is pre -ordained and you have little choice other than 
follow the plan laid out for you by God. There are a couple reasons for it.  
 
1. If everything is fixed by God and you do not have a choice in acting,  
then God is responsible for the actions. If you are driving a motor car 
and all actions are as per your wish, then in case an accident oc curs – 
you are held responsible for it and not the motor car. By the same 
argument, if everything is preordained, then  God becomes responsible 
for the actions and the Karma will follow Him. But the Supreme Being is 
above Karma. He is untainted.  
2. Every minute a man faces situations that call for his action. The choice 
of which way to act is his. He has the freewill. He is  not dictated by God 
to act one way or other.  He will certainly be conditioned by his own 
Swabhava . And once he acts, then the karma - phala  is also his. He 
then has no control on the karma -phala . Puranas tell us that 
Hirany akashipu, Ravana, Kamsa, Duryodh ana all received advice but

192 they acted out of their own freewill and as per their Swabhava.  They 
then received their karma -phala.  
3. If Maya, Avidya  or Prakruti  are all very powerful and there is no escape 
from them, then salvation will just remain as a drea m and bondage of 
Samsara  will be eternal – unless there is something which is Free and 
far more powerful than any of these. This entity the Hindu teachings 
find in the Paramaatma . He is Eshwara  and without His consent 
nothing can be done. If Maya  is His cr eation, then He alone can help 
us overcome it.  
4. It is the power of sanction from Him that forms the element of free will 
in our lives. It is up to the man to either use it ignorantly or knowingly. If 
used ignorantly it is succumbing to the Maya  and Prakru ti. If used 
knowingly, the freedom of the soul becomes one with Sharanagati  to 
the Supreme Being.  This is the choice offered to the human soul.  It is 
to be remembered that - God's love is manifested in and through law.  
5. Talking about the element of freew ill, the problem of human freedom is 
confused somewhat by the distinction between the  self and the will. 
The will is only the self on its active side. The freedom of the will really 
means the freedom of the self. It is determination by the self. However, 
the range of one’s natural freedom of action is not unlimited. No man 
has the universal field of possibilities for himself.  One other point to be 
noted is - Our demand for freedom must reckon with a universe that is 
marked by order and regularity – by the  Dharma. Dr. Radhakrishnan 
gave a beautiful example on this – “Life is like a game of bridge. The 
cards in the game are given to us. We do not select them. They are 
traced to past Karma . But we are free to make any call as we think fit 
and lead any suit.  Only we are limited by the rules of the game. We are 
more  free when we start the game than later on when the game has 
developed and our choices become restricted. But till the very end 
there is always a choice”. Man can actively mo uld the future instead o f 
passively suffering the past. The past may become either an 
opport unity or an obstacle. Everything depends on what we make of it 
and not what it makes of us.  
 
Factors that interplay with human actions  
It is true that for any action to succeed , two factors are needed.  
1. Human effort (Manushya Prayatna)  
2. Divine sanction (Daiva anukoolyam)  
Yes, a man may try - but he may still face forces that oppose the 
success. Hindu scriptures identify three forces that play a part.

193 a) Individual act ions perfor med by the person  acco rding to his 
free will (Adhyatmika ) 
b) Actions by other living beings – be they human or non -
huma n (Adhibhutika ). Included in this are actions by other 
human beings such as – friends, relatives, enemies, 
stran gers, government, plants, a nimals, insects etc.  
c) Intervention by some super natural forces. (Adhidaivika). In 
this category come – acts of nature, acts of gods, 
unintended causes etc.  
In the case of human beings individual will ( Adhyatmika ) plays a predominant 
role followed by extr aneous factors ( Adhibhutika ) and acts of god 
(Adhidaivika )  
 
All Veda mantras  are concluded by uttering Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih  
 
Shanti refers to Peace and tranquility.  
 
During our prayers we conclude them by uttering Om Shantih, Shantih, 
Shantih 
 
By uttering Shantih  three times, we are praying for protection from the actions 
listed above.  
Conclusion  
Great souls find profound peace in the consciousness that the stately order of 
this world, now lovely and luminous, now dark and terrible in which man fi nds 
his duty and destiny can not be subdued to known aims. It seems to have a 
purpose of its  own of which we are ignorant.  
 
 In our relations with human failures, belief in Karma  inclines us to take a 
sympathetic attitude and develop reverence before the mystery of misfortune. 
The more understanding we are, the less do we pride ourselves on our 
superiority. Faith in Karma induces in us the mood for true justice or charity 
which is the essence of spirituality. We realize how infinitely helpless and frail 
human beings are. When we look at the warped lives of the poor, we see how 
much the law of Karma  is true. If they are lazy and criminal, let us ask what 
chance they had of choosing to be different. They are more unfortunate than 
wicked.

194 Understanding – I 
 
Any religion that has withstood the test of time for more than 1000 years will 
have to be recognized as a great religion. Into this category come Christianity, 
Islam and a few others. Long before them, 3 religions stood the test of time for 
1000s of years – Hinduism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism. Nearly all religions 
try to explain the relationship between man/woman and God; between the 
known and the unknown and to make the unknown more knowable.  
Few years back, nearly everyone knew the basics of our religion . What was 
common knowledge then has now become exclusive knowledge. Unless we 
know our system well how can we hope to teach our children?  
Vedas or Shrutis as they are often referred to are authoritative documents for 
the Hindus. As you all know, there are  four Vedas – Rig, Yajur, Saama and 
Adharva. Now, sections that come at the end of each of these Vedas are 
called Vedantas. They are also popularly known as Upanishads.  
Upanishads discuss about Paramaatma, Jeevatma and Prakruti (which are 
referred to as th e three Tattvas .) and their relationship. We shall now try to 
understand Jeevatma.  
The enquiry starts like this.  
Who are you?  
We can reduce the whole creation into two factors. One is the subject “I”.  The 
other is the object “this ”. In Sanskrit these two w ords are “Aham”  for I and 
“Idam”  for this. I  am the subject and everything else is the object of my 
know ledge . I am the subject - Sun is the object of my knowledge. Moon is the 
object of my knowledge . Stars  are the objects of my knowledge . You too  are 
objec ts of my knowledge.  Plants, flowers, animals, men, women, children are 
all objects of my knowledge. There are many sounds, colours, forms, scenes 
and all of them will be “objects”. There is only one subject  “I” and so many 
different objects. I may mistak e one object with another – but I will never 
mistake an object for a subject. For example, I have - my wife, my children, 
my family. They are all very dear to me. But I do not say I am the child. I do 
not say I am my wife.  
It means An object cannot be ref erred to by the word “I”. It can only be 
referred to by the word “this”.  
I now ask you a question – who are you?  
Your reply is let us say - I am Desai

195 Your reply may also be - I am the son of Krishnamoorthy . That means, the 
“son” reveals the nature of “I. All these answers are related to the physical 
body of yours.  
It is w ith respect to this physical body alone I have the “I” sense. When 
someone touches your body, you do not say “my body is touched”. You just 
say “I am touched”. When the body is walking, I  do not say “my body is 
walking”. I say “I am walking”. If the body is tall, I say “I am tall”. If it is fair “I 
am fair”. If the body is here, then I am here – it is not that my body is here and 
I have gone out for a walk. If the body stands, I stand. If the body sits, then I 
sit. Whatever, the physical body does, I do that. So I am the physical body.  
So, the answer to the question of “who are you” should have been “I am the 
physical body”. Is this a correct conclusion? Let us examine this a little more 
closely.  
Who am I?  
When I say “I am tall” – it is because this body of mine is tall and I know  it. It is 
similar to my knowing  that the tree is tall. The sky is blue and I know it. That 
man is fat and I know  it. I know about the tree, sky and the fat man – because 
they are all objects of my knowledge. Similarly, my body is also an object of 
my knowledge. If my body is an object of my knowledge – then it is surely not 
“I”. I am mistaking the object (in this case, it is the body) to be the subject  
I am not my eyes, my ears  
We often say, that I see through my eyes. In the same way when I am blind – 
I say “I know I am blind”; Since I know about the eyes – I am the knower, I am 
the seer. Similarly I am not my ears. We also say that I hear through my ears. 
So I am not my ears. If we think it to be so, once again we are mistaking the 
object (in this case, it is the eyes or ears) to be the subject.  
I am not my mind  
All thoughts come from the mind. All conclusions take place in the mind alone. 
If this is the case – then “I” should be the mind. When my mind is angry, then I 
am angry. When my mind is cheerful, then I am cheerful. When my mind is 
quiet, then I am quiet. When my mind is restless, then I am restless.  
Wait. Why do you say you are restless when your mind is r estless?  
When your dog is restless, you do not say you are restless.     No, I do not do 
that.  
If that is the case, why do you say you are restless when your mind is 
restless?  
That is because, I know the restless mind.  If you know the mind, which is now 
restless, then you not the mind. You are in fact a witness to the restless mind.

196 The mind is an object. Once again you are making the mistake of confusing 
an object to be the subject.  
I am not my memory  
If you say, I am my memory. That is also not true. If I forget something, I am 
there to recollect from memory. It is not as if, I have gone with the memory. In 
fact, I was the one who collected and stored the incidents in my memory. I am 
the one who know exactly what I had breakfast, what I liked and what I 
disliked from it. I am the one who is aware of what exactly happened. 
Therefore my memories can not be me.  
I am not my intellect  
To say that “I” am a Doctor of medicine, an accountant is not true – because I 
am aware of it. Again, I am not born as a Doctor or as an accountant. These 
are skills I gathered as I progressed in life.  
I am not ignorance  
To say that I am ignorant is also not true. I have the knowledge to know that I 
do not know. I may not be aware of some of the things in life but I am aware 
of qu ite a few other things.  
Who am I?  
So, I see that I am neither knowledgeable nor ignorant. But who is that “I”, 
because of which I am aware of every thing. I am aware of my physical body, 
aware of my sense organs (eyes, ears etc), aware of my ignorance, awa re of 
my knowledge, aware of my emotions, aware of my hunger. I am the subject. I 
am the awarer – and awareness is there.  
Awareness is there when the object is there. When the object is removed, the 
awareness is still there. Awareness is there whether you are awake or asleep. 
What are the dimensions of awareness – how big? How tall? Awareness has 
no dimensions. Awareness has no colour. It has no front or back. In fact, it 
has no form. All forms are objects of this awareness.  In a similar way – the 
body, th e mind, the memories, knowledge, ignorance are all objects of my 
awareness. The word “I” refers only to the subject – which is awareness, 
which is consciousness. And Consciousness is called “Cit” in Sanskrit.  
In fact, everyone is an awarer. I am an awarer;  you are an awarer. Ant is an 
awarer. Mosquito is an awarer. The tree is an awarer. Knowledge itself may 
be different – you may know something and I may know some other thing. 
There could be differences in the sense organs. There could be differences in 
the body, in the intellect. But there are no differences in the awarer.  
Let us take this further.

197 When the awareness ( Cit) blesses the mind, the mind becomes conscious. In 
the Sun light I see various objects – their size, their form, their colour etc. 
They a ll shine because the Sun is shining. In other words, the Sun shines and 
all others shine after him.  
But the Sun shines, because my mind is behind my eyes. The same way, the 
ears shine only when the mind is behind the ears. The nose shines when the 
mind is  behind the nose. However, nothing illuminates the “I” – the 
consciou sness. It shines of its own accord. A thought comes, a thought goes 
– but “I” remains shining. Space; I am aware of space. Time; I am aware of 
time.  That means, thoughts, space, time etc  may come and go – but I still find 
myself shining. I, the “ Cit” survives time, space etc. It has no beginning and it 
has no end. That which exists at all times is called “ Sat”.  
So far, we have understood that “I” (awareness / aham ) is “ Cit” – 
consciou sness. We have also understood, it has no beginning and no end. 
For that re ason it is “ Sat”.  “Sat” is “Cit” and “ Cit” is “Sat”. 
Let us now investigate a little further.  
We are going to investigate happiness – Ananda.  
The whole world essentially consists of 3 items – Time, place and object.  
Is happiness an object? Take a house for example. You feel very happy 
seeing it. You want to buy it. You check with the owner whether he wants to 
sell it. Yes, Sir – he wants to sell it and sell it quickly. From the time he bought 
it, he had misfortune after misfortune. He thinks it is due to the house and 
wants to get rid of it. So you see, the same house is a source of happiness for 
you and unhappiness for him. Hence, an object is not the source of 
In the sam e way, place is not the source of happiness for you. You like 
Chennai. But another man thinks it is a boring place.  
And Time can not be a source of happiness. Have you ever heard a man say 
that every morning at 5 AM, he feels happy?  
The truth is – Happines s is your nature. Ananda is your true nature. You do 
not say – that is happiness. You always say “I am happy”. Happiness is an 
NOT an object.  
 In the same way that I say  I am happy, I may also say I am unhappy. Then is 
“unhappiness” your nature? No. Think  carefully. You do not say you are 
unhappy – but you complain that you are unhappy. You complain when you 
do not feel your normal self. Happiness is your real nature. Unhappiness is 
not.

198 1.  So summarizing – 
“I”  (aham ) am “ Sat”,” Cit” , “Ananada”. I am Jee vatma.  
2. Jeeva is not the body. It is not the intellect. It is not the mind.  
3. It has no beginning or an end. It is eternal.  
4. It has no form. It can not be burnt or drenched or destroyed..  
5. Jeeva is there in you. It is there in an ant. It is there in a mosqu ito. 
Jeeva is the same. So, it has to be infinitesimally small. The Jeeva 
does not change its size as the body grows nor does it change its size 
when it enters another body.  
6.  Jeeva is essentially Happy". It is his nature. However, due to the load of 
Karm a his happiness is reduced. Once Jeeva gets released from the 
bondage, he recovers his happiness.  
7. The knowledge or " Jnaana” of Jeevatma is infinite. They can perceive 
and understand everything. However, due to the load of Karma his 
knowledge is reduced . Once Jeeva gets released from the bondage, 
he recovers his knowledge.  
8. Though the Jeevas possess identical characteristics, the one thing that 
separates them is the load of Karma.  
9. Jeevatma is also called as “Cit”, Soul, Self, Atma, Chetana.  
Sanskrit Na taka 
 All literature in Sanskrit is classified into two categories – (1) Drishya (2) 
Shravya. All that can be seen or exhibited falls under the category of Drishya. 
That which can be heard or recited falls into the category of Shravya. Drama 
falls into the first category and poetry into the second category. References 
regarding Sanskrit drama are noted in Pathanjali’s Mahabhyasa, Vatsayana’s 
Kama sutra,  Kautilya’s Artha Shastra  and Panini’s Ashtabhyam.  
 Bharata Muni wrote a treatise on Natya Sh astra which laid down the 
found ation for classical Sanskrit drama. He alludes to the Vedic origin of 
Sanskrit drama. Indra the king of Devatas requested Lord Brahma, the 
creator, to make an entertainment accessible to all classes of society. Lord 
Brahma th en composed a Shastra taking dialogue from Rig Veda, music 
from Sama Veda, the art of representation and imitation from Yajur Veda and 
sentiments from Atharva Veda. This Natya Shastra was revealed to Bharata 
muni, who with his hundred sons brought it to ea rth. Bharata muni was said 
to have been a contemporary of Sage Vyasa who wrote the epic Maha

199 Bharata. Natya Shastra appears to have been meant for theater 
practitioners. One important aspect about Sanskrit drama is that it is well 
codified and conve ntional . 
 Sanskrit drama is a combination of music, dialogue, gesticulation and 
imitation. 
 Once again we come across the argument that Indian dramas were 
influenced by Greek drama. Their arguments are based on certain features 
common to both the traditions such as introduction of heroes; the division of 
play into scenes, acts etc; the development of type roles; all actors leaving 
the stage at the end of an act etc. However, Indian scholars have argued that 
a careful examination reveals that while a few similariti es to exist, major 
differences cannot be ignored.  
 
S.No  Nataka  Greek drama  
1 Intended for men with 
literary taste & scholarship  Plays are intended 
for masses  
2 Absence of tragic ends  Displays tragedy  
3 Recitation of verses is used  Chorus is preferred  
4 Importance to dancing is 
given  Not much 
impo rtance to 
dancing  
5 Aim is realisation of Rasa 
and attainment of eternal 
bliss  
6 Shifting of scenes from 
earth to heaven is often 
seen   
7 Imitates particular state of 
mind  Imitates action  
8 Purvaranga is an  integral 
part of Sanskrit plays   
9 The scope covered by 
Natya Shastra is wider 
than that covered by the 
western equivalent.  
It took into account every 
aspect of theatrical 
relevance including – 
theatre architecture, 
costumes, make -ups, 
dance, music, play  
construction, poetic 
compositions, grammar, 
ritual observances etc   
   
Characteristics of Sanskrit drama  
 Natya Shastra mentions about some major characteristics required of 
Sanskrit drama:  
1. It is composed of sacred material

200 2. It is meant for au dience that is well versed in the performance of the 
tradition 
3.  It is performed by members of the highest rank in cast  
4. It requires a special knowledge and skill to execute. A complete 
unde rstanding of dance music, recitation and ritual language is es sential  
5. Training is a hereditary process  
6. Must be performed on consecrated ground  
7. It serves the purpose of education and entertainment.  
8. Sanskrit drama is called Rupaka. One -act plays are called Upa -rupaka  
9. No play should end in tragedy  
10. Prose is mostly accompanied by emotion laden poetics  
11 The hero, the king and Brahmins speak in Sanskrit while lower people 
speak in Prakrit language  
12  The play depicts both joy and sadness while the Vidushak (comedian) 
provides laughter.  
13  Death cannot be depicted on the stage  
14 Actions like eating, biting, scratching, kissing and sleeping are not 
depicted on the stage.  
15  Love is the major theme of most of the plays.  
16  Acts are varied in number and length  
 
Elements of Rupaka  
 There are three element s for a Rupaka. They are (a) Vastu or plot of the 
play. (b) Rasa (c Neta or the hero  
Vastu (Plot)  
 Plot may be divided into two parts -  
 
(a) Principal plot (Adhikarik). It refers to the main characters and pervades 
throughout the story.  
(b) The subplot (Prasangi k). It is added to the main plot. All characters 
except the hero may be involved in the sub -plot. The subplot is again 
divided into two categories – Prakara and Pataka. These are episodes 
written to hinder and develop the normal flow of the story. Whereas 
Pataka may be quite long, Prakara would be an incident of limited 
duration.  
 Principal plot Vastu has three  – Bija, Bindu and Karya. Bija refers to the 
seed or plot; Bindu refers to drop or the fall and Karya refers to the climax. 
The source for the plot may be from history or mythology  
Avasthas  
There are five Avasthas (stages) in the development of a plot - (a) Aarambha 
(beginning) (b) Yama (effort to bring out the Rasa) (c ) Prapthyasha

201 (prospect)  
(d) Niyatapti (removal of obstacles) (e) Phalagam (obtain ing the desired 
result).  
The five Avasthas are united by five Samadhis (junctures)  
Rasa  
Rasa  or sentiment is the base of all Sanskrit plays. It arises bhavas.  Before 
getting down to rasa-bhava , We will try to understand abhinaya . The word 
literally means “leading towards,” with the implication in performance of 
leading the audience towards an emotional response ( rasa), but it is 
generally used to mean the actor’s art of expressing feeling. It covers 
everything that an a ctor may use on stage to communicate the play’s 
meaning and the character’s emotions and intentions to the audience.  
Abhinaya  
 Abhinaya  has four components:  
(a)  gesture and movement (anything to do with the body)  
(b) speech and singing (anything accomplished with the voice)  
(c)  costume and make -up (a nything using outside objects, including the 
few props or  set elements that appear in Sanskrit  drama)  
(d)  “representation of the Sattva ” or the portrayal of emotion.  
 Abhinaya  comprises the  whole of an actor’s craft. The movements and 
gestures of the actors , such as the hand or eye movements which they learn 
in years of training and apprenticeship convey a lot to the audience. With 
good abhinaya , the gestural codes seem spontaneous and natural even 
though they have been carefully worked out and codified over  centuries.  
Most of the published studies on Indian classical theater provide lists of the 
scores of c odified movements and gestures Indian actors and dancers use. 
Many are depicted in temple carvings.  The whole aim of abhinaya  is to 
depict the fee lings of the character ( bhavas ) and convey them to the 
audience so that they will respond with the desired “mood” ( rasa) appropriate 
for the play. The Natyashastra  introduced the theory of bhava  and rasa, so 
central to Indian ae sthetics. It had a profound effect  on most of the traditional 
art forms of India.  
Bhava  
Bhava means an emotional state or mood, portrayed by the dancer -actor.

202 
 
 Rasa , “taste” or “essence”, refers to the sentiment that the bhava , manifested 
by the act or, should evoke in the audience. The rasas  were originally eight in 
number, but the post -Natyashastra  tradition added a ninth one.  
1. The Erotic (srngara) ,  
2. The Comic (hasya) ,  
3. The Pathetic (karuna) ,  
4. The Furious (raudra) ,  
5. The Heroic (vira) ,  
6. The Terrible (bhayanaka) ,  
7. The Odious (bibhatsa) ,  
8. The Marvellous (abhuta)  and  
9. The Tranquil (santa) .  
 According to Bharata, the actor -dancer should be able to elicit the rasa 
experience in the audience through the stahyi bhava  or permanent emotion.  
Neta  (Hero)  
 The hero (nayaka)  may be a god, demi -god or a mortal. There are four kinds 
of heros  
 
S.No  Hero  Qualities  Comments  
1 Dhirodaatta  Calm and 
magnanimous  Ideal hero with all 
8 manly 
chara cteristics  
2 Dhirodhata  Violent  Lacks one of 8 
manly 
characte ristic - 
Rava na 
3 Dhiralalita  Graceful & Good 
looking  Not serious  
4 Dhirashanta  Peaceful  Peace loving & 
patient

203  Each of them is again classified into Dakshina (gallant), Satha (sly, Dhrstha 
(bold) and Anukula (or devoted to heroine)  
 The eight characteristics for a hero are – (1) Shobha (handsome), (2) 
Maadhurya (sweet in behaviour), (3) Gambhirya (combination of pride and 
strength) (4) Dhairya (courageous), (5) Tejas (charismatic), (6) Bilaas (With 
broad outlook and open thought) (7) Laalitya (humourous and adorab le) (8) 
Audarya (generous and magnanimous)  
 
Nayika (Heroine)  
 Heroines are classified into eight categories.  
 (1) Vaasakasajjika  (dressed up for union) (2) Virahotkandhita  (distressed by 
separation)  
(3) Svaadhinabhartrka (having husband under subjection )  (4) Kalahaatarita 
(separated by squarrel) (5) Khandita (enraged) (6) Vipralabdha (the 
deceived) (7) Prositabhartrka (whose husband is on travel) (8) Abhisarika 
(who due to infatuation with a lover goes out to meet him)  
 
Other characters  
 The characters  of Sanskrit dramas are types rather than individuals. We just 
listed the characteristics of Nayaka and Nayika. The villain of the play is 
called Pratinayaka.  
 The comedian is called Vidushaka. He may even bea  highborn Brahmin. He 
may possibly be intellig ent; he is usually lazy, while his humour is spiced with 
eroticism. Because of his social background he is able to move freely in the 
social hierarchy. Thus he can be a close friend or a personal servant of the 
hero. However, only he is allowed to add soci al and even political criticism to 
the play and he translates the hero’s Sanskrit lines into vernacular language.  
 The troupes included various professionals, from minor actors to make -up 
assistants, stage technicians, musicians and the conductor of the or chestra. 
Music had a central role in the Sanskrit dramas.  
 The key figure  of a troupe, as well as the actual play, is sutradhara , or the 
theatre director. He was supposed to have expert knowledge of all aspects of 
theatre. He also took an active role in th e actual performance by introducing 
the actors and the play to the audience, in the prologue, and often guiding 
and commenting upon the flow of the story.  
Presentation of the play  
 Before the play actually begins, a benedictory verse called “Nandi” is rec ited. 
It prays to the deity for the removal of all impediments that may arise during 
the performance of the play. Sutradhara retires after the Nandi and enters 
again to introduce the play. The prologue alludes to the poet’s literary

204 attainments, the occasi on of production, the group of actors producing it etc.  
The play is divided into acts and scenes. The act must not be too long, must 
be full of Rasa prefixed, if needed by interludes. Even if tragedy is absent, 
tragic situations are developed with great sk ill. The interlude is a device 
which is used to communicate to the audience certain past and future events 
which have a direct bearing on the plot.  The performance ends with a 
benedictory verse wishing welfare to all.  
Aim of Sanskrit drama  
 The realisation  of aesthetic bliss of Rasa is the highest purpose of Sanskrit 
drama. It can promote moral consciousness in the spectator. The drama is 
intended to achieve harmony out of chaos and produce restfulness out of 
disturbances. As an example, it is the hero Rama  who should be followed 
and not the villain Ravana. Virtue should never be defeated. It is a powerful 
weapon against social, economic and political evils.  
Languages  
 The language of Sanskrit dramas, is characterised by the blending of 
classical Sanskrit w ith local Prakrit languages. The royal heroes and 
Brahman priests, ascetics and high officials use Sanskrit, while women, 
children and all low -caste characters speak Prakrit. Thus the plays, already 
at the level of language, reflect the social and gender h ierarchies of their 
time. This inte rmingling of languages may also have been intended to make 
the plays u nderstandable for those spectators who did not understand 
Sanskrit.  
 Another characteristic of the dramas is the blending of prose and verse. The 
verse s are mainly in Sanskrit, although, for example, nine of Shakuntala’s  
194 verses are in Prakrit. The alternation of languages as well as prose and 
verse widens the scale of linguistic expression from “high” to “low”, from 
noble to vulgar, and anything in b etween.  
Immortal Playrights  
Asvaghosa  
He was one of the earliest writers. He wrote about Buddhist teachings 
following the rules laid down in Natya Shastra. His work in fragmented form 
came to light.  
Bhasa  
13 plays by him have survived. Swapna vasavadatta is among his best 
known works. He composed plays based on Ramayana, Mahabharata and 
Puranas. The plays by him are listed below - 
(1) Dootavaakya (2) Karnabhaara (3) Urubhanga (4) Pacharaatra (5) 
Avima araka : (6) Pratijnayaugandharaya (7) Charudatta (8) Bala charitra (9)

205 Pratim anaataka ; (10) Madhyamavyaayoga (11) Abhisheka (12) Svapna 
vasavadatta (13 Dootaghatokacha  
 Kalidasa  
Kalidasa was a contemporary and court poet of King Vikramaditya (57 BC). 
There are about 41 works attributed to him. However, the follo wing seven are 
widely known.   
Two Lyric poems – Ritusamhara and Megha doota  
Two Maha Kavyas – Kumarasambhavam and Raghuvamsham  
Three plays – Malvikagnimitram, Vikramorvasheeyam and Abhijana 
Shaku ntalam  
Harsha  
He was the composer of three Sanskrit works – Nagananda, Ratnavali and 
Priyadarshika  
Sudraka  
Mricchakatika  
 Vishakhadatta  
Mudrarakshasa  
Hindu symbology  
From time immemorial human beings have been using symbols for various 
purposes. You can find symbols in every field – science, engineerin g, 
medical, legal, ruling establishments, flags, logos – you name it. It will not be 
far from truth to say that, there exists no field that does not employ symbols. 
In fact, word itself is a symbol. For example, the word “tree” (spoken or 
written) is not t he tree itself. It is just a symbol for it. A personal name is a 
symbol re presenting the person.  
The symbol could be an object, picture, written word, sound or even a mark 
that represents something else by association, resemblance or convention. 
So religi on, in fact all religions, have their own symbols. These symbols 
instantly connect the individual to the inner self. Naturally, symbols will make 
a sense or have an effect only when approached with appropriate 
understan ding and the right attitude.

206 In eve ry religion, there are three parts – philosophy, mythology and ritual. 
Philosophy gives the essence of the religion. Mythology plays a different role. 
Through stories, fables and lives of great men they bring out how these men 
faced trials in their lives a nd the examples they set in the conduct of their 
lives.  Rituals give to philosophy a more concrete form, so that everyman can 
grasp it. Ritual is a karma. In the early stages, most of us cannot grasp the 
abstract spiritual points made in the explanations given in the religious texts. 
These may start making sense, after we have grown spiritually. What appears 
to be easy while studying the texts may not be easy to comprehend when it 
comes to real practice. This is where symbols come to our help.  It is not w ise 
to ignore rituals and symbology altogether. Let us now have a look at some of 
the symbols used in the Hindu religion.  
The mystic Mantra “OM”  
In the Hindu symbology, “OM” is the most pronounced sacred sound symbol 
or “Nada Brahman”. It is also called t he “Pranava” mantra. It is regarded as 
the symbol of the Parabrahman. OM encompasses all the aspects and the 
angles of the creative power and has no substitute. Thus, this monosyllable 
mantra is crowned as the supreme in Vedic scripture. When OM is 
pronoun ced we utter three letters A U M. All triplets are considered to be 
represented by OM. Some examples are given below.  
A U
 M 
Brahma  Vishnu 
 Shiva m 
Saraswati  Lakshmi
 Durga  
Rajas  Sattva
 Tamas  
Prakruti  Jivatma
 Paramatma  
Body  Mind 
 Soul  
Past  Present 
 Future  
Sat  Chit 
 Ananada   
Jagrat  Swapna
 Sushupti  
Shiva Linga  
Shiva meaning “auspicious one” is a major Hindu deity. It means He is not 
affected by the three Gunas – Sattwa, Rajas and Tamas. Followers of

207 Hinduism who focus their attention upon Shiva are called Shaivites or 
Shaivas. Shiva is usually worshipped in the form of Shiva Linga.  
 Shiva’s form  
Lord Shiva  wears a deer skin. He has a trident on His right hand. He has fire 
and Damaru.  He wears five serpents as ornaments. He wears a garland of 
skulls. He is pressing with His feet a demon. Panchakshara itself is His body.  
a) Third eye: Lord  Shiva  is depicted with a third eye with which He burnt 
Kamadeva.  For this reason He is called Tryambakam.  The third eye 
depicts the eye of knowledge.  
b) Crescent moon: Lord  Shiva bears a crescent moon on His head. This 
is why is called Chandrasekhara.  The waxing and waning phenomenon 
of the moon symbolises the cycle through which the creation evolves.  
c) Ashes: Lord  Shiva  smears Bhasma  or ashes on His body. The 
signif icance is – ashes are left over after the diverse names and forms 
disappear.  
d) Matted hair: Lord  Shiva  sports a matted hair  
e) Blue throat: One of the items that emerged when the milky ocean was 
churned was poison. Lord  Shiva drank this poison. His throat turned 
blue du e to the venom of the poison. For this reason He is referred to 
as Neelakanta.    
f) Sacred Ganga: King Bhagiratha , after a lot of Tapas, got his wish to 
bring the sacred river Ganga from heaven to earth fulfilled. But the task 
of withstanding the force of the hurling Ganga became an issue. 
Bhag iratha  prayed for the assistance of Lord Shiva . The Lord took the 
river Ganga on His head and tied her up. Later at the request of 
Bhagiratha  He released her. After this, Lord Shiva  is referred to as 
Gangadhara. Gange s represents nectar in the Sahasrara.     
g) Tiger skin: The Lord is often shown seated upon a tiger skin. Tiger 
represents lust. His sitting on tiger skin symbolises that He has 
conquered lust.  
h) Serpents:  Lord Shiva  is, often shown, garlanded with a snake. This 
denotes His wisdom and charity . 
i) Nandi: This is the name of the bull that serves as His Vahana (mount). 
Rishabha or bull represents Dharma Devata . Lord Shiva  rides the bull. 
The significance is that Lord Shiva  is the protector of Dharma.

208 j) Rudraksha : Rudra refers to Lord Shiva. Aksha  refers to the eye of 
Rudra.  This is a bead from a tree. This is considered to have emanated 
from the eye of Lord Shiva  when He burnt the Tripura asuras . This is 
one of the holy symbols worn by Shaivites along with the Holy Ash. 
This is worn as a single bead or as garlands of beads.  
The twelve Jyotirlingas  
For the followers of Shiva , the most important pilgrim centres are the twelve 
Jyotirlingas.  Reference to these Jyotirlingas is also found in the Shiva Purana. 
Lord Shiva is said to have revealed Himself to the devotees in the form of 
Jyoti or light. For this reason they are called Jyotirlingas. The 12 Jyotirlinga  
shrines, popularly known as the Dwadasa Jyotirlinga  shrines are considered 
to be very holy by the Hindus. The Jyotirlinga  temples  have a rich tradition and 
each temple has a legend attached to it. They are situate d in different parts of 
India. The southernmost of these is located at  Rameshwaram , while the 
nort hernmost  is located in the snowy heights of the Himalaya s at Kedarnath . 
These temples are closely linked with legends from the Puranas  and are rich 
in history and tradition. The twelve Jyotirlinga  temples are the following.  
1.Somnath Jyotirlinga Shrine  
2.Mallikaarjun Mahadeva Temple  
3.Mahakaleshwar Temple  
4.Nageshwar J yotirlinga Temple  
5.Rameshwar Jyotirlinga Temple  
6.Grishneshwar Jyotirlinga Temple  
7.Tryambakeshwar Jyotirlinga Temple  
8.Bhimashankar Jyotirlinga Temple  
9.Kedarnath Jyotirlinga Temple  
10.Omkareshwar Jyotirlinga Temple  
11.Baijnath (Vaidhyanath) Jyotirlinga Temple  
12.Vishwanat h Jyotirlinga Temple  
Vishnu Worship  
Saligrama Shilas  
Much as the devotees of Shiva  worship Shiva Linga , the devotees of Vishnu 
worship Saligrama.  Many people consider Saligrama  to be a special avatar of 
Lord Vishnu.  In some parts of India, Tulasi vivaha  with Saligrama  is 
conducted with great reverence. Tulasi signifies Goddess Lakshmi.  
It is usually black in colour with the symbol of Sudarshana chakra . The 
chakras can be seen both outside and inside. The Saligrama  stone is not 
believed to be just another stone found in the nature. It is found only at 
Gandaki River situated high in the Himalayas in Nepal. There are a number of 
types of Saligrama  available, the classification being based on colour, size,

209 shape, ope nings (called dwaras ), chakras etc. Followin g are some examples 
– 
 
1 Lakshminarayana 
Saligrama   It is light dark in colour, has one opening, 
four chakras  and one line.  
2 Pradyumna Saligrama  It is small in size, has one  chakra  on the 
top, and has crooked openings.  
3 Aniruddah Saligrama  It is round in shape. Has a light yellow 
colour and has a smooth glass like 
appearance. Brings peace and happiness 
to the owner.  
4 Vasudeva Saligrama  Worship of this is considered as 
equiv alent to worshipping Krishna  
himself.   Round in shape, shiny, with one 
opening surrounded by two chakras . It is 
believed that it will bring to its devotees 
their heart's  desires.  
5 Sankarshana 
Saligrama  Has two chakras  facing each o ther. It is 
narrow in the front and wider at the rear. 
It is believed that it will bring Knowledge 
to the Brahmacharis . 
6 Narasimha Saligrama  Worshipped with great devotion. It has 
two chakras  and the shape varies. The 
devotee of this Saligrama  becomes a 
“sarva sanga tyagi”  (renunciate) and a 
Jitendria  
7 Lakshmi Narasimha 
Saligrama  Not as ugra as the Narasimha Saligrama . 
This Saligrama  is thus an embodiment of 
pleasantness. This has a wide opening, 
has two chakras and has a garland like of 
line. This brings to the devotees peace 
and solace.  
 
8 Hayagriva Saligrama  Has the face of a Horse and has two  
chakr as. Not so appealing in appearance.

210 Suited for Jnanam (education).  
 
9 Sudarshana 
Saligrama  Has an ordinary form with one Chakra  
10 Gadadhara Saligrama  Very ordinary with one chakra  
11 Madhusudana 
Saligrama  Cloudy in colour and has the shape of a 
wheel. Has the sign similar to the foot 
print of a calf. Considered very Holy.  
12 Lakshminarayana 
Saligrama  Has one opening and a line shaped like a 
garland. Has a colour of dark clouds and 
four chakras . It is very rare and special. It 
is said to fulfil all the desires of the 
devotees.  
13 Lakshmi Janardhana 
Saligrama  Same as above (12) but does not have 
the garland shaped line.  
14  Vamana Saligrama  Small in size. Has two small wheels and a 
cloudy colour. Neither a garland nor any 
indication of holes is visible.  
15 Sridhara Saligrama  Same as (14) above, but has a garland 
like line.It is believed that the devotee will 
be showered with great prosperity  
16 Raghunatha 
Saligrama  Two openings, four chakras  and a sign 
similar  to the foot print of a calf.  
17  Damodara  Saligrama  Large and round in size and is commonly 
found commonly found in temples. It has 
two chakras  
18 Ranarama Saligrama   It is round and medium in size, with two 
chakras  
19 Rajarajeshwara 
Saligrama  Same size as (17), but with seven  
chakras and the s ign of an umbrella 
(Chatri ). It is believed that it will bring 
Raja Yoga  and Raja Sanmanam  to the 
devotees

211 20 Anantha Saligrama  Pitch black with 14 chakras.  It is regarded 
as the Holiest of the Saligramas . It is very 
rare to find  
 
Tilaka   
Tilaka is a mark worn on the forehead. It is regarded as a mark of 
auspiciou sness. All Hindus wear it, at least, during puja and festival 
occasions. It is worn on the forehead. The marks that Hindu men and women 
wear on their for eheads are known as Pundras . They may be vertical 
(Urdhva) , horizontal (tiryak ) or circular ( vartula.)  
The practice of wearing Tilaka dates back to Rig-Veda  period. As time passed 
on, the practice of marking Tilaka increased in variety. Devotees of Shiva  and 
Vishnu  used their own styles. Eno ugh support from Vedic literature is quoted 
indicating the reasons for the style and need to wear them. They are not being 
worn as a symbolic gesture. Specific parts of the body where the marks have 
to be worn and the accompanying mantras to be uttered whi le wearing them 
are also prescribed.  
Shaivite Tilak  
The Shaivites mark their body with Bhasma and Tripundra tilaks.  Bhasma 
means smearing the body with ashes. Tripundra tilak  is wearing three 
horizontal lines with Bindi or dot in varied sizes between the eyebrows. Since 
the Bindi is applied in the ajna chakra , the space between the eyebrows, it 
has a cooling effect.  The significance of applying the three horizontal lines of 
Bhasma  is as follows. When the third eye of the Jiva is opened, the three 
kinds of  afflictions – Adhyatmika, Adhidaivika and Adibhautika are burnt to 
ashes. The three Karmas  – Sanchia, Prarabdha, and Agami – are also burnt.  
The ash or Bhasma  is prepared out of burnt cow dung. According to 
scriptures there are five types of  Bhasma  depen ding on the breed of cow from 
which it is prepared. These are Vibhuti, Bhadra, Bhasma, Ksara and Raksa.  
There are locations prescribed for the application of the ashes. Typically – 
neck, right side of the neck, cheeks, eyes, mouth, heart, navel, right and left 
shoulders, right and left elbows, right and left wrists, back of right and left 
palms and shoulder blades. The act of smearing ash at various parts is 
accompanied with the uttering of specific mantras. Apart from the Bhasma the 
devotee sports the Tripundra Tilak . Once again there are designated places 
for the application of Tripundra as well.  
Vaishnavaite Tilak - Urdhvapundra   
The Vaishnava argument is that the body must undergo many samskaras . 
This is done basically to make the body more pure and thereby aid the

212 Jivatma  in the path of spiritualism resulting in achieving the ultimate goal of 
God realisation. The Pancha – Samskara  is superior to all samskaras.  In fact, 
the title “ Iyengaar”  in Tamil is said to have been derived from “Iyndu  angam 
udaya var or Iyendu  kaaryangal udayavar”.  This refers to “ Pancha 
Samskaras”.  It may also refer to the five “ angas”  (limbs) of Prapatti.  
Pancha Samskaras  
The Pancha Samskaras  (Five samskaras ) are as follows.  
i. Thapa Samskara:  The acharya embosses the impressions o f 
Shankam (Conch) and Sudarshana Chakra  (Discuss) on the left and 
right arms of the disciple respectively. These two are the weapons of 
Lord Maha Vishnu.  
ii. Pundram : To wear the Dwaadasha Urdhva Pundram  (12 Tiruman  and 
Srichoornam).  
iii. Naamam : To be initiated by the Acharya as Ramanuja Dasan.  This is 
to indicate that one is forever the servant of Lord Sriman Narayana  and 
Sri Ramanujacharya.  
iv. Mantram : To get the initiation of “ Rahasya traya mantras ” 
(Ashta kshari,  Dvayam, Charama slokam ) 
v. Ijyai: To learn the wors hip of Lord Narayana  in proper form  
 Pundra Samskaram  
The Sri Vaishanava  concept is that our body is like a temple. The Supreme 
Lord Narayana resides, along with His consort, in Vyuha and Upa-vyuha  (also 
called Vyuha -antara ) form in different parts of our body. The Sri Vaishnava  
marks are only external display of the Upa-vyuha  forms of the Lord. This is 
known as Pundra Samskaram.   
Pundra  is an abbreviated form for the word Urdhvapundra.  It signifies wearing 
on the forehead the symbolic mark in the shape of the Lord’s lotus feet. The 
orthodox Sri Vaishnava  is expected to wear the twelve Pundras (Thiruman)  
with the chanting of the twelve names of Lord Narayana – commonly known 
as the Dwadasha Nama  of Lord Narayana. The significance lies in the 
purification of the body. The list of Dwadasha Namas is indicated in the table 
below. The salutation to the Lord has to be done with folded hands ( Anjali 
mudra ). The Lord’s names are pronounced prefixed by Pranava . For example 
“Keshavaya  Namaha ”. 
The Upa-vyuha forms of Lo rd Narayana  are the presiding deities of the twelve 
Adityas.

213 The appropriate Upa-vyuha  is invoked through anga -nyasa  (gestures) with 
devotion and reverence while investing each set of Urdhvapundra . 
No Vyuha  
- the source  Vyuhantara or 
Upa-vyuha  
(Dwadasha 
Namas of Lord 
Narayana ) Month  Name of 
Aditya  Location for the  
Urdhva - Pundra  
1 Vasudeva  Keshava  Margashira  Mitra  Forehead  
2  Narayana  Pousha  Pusha  Lower abdomen  
(centre) 
3  Madhava  Magha  Bhaga  Chest  
4 Sankarshana  Govinda  Phalguna  Tvashta  Front neck (ce ntre) 
5  Vishnu  Chaitra  Vishnu  Lower abdomen (right)  
6  Madhusudhana  Vaishakha  Aryama  Right arm  
7 Pradyumna  Trivikrama  Jyeshta  Vivasvana  Neck (right side)  
8  Vamana  Ashada  Amshumana  Lower abdomen (left)  
9  Sridhara  Shravana  Parjanya  Left arm  
10 Aniru ddha  Hrishikesha  Bhadrapada  Varuna  Neck (left side)  
11  Padmanabha  Ashvina  Indra  Back (lower spinal )  
12  Damodara  Kartika  Dhata  Back (upper spinal)  
 
The Upa-vyuha  form of Lord Narayana is externally represented by the 
Urdhva- Pundra . The “Tiruman” represents the Lord and the “ Sri Churnam” 
represents Devi Mahalakshmi . 
Achamana and Prokshana  
All acts, rituals and symbols have a deep philosophical significance. They give 
you an opportunity to think of God frequently. In addition they help you to for a 
chan ge in state of mind from Tamas and Rajas  to Sattva .  
Achamana refers to an act of sipping water three times, while repeating the 
names of the Lord. This is an internal purification. Prokshana refers to the act 
of sprinkling water over the body. It is an ac t of external purification when 
bathing is not possible.  
The mantras to be repeated while sipping water three times are – Achyutaya 
namah (prostrations to the immutable Lord); Ananthaya namah (prostrations 
to the unlimited Lord); Govindaya namah (prostrat ions to the Lord well known

214 by the name of Govinda ). Then the Dwadasha namas  of the Lord are 
repeated touching the various parts of the body – Keshavaya namah, 
Narayanaya namah, Madhvaya namah, Govindaya namah, Vishnave namah, 
Madhusudhanaya namah, Tivikra maya namah, Vamanaya namah, 
Sridharaya namah, Hrishikeshaya namah, Padmanabhaya nah and 
Damodaraya namah  
Offering food to God and Pancha Pranas  
Before taking food, the food is offered to the five Pranas and the Supreme 
Lord seated in the heart. This is don e along with the repetition of mantras – 
Pranaya Svaha, Apanaya Svaha, Vyanaya Svaha, Udanaya Svah a, 
Samanaya Svaha  and lastly Brahmane Svaha.  Before eating the food, we 
offer it to the deities who dwell in the body in the form of Prana, Apana  etc 
Hindu  Upasana and Rituals  
Upasana or W orship  
Worship is the effort on the part of an Upasaka  (he who does Upasana or 
worship) to reach the presence of God. Upasana literally means sitting near 
God. In the process the Upasaka reveals an expression of devotion, 
reverence, love to the Lord and a spiritual thirst to hold communion with Him.  
As the Upasaka sits near the Lord and meditates, a change is brought around 
gradually. His mind is steadied and emotions quieten down. A Shuddha 
Bhava develops. Over a period of t ime Rajas and Tamas  are destroyed. 
Eventually the mind becomes that on which it is meditating. Upasana is of two 
kinds. Refer to the chart below.

215  
 
Puja  
Puja is a common term for ritual worship. Archana, Vandana, Bhajana etc are 
all synonyms of the s ame act. They may, however, stress different aspects of 
it. The object of worship is a particular form of a deity whom the devotee 
worships. It could be an idol ( Pratima ), picture , Linga  or saligrama.  They all 
help the aspirants to attain one -pointedness  of mind and purity of heart.  
Do Hindus worship hundreds of Gods?  
 
Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world. In fact, the term "Hinduism" was 
coined after the British arrived.  It was originally called "Sanatana Dharma". It 
has been there for 1000s of years. During this time it has faced many 
challenges - perhaps, more than any other religion. However, it is still there. It 
is still relevant.  Upasana  
Pratika Upasana  Ahamgraha Upasana  
Pratika means symbol. Meditation using 
idols, pictures etc all come under 
Pratika Upasa na. It is also called 
Saguna Upasana . Singing songs, 
kirtan , offering flowers, prostration, 
prayer, self surrender, service of holy 
men const itute Saguna Upasana . 
Saguna Upasana  is bhakti Yoga . It is 
easier to practice than Nirguna 
Upasana .  Ahamgraha Upa sana is meditation on 
formless and attribute less Brahman . It 
is also called as Nirguna Upasana.  
Chanting Om with Atma -bhava , mental 
Japa of Om constitute Nirguna 
Upasana.

216 The misconceptions about Hinduism are endless. We are going to address 
one of the misconceptions now.  What is that?  Time and again Hinduism has 
been accused of polytheism - that is worshipping many Gods.  Is that true?   
 
Vedas are Holy Scriptures for Hindus. They are authoritative documents. 
There is no mention at all in the Vedas regarding many Gods. They tal k about 
only ONE Supreme Being - Para Brahman; Eshvara.  
 
1. In the Rig Veda. In the 10th Mandala (book); 129th hymn we come 
across - Nasadiya Sukta. It talks about the origin of creation.  It 
describes the situation after the great "Pralaya".  This Hymn is 
conceptually extremely provocative and is popular among scientists 
and thinkers such as Carl Sagan.  It says clearly, there was only 
ONE; No other; He was the creator; He is the Para Brahman; There 
are not many Gods;    
 
2. Then let us look at Purusha Sukta. The Purusha Sukta is the 90th 
Sukta in the 10th Mandala - in the Rig Veda. Purusha refers to the 
Supreme Being. Para Brahman. He is described as the source of all 
creation.     
 
3. The earliest statement on the Nature of Reality occurs in the first 
book of the R ig Veda.   “Ekam Sat -Viprah Bahudha Vadanti”.  “That 
which exists is One. But sages call it by various names."  God , 
Ishvara, Krishna, Lakshmi, Parvati, Yahweh, Allah , etc, they are all 
names that different   people use to describe the same.  
 
Now let us loo k at some of the Maha Vakyas (great sayings).   
 
a. “Ekam evadviteeyam Brahma”  (Brahman is one without 
second);  
b. “Prajnanam Brahma ” (Consciousness is Brahman) - Aitareya 
Upanishad   
c. “Tat tvam asi” (You are that)  - Chandyopanishad.  
d. “Ayam Atma Brahma ” (Atman an d Brahman are the same) 
Mandukyopanishad “ Aham Brahmasmi” (I am Brahman).   
e. Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. Without any limitations like Avidya 
etc the Atman is Brahman.  
f. “Sarvam Kalvidam Brahma.”   (All that we see is Brahman)  
 
From all this we reach the con clusion that - we are not talking of many Gods; 
we are also not talking of one God ; we are saying there is only God .

217 Now to the question of Gods like - Rama, Krishna, Ganesha, Shiva.  
Worship is possible in two ways (a) for Saguna Brahman (b) Nirguna 
Brahman.  
 
(a) Nirguna Brahman: I t refers to Abstract meditation (i.e.) worship of 
Formless, attribute -less Brahman. It is not easy. It may be practiced 
by highly advanced Yogis.   
(b) Saguna Brahman: Concrete meditation. Worship of Parameshvar  
as Rama, Krishna , and i dols etc fall under Saguna Brahman . Easier 
for people like us - who require some help in concentration. 
Everything like temple worship , Puja,  homa etc fall under the 
 category of worshipping Saguna Brahman . 
 
What about worshipping other Gods like - Sun, M oon and others?  
These are Other Gods brought out by the Supreme Brahman . They are called 
Vibhutis (manifestations) of the Supreme Being. They are  Devatas  with 
extraordinary powers. However, they derive their power from the Supreme 
Brahman.  
Idol worship  
Human beings are slaves of symbols. Animals do not have this problem. Man 
lives in a world of symbols. His education is full of symbols – Physics, 
Chemistry etc. Governments have symbols. Parties have symbols. Music has 
symbols. Photographs of families are also symbols. Companies and their 
products have symbols.  In fact, the man’s name is also a symbol. The symbol 
instantly brings to the mind a picture of the object. We are all quite happy in 
using these symbols. Yet, when we use symbols to focus our mind o n our 
favourite Gods we have questions raised. We shall now to try to understand 
our re asons to worshipping idols.  
 
As explained earlier we do have enlightened Sadhaks practicing Nirguna 
Brahman Upasana. However, for an average person involved in Samsar a it 
will be a very difficult task. He needs some aid in focusing his attention. He 
adopts Pratika Upasana. Pratika means a symbol. Meditation on idols, 
pictures of Lord Rama, Krishna, Shiva, Rajarajeshwari come under this 
category.  We have just stated tha t Hindus believe that God is everywhere. 
Extending this thought God is there in the idol that I am worshipping.  When I 
worship the idol, I am not worshipping the stone in front of me. I am 
worshipping the God within that idol.  In the Vaishnava tradition , the idols are 
referred to as Archa avatar. And there are four classes of them. They are :

218 (1) Svayamvyakta: This refers to the class of idols that are believed to have 
been self -created. Examples are idols found in temples such as 
Srira ngam, Tirupati, Kanc hi etc.  
(2) Divya: This refers to idols that have been installed and consecrated by 
Divinities such as Brahma, Indra and others  
(3) Arsha: This refers to idols that have been installed and consecrated by 
sages and seers such as Bhrigu , Markandeya and others  
(4)  Manusha: Refers to idols / images installed and consecrated in 
temples or in their houses.  Other religions also do have symbols before 
which they kneel and offer prayers.  
 
Pratima, the idol, is a substitute or symbol. The image, though it is made of 
stone, wood or metal, is precious for the devotee as it bears the mark of his 
Lord. It stands for something which he holds as holy and eternal. He 
superi mposes all the attributes of the Lord on the image when he prays. The 
idol will remain an idol but the wors hip goes to the Lord. The Sadhak  feels the 
presence of the Lord in the Idol and pays all the respects due to a Master of 
Masters and the Lord of Lords. In his unbridled emotion, he pours out – 
 
“Tvameva Mata cha pita tvameva tvameva bandusca guru 
tvameva  
 
tvameva Vidya dravinam tvameva tvameva sarvam mama deva 
deva”  
 
Meaning   
 
O Lord of Lords ( Deva, Deva ), you are my mother ( Mata ); You are my father 
(pita); You are my sole relative ( bandhu) ; You are my Guru; You are my 
knowledge ( Vidya ); You are my wealt h (dravinam ); You are everything to me 
(sarvam ). It is true that everyone in this world is driven by symbols. A flag is 
not a piece of cloth – it is a national symbol. The government seal is not any 
rubber stamp – it carries a symbol of authority. Idol wor ship is not peculiar to 
Hinduism. The Christians worship the cross. The Mohammedans keep the 
image of the Kaba stone, when they kneel and do prayers. Even a Vedantin  
has the symbol of OM for fixing his wandering mind. The divinity of the all 
pervading God is shining in every atom of His creation and He is there in the

219 idols as well. According to the Vaishnava system Sriman Narayana  is present 
in consecrated images ( Archavatar)  also.  
The ways and rules for worship – Puja Vidhi  are described in Hindu 
scriptures. There are sixteen steps described when you want to worship an 
idol – Shodasha Upachara. The details are given below. All the steps are 
accomp anied with the chanting of mantras.  
No Upachara  Explanation  
1 Aavahana  Invoking the God.  
2 Aasana  Here it m eans welcoming God to take His seat 
in the idol or the symbol which we are 
worshi pping. In essence, it  is the offering of 
one’s heart as the throne or seat  
3 Paadya  It is washing the feet of the idol or symbol. Here 
the water offered is devotion to the f eet of God  
4 Arghya  Offering water to the hands of the God. Once 
again it refers to offering oneself into the hands 
of the God  
5 Aachamana  Offering pure water for sipping  
6 Snaana  Ceremonial bathing with milk, sugar, honey and 
water  
7 Vastra  Offering n ew and beautiful clothes and wrapping 
them around the idol. This means, donning 
oneself with divine wisdom and living in a world 
untainted by passion  
8 Upavita  Offering of the sacred thread. Reference here is 
– to be filled with pure thoughts  
9 Vilepana  Refers to besmearing the body of the Supreme 
Being with musk, red powder and sandalwood 
paste. We are adoring the Lord with all that is 
noble in man  
10 Pushpa  Offering of flowers. It means that we are offering 
our heart  
11 Dhupa  Burning of incense. It re fers to burning our sins 
by the fire of wisdom

220 12 Deepa  The wick of light which is kept or waved before 
the holy symbol of the God. This refers to 
burning the egoistic mind and Karma.  
13 Naivedya  Offering of the food – offering o f great mantras 
or prayer s.(a) Taambula: Offering of betal leaf 
and betal nut to purify the mouth after food. This 
is the word of wisdom emanating from the feast 
of mantra. : (b)  Jala: Water to rinse the mouth. 
Vasanas or subtle desires are thrown out while 
rinsing   :  (c) Madhup arka: Fruits offered after 
the rinsing of the mouth.  
Fruits refer to the four types of liberation (1) 
Saaroopya – attaining the likeliness of God. (2) 
Saalokya – living in the abode of God.  (3) 
Saamipya : living near God (4) Saaujya:  Merging 
in God  
14 Pradakshina  and 
Namaskara  Perambulation and salutation  
15 Mantrapushpa  Offering of flowers and red rice for peace.  
16 Sayya  Offering the most beautiful bed to God for Him 
to rest. This refers to offering our pure heart to 
God and praying to Him to make our  heart as 
His abode  
 
There are different stages of worship. The first stage is idol worship and forms 
the seed from which his understanding will grow. At this first stage the 
sadhaka  superimposes the God and his attributes on the idol. Gradually, he 
will see the Lord in the idol and in all creatures, in all the names and forms in 
this universe. He will feel His presence everywhere. He will then be able to 
perform mental worship. Eventually, with unceasing worship on the Supreme 
Brahman , he will inch toward s Brahma Saakshatkaara .  
For various people, practice of elaborate rituals or Yogas  may not be possible. 
Moksha  will then remain a dream for them and Samsara  will be eternal. 
However, it is not as if their cause is lost. In the Bhagavad Gita  Lord Krishna  
assures - 
“Sarvadharman Parityajya Mam Ekam Saranam Vraja |  
Aham tva Sarva Papebhyo Mokshayishyami Masuchaha ||”

221 This is the noblest of all Shlokas  in the Bhagavad Gita . To Sri 
Raman ujacharya,  this is the final verse (charama Shloka ) of the whole Gita.  
So these are the final verses of Lord Krishna  to Arjuna  in the 18th chapter, 66th 
Shloka  of the Gita.  The meaning is - if the aspirant has no capacity to perform 
Sadhanas like Karma Yoga , Jnana Yoga  or Bhakti Yoga  etc, he can perform 
this alternative sadhana  through charama sloka . “Having given up all 
Dharmas or rites unintentionally, surrender to the Lord alone. I will release 
you from all sins and give Moksha” . It explains that Lord as the only Upaya or 
means to be adopted.  
Homa or Havan  
 
Homa (also known as  homam or havan) is a Sanskrit word which refers to any 
ritual in which making offerings into a consecrated fire is the primary action. 
Homa is an important religious practice in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism.  
 Homa and Aradhana are basically offering of intensive Puja to different Gods 
and Goddesses. Some call it Homa Puja; some call it Homam or Homan. 
People do Homa Puja and Aradhana to get faster spiritual effects or to get 
benefits like - To get peace of mind and happiness , peace at home (griha 
shanti ) and at workplace  
Although a consecrated fire is the central element of every homa ritual, the 
procedure and items offered to the fire vary by the occasions for the 
ceremony, or by the benefit expected from the ritual. Procedures invariably 
involve - 
The kindling and consecration of the sacrificial fire;  
The invocation of one or more divinities; and,  
The making of offerings (whether real or visualized) to them with the fire as a 
media, amid the recitation of prescribed prayers and mantras . The goal of all 
Homams is the prosperity of the people at large by energizing and protecting 
the environment. The Sun is considered as the main source of energy supply, 
and fire is considered as a representation of the Sun's energy.  
 
 How the Homam is performed?  
Each Hom am is performed strictly according to scriptures. These are 
conducted by fully learned and experienced Vedic scholars. The ingredients 
required for these homams are different for each homam. Each homam is 
performed after praying (Sankalpa) for the specific  relief / benefit desired for 
the individual.

222  
 
Yagyas  
Yagna  is a ritual  of sacrifice.  
A Vedic ( shrauta ) Yagna  is typically performed by an adhvaryu  priest, along 
with a number of additional p riests such as the hotar, udgatar  playing 
suppor ting roles, by reciting or singing Vedic verses .. Usually, there will be 
one or three fires at the centre of the offering grou nd and items are offered 
into the fire. Among the items offered as oblations in the Yagna  are large 
quantities of ghee, milk, grains, cakes or soma. The duration of a Yagna  
depends on the type; some can last a few minutes, hours or days and some 
even last for years, with priests continuously making offerings to the gods 
accompanied by the singing of sacred verses. Some Yagnas  are performed 
privately, others with a large number of people in attendance.  
A typical Hindu marriage is a Yagna , because Agni is sup posed to be the 
witness for all marriages. Brahmins and certain other castes receive a 
yagyopavita  "sacred thread" at their upanayana rite of passage. The 
yagyopavita  symbolizes the right of the individual to study the Vedas and to 
carry out Yagnas  or homa s. 
There are 400 yagyas described in the Vedas. Of these, 21 are theoretically 
compulsory for a Brahmin. They are also called nityakarma s. The rest of the 
Yagna  are optional, which are performed for specific benefits - kamyakarma   
Reasons for doing Shraaddh a 
Prana  
The nucleus of all activities of the body is the Prana.  It gets its work done 
through Upa-Pranas or secondary Pranas just as a king gets his work done by 
his subordinates. Each of these Upa-Pranas have their own work areas and 
they operate from sp ecified action centres  so to say.  However, it must be 
noted that there is only one vital -breath or Prana . The five Pranas are – (a) 
Prana  (b) Apana  (c) Vyana  (d) Udana  (e) Samana.  Different names are given 
to it on account of the different duties it perfo rms in the body. The fivefold 
nature is a functional division.  
The Prana dwells in the eye, the ears, nose and mouth enabling them to see, 
to hear, inhale and exhale and speak.  The Apana is in the organs of excretion 
and procreation and initiates the pro cess of discharge of the wastes and 
procreation. Between the Prana  and Apana , in the region of the navel is 
located Samana. The body energy and vitality produced by digestion is 
equally di stributed by its function. The lotus like heart is the seat the subt le 
Atman  known as Lingatma. From within the space of the heart seventy

223 thousand energy channels branch out. Prana moves  through  all these 
channels giving energy to all the limbs and senses. For this reason, it is also 
referred to as Vyana.  
At the time of  death Udana, raises by the Susumna -nadi (One  of the energy 
channels) which goes up to the top of the head taking the soul after it and 
departs the body. It reaches regions of the blessed or that of the condemned 
depending upon the good or bad actions perf ormed. Evidently, Udana is the 
subtle aspect of the Prana which not only pervades the whole system, but 
also controls the Linga sharira (subtle body) in which the soul resides.  
The Body  
This physical body is composed of five great elements or the Mahabhut as, 
namely, earth,  water, fire, air and ether. The Devas  or gods are endowed with 
a divine or luminous body. The fire Tattva  is predominant in them. In man the 
earth Tattva  is predominant in us. In the case of aquatic animals the element 
of water predomina tes. In the case of birds the element of air predominates.  
Hardness of the body is due to the portion of earth (Prithvi);  the fluidity in us, 
is due to portion of water( Apah ); the warmth that you feel in the body is due to 
fire ( Agni); moving to and fro an d such other activities are due to air ( Vayu ); 
space is due to Akasa  or ether. Jivatma  or the individual soul is different from 
the five elements.  
After death these elements are dissolved. They reach their original sources 
from the inexhaustible storehou se of nature. The element of earth goes and 
joins its storehouse of Prithvi Tattva . The other elements also go back to their 
sources.  
The dead body is bathed and newly clothed and is taken to the cremation 
ground where it is laid on the funeral pyre. The Mantras  that are now chanted 
are addressed to the spirit. The spirit is invoked to throw out from its body its 
five Pranas or the vital airs, so that they may mingle with their counterparts in 
the external air. The body is then addressed to dissolve itself  with its five 
material components of earth, water, fire, air and ether from where it originally 
arose. The body is then offered to fire. The spirit which is thus driven out of 
the body in consequence of the dissolution begins its onward march to the 
Beyon d. The respective functions of the organs are blended with the presiding 
gods. Sight goes to the Sun from where it had its power of vision; speech 
goes to the fire, life -breath to the air, the ear into the quarters, the body into 
the earth, hairs into annu al herbs, hairs of the head into trees and blood and 
semen into waters.

224 Pancha Pranas  
Vayu  is wind or air.  Vayu  is Prana  or vital force. Prana  moves the senses or 
Indriyas . Prana generates thoughts. Prana moves the body and causes 
locomotion. Prana  diges ts the food, circulates the blood, excretes urine and 
motion. Prana causes respirations. It is through Prana  you see, hear, feel, 
taste and think. The sum total of all Pranas  is Hiranyagarbha  or Lord Brahma. 
Prana  is manifestation of Prakritis . Gross Prana  is breath. Subtle Prana  is vital 
force. Just as there is the subtle bladder within the football, so also there is 
the subtle body or Sukshma Deha  within this gross body. Udana Vayu  draws 
out the subtle body from the gross body at the time of death. It is this subtle 
body that goes to heaven and works in the dreaming state. Udana Vayu  is the 
vehicle of transport for all Pranas.  Its abode is the throat.  
This immortal Soul or  Atman  which is the source and support for all the  
Pranas, mind, intellect, senses an d the body abides in the chambers of your 
heart. This Atman  is in the heart where there are a hundred and one arteries. 
Every one of these has seventy -two thousand branches. Vyana  which does 
the circulation of blood moves in these arteries. A dead body can not speak, 
cannot see. It remains like a log. It is the soul that enlivens, galvanises, 
moves and directs the body, mind and senses.  
Udana , which goes up through one of these, leads you to the higher worlds by 
means of your meritorious actions, to the evi l worlds by means of your evil 
deeds and to the world of men by a mixture of both deeds.  
Onward March to the Beyond  
The soul in its disembodied form hovers about its original and familiar places 
for ten days. It is in the form of a ghost during these ten days. The astral body 
takes shape from day to day with the formation of the head, eyes, and other 
limbs of the Linga Sarira , fed and nourished by the sesame and water poured 
out in libation over the stones which represent the ancestors.  
The soul is fully e mbodied on the eleventh day. It starts on its journey to the 
judgement seat of Lord Yama , the God of death. It takes one full year from the 
time of death to reach Lord Yama’s  place. The path is beset with obstacles, 
distress and difficulties. The man who h as done the most wicked deeds 
suffers more. But the difficulties can be removed and the journey be rendered 
easy and comfortable by the oblations and offerings given by the son of the 
deceased during the first year of the soul’s journey and by feeding pure  and 
learned Brahmins. The son should offer rice -balls to the father, without 
weeping. Death is certain for those who are born, and birth is certain for the 
dead.  
This is inevitable. Therefore, you should not grieve over it. The ten days’ rites 
should not be neglected. The son should perform the Sapinda  ceremony on

225 the twelfth day and the sixteen monthly offerings. The soul is sustained on its 
onward march to the judgement seat by the libations offered to it by the son.  
The soul is scorched on the way by i ntense heat, but the gift of an umbrella by 
his son on the eleventh day gives pleasant shade above his head. The path is 
full of great thorns, but the gift of shoes helps him to go riding on horses. The 
miseries of cold, heat and wind are dreadful there, b ut he goes happily along 
the way by the power of gift of clothes. There is great heat and there is no 
water, but drinks water when thirsty, through the gift of a water -pot by his son. 
The son should make a gift of a cow.  
Chitragupta,  the recorder of fact, the Accountant -General in the Kingdom of 
Lord Yama  informs  the soul of his good and bad actions in his earthly life after 
the end of one full year. The soul leaves off its Pretatva  or the garb of a 
trave ller on this day. He is raised to the status of a Pitri or Ancestor.  
Ancestor -worship is one of the fundamental doctrines of Hinduism. There are 
three stages:  
in the ancestral life viz., father, grandfather and great grandfather, and 
mother, grandmother and great grandmother. These are the ancestors to 
anyon e living here. He who has done meritorious actions on this earth -life 
becomes united with his ancestors in the Pitri-loka and lives with them.  
Those who have given up the performance of Sraaddha, Tarpana  and other 
religious rites on account of wrong influe nce, ignorance and egoism have 
done great harm to their ancestors and themselves. They should wake up 
now. They should start doing these ceremonies from now. It is not too late 
now.  
Departure of Soul  
At the time of death when the breathing becomes difficu lt the Jiva or the 
individual self ( Atman ) that is in the body goes out making noises. The 
departure of the Atman is immediately followed by the departure of the vital 
force ( Prana ). It is presided over by the Supreme self -luminous Atman. It goes 
making no ises because it is afflicted by the pain as the vital parts are being 
slashed. Loss of memory is caused as a result of this vital and excruciating 
pain. He is then put in a helpless state of mind on account of the pangs felt. At 
this point in time man cann ot think of God. He should have practiced much 
earlier a suitable means for that end. When the man is about to die, the 
various organs withdraw themselves into their original sources and help no 
more the function of the organs. In death there is a complete  withdrawal of the 
organs into the heart or the heart -lotus or Akasa  of the heart.  
Knowledge, work and past experience are the three factors in deciding the 
future of an individual. One should, therefore, cultivate virtues, perform good

226 actions so that he may attain a desirable and agreeable body with desirable 
enjoyments.  
Soul’s journey after death  
The soul accompanied by the chief vital air ( Mukhya Prana ), the sense -organs 
and the mind. It takes with itself ignorance, good and evil actions and the 
impressions left by his previous existence, leaves its former body and obtains 
a new body. When the soul passes from one body to another he is enveloped 
by the subtle parts of the elements which are the seeds of the new body. He 
rises on the road leading throug h the smoke and so on, to the sphere of the 
moon. After enjoying the fruits of his good actions he again descends to the 
earth with a remainder of the Karma , by the route he went or differently. When 
the Karma , which gave the soul a birth as a god in heave n, is exhausted, the 
remaining Karma , good or bad, brings him back to the earth.  
It is not possible that in one life the entire Karma  of the previous life is worked 
out. Because a man might have done both good and bad deeds, as a result of 
which he is born  as a god, or as an animal. The working out of both kinds of  
Karmas  simultaneously in one birth is not possible. Hence although the result 
of virtuous actions is exhausted by the enjoyment in heaven, there still are 
other Karmas  in store according to which  a man is born again in good or bad 
environments. The soul has a vision of the body to come.  
Shraaddha  
The Karma Kanda  of the Vedas , the sacred books of the Hindus , has laid 
down different  
duties for man according to his position in life and according to the order to 
which he belongs. All these injunctions are embodied in the book called 
Manusmriti.   Manusmriti  is the code of law and conduct for the Hindus.  Kings 
and rulers of the past were guided by the rules contained therein for the 
maintenance of peace  and order in the country. The  Manusmriti  has divided 
human society into four main divisions known as Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya 
and Shudra . It has also  made four divisions of the different stages of life of an 
individual viz., Brahmacharya, Garhasthya,V anaprastha and Sannyasa. 
Brahmacharya  is the life of a student, Garhasthya,  the household life, 
Vanaprastha , the life in the forest given to religious pursuits, and lastly 
Sannyasa , the life of a mendicant after renouncing all worldly activities. These 
are the four Ashramas of life.  
 
For a householder the scriptures have imposed the Pancha Maha Yajnas , the 
five great sacrifices as obligatory duties of life. The neglect of these duties 
entails penalty. These great sacrifices are:  
1. Deva Yajna  (sacrifice  to gods),

227 2. Rishi Yajna  (sacrifice to Rishis),  
3. Pitri Yajna  (sacrifice to ancestors),  
4. Bhuta Yajna  (sacrifice to animals), and  
5. Atithi Yajna  (sacrifice to guests).  The Sraaddha  ceremony comes 
under Pitri Yajna.  It is the sacred duty of the hou seholder.  
Every householder should perform the Sraaddha ceremony for his ancestors . 
Pitris  are forefathers who dwell in the Pitriloka.  They possess the power of 
clairvoyance and clairaudience. When Mantras  are recited, they exercise a 
tremendous influence through their vibrations. The Pitris  hear the sounds 
through the power of clairaudience and they are pleased. They bless those 
who offer the oblation. In Sraaddha,  the essence of food offerings is taken up 
by the Sun’s rays to  Suryaloka  and the departed so uls are pleased with the 
offerings.  
It is the imperative duty of all householders to perform Sraaddha  and Tarpan  
to please the Rishis  and Pitris . The Gita and the Upanishads  clearly bear 
testimony to the fact that the performance of Sraaddha  is very impo rtant. It is 
only the deluded souls with perverted intellect who misconstrue things and 
neglect to perform the sacred ceremonies and consequently suffer. They are 
misguided by false reasoning and logic.  
Sraaddha  ceremony is done once in every year. A day  of the  Pitris is equal to 
one year of human computation. This is the reason why we have to perform  
Sraaddha  ceremony once in a year.  
If we perform Sraaddha ceremony once in every year, it is equal to daily 
performances of  Sraaddha  for the Pitris . In thei r calculation we, their sons, live 
only for a few days, because the longest period of human existence of 100 
years is merely 100 days for them.  
Some people entertain the doubt, “When the  Jiva undergoes transmigration 
and takes another birth after leaving t his physical body, is it necessary that we 
should perform  Sraaddha  ceremony for him? He is no more in the heavens. 
To whom will the oblations reach?” In the ninth chapter of the Gita, Lord 
Krishna has made it very clear that those virtuous persons who per form 
sacrifices for the attainment of heaven attain to those worlds of enjoyments. 
“They having enjoyed that spacious world of  Svargas , their merit ( Punya ) 
exhausted, enter the world of the mortals; thus following the Dharma  of the 
triad, desiring objects of desires, they attain to the state of going and 
returning.” This esta blishes the theory of attainment of heaven after death, 
and rebirth in the mortal world after the exhaustion of virtuous acts. The 
enjoyments in heaven and peace of the soul are enhance d by the 
performance of Sraaddha ceremony. The suffering in worlds other than

228 heaven according to the merits of one’s own actions is mitigated by the 
performance of Sraaddha ceremony by his sons. So in both cases the 
performance of Sraaddha  is a great help . The  Pitris  remain in heaven 
(Pitriloka, Chandraloka ) for a very long period.  
According to the theory of transmigration, even if the individual is to take 
another birth immediately after his death, the performance of Sraaddha  adds 
to his happiness in his new birth. So it is the imperative duty of everybody to 
perform Sraaddha  ceremony for his parents and forefathers.  Sraaddha  
ceremony should be performed with great Sraddha  (faith) as long as you live.  
Some people argue and say that if a man once performs Sraaddha  ceremony 
to his forefathers at Gaya and other places of religious importance, he need 
not do it every year thereafter. This is not a general rule and does not apply to 
all. It applies only in certain exceptional cases. If people take shelter under  
this exception and discontinue  Sraaddha  ceremony by once offering Pinda , 
etc., at Gaya, they do so out of sheer ignorance. They consider it merely a 
burden to perform Sraaddha ceremony and avoid it. They have not 
discharged their duties properly.  
The var ious religious observances imposed upon mankind by the Shastras  
tend to purify the ignorant man. The goal of Karma Yoga  is purification of the 
mind. Sraaddha  ceremony, being one of the obligatory duties, as per the 
injunctions of scriptures, also tends t o purify the mind. Besides this, the fore - 
fathers are also pleased and their good wishes and blessings tend to our 
material and spiritual growth.

229 Chapter VIII - Selected Stutis  
 
Vedahametam Purusham Mahaatantam Adityavarnam tamasah 
paras thath  
Tameva viditwati mrutyumeti naanyaha pandha vidyateyanaya  
Swetashvaropanishad.  3.8  
 
I know the Supreme Purusha, who is of the colour  of the sun and is beyond all 
darkness. It is only by knowing Him that one goes beyond death. There is no other way 
by which one can get there.   
Everyone prays, some more often than others. Even a heavily indoctrinated atheist will 
pray one day. Prayer involves (a) someone who prays (b) altar at which a person offers 
his prayers (c) the mode of prayer. Prayer alwa ys has a purpose. You pray because you 
desire something. Even when you pray for mental clarity ( Antahkarana  shuddhi), peace 
of mind or the ultimate Moksha  it is still a desire. Implicit in praying are three important 
truths (a) acceptance of his or her lim itations - on the part of the person who is praying 
(b) acceptance of a superior Self who can grant your wishes. (c) acceptance that the 
Lord will listen to your prayers and grant your wishes. Acceptance is the first and direct 
result of prayer - the meltin g of ego. Prayer is worthless without devotion or Bhakti.  
At times you achieve what you prayed for within a short time. Quite often, the results do 
not occur within a short time and are not seen by the anxious devotee. The unseen 
results will manifest i n time and we call it (Kripa) grace. You can pray for yourself or for 
the welfare of others you love.  
Prayer can be said in simple words or in a more elaborate ritualistic manner. Ramana 
Maharshi has described that prayer may be offered in any one of the  three different 
forms - (a) Kaayika (physical) (b) Vacika (oral) (c) Maanasa (mental). Ritual is physical 
form of prayer. Singing the praise of the Lord is an oral form of prayer. Chanting a 
mantra silently is a mental form of prayer.  
The practice of dev otion takes the following nine different forms –

230 (1) Hearing about God (2) singing about His greatness (3) remembering Him (4) serving 
Him through the service of all beings as His embodiments (5) worshipping Him in Holy 
images (6) paying obeisance to Him (7) practicing the attitude of a servant towards Him 
(8) cultivating loving intimacy with Him (9) surrendering one’s, body, mind  and soul to 
Him.  
 
    Kaayika   Vacika   Maanasa  
    (physical)  (oral)  (mental)  
1 Hearing about God  ▲     
2 Singing about His greatness    ▲   
3 Remembering Him      ▲ 
4 Serving Him through the service of  
all beings as His embodiments  ▲   ▲ 
5 Worshipping Him in Holy images  ▲ ▲   
6 Paying obeisance to Him      ▲ 
7 Practicing the attitude of a serva nt  
towards Him  ▲ ▲ ▲ 
8 Cultivating loving intimacy with Him      ▲ 
9 Surrendering one’s, body, mind  and 
soul to him     ▲ ▲ ▲ 
 
Everything that is done should be dedicated to Lord Narayana.  
Kaayena vacha manas’endriyair vaa  
buddhyaatmanava prakru te’ svabhaavaat  
karomi yad sakalam parasmai  
Naraayanayeti samarpayami  
Whatever is done according to one’s natural capacity by one’s body, words, mind 
senses Buddhi and the self – all that should be dedicated to Lord Narayana, the 
Supreme Being.

231 Worshi p is the expression of devotion, reverence and love to the Lord. The Upaasaka 
prays to the Lord for granting him his wishes. The word Upaasana  literally means sitting 
near God. Worship of the Lord has a number benefits – (a) purifies the heart (b) 
gene rates harmonious vibrations (c) steadies the mind (d) purifies and ennobles the 
emotions (e) harmonizes the five sheaths (f) eventually leads to God realization. 
Upaasana  is of two kinds.  
Pratika Upaasana:  Pratika refers to a symbol. Pratika Upaasana  is, in  fact, Saguna 
Upaasana  – that is worshipping God with a form. Meditation on idols, pictures of Lord 
Rama, Krishna , Shiva, Rajarajeshwari  come under this category.  
Ahamgraha Upaasana:  Refers to Nirguna Upaasana  on formless, attribute less 
Akshara  or trans cendental Brahman.   
According to Sri Ramanujacharya ( Vishishtadvaita ) the Supreme Being is not a 
featur eless, attribute less , indefinite and vague presence unsuited for worship and 
adoration. The Supreme Person has an archetypal form and pervades everythi ng as 
their in dweller . In Himself, that is in His Swaroopa , He partakes of the following fivefold 
chara cteristics – 
Satyam:  Refers to truth that is unconditioned and changeless.  
Jnanam : Refers to permanently un -contracted and all -comprehending knowledg e  as 
the Supreme subject  
Anantam:  Refers to infinity – not limited by categories of time, space etc.  
Ananda:  Refers to immeasurable and unmitigated bliss   
Amalatva:  Refers to stainless or incorruptibility ( i.e.) freedom the hold of Karma  
These are H is inherent attributes that form His Swaroopa  (inherent nature) .  Basically, 
these attributes are manifested in Him in relation to finite beings. However, He has 
additional qualities referred to as His Swabhava  which is unrelated to anything.  
In addition to these, the Supreme Being has manifested in Him countless auspicious 
qualities (known as Kalyana Gunas ) described as His Swabhava. The characteristics 
forming the Swabhava  are identified with six major qualities ( Bhagas ) described in the 
Vishnu Purana  as powers characterizing the Bhagavan (God).  They are Jnana  
(omni science), Bala (Omnipotence), Aishwarya  (lordship), Shakti  (creative power), 
Veerya (immutability), and Tejas  (splendour ). Sri Ramanujacharya identified the 
Upanisadic  Supreme Brahman  with Lor d Narayana. In Gadya Trayam , one of the  major 
and brilliant works of Sri Ramanujacharya,  more of this can be read. I have made an 
attempt to pr ovide a commentary on Gadya Trayam.

232 While  Saguna Upaasana  is concrete meditation, Nirguna Upaasana  is abstract 
medit ation.  The nine fold path of devotion detailed above constitutes Saguna 
Upaasana . Chanting of OM with Atma Bhava  will come under Nirguna Upaasana . 
Practitioners of Saguna  and Nirguna Upaasana  attain the same goal. However, practice 
of Nirguna Upaasa na places more demands on the Sadhak . A person choosing this 
path will have to give up attachment to his body from the very beginning of his spiritual 
practice.  
The Vedic Rishis  have viewed the entire Universe as a manifestation of the Supreme 
Being. Ear th, water, fire, air, space are all His manifestations. Going one step further 
these Rishis  have nominated each one of these manifestations as a Devata  (God).  
“Ekam sath vipraa bahudha vadanti”  
There is only one Supreme Being. However, He is being referr ed to by different names.  
We must clearly understand that in our religion, which I will call it as Sanatana Dharma  
(and not as Hindu religion) we worship one Supreme Being ( Parabrahman ). We have 
been accused of polytheism (worshipping of many Gods) which is incorrect.   
When the Rishis offered their prayers to Agni, Vaayu, Indra, Varuna , they are, in fact, 
offering their prayers to that one Supreme Being who is supporting all these powers. As 
such when we pray for a targeted objective such as a healthy li fe or for a success in 
business or studies, for reaching greater heights in spiritual progress we are still praying 
to that one Supreme Self. It is for this reason that a major portion of the Vedas have 
been presented in the form of mantras / prayers. Thes e prayers have come in a number 
of different forms.  
Mantras  
 
 “Mananath traayate iti mantraha”  Mantra is a sacred word with thought power. There 
are various kinds of Mantras.    
Saattwika Mantras:   These are chanted for illumination, supreme divine love a nd 
realiz ation of God.  
Raajasika Mantras :  These are chanted for progeny and worldly prosperity.  
Taamasika Mantras:   These are chanted for destroying or harming others.

233  
 
There are three different classes in Mantras . They are called the “three limbs of 
Mantras” 
 
(1) Mantra :  As indicated earlier is, thought power, given in a few syllables or words for 
(2) Stotra  : Refers to a prayer to a deity. This can be in two forms  
(a) General Stotras  are prayers for general goodness that has to come from 
God according to His will  
(b) Specific Stotras refer to prayers offered from individuals seeking 
fulfilments  of specific desires.  
3) Kavaca : These mantras are used as armours for protection. A number of mantr a 
armours are found in Puranas.   
Japa:   The importance of sound and proper intonation forms the basis for the 
effectiv eness of mantras . Repetition of the holy incantation of the mantra  is what is 
called Japa.  The syllable “Ja” destroys birth and death cy cle. The syllable “ pa” destroys 
sins. That which destroys sins and puts an end to the birth -death cycle is called Japa.  
Japa can be classified as follows -  3 limbs of Mantras  
Mantra  Stotra  Kavaca  Mantras  
Vedic Mantras  Tantrika Mantras  Puranic Mantras  
Saattwika  Raajasika  Taamasika  Saattwika  Raajasika  Taamasika  
Saattwika  Raajasika  Taamasika

234  
Vaacika :  Refers to oral repetition of a mantra.  This is classified into two categories – 
Upaam su and oral  
Upaamsu : Refers to the oral repetition of a mantra without making any sound. This is 
when the Sadhak  repeats the mantra and others sitting even nearby will not be able to 
hear the sound.  
Oral:  In this case the mantra is repeated and the sound  may be heard with lip 
movement. This is when the Sadhak  repeats the mantra within the hearing of others.  
Manasika :  Refers to mental Japa . Once again there are two categories.  
Mental repetition: The Sadhak  does a mental repetition of the mantra.  
Ajapa Japa : Refers to meditation on the breath. The Sadhak  performs a meditation on 
the spirit of the mantra and the meaning of the sacred word without a movement of the 
tongue or the lips.   
You may have noticed that all Veda mantras  conclude with the words – Om Shantih 
Shantih Shantih.  
 
 Shanti means peace . There is a reason behind repeating the word Shantih thrice. We 
usually encounter problems from three agencies.  
1) Problems which we create for ourselves – such as physical ailments and 
mental stress.  
2) Proble ms due to others  
3) Problems due to nature and others that are beyond our control – such as rain, 
thunder, Fire  Japa  
Vaacika  Maanasika  
Upaamsu  Oral  Mental 
repet ition Ajapa Japa

235 By uttering Om Shantih Shantih Shantih we are praying for protection from these 
agencies. 
At this stage, it may be in order to try and get a better understanding of mantra  and 
Japa . How are mantras  constructed?  
The basic principle underlying a mantra  is that this Universe of ours is made up of 
different kinds of vibrations and energies working at different levels. We are familiar with 
the vi brations and energies that we experience in our everyday  lives at the physical 
level – for example light, sound. However, the ancient Rishis  have identified presence of 
vibrations and energies at the super -physical levels.   They have also discovered that 
thoughts, emotions and even subtler worlds (Sukshma  lokas) , to which reference is 
made frequently in our religious literature are based on vibrations and energy plays. 
Further investigation by the Rishis revealed that not only all manifested worlds are 
based on various kinds of vibrations and energies but all these vibrations, in turn,  are 
connected with one another and can be traced to one fundamental all embracing 
vibration.  This primary vibration is the source of all other vibrations and is called 
“Naada”. The Ultimate Reality which is responsible for Naada  is referred to as Shabda  
Brahman .  
 
Another fact that has to be understood in the theory of mantra yoga is the existence of a 
relationship between vibrations, forms and consciousness.  
An example i s – light and sound vibrations are received by our sense organs (eyes and 
ears) and the form is recognized by our consciousness. When both these vibrations are 
cut off the form is not perceived on the physical plane.  
A particular vibration will keep eleme nts of a form together and the form will fall apart 
when the vibration ceases. These vibrations need not necessarily take place in the 
physical plane – but they may take place on different planes depending on the nature of 
the form and the life acting as t he soul for it.  
If vibration is related to both form and consciousness then we can use vibration to do 
two things – (a) use vibrations to produce different kinds of natural phenomena (b) bring 
about changes in consciousness.  Vibratio
Form  Consciou snes

236 Tantric literature gives a number of mantras which can be used to bring about some 
specific desired results. It just utilizes powers hidden in certain combination of sounds to 
yield the desired results. Mantra Yoga , on the other hand, utilizes powers hidden in 
certain combination of  sounds for the un -folding human consciousness. Japa , which 
refers to physical or mental repetition of mantras produces vibrations in different planes 
and enables the Sadhak  to reach deeper layers of consciousness. The eternal 
consciou sness of the Supreme is everywhere and is beating all the time against the 
walls of our mind. It is our lack of sensitivity that is preventing us from recognizing it.  
How are mantras  constructed?  
Mantra is composed of certain letters arranged in a definite sequence of sound  of which 
the letters are the representative signs. Mantra  must be intoned in the proper way 
according to Svara (rhythm) and Varna  (sound). Bija–Akshara  is a seed letter. It is a 
very powerful mantra. All Devatas have their own Bija-Akshara . Generally, the  Bija-
Mantra  consists of a single letter. Sometimes it constitutes of several syllables. Though 
the Bija-Mantras  have a significant inner meaning, they may not convey any on their 
face. The form of the Bija-Mantra  is the form of the Devata signified by it.  Examples of 
some Bija -Mantras are given below.  
Five Mahabhutas  (Ether, Air, Fire, Water and Earth) Ham, Yam, Ram, Vam, Lam  
Parabrahman  Aum 
Shiva  Haum  
Mahalakshmi  Shreem  
Saraswati  Aim 
Ganesha  Gam  
Mantras are constructed by arranging the letters of the al phabet in certain combinations 
with necessary directions for their exact and correct pronunciation. Obviously, this can 
only be done by a person who knows the subtler properties of the different sounds. No 
one can predict the effect produced by a certain c ombination of sounds without a 
thorough investigation and experimentation. These experiments have to be performed 
both on the physical and super physical planes. It is then obvious only great Rishis who 
know the effects produced by sounds and their combina tions are qualified to construct 
mantras and pass them on to Sadhakas  for their Japa . The particular Rishi who has 
disco vered or constructed the mantra after the necessary investigation is called the 
Rishi  of that particular mantra. Naturally, the power of  the mantra is dependent on the 
potency of the sound combinations used and the investigations on its pronunciation and 
effects carried out by the Rishi.

237 The crucial point to remember in regard to the Japa is that it is not a mechanical 
repet ition of a n ame. What is required is complete focus of all the powers of the 
individual t owards a definite end. One should remember that nothing can be gained in 
this world without an effort and nothing can be gained suddenly. You must be prepared 
for a long, persiste nt and earnest effort. It is a gradual process. There are no short cuts.   
Gayatri Mantra  
( Rig Veda 3.62.10)  
The Japa (meditative utterance) of the Gayatri  is an integral part of Sandhya , the daily 
practice of the Hindu. This mantra is capable of unfold ing our spiritual faculties in a 
remarkable manner.   
Understanding the nature of  Gayatri:  
In Hindu scriptures, the word Gayatri  is used in 3 different senses. (a)  The well known 
Gayatri mantra which is recited during Sandhya  (b) For the meter or Chanda s in which 
the above mantra  is cast (c) For the Devi (or Goddess) who wields the power of this 
mantra.  
At the start of creation when manifestation takes place, the primary differentiation is into 
Consciousness and Power ( Shakti). This Shakti , in turn, di fferentiates further into 
innumerable powers corresponding to the multifarious functions which have to be 
performed in a manifested universe. Each power or Shakti  is matched by a 
corresponding function of consciousness. These Shaktis  and associated 
conscio usnesses are the Devis  and Devatas  of Hinduism. Each function and power is 
given a particular name and form. The form given has a deep symbolic reference with a 
view to give a concept of the particular divine function or power.  
It is said that the Rishis  have recognized 330 million Devatas of various gradations who 
have their abodes in various Lokas  or regions. Each Devata  has a name or mantra for 
which he is the presiding deity. When a Sadhak  chants the specific mantra  he is, in fact, 
invoking the partic ular Devata or Shakti.  The mind, occupied in the contemplation of 
such a deity, takes the shape of that deity or becomes as powerful and pure as the 
deity.  
To effectively propitiate a deity two essential requirements exist –  
(1) Bhakti  or devotion. (2 ) Mantra Kriya .  
Chanting a mantra without devotion becomes mechanical and is not beneficial. At the 
same time, when a Sadhak  chants a mantra with devotion with neither the external form 
of worship (with knowledge of its esoteric meaning) nor internal wors hip (such as

238 sacrificing the ego or the burning of all desires) the chanting does not yield the full 
benefits.  
That brings us to the question on what particular function that Gayatri Devi  performs. 
The main function of Gayatri  is the liberating function of the Supreme Brahman  which 
frees the  Jeevatmas   from bondage. Bondage is brought about by the Jiva identifying 
itself with matter ( Prakruti ). Self realization starts when the  Jeeva  realizes the error in 
this cognition. The more we identify ourselves with  matter or Prakruti , the more we 
become slaves of our vehicles and environment. The more we identify ourselves with 
Self or consciousness the more we free ourselves from Jada Jagat  (material Universe) 
and our journey towards realizing Para Brahman  begins.  
This realization can take place at 3 levels – Intellectual, intuitional and Real. The word 
Real is being used here to convey Pratyaksha Jnana  or realization. The 3 forms of 
Gayatri  used in trikala - Sandhya  (worship performed at 3 junctures of the day) ar e 
connected with these 3 stages.  
At the early stages, it is possible to acquire some knowledge of Brahman  and His 
functions in the Universe by studying various books. This knowledge is purely 
intellectual - just theoretical knowledge without being backed by any personal 
experience. Yet this is an important step for further progress.  
This leads to the next step of knowing Brahman through intuition or spiritual perception. 
By long and continued practice of moral disciplines and the practice of Dhyana  
(conc entration) and Upaasana (continuous thought of God) the mind of the seeker is 
purified and develops the power to receive the Divine. At this stage the seeker’s faith is 
strengthened by the glow of love and develops into Paraa Bhakti . His mind, without 
external simulation, goes towards God in place of sense objects.  
The devotee then feels a great attraction towards the God and the feeling will start 
intensifying. By then the devotee is madly in love with the Supreme Self and is always in 
intimacy with the divine.  
This kind of perception is indirect perception of the Reality. By now the Sadhak  starts 
recognizing the immanent Reality through various forms. Sadhak  then passes on to the 
more exalted stage of Parama Bhakti  and continues to be in direct touch wi th the 
Supreme Self. And the Supreme Self is also the Universal Mind in which the knowledge 
of all the Vedas  is contained. It can then be seen that the effective way of knowing the 
Vedas is through Gayatri or any other means which brings about this gradual  
unfoldment of our consciousness. For this reason Gayatri  is referred to as Mother of the 
Vedas.

239 I have stated that the function of the Gayatri is to free the Jeeva  from bondage and to 
wipe out the sins. It should not be understood that Gayatri Upaasana  at the end of each 
day is a convenient way to destroy all sins committed during the day. It is to be 
unde rstood that the Upaasana counteracts tendencies to commit sins or evil actions 
and strengthens spiritual prowess.                                                               
The Gayatri Mantra  
 Om  Bhoorbhuvasuvah  
 Tat Saviturvarenyam Bhargo Devasya Dheemahi  
 Dhiyo yo nah prachodayaath  
   
To start with, we have to understand a couple of things – 
(1)  Gayatri mantra is not a pure mantra alone! It is, in fact, both a mantra and a 
prayer.  
 
 A pure mantra depends for its effectiveness upon the power of the mantra Shakti  
– the power inherent in the sound. In a few cases, the mantra may not appear to 
carry a meaning on the face of it. Gayatri mantra has inh erent in it a tremendous 
power. This mantra is then combined with a prayer. Prayer, offered with intense 
devotion and feeling, once again, has a tremendous power. Thus when the 
power of the mantra is combined with the power of the prayer we then get a very  
potent tool for the unfoldment of our spiritual potentialities.  
 
(2)  The mantra can be viewed to consist of three well defined parts  
 
a) The first part consists of the Pranava and Maha  Vyahritis  
b) The second part consists of  Tat Savitur Varenyam Bhargo Devasya      
Dheemahi  
c)  The third part consists of Dhiyo Yo Nah Prachodayaat  
  
Let us now consider the purpose of these three parts – 
The purpose of the first part is to arouse the spiritual powers which are latent in the 
heart of every human being. The spiritual powers are transformed from a potential to an 
active form. The potency inherent in the sound of the first part does this function.  
The purpose of the second part is to stimulate in the mind of the Sadhak , an intense 
resolve to come into contact  with the consciousness of Savita , the presiding deity of our 
solar system.  
The purpose of the third part is to bring about an attitude of self -surrender on the part of 
the Sadhak . This is essential for the flow of Divine grace ( Kripa )

240  
Pranava - OM 
Pranava , the humming sound produced by the one lettered word OM  is not an ordinary 
mantra. OM is formed by adding the three letters A,U,M. A represents the physical 
plane and the waking state, U represents the astral or mental plane and the dreaming 
state, M represents all the deep sleep state and that is unknown and the reach of the 
intellect even in our waking state. OM is regarded as the symbol of Parabrahman.   It is 
indicated in the Yoga sutra – “ tasya vaachakah Pranavah”. In fact, the whole Mandukya 
Upanishad is a commentary on the Pranava. Chant OM for an hour and any other word 
also for one hour. You will feel the difference yourself.  
OM is regarded to consist of eight limbs – Akara, Ukara, Makara, Ardhamatra, Nada, 
Bindu , Kala and Shakti . All tripl ets are considered to be represented by OM. Some 
examples are given below – 
A U            M 
Brahma  Vishnu  Shiva  
Saraswati  Lakshmi  Durga  
Rajas  Sattva  Tamas  
Body  Mind  Soul 
Gross  Subtle  Causal  
Jagrat  Svapna  Sushupti  
Past Present  Future  
Sat Chit Ananda  
Creation  Preservation  Destruction  
Prakruti  Jivatma  Paramatma  
Birth Life Death

241 It is impossible for an average reader to understand the occult significance and the 
meaning attached to the names referred to in these Mantras . The mantra  Hrim is said to 
be the Sthula Pranava  and the AUM  as the Sukshma  Pranava . 
The Japa  of Pranava  is, by itself, an independent and powerful means of spiritual 
unfoldment . Its inclusion in the Gayatri mantra  increases enormously the effectiveness 
of Gayatri.   
 Maha Vyaahriti       
Bhoorbhuvasuvah  
 What Pranava is to the Ishvara  of our solar system the Maha Vyahritis  are to the 
presiding deities of the lowest three planes in which we live in our everyday  life – 
namely the physical, astral and mental planes. In the Hindu scriptures t hey are called 
Prithvi, Antariksha and Swarga. The three deities or Devatas of the three  tattwas  
(principles) which predominate on the three planes are – Agni, Vaayu and  Aditya . The 
three Maha Vyahritis  are the Bija Mantras  (seed mantras ) of the three dei ties. It is true 
that Ishvara is Lord of all in the Universe. Yet the powers aroused by the Maha Vyahritis  
are indirectly derived from the Lord Himself. The general power of the Pranava  is 
suppl emented by the special powers of the Maha Vyahritis . A story f rom 
Chandogyopanishad throwing some light on the Maha Vyahritis  is interesting.  
Once Prajapati performed samyama  (yogic meditation) on the nature of the Universe 
(Vishwa ) and found that the essence of the physical world (Prithvi ) was Agni, that of the 
Astral world (antariksha)  is Vayu  and for the lower heaven (swarga)   is Aditya.  On 
further meditation he found that the essence of Agni was Rig Veda , that for Vayu  was 
Yajur Veda , and that for  Aditya  was Sama Veda . On further investigation he found that 
the essence of Rig Veda  was Bhuh , for Yajur Veda  it turned out to be Bhuvah  and for 
Sama Veda  it was Suvah.   Prajapati  then reflected on the Maha Vyahritis . Out of this 
reflection was born  OM. As the veins pervade all leaves so does OM pervade all Vaak  
(sound)  
Though these things belong to different categories, the story brings out the fact that that 
they are inter -related. The reason for this is – that all these are derived from the same 
Supreme Reality which differentiates in different ways to produce Shakti s of different 
types.  In the same way the Maha Vyahritis  may be considered as a differentiated form 
of Pranava .    
From this story, we can understand that the Maha Vyahritis  are the Bija mantras  of the 
three Devatas Agni, Vaayu  and Aditya . They are also the presiding deities for the lowest 
three planes in which we live our ordinary lives, namely the physical ( Prithvi ), astral

242 (antariksha ), and mental (svarga ). These are also the Devatas  of the three principles or 
tattvas  which dominate the three planes. W e will come to that shortly  
We now come to the second part of the Gayatri mantra – 
Tat Savitur Varenyam Bhargo Devasya Dheemahi      
In short it means – we meditate upon the divine light of that adorable Sun of spiritual 
consciousness which stimulates ou r power of spiritual  perception. However, there is far 
more to it when you probe into it.                                                                                                                                                                       
This is, in fact, an invocation to Savita  for more light or more enlightenment. It is a call of 
the individual self to the Supreme Self for the ultimate goal in life.  
And who is Savita?                                                                                                                                                      
This refers to the Sun in the Solar system. Our understanding of Sun is - that it is the 
source of all kinds of energies which are needed for life support in the Solar system. But 
the ancient Rishis have pointed out that the Sun’s role i s not limited to being the centre 
and source for physical life only. In fact, it nourishes other aspects of life as well – 
physical, emotional, mental and spiritual. This Devata, this mighty and stupendous 
consciousness, is referred to as Surya Narayana . Hence, the reference to Savita is not 
just for the globe of fire that we see and feel but for the complete entity including the 
spiritual Sun of consciousness. One, who has realised the mystery behind the Sun, 
would have gone a long way in realising the mys tery behind the cosmos. Hence, the 
Savita of the Gayatri mantra is a fitting objective for a Sadhak .  
What is bharga?  – the light of Savita.  
The spiritual Sun is the very core of the spiritual consciousness. That spiritual 
consciousness is stepped down in the various lokas or planes. We contact this 
minimized versions of His consciousness at different levels by going into deeper layers 
of our own consciousness. However, the Ultimate reality is indivisible and changeless. 
When it a ppears as a limited vers ion or conditioned consciousness of grades ( bharga ) 
at different planes, one must understand that we are just experiencing the reflection of 
the Ultimate Reality in our mind ( chitta ) which gives us an impression of different types 
of consciou sness.  
Why is  this called Varenyam?    
Varenyam in Sanskrit means “excellent”, and for that reason the most desirable and 
should be sought after. Naturally, from what has been written earlier, its ability to unfold 
our consciousness and take us on a path that will put an end to the cycle of births and 
deaths is the single most important reason for desiring it.

243 dhimahi  
It is a sankalpa  or assertion of determination.  
Now we come to the third part – 
Dhiyo Yo Nah Prachodayaat  
As explained earlier, the Sadhak  surrende rs himself completely. Complete self -
surrender implies destruction of all forms of ego. This is an essential condition for the 
flow Divine Kripa.  The word “ dhiya ” means Buddhi  and “ Prachodayaat”  means may (He) 
unfold. The meaning works out as – May He unfo ld our Buddhi  (consciousness)  
One important point to be noted is that the prayer contained in the Gayatri mantra is for 
the benefit of all human beings. In the utter absence of any selfish motives lies the 
tremendous spiritual power of the mantra and its Sadhana .  
Sacred thread and its importance  
Japa  of Gayatri  is an integral part of Sandhya , the daily practice of Hindus . So it may be 
in order to understand the significance of the sacred thread.  
Upanayana samskara means the discipline through which the third eye is opened. It is 
also known as Yagnopavita  samskara, or the sacred thread ceremony. Normally, it is 
done to the boy at the age of around eight years by the parents. It is a great initiation 
given to the boy to maintain celibacy and study the Veda s. The mother is the first guru 
to the child, and he grows and follows his instructions. She instructs the boy to engage 
his mind in studying scriptures and meditate on the great Gayatri mantra  which will be 
imparted to him on that day.  
The Guru blesses t he child with the sacred thread chanting the following mantra.  
Om Yagnopavitam paramam pavitram  
prajapater yat sahajam purastat  
ayushyam agreyam  pratimunca subhram  
yagnopavitam balam astu tejah  
Meaning – 
Om. This holy thread is supremely sacred; progen itors have blessed this tread. By 
wearing it over the body one attains longevity. The yagnopavitam  or the sacred thread 
blesses with strength, radiance and illumination.  
The sacred thread is a symbol of purity given during the ceremony of Gayatri initiati on. It 
reminds the Sadhak  of his responsibility to meditate and maintain purity.

244 There are three strands of in the sacred thread. The most important meaning of the 
three strands is – ida, pingali  and susumna  nadis . Through these the Kundalini  energy 
mani fests as prana and consciousness. The holy thread itself is the symbol of sacrifice 
of ego. For this reason, it is called the thread of sacrifice or yagnopavita  
Apart from the three nadis  the sacred thread also symbolises a number of triads. For 
example – Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva; Mahasaraswati, Mahalakshmi and Mahakali; the 
three gunas Sattva , Rajas and Tamas  
Before we conclude, it is important to note that the famous Gayatri mantra is one of a 
class of mantras of its type. Every important deity has a Gaya tri mantra. A few 
examples are given below.  
1. Vishnu Gayatri   
 Om Narayana vidmahe vasudevaya dhimahi  
tanno Vishnu prachodayat  
 We know Narayana ; we meditate on Vasudeva ; may Vishnu  inspire that 
(knowledge and meditation) of ours.  
2. Shiva Gayatri  
 Om tatpurusaya vidmahe mahadevaya dhimahi  
tanno rudrah prachodayat  
 We know that Spirit ( Purusha) ; we meditate on mahadeva; may Rudra  
inspire that (knowledge and meditation) of ours.  
3. Daksninamurthi Gayatri  
 Om Dakshinamurtaye vidmahe dhyanasthaya dhimahi  
tanno dhisah prachodayat  
 We know Dakshinamurthy ; we meditate on (Him) who is plunged in 
meditation; may the Lord of thoughts ( dhisah ) inspire that (knowledge 
and meditation) of ours.  
4. Ganesha Gayatri   
 Om Ekadantaya vidmahe vakratundaya dhimahi  
tanno dan ti prachodayat  
5. Rama Gayatri  
 Om Dasarathaye vidmahe Sitavallabhaya dhimahi  
tanno Rama prachodayat

245 6. Krishna Gayatri  
 Om Devakinandanaya vidmahe vasudevaya dhimahi  
tanno Krishna prachodayat  
7. Durga Gayatri  
 Om Katyayanyayai vidmahe Kanyakumari dhimahi  
tanno Durga prachodayat  
8. Lakshmi Gayatri  
 Om Mahadevyai cha vidmahe Vishnupatni cha dhimahi  
tanno Lakshmi prachodayat  
9. Saraswati Gayatri  
 Om Vagdevyai cha vidmahe Kamarajyaya dhimahi  
tanno devi prachodayat  
10. Surya Gayatri  
 Om Bhaskaraya vidmahe mahad yutikaraya dhimahi  
tanno Aditya prachodayat  
 
Maha Mrityunjaya Mantra  
(Shukla Yajur Veda samhita 3.60;  Rig Veda Mandal a 7, Sukta  (chapter) 59, Mantra 12)  
Om Trayambakam Yajamahe  
Sugandhim Pushtivardhanam  
Urvarikam -iva Bandhanan  
Mrityor Mukshiya mamr taat  
 
Sugandhim  means fragrance;   
Pushti vardhanam  means nourishes well;   
Trayambakam   refers to Lord Shiva who has three eyes;  
Yajamahe   means we worship Him;    
Urvarikami va  means even as the cucumber is severed from its bondage;

246 Mrityoha  Bandhanath   means  from the clutches of death;   
Mukshiya   means liberated;  
Ma Amritat   means not to be released from immortality  
We worship the three eyed Lord (Shiva) who is fragrant and who nourishes all beings 
well. May He liberate us from death even as the cucumb er is severed from its bondage 
(to the creeper). May we not be released from immortality.  
The meaning for the word Mrityunjaya  is – to win over death. The mantra is prescribed 
for gaining a victory over death.  
Victory over death does not mean that by a Japa of this mantra , we can prevent the 
deterioration of the body leading ultimately to death. When the Self ( Jiva) departs from 
the body death results. No one can escape death. However, the Jiva does not die. It is 
immortal. It is the body that falls off. Jiva and body are two separate identities. By the 
grace of Eshwara  a Jnani  comes to realize this difference. To realize this difference, 
even when one is alive is a true victory over death. This mantra is a prayer to the Lord 
to grant him this knowledge.  
People believe that the Japa of this mantra before stepping out of one’s house will 
provide protection from dangers.. When it is recited referring to someone  who just died, 
it is believed, the dead person will attain Sadgati. It is also believed that reciting  this 
mantra referring to someone who had an accidental death, will provide Atma Shanti .  
Ganapati Mantra  
(Yajur Veda 4.5)  
Om Ganaanam tva Ganapatigm Havamahe  
Kavim Kavinam upamasrava stamam  
Jyeshtarajam Brahmanam brahmanaspatha  
Aanassrnvannutibhi seeda s aadanam  
Maha Ganapathiye Namah  Om 
 
Ganaanaam  Of all groups of Devas  
tva you 
ganapatim  their leader  
havaamahe  we worship  
kavim  the visionary  
kavinaam  of all visionaries  
upama shravah tamam  who has attained great fame through various similes  
jyeshtarajam  who is the most exalted who shines in the hearts of 
devotees

247 brahmanaam  of  the knowers of  Brahman  
brahmanaspatah  O Lord of Vedas  
nah our 
srnvan  listening  
utibhih  with all protective means  
aseeda  please sit  
saadanam  at the altar of fire ritual, in our heart  
Maha Ganapatiye  to the Maha Ganapati  
Namah  our Namaskaram - salutations  
 
Through praises we worship you, the Lord of Vedas , the leader of all groups of  Devas , 
the visionary of all visionaries, the one who has great fame through various similes, the 
most ex alted of the knowers of Brahman  and the one who shines in the hearts of 
devotees. Listening to our prayers of praise, please sit at the altar of fire ritual in our 
hearts, with all protective means.  
It is customary to worship Lord Ganapati  before starting on any auspicious venture. It is 
believed that Lord  Ganapati  will remove any obstacles that may come in the way.  For 
this reason, He is referred to as Lord Vigneshwara . However, in this mantra He is being 
looked upon, not just as a Devata, but as Paramesh wara  Himself. This is so because 
He is being addressed by the word Brahmanaspate  – meaning “O Lord  Brahma , the 
Veda Shastra ”. The word  Brahma  here refers to the body of knowledge known as 
Vedas. And He is the Pati or Lord for it. Hence while addressing Him  as 
Brahmanaspate , He is being referred to as the Lord of the Vedas  – the role of 
Parameshwara .  
We worship you, Parameshwara, the Lord of Ganas , all living beings and even of the 
Devas  – being their creator and protector.  
Shanti Mantras  
When ever we unde rtake a task, it is essential that we approach it with the right mental 
attitude. This preparation will greatly enhance the chances of success in our 
underta king. It is for similar reasons that we have a number of Prakaras  (enclosures) in 
our te mples. As t he devotee goes  round each Prakara  , his concentration improves and 
his mind gradually gets focused on the deity he is going to worship.  The chanting of 
Shanti mantras , before the recitation of the  Vedas  helps the Rishis  to gradually focus on 
the Vedas  they intend studying. The practice is to recite the Shanti mantras  before 
reciting holy texts such as Upanishads and  Sooktas  
All Veda mantras  are concluded by uttering Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih.

248 Om is the symbol  and representative of  Brahman. It is u ttered for securing all -round 
auspiciousness.   Shanti  refers to peace and tranquility. Generally, the troubles that we 
normally face fall into three categories  (also referred to as Trivida Taapa  )– 
The problems are caused by us. Illnesses - physical and m ental, suffered by us are 
examples of this kind. They are referred to as Aadhyaatmika  
Problems caused due to others. They are called Aadhibhautika  
Problems caused due to nature – Rain, thunder, fire are examples of this kind. They are 
called Adhidaivika  
By uttering Shantih  three times, we are praying for protection from them.  Let us now 
have a look at a few Shanti mantras.  
Shanti mantra -1 
 Om Saha naavavatu, Sahanau Bhunaktu Saha Veeryam 
karavaavahai,  
Tejasvi Navadheetamastu  Ma  Vidvishavahai  
Om S hantih Shantih Shantih  
This is a prayer offered from both the teacher and the student at the time of the student 
commencing his education. The prayer is for the successful completion of the education 
without any obstacles or short comings.  
This occurs as  the Shanti Mantra  for the Katha, Svetasvatara  and the Maha Narayana 
Om, May He protect us both (teacher and the taught). May He cause us both to enjoy 
the bliss of Mukti. May we both exist to find out the true meaning of the scriptures. May 
our studies be fruitful. May we never quarrel with each other. Let there be three fold 
peace (Shantih, Shantih, Shantih).   
Shanti mantra -2 
 Om Sham No Mitrah Sham Varunah, Sham No Bhavatvaryamaa  
Sham Na Indro Brihaspatih, Sham No Vishnururukramah  
Namo Brahm ane, Namaste Vayo, Twameva Pratyaksham  
Brahmasi, Twameva Pratyaksham Brahma Vadishyami  
Ritam Vadishyami, Satyam Vadishyami  
Tanmamavatu, Tadvaktaramavatu  
Avatu Mam, Avatu Vaktaram  
Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih

249 This is the Shanti Mantra for the Taittiriya Up anishad.  
As already explained, at the start of creation when manifestation takes place, the 
primary differentiation is into Consciousness and Power (Shakti). This Shakti, in turn, 
differentiates further into innumerable powers corresponding to the multifa rious 
functions which have to be performed in a manifested universe. Each power or Shakti is 
matched by a corresponding function of consciousness. These Shaktis and associated 
consciousnesses are the Devis and Devatas of Hinduism.  
 This whole world of ou rs is governed by the play of the various Shakties. Shakties  
governing activities in the visible or gross world are each considered a Devata.  
Similarly, Shakties  governing activities in the subtle world (not visible to the naked eye) 
are also regarded as Devatas (deities). They are referred to as Abhimani Devata 
(guardian spirit). Each of the Devatas  in turn governed an activity in the physical world 
and a fa culty of the human being.  
For example, Aryama  is considered to be the Abhimani Devata  for Sun in physical world 
and the eye of the human being. Mitra  is considered as the Abhimani Devata  for the 
Day in the physical world and the Prana  of the human being. The message for us is that 
we should learn to live with these powerful Shakties  governing aspects in the world.  
This Shanti mantra is a prayer to the various Devatas to protect us.  
The deities invoked here may be regarded as the delegate among whom the Supreme 
distributes some of His powers. They might be considered as manifestations of the One 
who lives behind them. This may also be understood from explanation given above – 
that the Supreme Shakti  differentiates into innumerable powers corresponding to the 
multifarious functions which have to be performed in a manifested universe.  
Man is often cons idered as a Universe in epitome. Similarly, the various deities that rule 
over the cosmic functions are also conceived to have their corresponding rulership in 
the personality of the man. This has been the observation of the ancient Rishis .  
The meaning o f the verse is given below – 
May Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman, Indra, Brhaspati  and all pervading Vishnu be propitious to 
us and grant us welfare and bliss. I bow down to Brahman  in loving reverence. O  Vayu , 
I bow down to thee in adoration. Thou verily art Brahman perceptible. I shall declare 
(vadishyam i) thou art right; Thou art the true and the good. May that Universal being 
Vayu  preserve me. May He preserve the teacher. May Brahman  protect me. May He 
protect my teacher.   
Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih .

250 Mitra  He is the guardian spirit of  Praanavrtti  or the in -breathing and the day. 
He calls men to activity, sustains Earth and Sky, and beholds all with 
un-winking eyes.  
Varuna  Governs the night and the breathing out. He is commonly associated 
with Mitra , and is celebrated as the king of Gods and the Lord of the 
Universe. In the hymns several grand attributes and functions are 
ascribed, such as presiding over water in the sea, upholding Heaven 
and Earth, possessing extraordinary power and wisdom, hating 
falsehood,  seizing transgressors with his Paasha  (noose), pardoning 
sin, and b estowing immortality  
Aryaman  He is regarded as the regent of the Sun and of Eyes. He is chief of the 
Pitrs.  
Indra  Indra is the governor of the atmosphere and the Upper regions. He 
presides  over the Gods. He has vanquished a number of demons and is 
considered a benefactor of the man. The Vedas praise his power and 
energy. He is frequently invoked. He governs power and hands of the 
man.  
Brhaspati  He is the God of wisdom and eloquence. For thi s reason he is deemed 
the genius of speech and intellect. He is the deity in whom piety and 
religion are personified.  
Vishnu  He is identified with the Supreme all -pervading Reality – Parabrahman. 
He is often invoked with Indra. He is the chief of the Adityas. He is the 
guardian spirit of the feet.  
 The various deities attempt to thwart efforts of an ordinary or ignorant 
man in gaining Self -Knowledge or realization of the Atman . These are 
the various tests that a man is required to undergo before he can be 
proved to be a worthy candidate for this knowledge. Man who has not 
realized Atman  is like an animal for the deities. These peace 
invoc ations are meant to win the blessings of the gods to make the 
course of the Sadhak  smooth and easy.  
Shanti mantra -3 
 Om Bhadram Karmebhih Shrunuyama Devah  
Bhadram Pashyema - Akshabhir - Yajatrah  
Sthirairangais – Tushtuvam – Sastanubhih  
Vyashema Deavahitam Yadayuh  
Swasti Na Indro Vriddhashravah  
Swasti Nah Pusha Visvavedah

251 Swasti Nah Tarkshyo Arishtanemih  
Swasti No Brhaspatird adhatu  
Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih.  
Good is one thing and pleasant is quite another thing. These two, prompt entirely 
different courses of action from us. They also yield different end results. In life we face 
this choice very often. The wise having exam ined both distinguish one from the other. 
With great care the wise man selects the good to the pleasant. The foolish driven by 
greed and desires opt for the pleasant. The Katha  Upanishad presents a discussion on 
this topic in the form of a dialog between t he King of Death and a young sage 
Nachiketa .  
To enable us make wise choices as we sail through our lives, we require a firm control 
on our I ndriyas . This mantra is a prayer seeking Divine help in choosing the right from 
the wrong.  
The meaning for the ma ntra is given below – 
Om.  O worshipful ones ( Devatas ) may our ears hear what is auspicious. May we, who 
are proficient in the Yagna karmas , see what is auspicious. May we sing your praise, 
live our allotted span of life in perfect health and strength. Ma y Indra  extolled in the 
scriptures by ancient teachers, the all -knowing Pushan (Surya , the Sun), Tarkshya 
(Garuda, Lord Vishnu’s  mount) who saves us from all harm, Brhaspati  who protects our 
spiritual lustre , vouchsafe prosperity in our study of the script ures and practice of truths 
contained therein.  
OM Shantih, Shantih, Shantih  
Shanti mantra -4 
 Om Tacham yoraavrnimahe, Gaatum yagnayaa  
Gaatum Yagna pataye Daivee svastirastu nah  
Svastirmaanushebhyaha Oordvam jigaatu bheshajam  
Sham no astu dvipade sham chatu shpade  
Om Shantih, Shantih, Shantih  
Sages from the Vedic  times treated life like a great Yagna . . This is a prayer for the 
successful completion of this Yagna . Every created object is for this  Yagna . This prayer 
is for the well being of all of them  
We pr ay and worship the Supreme for the welfare of all. We pray for the successful 
completion of this Yagna.  We pray for the welfare of those performing the Yagna . May 
the Devatas  do well to us ( svastih astu ) and for the whole mankind. May the trees and

252 plants (bheshajam ) grow up to be tall ( oordvam jigatu ). May  the welfare of bipeds 
(dvipade;  – two footed animals) be taken care of and they are happy. May the welfare of 
quadrupeds ( chatushpade;  four - footed animals) living with us in this world be taken 
care o f. 
Shanti mantra -5 
 Om Poornamadah Poornamidam Poornat Poornamudachyate   
Poornasya Poornamadaya Poornamevavasishyate  
This verse serves as the Shanti mantra  for two Upanishads -  the Brihadaranyaka  and 
Isaavaasya Upanishad . 
All living beings, both movable and immovable, came out of the Supreme Being. He, 
who sees all beings in the Supreme Self, and the Supreme Being in all beings, hates no 
one. Hence loving the Prakruti  and other Jivas  in this world is as good as loving the 
Supreme Being.  
 Adah  The Supreme Being, Brahman  
Poornam  is whole; complete; Full  
Idam This Prakruti  
Poornath  From completeness (from Supreme Being)  
Poornam  completeness (Prakruti which is complete)  
Udachyate  comes -forth 
Poorna sya From completeness  
Poornam  completeness  
Aadaya  taken away  
Poornam eva  completeness alone  
avasishyate  remains  
When translated – 
 That is whole; this is whole;  
From that whole this whole came  
From that whole, if this whole is removed  
What remains is a who le.

253 The meaning is – The Brahman  is full – complete. The whole Prakruti  is also full – 
complete. From that Brahman,  who is complete, has come this world of beings, Prakruti . 
However, from that full (Brahman)  when this full (Prakruti)  is taken out – what r emains is 
still full.  
These Shruti mantras  are short and profound.  
Incidentally, for those who are mathematically inclined, this verse also serves as a 
definition for Infinity.  
Shanti mantra -6 
Asato maa sadgamaya  
Tamaso maa  jyotir gamaya  
Mrityormaa amritangamaya  
Om Shantih , Shantih , Shanti h 
Asat refers to Unreal, non -existence, untruth, ignorance  
 
Tamaso maa jyotir gamaya  
 Tamasaha  refers to – darkness or ignorance;  
Maa  refers to me ;  
Jyotihi  refers to light or enlightenment;   
Gamayaha means lead me.  
The meaning of this stanza is – Lead me from the darkness of 
ignorance to a state of enlightenment.  
Mrityor maa amritam gamaya  
 Mrtyoha   refers to – death;  
 Maa refers to m e ; 
 Amritam  means immortality;   
Gamayaha    means lead me.  
The meaning of this stanza is –  Lead me from death to immortality  
 Lead me from the unreal to the real  
Lead me from darkness to light  
Lead me from death to immortality  
 This is a prayer for the Sadhak  whose sights are clearly set at higher 
levels, who is seeking enlightenment, and who wants to escape from 
the bondage of Samsara.

254 Shree Sooktam  
Sooktas come under the category of Stuti Slokas. The word Sookta  is from Su + Ukta 
meaning very  well told. Shree Sooktam is in praise of Goddess Maha Lakshmi  – the 
consort of Lord Narayana. This Sooktam is a compilation of a number of Sooktas  
available in Vedas  and Puranas.  Sadhaks  chant this Sookta  having complete faith that 
the grace of Maha Laksh mi will be bestowed on them.  
1.  Om Hiranyavarnam Harinim suvarna rajatasrajam  Chandram 
Hiranmayim Lakshmim Jaatavedo ma aavah  
  O, Agni Deva (Jaataveda )! Please invoke on my behalf the Goddess 
Maha Lakshmi ; the Goddess who shines with the complexion of g old 
(Hiranyavarnam ), destroyer of all sins ( Harinim ), who wears silver and 
gold ornaments ( suvarna rajatasrajam ), blooming like the moon 
(Chandram) , who is the embodiment of all wealth  - to come here and 
shower her grace on me  
2.  Thaam ma aavaha jatavedo  Lakshmi manapagaamineem  
Yasyaam hiranyam vindeyam kaamaswam purushaanaham  
  O, Agni Deva  invite Maha Lakshmi  by whose grace I received gold, 
cows, horses, friends and relatives to come here and never leave me 
(anapagaamineem ).  
 
3. Ashva  poorvaam radha ma dhyaam hasti naada prabodhineem  
Shriyam devimupahvaye sreermaa devirjushatam  
 I invoke ( upahvaye)  Sreedevi (Shriyam devi),  who has a line of horses 
in front ( Ashva poorvaam ), a series of chariots in the middle ( radha 
madhyaam) , who is heralded with the tru mpeting of elephants ( hasti 
naada prabodhineem ) to come and shower her grace and reside 
happily within me ( maa jushatam) .   
 
4.  Kaam sosmitaam hiranyaprakaram aardhram jwalantheem 
truptaam  
tharpayantheem Padme sthtitaam padma varnaam thaam 
upahvaye sriya m 
 I hereby invoke ( upahvaye ) that Shri (Lakshmi)  who always has a 
pleasant smile on her face ( smitaam) ; lives in a golden fort 
(hiranyaprak aram), is full of mercy ( aardhram ), is divinely resplendent 
(jvalantheem) , is the embodiment of absolute bliss ( truptaam ), grants 
bliss ( tharpaya ntheem),  is seated on the lotus ( Padme' sthitaam ) and is 
beautiful like the lotus ( padma varnaam ).

255 5. Chandram prabhasam yashasa jvalanteem shriyam loke deva 
jushtam udaaraam  
taam padminimim sharanam aham prapadye alakshmir me  
nashy atam tvaam vrne  
 I take refuge at the feet of Sri Lakshmi , who is beautiful like the moon 
(Chandram ), effulgent in a divine glow ( prabhasam) , who is blazing with 
renown ( yashasa jvalanteem ), is adored by the gods ( deva jushtam ), is 
full of mercy ( udaaraam ), wears a lotus in her hand ( padminim ). I 
surrender to that Sri Devi ( sharanam aham prapadye)  and pray ( vrne ) 
that she remove poverty from me ( alakshmir  nashyatam ). 
 
6. Adhityavarne tapaso adhijaatho   vanaspathisthava   vrukshodha 
bilwah,  
 Tasya phal aani  tapasa nudanthu mayaantharayascha baahya 
alakshmi .                 
 O Devi,  resplendent like the Sun ( Adhityavarne)  you have created 
(adhijaatho)  with your penance ( tapasa ) the bael tree ( bilwah vruksha ), 
considered as the king of the forest ( vanaspa thi). The fruits of this tree 
(tasya phalani ) created by you destroy the inner ignorance ( maya 
antharayah ) and the inauspicious tendencies ( alakshmi ) rising due to 
the external senses ( baahya ).  
 
7. Upaithu maam  deva sakhah keerthishcha maninaa saha,  
 Prad hur bhoothosmi  rashtresmin  keerthim vruddhim dadhathu me.  
 O Lakshmi,  may Kubera ( deva sakhah ), the god of wealth and the lord 
of fame ( keerthishcha)  follow me ( upaithu)  with all the wealth ( maninaa 
saha ). Through your grace, I am born ( pradhur bhoothah as mi) in this 
country ( asmin rashtre ) that has a heritage of wealth. Bestow 
(dadh athu) on me fame ( keertim ) and prosperity ( ridhim ). 
 
8. Kshutpipaasa malaam jyeshtaamalakshmim nashayamyaham,  
 Abhoothim  asamrudheem cha sarvam nirnudha me  grahat .               
 I shall destroy ( nashayamyaham) , Jyeshta  Devi (Alakshmi),  the elder 
sister to Lakshmi , the embodiment of inauspiciousness and evil such as 
hunger and thirst ( Kshutpipaasa malaam) . O Lakshmi , drive out 
(nirnudha)  from my abode ( me grahat .) all misfortunes  and poverty 
(sarvam  abhoothim asamrudheem) .

256 9. Gandhadwaaram duradharsham nithyapushtaam kareeshineem,
Eshwaree sarva bhoothaanam  thaamehopahvaye shriyam.   
  
 I invoke Maha Lakshmi (thaam shriyam ) who is always sweet smelling 
(Gandhadwaara)  , who can ne ver be defeated ( duradharsham) , who 
gives health and prosperity ( nithyapushtam ), who has everything 
(kareeshineem ) and who is the goddess ( eshwareem ) of all beings 
(sarva  bhoothaanam ) to come and grace ( upahvaye ) me here.  
 
10. Maanasah kamamaakuthim vachah  sathya masheemahi,  
 Pashunaam roopamannasya  mayi sreeh shrayathaam yashah.  
 O Sri Devi ( Sreeh )! I would like to enjoy the noble desires ( Kaamam ), 
the happiness (aakutim) that arises from within me ( manasah ), the truth 
(satyam ) in my speech ( vachah ) and th e happiness derived due to an 
abundance of cattle ( pashunaam ) and food ( annasya ) at my disposal. 
May I gain ( shrayatam ) fame ( yashah ).  
 
11. Kardamená praja -bhutá mayi sambhava kardama  
Sriyam vásaya me kule mátaram padma -máliním  
 O, Maharshi Kardama (Kard ama) , may Maha Lakshmi , who was born 
as a daughter in your house ( praja -bhuta ), grace me with her presence 
(mayi sambhava ). Make mother ( mataram )  
Sri Lakshmi , the goddess of wealth ( sriyam ) who always adorns a 
garland of lotus flowers ( padma -malinim ), to have her abode ( vasaya ) 
forever in my family (me kule ).  
12. Apah srujantu snigdháni Chiklíta vasa me grihe  
Ni cha devím mátaram shriyam vásaya me kule  
 
 Sage Chiklita , you are the son of Sri Maha Lakshmi .  Request Her to 
provide ( srujantu ) us with holy w ater ( apah ) and good food ( snigdhan i). 
Please come live ( vasa ) in my (me) house ( grihe ). Please request 
mother ( mataram ) devi ( devim ) Sri Devi ( shriyam ) to live ( vasaya ) in our 
(me’) family ( kule’) forever .  
 
13. Aardhraam pushkarineem pushteem pingalaam p adma malineem  
 Chandraam hiranmayeem Lakshmim jatavedo ma  avah   
 O Agni deva (jatavedah ), please invoke ( avah ) for me ( ma’) Maha 
Lakshmi (Lakshmim) , who is full of mercy ( aardhraam ), who is seated 
on a lotus ( pushkarineem ), who is the presiding deity for nourishment 
(pushteem ) for all, who has a complexion of Kum Kum (pingalaam) , 
who wears a garland of lotuses ( padma malineem ), pleasant like a 
moon ( Chandram ) and wears gold ornaments ( hiranmayeem )

257 14. Aardhram yah karineem yashtim suvarnaam hema maalineem  
Suryam hiranmayeem Lakshmim jatavedo ma’ avah  
 O Agni Deva (jatavedah ), invoke for me ( ma’ avah ) the goddess Maha 
Lakshmi (Lakshmim)  who is full of mercy (aardhram ), is very solemn 
(karineem ),  carries an ensign of authority (yashtim ), has a beautiful 
comp lexion ( suvarnaam ), is resplendent like the Sun ( Suryam ) and who 
is radiant wearing golden ornaments ( hema maalineem )  
 
15. Thaam ma avaha  jathavedo  Lakshmi manapagaamineem,  
 Yasyaam hiranyam prabhootham gaavo dasyoswaan 
vindheyam  purushaanaham  
  
 O Agni D eva (jathavedo ), be pleased to bless me ( avah ) so that 
goddess Sri Devi (thaam Lakshmi) , by whose grace ( yasyaam ) I will get 
countless ( prabhootham ) gold ( hiranyam ), cattle ( gaavah ), 
maidse rvants (dasyah ), horses ( aswaan ) and servants ( purushaan ) will 
neve r leave me ( me’ anapagaamineem ). 
16. Yah suchih prayatho  bhoothwa  juhu yaadajya manvaham  
 Sriyah panchadasharcham  cha srikaamah satatam japeth  
  
 He, who ( yah) prays for the grace of Sri Maha Lakshmi (srikaamah ), 
should be pure in body ( suchih ), control h is senses ( prayatah ), perform 
homa (juhu yaath) everyday ( anvaham ) with ghee ( aajyam ), and ( cha) 
always ( satatam ) chant (japeth ) the fifteen mantras 
(panchadasha rcham ) of Sri Devi (sriyah)  given above.  
 
17. Anandah, Kardamashaiva Chikleeta ithi vishruthah,  
 Rishayasthe thrayah proktha swayam  sreereva devatha  
 The three ( thrayah ) famous ( vishrutha)  – Ananda, Kardama , and 
Chikleeta  are the Rishis (proktha)  and Sri Maha Lakshmi  herself 
(swayam) is the Devata  for this Sookta.  
 
18. Padmanane padma ooru, padamak shi padamasambhave,  
 Twam maam bhajaswa  padamakshi yena sowkhyam labhamyaham  
 O Goddess who has a face beautiful like a lotus ( padmanane ), thighs 
like a lotus (padma ooru), eyes like a lotus ( padmakshi ) and who was 
born out a lotus ( padmasambhave ), please grant me ( twam bhaja swa) 
all that will you think will give me a good life.  
 
19. Aswa -daayee go -dayee dhana -dayee maha dhane,  
 Dhanam me jushathaam devi sarva kaamamscha dehi me’  
 O Maha Lakshmi (devi ), goddess of wealth ( maha dhane ), who grants 
horses ( asva-daayee ), cows ( go-daayee )and wealth ( dhana daayee ) 
please give me (me’) that wealth ( dhanam ) which will give me (dehi

258 me’) the same happiness ( jushathaam ) as when all your wants (sarva 
kaamaan)  are fulfilled.  
 
20. Puthra, pouthra, dhanam dhaanyam hasthya swadigave’ radham,  
 Prajaanaam bhavasi maataa ayushmantham karothu maam . 
 You are the mother ( maataa)  of all people ( prajaanaam ). Please grant 
me sons ( putra ), grandsons (pouthra), wealth ( dhanam ) and grains 
(dhaanyam ). Also grant me elephants ( hasti) , hor ses ( asvah ), cows 
(gave’ ), chariots ( radham ) and others. Grant me a long life 
(ayushma ntham karothu ). 
 
21.             Dhanamagnirdhanam vaayurdhanam sooryo dhanam vasuh  
                  Dhanamindro Brhaspati varunam dhanamashnute  
 All the Devatas like Agni, Vaayu, Surya, Vasus  (eight Vasus ), Indra, 
Brhaspati, Varuna  enjoy their wealth only due to your grace.  
 
22. Chandraabhaam Lakshmeeshaanam Sooryaabhaam 
shriyameeshwarim  
Chandra sooryaagni varnaabham Sri Maha Lakshmi upasmahe’  
 
 I pray and meditate ( upasmahe ) on that Sri Maha Lakshmi , who shines 
like the pleasant Moon ( Chandraabhaam ), who is the inner strength for 
all the Devatas  (eeshaanaanam ) and who is resplendent like the Sun 
(sooryaabham ) . She is Sri devi ( shriyam ). She is Eeshwari.  The 
splendour of the three Devatas  Sun, Moon and the Agni is due to Sri 
Devi. 
 
23. Vainatheya somam piba somam pibatu vrthraha  
Somam dhanasya somino mahyam dadhatu sominah  
 O, Garuda deva  (son of Vinata,  hence Vainatheya ) drink soma  rasa. 
May Indra , who killed the Vrthra sura also drink the soma  rasa. I intend 
performing Soma yaga (sominah) . Hence, please grant ( dadhatu)  me 
(mahyam ) plenty of wealth ( dhanasya somam ).  
 
24. Na krodho na cha matsaryam   na lobho naa shubha mathih,  
 Bhavanthi krutha punyanam   bakthaanaam Sri s uktham japeth 
sada.  
 
 The devotees who do holy deeds ( krutha punyanam ), never get angry 
(krodhah na bhavantih ), are never jealous ( matsaryam ), never stingy 
(lobhah ) and they will never think of bad deeds ( na ashubha mati ). And 
for the devotion to grow, the y should often ( sada ) chant ( japeth ) Sri 
Sooktam.

259 25. Varshanthu te vibhavari dhivo abhrasya vidyuthah,  
Rohanthu sarva beejanyava brahma dvisho jahi.  
 O goddess Sri Devi , by your grace may dark clouds accompanied with 
lightning ( abhrasya vidyuthah ) prov ide us rain ( varshantu )  day ( dhivo ) 
and night (vibhavari ). May all the seeds ( sarva beejaani ) germinate well 
(apa rohantu ) and grow. May all the people who abuse god (brahma  
dvisha)  be eliminated (jahi).  
 
26. Padmapriye, padmini, padmahasthe, padmalaye, 
padmadalaayathakshi.  
Viswapriye Vishnu manonukoole tat paada padmam mayi 
sann idatwa  
 
 She who is fond of the lotus flower ( Padmapriye ), was born in the lotus 
flower ( padmini ), holds a lotus in her hand ( padmahasthe ), lives in the 
lotus flower ( padmalaye ), has broad eyes like the petal of the lotus 
flower  ( padmadalaayathakshi) , very dear to entire world ( Viswapriye ) 
and who conducts herself in an endearing manner to her Lord Sri Maha 
Vishnu  (Vishnu manonukoole ) –that Sri Devi  please place your ( tat) 
lotus fe et (paada padmam ) on me ( mayi ) and grace me ( sannidatwa ).  
 
27. Ya sa padmasanastha Vipula katitati padma pathrayathakshi,  
Gambheera varthanabhi sthanabhara namitha shubra 
vasto ttareeya,  
Lakshmeer divya gajendrai mani gana khachithai snaapitaa hema 
kumbh ai,  
Nithyam sa padmahastha mama vasathu gruhe sarva mangalya 
yuktha  
  
 Let that Goddess Lakshmi , who ( Ya)  is seated on a Lotus (padma 
asanastha), has large ( vipula )  hips ( katitati ), has wide eyes like the 
petal of the Lotus flower ( padma patra aayata  akshee ), has a deep 
navel (gambheera aavartha nabhih ) , who is slightly bent because of 
her heavy busts ( sthanabhara namitha ), who wears divine cloths and 
upper cloth ( shubra vastra  uttareeya) , who takes bath ( snaapitha ) in 
holy w aters taken in golden vessel s (hema kumbhaih) studded with 
precious stones ( mani gana khachitaih ) and  poured by divine elephants 
(divya gajendrai ), who holds a lotus flower in her hand ( padma hasta ) 
and who possess everything that is auspicious ( sarva mangalya yukta ) 
– always live i n my house ( mama vasathu gruhe ).

260  
28. Lakshmeem ksheera samudra raja thanayam Sri 
rangadhaame swareem,  
 Dasi bhootha samastha deva vanithaam Lokaika deepaankuraam,  
 Sriman manda kataksha labdha vibhava brhmendra 
gangaa dharaam  
Twaam trilokyakutumbineem sa rasijaam vande Mukunda priyaam  
 
 Salutations (vande) to Goddess Lakshmi, who is - the source of all 
wealth (Lakshmeem), daughter of the king of the ocean of milk ( ksheera 
samudra raja thanayam ), is the ruling deity for the holy city of Sri 
Rangam (Sri rang adhaameswareem ), is served by all the deva maidens 
(Dasi bhootha samastha deva vanithaam ), who is the single source of 
light for the entire world ( Lokaika deepaankuraam ), whose mere 
sidelong glances have raised important deities such as Lord Brahma, 
Lord S hiva and Lord Indra  to exalted statuses ( Sriman manda kataksha 
labdha vibhava brhmendra gangaadharaam) , for whom all the beings in 
the world constitute the family ( trilokyakutumbineem ), who arises in 
lotus ponds ( sarasijaam ), who is the beloved of Lord Muk unda 
(Mukunda priyam) .  
 
29. Siddha Lakshmir moksha Lakshmir jayalakshmi saraswathi,  
 Sri lakshmir vara Lakshmi cha prasanna mama sarvada  
 By merely thinking about you, as Siddha Lakshmi  you fulfill desires, as 
Moksha Lakshmi  you grant Kaivalya , as Jayalak shmi you grant victory, 
as Sri Lakshmi  you grant wealth, as Vara Lakshmi  you grant boons. 
May you be always pleased with me.  
 
30. Varankushau pashamabheethi mudraam,  
 Karai vahantheem , Kamalasanasthaam,  
 Baalaarka koti prathibhaam trinethraam,  
 Bajehamad yam  jagadeeshwareem thwaam  
  
 The Goddess Sri Lakshmi  is Aadi Shakti . She is Jagadeeshwari . Her 
two palms indicate Vara and Abhaya mudras . She also holds the 
weapons – paasha  and ankusha . She shines with the effulgence of 
innume rable rising Suns. I offer my prayers to the Goddess.  
 
31. Sarva mangala Mangalye, Shive, Sarvaartha saadhake,  
 Sharanye Trayambake, Devi narayani namosthuthe  
narayani namosthuthe, narayani namosthuthe  
 Among the auspicious ones you are the most auspicious ( Sarva 
mangala Mangalye ). You are the Devi who grants everything that is 
ausp icious ( Shive) . You grant everything that is desirable ( Sarvaartha 
saadhake ). You are the deity most suitable for everyone  to take refuge

261 under(Sharanye ).  O Goddess Narayani  with three eyes ( Trayambake )  
I salute ( namah asthu ) thee ( The’) . 
 
32. Sarasijanilaye sarojahaste dhavalataraamshuka gandhamaalya 
shobhe’  
Bhagavati Harivallabhe’ manogne tribhuvanabhootikari praseeda 
mahyam  
 Sri Maha Lakshmi  stays on the lotus flower ( Sarasijanilaye) . She carries 
a lot us in her hand ( sarojahaste) , wears auspicious white cloths 
(dhavalatara amshuka)  and a sweet smelling garland ( gandhamaalya) . 
O Bhgavathi,  consort of Sri Maha Vishnu (Harivallabhe’ ), who fulfills the 
desires of all ( manogne) , who protects all the three wo rlds ( tribhuvana 
bhootikari)  - bless me with your grace.  
33. Om Vishnupatneem khamaam Deveem Maadhaveem 
Maadhavapr iyaam  
Vishnoh priyasakheem Deveem namaam Atchutavallabhaam  
 O Maha Lakshmi , consort of Maha Vishnu (Vishnupatne em), Bhoodevi 
(khamaam Deveem ), you are present in the Tulasi  plant 
(Maadhaveem ). Devi is very dear to Madhava (Maadhavapriyaam ), Sri 
Vishnu (Vishnu priyasakheem).  I salute ( namaame ) the Devi who is 
always with Sri Maha Vishnu (Atchuta vallabhaam).  
34. Om Maha Lakshmi cha vidmahe, Vishn u patnee cha dheemahi,  
Thanno Lakshmi prachodayath  
 Let us know about Maha Lakshmi. For that reason let us meditate on 
Her, who is the consort of Sri Maha Vishnu. May Goddess Lakshmi help 
us in this.  
35. Sreevarchasyamaayushyamaarogya maavidhaath pavamaana m 
maheeyatheh  
Dhanam Dhaanyam pashum bahuputralaabham shatasamvatsaram 
deerghamaayuh  
Runa rogaadi daaridya paapa kshuda pamrutyavah  
Bhaya shoka manasthaapaa nashyantu mama sarvadaa.  
 O Maha Lakshmi , bless me with Varchassu,  and life with no short 
comings ( aayushyam). May winds ( pavamaanam ), that will always 
(sarvadaa ) give me good health ( aarogyam ), be blowing ( maheeyathe ). 
May I get wealth ( dhanam ), grain ( dhaanyam ), cattle ( pashum ), many 
sons ( bahu putra laabham ) and a life ( deerghamaayuh ) of hundred 
years (shata samvatsaram ). May I not be subjected to – debts ( runam ) , 
ill health ( rogam ) , poverty ( daaridyam ), hunger ( Kshuda ), sudden death

262 (apamrtuyavah ), fear ( bhayam ), grief ( shokam ) and mental worries 
(manah taapah)  
36. Shriye jaata shriya aniryaya shr iyam vayo jaritrubhyo dadhaatu  
Shriyam vasaanaa amrutatwamaayan bhajanti sadyah savitaa 
vidadhyoon  
 Those who approach Sri Devi  (shriya aniryaya ) will be blessed with 
abounding riches ( shriye  jaatah ). Wealth ( shriyam ) and longevity ( vayah 
jaritrubhyh ) will  be presented ( dadhaatu ). Enjoying great wealth 
(shriyam vasaanaa ) they will reach a state that is beyond death 
(amruta twamaayan) . In a short time ( sadyah ) they will obtain ( bhajanti ) 
fame ( savitaa ) and victory ( vidadhyoon ). 
37. Shriya yevynam tatchriyaama adadhaati  
santatamruchaa vashatkrutyam sandhattam sandheeyate prajayaa 
pashubhih Ya yevam vedaa  
 All that is good is due to Sri Devi  Herself. Those that realise this will 
reach Sri Devi. One must always perform Yaaga  accompanied with 
proper mantras. Those  that do this will be blessed with the wealth of 
progeny and cattle.  
 Om Maha Lakshmi cha vidmahe, Vishnu patnee cha dheemahi,  
 Om Shantih , Shantih , Shantih  
us in this   
Purusha Sooktam  
(Rig Veda 10.8.90)  
The word Purusha  here refers to the Supreme Being – Parama Purusha , the Supreme 
Purusha ; Purushottama,  the best among the Purushas ; He is Sriman Narayana . He is 
the source and basis of all creation.  
 The Purusha Sookta finds a place in all the Vedas, with slight variations. Though the 
original Purusha Sookta  mantra is found in Rig Veda , it also occurs both in Shukla Yajur 
Veda  (in Vajaneya Samhita ) and Krishna Yajurveda  (Taittiriya  Samhita ). With minor 
differences it is found in Saama  and Atharva Vedas  also. This shows its supreme 
impo rtance. Detailed instructions are available on the use of this Sutra  in fire Sacrifices.  
Among the Veda mant ras, Purusha Sooktam  stands out for its mantra Shakti . It is 
regularly chanted in temples, at home - while performing homa  or offering prayers to

263 God at home. Tradition has it that the Sookta  is to be recited daily along with Bhagavad 
Gita or Vishnu sahasr anama chanting.  
Basically, the Vedas are divided into three major sections – 
1. Samhita deals with prayers by the Devatas  
2. Brahmana  deals with details regarding yagas  
3. Aranyakas  Examines fundamental truths  
We notice that the Purusha Sookta  addresses all these three sections. It starts with the 
praise of the Supreme Being, Lord Narayana , referred to as Purusha . It then tells us 
that this world of beings has emerged as a result of the fruits of His sacrifice. It then 
goes on to tell about the way s and means to overcome  ignorance and realise God. 
Hence, this Sookta  may be regarded as a condensed Shastra.  
Sham no astu  dvipade sham chatushpade  
is for the well being of  all of them  
We pray and worship the Supreme for the welfare of all. We pray for the successful 
the Devatas  do well to us ( svastih astu ) and for the whole mankind. May th e trees and 
plants ( bheshajam ) grow up to be tall ( oordvam jigatu ). May  the welfare of bipeds 
quadrupeds ( chatushpade;  four - footed animals) living with us in this wo rld be taken 
care of.  
1 Om  Sahasra seershaa purushah; Sahasraaksha sahasrapaath.  
Sa bhoomim viswatho vruthwa. Athyathishtaddhasangulam  
  
 The Supreme Being ( Purusha ) has thousands of heads (Sahasra  
seershaa ); has thousands of eyes ( Sahasraaksha); has thou sands of 
feet(sahasrapaath).  He (sah) envelops (vruthwa) the entire universe 
(viswatah) and yet transcends it by ten inches  (Athyathishtad -
dhasa ngulam)

264  The Supreme Being is Omnipresent. This is being expressed in a poetic 
way. He has thousands of heads. A ll our heads are His. He has 
thousands of eyes. All our eyes are His. He has thousands of feet. All 
our feet are His. He is cognizing through every mind, seeing through 
every eye, working through every limb. He not only pervades the entire 
universe but tra nscends it as well.   
2 Purusha eeveda sarvam.Yad bhootam yacha bhavyam.  
Utha amruthathwasya eesana. Yad annena athirohathi  
 Essentially, the whole universe is He Himself. Whatever was ( yad 
bhootam ), whatever is (idam)  and whatever will be ( yath bhavyam ch a) 
– are all ( sarvam ) His ( Purushah eva ) manifestations. In addition 
(uthah ), He is the only authority ( eesanah ) who can confer immortality 
(amruthathwasya ). He transcends ( athirohathi ) all this world of objects 
(annena ). 
3 Ethaa vaanasya mahimaa atho jyaa yagscha purushah  
Paadhosya vishwa bhoothanee.Tripaadasyamrutham divi  
 The whole manifest universe ( ethaa vaan ), visible to us, is His ( asya ) 
splendour ( mahima ). Yet ( athah ), He ( Purushah cha ) transcends it very 
much (jyaayan ). By a small part of His splend our, literally by one -fourth 
(paadah ), He supports this universe ( bhoothanee vishwa ) at all times – 
in the past, present and future. However, a major part of His splendour 
literally three quarter ( tripaad) , is beyond the range of the manifest 
universe ( divi) and embodies immortality ( amrutham) . 
 The limitless splendour of the Supreme Being is being discussed here. 
In a short period of our lives here, we have not come to grips to fully 
understand the processes that have made this universe stay and 
function a s a unit, and serve as an abode for millions of living beings. 
From time to time, events and tyrants have threatened to upset its 
balance and peace. Yet, through His grace, peace has always been 
restored. However, all this is being supported by Him, for mi llions of 
years, by just a fraction of His powers.   
 We will now be talking about one of the important subjects raised in the 
Vedas – Yagna or Yaga.  
 Our ancient sages, taking a broad view, have come to regard the whole 
world process as a great Yagna.   
 We notice that all that is born eventually dies. Flowers bloom only to 
wither and fall off by the end of the day. Yet the dead ones have been 
responsible for the birth of new ones. The withered ones have given 
way to new blooms. Creation feeds on itself. T his cycle reminds us of a 
Yagna  in progress.

265  We have a part to play in this universe. For our living we take from this 
universe a number of items (eg) air, food and water. We, in turn, return 
these back to the universe – in some other form. We are born w ith 
some intelligence and capabilities. By a proper use of it, we return it 
back to the world at large. This process of take and give is a basic 
process. This is rule of a Yagna . Everyone  has a responsibility to follow 
this.  
 Within this broad Yagna  of th e world process, lie the specific yagnas , 
and homas  that people perform. Offerings such as ghee (clarified 
butter) and others are made during the performance of the yagnas  and 
homas . While performing these rituals, we pray to Devatas  to fulfill our 
desires . The Bhagavad Gita  (3.11) tells us that through these yagnas  
we should please the Devatas and they in turn will respond to fulfill our 
desires.  
 Purusha Sooktam  tells us that Creation also occurred as a result of a 
Maha Yagna  wherein, the Supreme Being m ade Himself as the offering.  
 The Purusha Sookta  describes of a two stage creation process.  
The first stage is called Poorva Shrsti . During this stage the creation of 
the universe is handled. – consisting of sentient beings – both living and 
non- living.  This is explained in 1.4 and 1.5.  The second stage is called 
Uttara Shrsti . During this stage creation of food for living beings and 
similar matters is handled. This is handled in 1.6       
4. Tripaad urdhwa udaith prurushah paado syehaabhavaath puna.  
Thatho vishva n vyakramath.Saashanaanashane abhi         
 Three parts (tripaad ) of the splendour of the Purusha (Purushah ) is 
beyond ( urdhwah udaith ) the range of the manifest universe. Only a part 
(paadah ) of Him ( asya ) has manifested again and again ( punah ) and 
evolved ( abhavaath ) as the world of matter and individual selves. After 
that ( thathah ) He has permeated ( abhivyakramath ) all ( vishvath ) the 
sentient and non -sentient beings ( saashana anashane ). 
5. Tasmaat viraad ajaayata viraajo adhi poorushah  
Sa jaa to atyaricyatah paschad bhoomimatho purah  
 From the Purusha (tasmaat ) emerged the Cosmos, the universe (viraat 
ajaayata ). Along with that ( viraajo adhi ) came forth, the cosmic person 
the first creator, Brahma (Purushah jaatah ) and he grew to pervade 
everyt hing ( atyarichyatah ). He ( sah) then ( paschat ) created the Earth 
(bhoomim ) first and then the various bodies ( purah)  – both divine and 
demonic.  
 From the Supreme Being, Sriman Narayana,  came forth the Universe. 
Along with that, the creative aspect of the Su preme Being, Brahma

266 came forth. Brahma  grew very large after being born and included 
everything within him. For this reason the universe is called 
Brahmaanda. Brahma  then created this earth and gave form to the 
Devas , humans and animals.   
6. Yatpurushena havishaa | devaa yajnam atanvata |  
Vasanto asyaaseedaajyam | greeshma idhma Sharaddhavih  
 
 Then the Devas  performed the sacrifice – Srshti -Ygana . However, there 
existed nothing at that time – save the Supreme Purusha  himself. So 
the Devatas  performed the Yagna making the Supreme Purusha 
(Purushena ) as the sacrificial offering ( havishaa ). For the Yagn a so  
performed ( atanvata )) by the Devatas , the spring season (vasantah ) 
became the ghee ( aajyam ); summer ( greeshma ) became the twigs 
(idhmah)  and autumn ( sharad ) became  (aaseeth ) the rice offering 
(havih).   
 
 The Supreme Being, Sri Maha Vishnu , has pervaded everything in the 
universe and protects it. Even the Havis  offered while performing the 
Yagna  has also been pervaded by Him. The person for whom the Havis  
is offered is once again Sri Maha Vishnu . Such is the nature of the 
Supreme lord and is being expressed in the above Rik. 
7. Saptaasyaa san paridayah trih sapta  samidah krtaa  
devaa yad yajnam tanvaanaah abadhnan  purusham pashum  
  
 For this Yagna  (asya ), the f ive Mahabhutas  together with night and day 
(sapta ) represented the seven boundaries ( paridayah ). Twenty one ( trih 
sapta ) tatwas  represented  the sacrificial faggots ( samidah ). The 
Devatas (devaa ) started ( tanvaanaah ) the Yagna  tying ( abadnan ) 
Brahma (yat pu rusham ) as the sacrificial beast ( pashum ). 
 
 When this Yagna  was started, Srishti  has not commenced. Material 
required for performing the Yagna  have not been created, for example, 
Kusha  grass, trees etc. So in this first Yagna , elements then available in 
nature, or Prakruti , were used. Available elements fell into two 
categ ories – those available in Prakruti  externally and those available 
interna lly.  
 
 Yagna kunda , the sacred fire is invoked on an alter and is always 
fenced to ward off from the ill effects  of evil forces. For the first Yagna , 
elements available externally were utilized to form the fence. And those 
were the Pancha  Maha Bhootas  (Akasa, Vaayu, Agni, Apah  and Prithvi ) 
together with night and day. – Altogether seven.  
 
 Now for the Samidah – twen ty one sacrificial faggots. For this, elements 
available in Prakruti  internally were chosen. Five Jnana Indriyas , organs 
of perception, (Ear, skin, eyes, tongue, and nose) Five Karma Indriyas ,

267 organs of action, (speech, hands, legs, anus and genitals), Fiv e 
physi ological functions ( Prana, Apana, Vyana, Udana  and Samana ), 
Four Antahkaranas , inner instruments, ( Manas, Buddhi, Ahamkara  and 
Chitta ) together with Dharma  and Adharma  constitute twenty one 
sacrificial faggots.  
 
 The creator Brahma, himself, was us ed as the sacrificial beast. The 
Yagna  commenced.  
8. Tam yajnam barhishi prokshan  purusham jaatamagratah  
Tena devaa ayajanta  saadhyaa rushayascha ye  
  
 In the Yagna  (barhishi ) they sprinkled ( prokshan ) water on the first 
(agratah ) created ( jaatam ) Yagn a- Purusha  (yagnam purusham ), 
Brahma. After that (tena ) Devatas (devaa ), achievers ( saadhyaa ) (those 
who dwell in the Vaikunta ), Rishis (rushayah cha ) and all others who 
were there proceeded with the Yagna  (ayajanta).  
 
 The Yagna  commenced with the purific ation of Brahma  by sprinkling 
water on Him. Thus was performed the first sacrifice by the Devas  and 
Rishis.   
9. Tasmaad yagnaat sarva hutah sambrtam prshadaajyam  
 pashoog staag schakre vaayavyaan aaranyaan graamyaascha ye  
  
 From this great Yagna  (tasmaad  yagnaat ), the celebrated Srishti  Yagna  
(sarva hutah ), came out ( sambrtam ) curd ( yogurt ) mixed with ghee 
(clarified butter) - prshadaajyam. Brahma  then created ( chakre ) birds 
(vaayavyaan ), wild ( aaranyaan ) tame animals ( graamyaascha ) and 
other living being s (pashoon ) 
10 Tasmaad yajnaat sarvahutah ruchah saamaani jignire  
 chandaagmsi jignire tasmaat yajus tasmaad ajaayata  
  
 From this great Yagna  (tasmaad yagnaat ), the celebrated Srishti  Yagna  
(sarva hutah ), came out ( jignire ) the Rig Veda  mantras ( ruchah ), Sama 
Veda  mantras ( Saamaani ). From this rite were born (jignire ) the metres 
(chandaamsi ), the scheme of versification used in writing Slokas . Yajur 
Veda (Yajuh ) also issued ( ajaayata ) from this ( tasmaat) Yagna . 
 We now see that from this Yagna  rose the mantras  for the Rig and 
Sama Vedas.  Yajur Veda  also came out from this Yagna . Chandas  also 
issued from the Yagna . 
 Chandas  is a scheme of versification used while writing Slokas . Based 
on the number of letters, there are seven different Chandas.  
 Gayatri Cha ndas  has 6 letters  
Ushnith  Chandas  has 7 letters  
Anushtup Chandas  has 8 letters  
Brhati Chandas  has 9 letters  
Pankti Chandas  has 10 letters

268 Tushtup Chandas  has  11 letters  
Jagathi Chandas  has  12 letters  
 
11 Tasmaadashvaa ajaayanta ye ke chobhayaadatah  
 gaavoha jagnire tasmaat tasmaat jaataa ajaavayah  
  
 From the Yagna  (tasmaat ) rose (ajaayanta ) horses (ashva ). Animals 
having two rows of teeth (ye ke ubhayaadatah)  and cattle (gaavah ) also 
came from there (tasmaat jagnire) . Sheep (ajaah)  and buffalos 
(aavaya h) came out (jaatah).  
12. Yat purusham vyadadhuh kathidhaa vyakalpayan  
mukham kimasya kau baahoo kavooroo paadaa uchyete  
  
 Into what forms ( kathidhaa)  did the Devatas  cast ( vyakalpayan ) Brahma 
(Purusham ) when (yath ) they used Him as the sacrifice (vyadad huh)? 
What (kim)  did His (asya ) face (mukham)  become (aaseeth )? What was 
told (uchyete)  about His hands (bahoo)?  What was told about His thighs 
(ooroo ) and feet (paadaa)?  
 One cannot  imagine the amount of thought that went in before the 
projection of the h uman being. In addition, how would the various 
sections of human beings be represented in the form of the Supreme 
Being was also given a thought.  
13 Brahmano asya mukhamaseet baahoo raajanya krtah  
 Ooru tadasya yad vaishyah padbhyaagm shoodro ajaayata  
  
 His (asya ) face (mukham)  became (aseet ) the Brahmin (brahmanah ), 
His hands (bahoo)  became Kshatriya (raajanyah)  and His thighs (ooru)  
became vaishya (vaishyah).  From His feet (padbhyaam)  shoodras 
(shoodrah)  were born (ajaayatah).  
 The brahmanahs were proje cted from the head or the power of thought 
and discrimination of the Lord. The Kshatriyas  were projected from His 
arms or power of protection and preservation. The vaishyas were 
projected from the thighs or the power acquisition and distribution. 
Finally t he shoodras  were projected from the feet or power of support 
and movement.  
14. Chandramaa manaso jaatah chaksho sooryo ajaayata  
 mukhaadindraschaagnischa praanadvaayurajaayata  
  
 Then, from the Supreme Being, was born the various luminous beings, 
bodies a nd the different worlds.  
 The Moon (Chandrama)  was born (jaatah)  from His mind (manasah).  
The Sun (Sooryah)  was born (ajaayata)  from the eyes (chaksh o). Indra 
(Indrah Cha)  and Agni (Agnih cha ) were born from His face (mukhaath).  
Vayu , the wind god, was bor n (ajayata)  from the breath (Vaayuh).   
 
15. Naabhyaa aaseedantariksham sheershnau dhyauh samavartata

269  padbhyaam bhoomir dishah shrotraat tathaa lokaagm akalpayan  
  
 The space (antariksham)  emerged (aaseeth)  from His navel ( naabhi) . 
The world of gods or he aven (dhyauh ) emerged (samavartata)  from His 
head (sheersha).  The Earth (bhoomih)  emerged from His feet 
(padbhyaam)  and the quarters (dishah)  from His ears (shrotraat ). All the 
lokas ( lokaan)  emerged (akalpayan)  in the same manner (tathaa).  
 What is the re lationship between us and the Supreme Lord who has 
been described as having thousand heads, who has committed Himself 
as the sacrificial beast and created this Universe for us to live? After 
having been born and enjoyed this world what will be our duty? It  rests 
in realizing Him.  
16. Vedaahametam purusham mahaantam aadityavarnam tamasastu 
paare  
 Sarvaani roopaani vichitya dheerah naamaani krtvaabhivadan 
yadaaste  
  
 I (aham ) have known ( veda ) that ( etam ) glorious ( mahaantam ) Supreme 
and magnanimous ( dheerah ) Being who has created (vichitya ) from 
within Himself various ( sarvaani ) forms ( roopani) , called them by 
different names ( naamaani) , maintains them all; who is resplendent like 
the Sun ( Aditya  varnam ) and is beyond ( paare ) all ignorance / darkness 
(tamasa h tu).   
 While recording their experiences, the declaration of “I have known the 
Supreme Being” by the ancient sages ought to push us to a similar 
resolve that I should also know Him. The Rishis attained completeness 
in their lives by discovering some ult imate truths and importantly the 
purpose of life. Following their footsteps will give us opportunities to 
attain spiritual perfection.  
 What do we gain by knowing Him. This is explained in the next verse.  
17. Dhaataa purastaadhyamudaajahaara shakra pravidv aan 
prad ishashchatasrah Tamevam vidhvaanamrta iha bhavati 
naanyah pandhaa ayanaaya vidhyate  
  
 Brahma (Dhaataa ), the creator, knew the Supreme Being (udaajahaara)  
from the beginning (purastaat ) and revealed Him to Sakra (Indra).  Indra 
looked around (pravid vaan)  in the four directions  (pradishah chatasrah) 
and realized His glory. Hence, even today, he who knows Him (tam)  
and the creation thus presented  above as pervaded, permeated and 
possessed by the Supreme Being will attain (bhavati)  immortality 
(amrtah) here (iha). There is no (n vidyate)  other (anyah)  way 
(pandhaa ) for Moksha (ayanaaya).  
 
18. Yagnyena yagnya -mayajanta devah taani dharmaani 
prathama anyaasann

270 Te ha naakam mahimaanah sachante yatra poorve saadhyaah 
santi devaah  
  
 Devatas (devah) worshipp ed (ayajanta)  the Supreme Being (yagnya)  
through this yagna (yagnyena).  These (taani) were to become (aasan)  
the first (prathamaani) Dharmas  (dharmaani).  Those who follow the 
dharmas (te mahimaanah),  will truly reach (sachante)  the highest abode 
(naakam)  where (yatra)  the Devatas (devaam)  and achievers 
(saadhyaa ) who performed the first ( poorve) Yagna  live (santi).   
 
 The Devas performed the first sacrifice by consecrating the cosmic 
body of God Himself. This sacrifice (or renunciation of selfishness and 
all of one’s possessions) has become the basis of all religions.  
 
 Purusha Sook tam is complete with the18 mantras  given above. 
Howe ver, in the south of India quite often, the first mantra  of each of 
Uttara N arayanam , Narayana Sooktam and Vishnu Sooktam are 
chanted with Purusha Sooktam . So they are given below.  
 
 The following is from Uttara Narayanam .  
19. Adbhyah sambhootah prthivyai rasaacha vishvakarmanah 
samavartataadhi   
 Tasya tvashtaa vidadhadroopameti tatpurushasya 
vishvamaaja anamagre  
  
 The Universe  was born (sambhootah)  from water (adbhyah)  and the 
elemental essence (rasaath) of the earth (prthivyai).  First (adhi) Brahma  
was born (samavartata) from the Supreme Being who created this earth 
(vishva karmanah ). After perfecting (vidadhat ) the forms of B rahma 
(tasya),  the Supreme Being (tvashta)  has pervaded (eti) everything. The 
world of forms created by Brahma (tat Purushasya)  existed from the 
beginning (agre)  of creation (ajanaam).  
20 Vedaahametam purusham mahaantam aadityavarnam tamasas 
parastaat  
 Tamevam vidhvaanamrta iha bhavati| naanyah panthaa vidyate 
ayanaaya  
  
 I know the glorious (mahaantam)  Supreme Lord who is resplendent like 
the Sun (aadityavarnam)  and is beyond all darkness / ignorance 
(tamasah parastaat ). He who realizes Him (tham)  like th is will attain 
(bhavati)  immortality (amrtah)  here (iha). There is no (n vidyate)  other 
(anyah)  way (pandhaa ) for Moksha (ayanaaya).  
21 Prajaapatischarati garbhe antah ajaayamaano bahudhaa vijaayate  
 Tasya dheeraah parijaananti yonim mareecheenaam padamic hanti 
vedhasah

271   
 The Supreme Being (Prajaapati)  is moving (charati)  around the world 
(garbhe antah)  as an active principle. Though He is unborn 
(ajaay amaanah ), being the Self of all, He manifests (vijaayate)  Himself 
in various (bahudhaa)  forms. Wise men (dheerah)  realize very well 
(parijaayante)  His (tasya)  true form (yonim ). Gods like Brahma 
(vedhasah)  seek (ichanti)  the position ( padam) which great sages like 
Marichi (M areecheenaam ) have attained.  
 The position of Lord Brahma  is the most coveted one. How ever, after 
thousands of years, at the time of dissolution (Pralaya)  the Shrshti 
comes to an end. After 100 Brahma years, the duration of Brahma  also 
comes to an end. However, that is not the case with realized souls like 
the great sage Marichi . He who rea lizes Bhagavan  will become 
Bhag avan (Brahmavith Brahmaiva  bhavati). Hence there is no death for 
such great people. For that reason, Gods like Brahma,  desire to 
become Rishis on this earth. The message that we get from here is that 
though born as human bein gs we must take advantage of the unique 
opportun ity given to us and try to search and seek Sriman Narayana . 
22. Yo devebhya aatapati yo devaanaam purohitah  
 Poorvo yo devebhyo jaatah namo ruchaaya braahmaye  
  
 I salute (namah)  the resplendent (ruchaaya)  Supreme Being 
(braa hmaye),  who is the source behind the effulgence (aatapati ) of the 
various Devatas (devebhyah),  who is the Guru (purohitah)  for all the 
Gods (devaanaam),  who was there before (poorvah ) any God 
(devebhyah)  evolved (Jaatah).   
23. Rucam braamh am janayantah deva agre tadabruvan  
 Yasvaivam braahmano vidhyaat tasya devaa asan vashe  
 
 At the beginning (agre) while revealing (janayantah)  the truth (rucham)  
about the Supreme Being (braahmam),  Devatas declared (abruvan)  that 
whoever (yah tu ) with ste adfast resolve seek and realize Him as 
explained above will have even the Devatas (Devaah ) in their grasp 
(vashe asan).   
24. Hreeshcha te lakshmeeshcha patnyau ahoraatre paarshve  
 nakshatraani roopam| ashvinau vyaattam  
  
 Hreedevi,  the essence of modesty and Lakshmidevi  who is the source 
of all wealth are your consorts. Night and day are thy two sides. The 
stars are thine own divine form. The divine doctors, Ashwini Devatas 
represent your smiling face.  
 Day and night is indicative of time. Just as the bod y is supported by its 
side, so also Shrshti is based on time.  The mention of stars brings to 
mind Shrshti. The wonderful vast and variegated world of forms that we 
witness and admire everyday is but a fraction of His glory. Exhibition of 
even this miniscul e renders us speechless.  Mind boggles when we

272 think of the glory of the Supreme Being whose creation extends far 
beyond of what we see. With a view to get us to admire His glory as a 
creator, it is indicated here that Shrshti is His  form. It will remind u s that 
behind everyone of His creations like the Sun, Moon, stars, ocean, 
mountains and trees is His Divine will making each of them work for the 
benefit of all living creatures.  
25. Ishtam manishaanaa amum manishaanaa sarvam manishaanaa  
  
 Please grant u s (manishaanaa ) what we desire (Ishtam ). Grant us 
manishaanaa)  happiness (amum)  in this world. Grant us (manishaanaa)  
all that is for now and beyond.  
Svastirmaanushebhyaha  Oordvam jigaatu bheshajam  
Sham no astu dvipade sham chatushpade  
 
Narayana Sooktam  
 (Taittiriya Aranyakam 4.10.13)  
This Sooktam explains about meditation.  
Before meditation, one has to recite this and contemplate on the mean ing, which in turn 
will help the Sadhak  reach deeper levels of meditation. In the beginning the glory of God 
described. It is then followed by a step by step instruction on how to direct one’s mind 
during meditation - where and how to meditate.  
It is cust omary to recite Narayana Sooktam  along with the Purusha Sooktam . The ideas 
expressed in this Sooktam  form the basis for meditation on the Supreme Being. 
Reciting this Sooktam  before commencing on meditation will greatly aid in developing 
intense meditation .  
Tejasvi Navadheetamastu Ma Vidvishavahai  
Om Shantih Shantih Shantih  
Meditation does not mean to merely sit in front of an image, stare at it or just imagine of 
a familiar form. First we m ust try to understand where we stand in His divine presence. 
We must then be able to picture His resplendent beautiful form in our mind. For this 
reason, the following five mantras describe His glory.

273 1. Om. Sahasraseersham devam vishvaksham vishvasambhuva m 
Vishvam Narayanam devamaksharam paramam padam.  
  
 I meditate on the effulgent ( devam)  Supreme Being, Sriman Narayana 
(Narayana devam),  who has thousands of heads ( Sahasraseersham ) 
and many eyes (vishvaksham).  He is the producer of joy in the universe 
(vishvasambhuvam) , is imperishable (Akshram ), and supremely 
ausp icious. He exists in the form of the universe (vishvam)  and is the 
master of it (paramam padam).  
2. Visvathah paramaanithyam  visvam narayanagm harim,
Visvamev edam purushasthadvisva mupajeevitha . 
  
 I meditate on Lord Sriman Narayana (Narayana),  who is superior 
(paramath ) to the universe (vishvatah),  who is permanent (nityam ), who 
exists in the form of the universe (vishvam ), who is the destroyer of all 
sin and ignorance (harim).  
3. Pathim visva syatmeshwaragm shaasvathagm shivamachyutham,  
 Narayanam mahaagneyam vishvaathmaanam paraayanam  
 
 I meditate on Lord Narayana  who is the lord (patim)  of the universe 
(vishvam),  ruler of individual souls (aatma eshwaragm),  who is 
perm anent (shaasvathagm ), im perishable (achyutham),  supremely 
auspicious (shivam ), supremely worthy of being known 
(mahaagneyam ), the ruler of individual souls ( vishva atmaanam)  and 
who is worthy to take refuge in (paraayanam).   
 
4. Narayana paro jyothiraathmaa Narayanah parah  
 Naray anaparam brahma tatvam Narayanah parah  
 Narayanaparo dhyaatha, dyaanam Narayanah parah  
  
 Lord Narayana  is the supreme light ( Narayanah parah jyotih ). Lord 
Narayana  is the supreme Self (Narayanah parah aatma ). Lord 
Narayana  is the supreme Reality ( Narayana h parah tatvam ) and as 
such designated as Brahman (Narayanah parah Brahman).  He is the 
supreme to be m editated upon ( Narayanah parah dhyaatha ), and He is 
the Supreme m editation (Narayanah parah dyaanam ). 
 You do not have to go in search of the Lord. The Su preme Lord 
Narayana, complete with all the glories indicated above, is resident 
within our own self – Antaryamin .  This is explained in the next mantra.  
5. Yaccha  kinchit jagat sarvam drishyate   srooyate api vaa,  
 Antarbahischa tat sarvam vyaapya Narayana  sthitah . 
  
 Whatever there is in this world (jagat sarvam ) known through seeing 
(yaccha kinchit ) or (api vaa) known through hearing (srooyate ) is fully 
(tat sarvam ) permeated (vyaapya)  within (antah)  and without (bahih 
cha) by Lord Narayana . He remains as  the Supreme Truth.

274  Meditation is the final step in realizing Lord Narayana. The next mantra 
indicates where one’s mind should concentrate while meditating. The 
place for the meditation is in the region of the heart.  
6.  Anantham avyayam kavigm  samudrent am vishva sambhuvam,  
 Padmakosha pratheekaasham  hridayam chaapyadho mukham  
  
 One should meditate upon the Supreme, the limitless ( Anantam ), 
unchanging ( avyayam ), all knowing ( kavigm ), the cause of happiness of 
the world ( vishva sambhuvam ), dwelling at the  end of the sea (samudre  
antam ) as the goal of all striving. The place for His meditation is the 
ether in the heart, the heart which is comparable to an inverted lotus 
bud (facing down).  
 
 The key word “ samudre antam” is to be noted for its special 
signifi cance. Vedanta  explains to us that the Supreme Lord is at the end 
of the ocean called Samsaara . The raging sea of life  
for-ever boiling with tall waves of desire, anger and other consuming 
emotions is the Samsaara saagara . As long as tall waves of desire,  
anger and other consuming emotions hold their sway, we cannot  hope 
to reach the Supreme Being. Meditation will be possible only after the 
mind fully calms down.  Does it mean that only people who have given 
up all desires are capable of serious meditation ? The answer is – yes. 
Meditation practiced with the single object of realizing God belongs to 
the highest order. The other kind where the meditation is done as a 
routine and life goes on after it is done with, is simple meditation meant 
to improve concent ration.  
7.  Adho nishtyaa vitastyaante naabhyam upari tishthati,  
 Jwaalamaalaakulam  bhaati visvasya aayatanam mahat  
  
This Rik tells us about the location of the heart.  
It should be known that the heart, we are talking about, is located below 
the Adam’s a pple ( nishtyaa adhah ) and at a distance of a finger span 
(ante)  above (upari)  navel (naabhyam ). It is shining ( bhaati ) with a 
garland of flames ( Jwaalamaalaakulam).  It is the great abode ( mahat  
aayatanam ) of the Universe ( visvasya) .  
 
 The heart that is b eing referred to here is not the organ that circulates 
the blood. Everyone is familiar with the location of this heart. On the 
contrary, what is being referred to in the Rik is the “spiritual” heart. 
Three distinct features for this spiritual heart are bei ng described here. 
(a) It is just about three finger spans above the navel. The organ heart, 
that we are all familiar with, is also at about the same distance from the 
navel – but it is slightly to the left. The spiritual heart is to the right of this 
organ and almost at the center. (b) It is shining, as if, with a garland of 
flames. (c) It is brilliant. These special features are not applicable to the

275 organ heart. The question is whether we will reach the stage of 
percei ving this. Whether we do it or not, it is there for all the mankind.  
 With an understanding that we should meditate with our heart, a 
number of people try to meditate concentrating their mind in the region 
of our organ heart. Try they might, till the end it will remain a futile 
exercise. Wha t we should be concentrating on is the “spiritual” heart” -
on the “lotus of the heart”. True meditation is possible only there. For 
many of us the lotus of our heart remains just a bud only. First we have 
to open this bud into a flower. To succeed in this,  earnest efforts in 
terms of Japa and prayers are essential. Till he locates his spiritual 
center, the Sadhak  will find his mind wandering. This is a challenge.  
 The Supreme Being, Maha Vishnu , projected out of Himself the great 
Universe; and having projec ted out of Himself the Universe, He entered 
into every being and everything . He is the subtle essence of all. For this 
reason He is called the Antaryamin . This Rik indicates the great abode 
of the Supreme Being in the body  
8 Santatam shilaabhistu lambatyaa kosha sannibham  
Tasyaante sushiram sookshmam tasmin sarvam pratishthitam  
  
 Like the bud of the lotus ( aakosha sannibham ), suspended in an 
inverted position ( lambati ) and surrounded by arteries ( shilaabhi ), is the 
organ –heart. In the middle of it there is  a narrow space – a miniature 
aakash  (sookshmam sushiram ). Everything ( sarvam ) is supported 
(pratishthitam ) in it ( tasmin ). 
 
 In essence, this Rik tells us that there is a miniature Aakash  within the 
heart. Chandogya  Upanishad  describes this in the followi ng manner - 
 As large as the Universe outside, even so large is the universe within 
the lotus of the heart. Within it are heaven and earth, the Sun and the 
Moon, the lightning and all the stars. What is present in the macrocosm 
is also present in the micro cosm. Though old age comes to the body, 
the lotus of the heart does not grow old. At the death of the body, it 
does not die. The lotus of the heart where Brahman  exists in all His 
glory – that and not the body, is the true city of the Brahman. Brahman  
dwelling therein, is untouched by any deed, ageless, deathless, free 
from grief, free from hunger and thirst.  
9. Tasya madhye mahaanagnir visvarchir vishvato mukhah  
So agrabhug vibhajan tishthan aahaaram ajara kavih  
  
 In (tasya ) the middle ( madhye ) of that (n arrow space of the heart or 
susumna ) remains the un -decaying ( tishta ), all knowing ( kavih ), omni 
faced ( vishvato mukhah ) great fire ( mahaan agnir ), which has flames on 
every side, which enjoys the food ( aahaaram ) first presented before it 
(agrabhuk ) and wh ich remains assimilating the food ( vibhajan ) that has 
been consumed.

276  This is the next step in getting us to be introspective. As role of fire in 
the space is in the external world, so is this Praana  for this body. This is 
the vital energy in our body. Pr aana performs all the tasks such as 
assimilation of food that has been consumed, distributing the energy 
consumed from the food to the various parts of the body, excreting the 
waste – all essential for the maintenance and growth of the body. As 
described a bove this Praana  is situated in the narrow space of the 
heart. Since its tasks are covering every part of the body, it is described 
here as seeing all sides – (vishvato mukhah ) 
10. Tiryagurdhvam adhassaayi rasmayastasya santataa  
Santaapayati svam deham aap aadatala mastakah  
Tasya madhye vahni sikhaa aniya oordhvaa vyavasthitaa  
  
 The rays ( rasmayah ) of this Praana  (tasya ) spread, scattering 
themselves vertically ( urdhvam,  adhah ) and horizontally ( tiryak ), 
permeate ( saayi ) and always ( santataa ) the whole body . It warms 
(santaapayati ) up its own body ( svam deham ) from the sole of the feet 
to the crown of the head ( aapaadatala mastakah ). At the center of this 
(tasya madhye ) abides ( vyavasthitaa ) a tiny ( aniyah ) tongue of fire 
(vahni sikhaa ) facing ( oordhvam ) up. 
 
 The departure of Praana  from the body is called death. Soon after the 
departure of Praana , the body gets cold. The body is kept warm by the 
Praana Shakti . At the center of this fire, is the tongue shining brilliantly 
with its flame facing up. This tongu e is the Jeevatma  (or Jeeva  – the 
individual self).  
11. Neelatoyada madhyasthaad vidyullekheva bhaasvaraa  
Neevaarashookavattanvee peetaa bhaasvatyanoopamaa  
  
 The Jeevatm a, shines ( bhaasvaraa ) with the colour of gold ( peetaa ). It 
is extremely thin ( tanvee ) as the awn of a paddy grain 
(neevaarasho okavat ) and very subtle ( anu upamaa ). Like a flash of 
lightening that flashes ( vidyut lekhath eva ) from the middle of a dark rain 
bearing cloud ( neelatoyadamadhyasthaath ). 
 Svetasvatara  Upanishad  and Mundaka  Upanis had tell us that the 
Jeevatma  is very subtle and self effulgent. It is also superior to the 
speech, mind and the sense organs. All these descriptions are efforts 
by our a ncient sages make us realise the eternal truth.  
12. Tasyaah sikhaayaa madhye Paramaatm aa vyavastitaha  
Sa Brahma Sa Sivah Sa Harih Sendrah sokshara paramah svaraat  
  
 Paramatma , the Supreme Reality dwells in the middle of that flame. He 
is Brahma . He is Shiva . He is Vishnu . He is Indra . He is eternal and 
self-luminous. There is no one superi or to Him.  
 We now know where the individual self, Jeevatma , is located in the 
body. During the creative act, Lord Narayana , not only projects from

277 Himself the various categories of His creation, but also enters into each 
one of them. He is thus Antaryamin , Sharirin  (indweller) of the cosmos 
as a whole and every part of it including the Jeevatmans . By that it 
should not be interpreted that He is contained within them. He is 
infinit ely beyond their dimension. He is in fact, their container too. The 
Sooktam describes the location in the body where the Supreme Being 
dwells.  
13. Ritam Satyam Param Brahma Purusham krishnapingalam  
Oordhvaretam viroopaksham vishvaroopaaya vai namo namah  
  
 Parabrahman is the material and efficient cause of the universe 
(Satyam ) and  all the beautiful things that we see ( Ritam ). Salutations to 
Him again and again (namo namah) who has permeated every living 
being ( Purusham ), who has a complexion that is a mixture of the dark 
hue of Maha Vishnu  and the fair complexioned Lord Shiva  
(Krishnapi ngalam ), who is very auspicious ( oordhvaretam ), has three 
eyes ( viroopaksham ) and whose form is that of the Universe 
(vishvaroopaaya vai ).  
 
 In this manner, the Maha Narayana Sooktam turns us into an 
introspe ctive mood and takes us to the presence of  the Supreme Being. 
After that, serving the Lord with supreme devotion is true meditation.  
14. Om Naaraayanaaya vidmahe Vaasudevaaya dheemahi  
Tanno Vishnu Prachodayaath  
  
 This is Vishnu Gayatri.  We commune with Lord Narayana and meditate 
on Lord Vasudev a. May that Vishnu guide and inspire us.  
  
 Meditation does not mean to merely sit in front of an image, stare at it or 
just imagine of a familiar form. First we must try to understand where we 
stand in His divine presence. We must then be able to picture His 
resplendent beautiful form in our mind. For this reason, the following 
five mantras describe His glory.  
Mantra Pushpam       
(Taittiriya Aranyaka  1.22)  
Performing Puja is a very popular form of worship. Towards the end of the Puja the one 
Veda  mantra  that is soul stirring and inspiring to every devotee is the Mantra Pushpa . 
Even those who have not studied the Vedas  comple tely chant the Mantra Pushpa  at the 
conclusion of the puja.  This mantra occurs in the Taittiriya Aranyaka .

278 The offering of flowers or Pushpa  during worship is a very important ritual. It is called 
Pushpanjali.  While offering Pushpanjali  the devotee expres ses his complete surrender 
to the Lord and seeks His grace and this is signified in the Mantra Pushpa .  
Jala (water), Chandra  (moon), Agni (fire), Vaayu  (wind), Surya  (Sun), Nakshatra  (stars), 
Megha (clouds), rainy season are all aspects of Prakruti  that we come across in 
everyday life.  These get mentioned in this mantra. All these aspects are interdependent 
on each other. At the same time all these are rely on Jala (water).  
In the anuvaaka “Yopaam  pushpa ” it is stated that Jala on which our lives are e ntirely 
dependent is also source on which the world is dependent on. Those who realise this 
will be blessed with wealth and mukti.  Similarly, Agni, Vaayu, Surya, Chandra, 
Nakshtras  (stars), Megha (clouds), rainy season all rely on water. Jala,  in turn also  
relies on them – a case of mutual dependence. Those who realise this will be blessed 
with mukti .  
I salute the Supreme Being who is available to us in the form of “ap” 
Sthirair angais – Tushtuvam – Sastanubhih  
Swasti Nah Pusha Visvavedah  
Swasti Nah Tarkshyo Arishtanemih  
Swasti No Brhaspatirdadhatu  
1. Om yo paam pushpam veda pushpavaan prajaav aan pashumaan 
bhavati  
Chandramaa vaa apaam pushpam pushpavaan prajaavaan 
pash umaan bhavati  
Ya evam veda  
  
 He who ( yah) understands ( veda ) the flower ( pushpam ) of the water 
(apaam ) will become the processor of flowers ( pushpavaan ), cattle 
(pashumaan ) and progeny ( prajaavaan ). Chandra  (chandramaa vaa ) is 
the flower ( pushpam ) of the water ( apaam ). He who ( yah evam ) 
unde rstands (veda ) this fact will be rich with cattle ( pashumaan ) and 
progeny (prajaavaan ).  This expresses the sacred relationship between 
Apaam  and Chandra  
2. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati Agnirvaa 
apaamaayatanam  
aayatanavaan bhavati yo agneyaraayatanam veda aayatanavaan 
bhavati  
Apo vai agneraayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam veda

279   
 He (yah) who understands (veda) the source (a ayatanam) of water 
(apaam) becomes established in himself (aayatanavaan). Fire ( agni 
vaa) is the source ( aayatanam ) of water (apaam). He, who understands 
this, becomes established in himself. He, who understands the source 
of fire, becomes established in h imself. Water is the source of fire. He, 
who understands this, becomes established in himself.  
3. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati Vaayurvaa 
aayatanavaan bhavati yo Vaayurva aayatanam veda aayatanavaan 
bhavati  
Apo vai Vaayor aayata nam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam veda  
  
 He who understands the source of water becomes established in 
himself. Vaayu  (wind) is the source of water. He who understands the 
source of wind becomes established in himself. Water is the source of 
wind and who u nderstands this becomes established in himself.  
4. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Asau vai tapannapaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati  
Yo musya tapata aayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Apo vai amusya tapata aayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya ev am 
veda  
  
himself. The scorching Sun is the source of water. He who understands 
the source of Surya (Sun) becomes established in himself. Water is the 
source of Sun. He who understands this bec omes established in 
himself. 
5. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Chandramaa vaa apaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati  
Yaschandramasa aayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Apo vai chandramasa aayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam 
veda  
  
 He who unde rstands the source of water becomes established in 
himself. Chandra  is the source of water. He who understands the 
source of Chandra  (moon) becomes established in himself. Water is the 
source of Chandra . He who understands this becomes established in 
himse lf. 
6. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Nakshatrani vaa apaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati  
Yo Nakshatraanaamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Apo vai Nakshatraanaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam 
veda

280  He who understands the source o f water becomes established in 
himself. Nakshatras  (stars) are the source of water. He who 
understands the source of Nakshatras  becomes established in himself. 
Water is the source of Nakshatras . He who understands this becomes 
established in himself.  
7. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Parjanyo vaa apaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati  
Yah Parjanyasyaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Apo vai Parjanyasyaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam veda  
  
 He who understands the source of water becomes est ablished in 
himself. Cloud s are the source of water. He who understands the 
source of clouds becomes established in himself. Water is the source of 
clouds. He who understands this becomes established in himself.  
8. Yo paamaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavat i  
Samvatsaro vaa apaamaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati  
Yah samvatsarasyaayatanam veda aayatanavaan bhavati  
Apo vai samvatsarasyaayatanam aayatanavaan bhavati ya evam 
veda  
  
himself. Seasons are the source of water. He who understands the 
source of seasons becomes established in himself. Water is the source 
of se asons. He who understands this becomes established in himself.  
9. Yopsu naavam pratishtitaam veda pratyeva tishtati  
  
 He who understands  that a boat is located in the water becomes 
established in himself. This will be commented upon towards the end.  
10. Om Raajaadhiraajaaya prasahyasaahine’ Namo vayam 
vaishrav anaaya kurmahe  
Sa mae kaamaankaamakaamaaya mahyam kameshvaro vaisravano 
dadaatu  
Kuberaaya vaishravanaaya mahaarajaaya namah  
  
 We ( vayam)  salute ( namah kurmahe ) Kubera (Vaishravanaya) , the king 
of kings (raajaadhi  raajaaya ), who grants us great success ( prasahya 
saahine’ ). May he ( sah) the fulfiller of all desires (kameshvarah ) and the  
king of wealth ( Vaishravanah ) grant ( dadaatu ) us enough wealth to fulfill 
(kaamakaamaaya ) all our desires ( kaamaan ). Once again we salute 
king ( mahaarajaaya ) Kubera the lord of wealth (vaishravanaaya 
Kuberaaya ). 
 
 Water, Moon, Agni, Vaayu, Surya, Clouds, seasons - are all various 
amshas  of the Prakruti. These are all getting mentioned here. Though 
they are all independent entities, they are interdependent. At the same 
time, water is the key element on which everything else is dependent.

281 The first four mantr as state that he who understands this becomes 
established in himself. The 9th mantra talks about a boat. The 10th 
mantra praises the God.  
 
 Often, while describing the passage of life water and ocean are 
mentioned. The description of the source for water a s moon and clouds, 
in fact, reminds us that life on earth is supported by Prakruti that has 
amshas like the moon, clouds etc. For this reason, Prakruti will need to 
be revered and worshipped. The use of water and flowers during poojas 
is to signify this wo rship of Prakruti.  
 
 We should not stop with the worship of Prakruti. We should go beyond 
that. For progressing beyond that stage, the 9th mantra talks about a 
boat. The boat, in fact, is no other than the Supreme Being Himself. 
Reminding us that we should  realize Lord, the 10th mantra praises His 
glory. We should sail past the rituals, and seek to realize the Lord 
within. 
  
Vyashema Deavah itam Yadayuh  
Aditya Hridayam  
People during the Vedic times were not viewing Sun merely as a planet that rises in the 
morning and sets by night. They recognized Him as the Supreme Being supporting life 
on earth and a provider of energy and food. More importantly, He inspires people to 
have righteous thoughts and perform actions to suit. People pray to Surya t o grant them 
wealth required to lead their day to day lives happily and also for the spiritual power 
needed to lead higher levels of life.  
Aditya Hridyam  – the hymn to the Sun God - is ascribed to great sage Agastya . It forms 
a part of the Yuddha kaanda  written by Sage Valmiki.   
The first two Slokas  describe the circumstances under which the Sage Agastya  initiated 
this hymn to Sri Ra ma. Fourth and fifth Slokas  indicate the benefits in reciting the Hymn. 
Slokas  from six to fourteen describe Surya Narayana  in various manifestations. In 
Slokas from sixteen to twenty -one obeisance to the God is being offered. Slokas  twenty 
six and twenty seven contain the advice by the Sage Agastya  to Sri Rama .

282 There is only one Supreme Reality and all the Devis  and Devatas  that we hear about 
are all the Vibhutis or manifestations of this Parabrahman . Among the Devatas, Aditya  
(Surya)  the son of Aditi is highly celebrated and greatly revered. Being a Vibhuti  of Lord 
Narayana  he is often referred to as Surya Narayana . In fact, the Slokas  in Aditya 
Hridayam may be interpreted both in terms of the God Surya and Lord Narayana. It is a 
common practice to recite the hymn on every Sundays.  
 
1. Tato Uddha parishraantam samare’ chintayaa sthitam  
Raavanam chaagrato drshtyaa uddaaya samup asthitam  
2. Daivathascha samaagamya drishtu mabhyaagato ranam  
Upaagamyaa bravee draama magastyo bhagavaan rushih  
 Then the all -knowing Sage Agastya , who had come and joined the 
Devatas  to witness the fierce battle witnessed Rama  lost in deep 
thought, utter ly exhausted in battle and still facing Ravana  who has 
come prepared for a fresh encounter. The sage approached Rama and 
spoke to him thus.  
3. Rama Rama mahaabaaho shrunu guhyam sanaatanam  
Yena sarvaanareen vatsa samare’ vijayishyasi  
 O Rama, mighty armed Sri Rama listen to this ancient secret whereby 
you can vanquish in battle all your foes.  
4. Aditya Hridayam punyam sarva shatru vinaashanam  
Jayaavaham japenitya makshayam paramam shivam  
5. Sarva mangala maangalyam sarva paapa pranaashanam  
Chintaashoka pr ashamana maayurvardhana muttamam  
 The holy hymn of Aditya Hridayam is addressed to the Sun deity. It is 
very auspicious. If earnestly chanted, it will get rid of all your enemies 
and bring you victory and unending felicity. This most auspicious hymn 
will d estroy all sins, mental, physical illnesses and bestows long life.  
6. Rasmimantam samudyantam devaasura namaskrutam  
Poojayasva vivasvantam bhaskaram bhuvaneshvaram  
 Worship the Sun God, who is held in great veneration by both the 
Devas  and Asuras,  possess ed of golden coloured rays when he has 
fully risen in the early mornings, eclipses all other luminous bodies, the 
resplendent lord of the Universe by whose effulgence all others shine.  
7. Sarva Devaatmako hyesha tejasvee rasmibhaavanah  
Yesha devaasuraganaa n lokaan paati gabhastibhih  
 He is verily the soul of all the Devas . He is self luminous and the 
sustainer of all with his rays. He protects the inhabitants of all the 
worlds, the Devas  and Asuras  with rays that nourish and energize them.

283 8. Yesha Brahmaa cha Vishnuscha Shiva Skandah Prajaapatih  
Mahendro Dhanadah Kaalo Yama Somo Hyapaam patih  
 The presiding deity of the Sun is indeed all the following - Brahma, 
Vishnu, Shiva, Skanda  (the son of Goddess Parvati ), the nine 
Prajaap atis (Lord of creatures), Mahendra  (king of the Devas ), Kubera  
(Lord of wealth), Kaala  (Lord of time), Yama  (Lord of death), Soma 
(Chandra , the one that nourishes all), and Varuna  (Lord of waters). It 
really means that they are all the manifestations of one Supreme Being.  
9. Pitaro vasava saadhyaa hyaschinau maruto manuh  
Vaayurvahnih prajaapraanaa rutugartaa prabhaakarah  
 He is also the Pitrs, Vasus  (the eight dispensers of treasures), the 
Saadhyas , the twin Ashwini Devas (the celestial physicians), the 
Maruts, Vayu, Agni,  the vital Praana  in all created beings and the sole 
cause for all the seasons that we experience.  
10. Aditya Savita Suryah khagah pooshaa gabhastimaan  
Suvarna sadrusho bhanur hiranya retha Divaakarah  
 He (Sun) is the son of Aditi (mother of all the Devatas ), creato r of the 
Universe, inspirer of action, travels by the sky, He nourishes the world 
feeding it with rain, has a golden hued brilliance and he is the maker of 
the day.  
11. Haridaswah sahasrarchi saptha sapthir mareechiman ,  
Thimironmadhana shambhu  sthwashta m arthanda amsuman.  
  
 He has greenish coloured horses, has countless number of rays, rides 
on seven horses and dispels darkness. He bestows happiness and 
prosperity. He removes all misfortunes. He is the infuser of life in an 
otherwise mundane existence and  an omnipresent Being with his rays 
penetrating everywhere.  
12. Hiranya garbha shishira thapano bhaskaro ravih,  
  Agni garbha  adithe puthra shanka shishira nasanah  
  
 Surya deva  is the store house of all riches. He has a soothing influence 
on the minds of  all His devotees. He is the source of heat and light for 
the world. He is praised in the Vedas . He has great fire in His womb. He 
is the son of Aditi. He melts all frost.  
13. Vyomanadha sthamobhedi  rig yajur sama paaragah,  
 Ghana vrushti rapaam mithro vi ndhya veedhi plavangamah  
  
 Surya Deva  is the Lord of the Sky. He dispels darkness. He is the 
master par -excellence of the three Vedas – Rig, Yajur  and Sama . It is 
through His grace that we get heavy rain. He is the friend of the waters. 
He is the friend a nd benefactor of all pure minded people. He travels 
very fast in the sky, crossing the Vindhya  ranges in one bound.  
14. Aathapee mandali mruthyu pingala sarva thaapanah,

284   Kavir vishvo maha thejaa rakthah sarvodbhavah  
  
 O Deva, you are the one who gives heat. You have a global shape. You 
inflict death (on impediments). You have a golden yellow colour (as 
rising Sun). You heat everything (during mid day). You are exceedingly 
energetic, beloved of all and the generator of all action.  
 
15. Nakshatra graha t haaraanam adhipo, vishva bhaavanah,  
 Thejasam aphi thejasvi dvaadasaathman  namosthuthe  
  
 He is the Lord of the stars, planets and constellations. He is the origin of 
everything in the Universe and the resplendent cause of the luster of 
anything brilliant.  He is the one with twelve forms and is known as 
Dvaadasha Aditya. They are – Indra, Dhaata, Aryama, Mitra, Varuna, 
Indra, Vivasvan, Pusha, Parjanya, Ansh, Bhaga, Twasta  and Vishnu . I 
salute Him.  
16. Namah poorvaya giraye, paschime giraye namah,  
 Jyothirg anaanaam pathaye  dinadhipathaye namah.   
  
 Salutations to the presiding deity of the Eastern mountains (where the 
Sun rises) and the Western mountains (where the Sun sets). 
Salut ations to the Lord of stellar bodies and also to the Lord of the day.  
17. Jaya ya jaya bhadraya haryasvaya namo namah,  
 Namo nama sahasramsho adithyaya namo namah.  
  
 Salutations unto Him that ordains victory. Salutations unto Him who 
rides on green steeds. Salutations to the thousand rayed Lord, the son 
of Aditi.  
18. Nama ugraya ve eraya sarangaya namo namah,  
 Namah padma prabhodaya, maarthandaaya namo namah  
  
 Salutations to the terrible one (who is relentless to the offenders who fail 
to keep their senses under control) and to that hero with awe inspiring 
valor . Salutations to the one who traverses fast and whose emergence 
makes the lotuses bloom (awakener of the lotus in the heart).  
19. Brhameshaanachutheshaya  sooryadhithya varchase,  
 Bhasvathe sarva bhakshaya roudraya vapushe namah  
  
 Salutations to the over -lord of Brahma, Shiva  and Vishnu and to Him 
who inspires created beings into action. Obeisance to the lord who is, in 
fact, the intrinsic effulgence in the Sun. He is the illuminator, devourer of 
everything and has a fierce form.  
20. Thmognaya himagnaya  shathrugnaya amithathma ne, 
 Kruthagnagnaya  devaya jyothisham pathaye namah.

285  Obeisance to the Lord who dispels all darkness (of ignorance) and fear 
that grips like frost. Salutations to Him who destroys the foes (both 
internal and external) of all his devotees, ungrateful bein gs and who is 
self-effulgent and the lord of all stellar bodies.  
  
21. Taptha chamikaraabhaaya vahnaye vishva karmane,  
 Namasthomabhinignaya ruchaye loka sakshine  
  
 Obeisance to the Lord who is shining like molten gold: Salutations to the 
transcendental fire, the fire of supreme knowledge; salutations to the 
Lord responsible for the creation of the Universe, for Him who is the 
destroyer of darkness (ignorance included), and for the glorious self -
effulgent Lord who is the ultimate cosmic witness.  
22. Naas a yatyesha vai bhootham tadeva srujathi prabhuh  
 Payathyesha thapathyesha varshatyesha gabhasthibhih  
  
 Salutations to the Lord who destroys everything that was and creates 
them once again. Salutations to Him who, heats water with His powerful 
rays, and re turns it as rain.  
23. Yesha suptheshu jagarthi bhootheshu parinishtithah  
 Yesha chaivagni hothram cha phalam chaivagni hothrinam  
 Salutations to the Lord who is awake when all the beings in the world 
are asleep. He is both the sacrificial fire and the frui t enjoyed by the 
worshippers thereof.  
24. Vedascha kratavaschaiva krathoonam phalameva cha,  
 Yani kruthyani lokeshu sarva yesha ravih prabhuh  
  
 Lord Surya  is the Lord of all action in this Universe. He is verily the 
Vedas, the sacrifices, such as the Yaga s, prescribed therein and the 
fruits thereof.  
25. Yena mapathsu kruchreshu kaanthaareshu bhayeshu cha,  
 Keerthayan Purushah kaschin aavaseedhathi Raghavah.  
  
 O Raghava , he who recites this hymn in times of peril, when in grievous 
distress, when lost in wi lderness, when seized by fear, will not lose 
heart. He will be saved from the distressing times.  
26. Poojayasvaina mekegro deva devam jagat pathim,  
 Ethath trigunitham  japthva  yuddeshu vijayashyasi  
  
 O Rama , worship this God of all Gods, Lord of the Univ erse with a 
single minded devotion. Reciting this hymn thrice in a day you shall 
emerge victorious in your battle with the mighty Ravana.  
27. Asmin kshane mahaa baaho  Ravanam thwam vadhishyasi,  
 Evamukthwaa  tadaa Agasthyo jagama cha yada gatham

286  O might y armed Rama , if you do as indicated you shall triumph over 
Ravana and kill him this very moment. Having spoken thus the great 
sage Agastya  returned from whence he came.  
 
28. Eta chruthva mahaa thejaa nashta shoko  bhavath thada,  
 Dhaarayaamaasa supreetho Raghavah prayathathmavaan.     
  
 Having heard this, the illustrious Raghava  was greatly pleased and 
freed himself from all worry. Filled with great enthusiasm and with a 
pure heart he meditated on Lord Aditya .  
29. Adhithyam prokshya japthvaa thu param har sha mavaapthaavan,  
 Thriraachamya suchir bhoothva dhanuraadhaaya veeryavaan  
  
 Sri Rama  cleansed himself by performing Aachamana,  and then gazing 
intently at Aditya  he performed, with great devotion, the Aditya Hridaya  
Japa  thrice. Experiencing great felic ity, he took up the mighty bow and 
got ready for the battle.  
30. Ravanam preshya hrushtaathmaa  yudhaaya samupaagamath,  
 Sarva yathnena mahathaa  vadhe thasya drutho 
bhavath.                                                     
  
 Seeing Ravana  in front of him  he was delighted and went forth with 
great enthusiasm to fight the battle. He put forth all his effort he decided 
to kill Ravana.  
31. Adha ravi ravada nireekshya Ramam,  
 Mudithamanaah paramam  prahrushyamaana,  
 Nisicharapathi samkshyam vidithva,  
 Sura gana  Madhya gatho vachasthvarethi  
  
 When Rama  meditated on the Surya deva  by reciting the Aditya 
Hridaya , the Lord Aditya  was very pleased. Surrounded by all the 
Devatas , Lord Surya  realised that the destruction of the King Ravana  
was imm inent. He looked at Rama with delight and exclaimed do not 
delay Hurry up.  
Gadya Trayam  
Eastern religions are distinguished by the emphasis they lay on experience than on 
authority. They have their own rituals, mythologies but the basic conception that is 
dominating is the re newal of consciousness. The purpose of religion is spiritual and not 
merely metaphysical conversion. The thrust is on the displacement of ignorance , 
Avidya , by knowledge, Vidya  or awareness. For the Indian people the idea of religion 
has always been one of  direct experience of the Divine .  Vidya , vision and wisdom is the 
goal of the Upanishads.

287 Vedanta is based on scriptures and traditions. Should it then be called a theology or 
philosophy? Neither is correct. It is a Darsana , a world view. The word Darsa na means - 
seeing. It is ultimately based on experience. The scriptures tell us that the doctrines 
given by them are records of experiences.  
The topics commonly discussed in Vedanta Darsana  are – (1) The nature of the 
physical world, its origin and evoluti on (2) Nature of the human and other beings (3) 
Existence of God, His nature and attributes (4) The goal of human life and the way of 
attaining it. Prasthana -traya  (three great paths) are the basis for commentaries written 
on Vedanta Darsana . Upanishads , Brahma sutr a and the Bhagavad -Gita constitute the 
Prasthana -traya . 
The commentary written by Sri Shankara Bhagavatpaada  is the most notable one in the 
Advaita Saampradaya . The word Advaita  means non -dual, “one without a second”. The 
system recognizes Brahm an (the Absolute) as the only reality and denies permanent 
reality to all others such as Jagat  (world) and the Jivas  (individual souls). The entire 
world of manifestation and multiplicity is not real in itself but seems to be real only for 
those who live i n ignorance ( Avidya) . Only the wisdom that the Supreme Reality and the 
Individual Self are identical can bring us redemption. It is Maya  that causes the world of 
phenomenon. Maya is Avidya  at cosmic level. According to this philosophy, Brahman  
associated w ith Maya is Saguna Brahman (Brahman  with attributes. Sri Shankara  
emphasizes that Brahman  can be comprehended only through its “ Swaroopalakshana ”. 
Swaroopalakshana  refers to its essential characteristics. The essential characteristics of 
Brahman  are – Sat (eternal reality), Chit ( pure consciousness) and Ananda  (unalloyed 
bliss). Sat-Chit-Ananda  is not merely its characteristics. In fact, it is its essence.  
The path to Mukti  or liberation is involved and not easily available for ordinary people. It 
involve s a few stages. The first is the practice of a fourfold  discipline called Saadhana 
Chatushtaya . The second stage involves training under a competent Guru.  
Vishishtaadvaita Vedanta Darsana  is not a creation of Sri Ramanuja  alone. The twelve  
Alwars  as also Acharyas  like Naathamuni, Yamuna  and Sri Ramanuja  evolved the 
system out of the more ancient teachings. However, Sri Ramanuja  is the best exponent. 
For this reason, it is often referred to as the Ramanuja Darsana . The system accepts 
both the Sanskrit Prast hana -traya and the Tamil  Prabandhams as equally authoritative. 
Hence the philosophy is also called “Ubhaya Vedanta ”.  
While the Advaita  system recognizes Brahman  as the only reality, Vishishtaadvaita 
accepts three entities as ultimate realities – (1) Brah man (2) Jiva or Chit (3) Prakruti  or 
Achit . Of these, Brahman  is the absolute and independent reality. The other two, Jiva 
and Prakruti  are dependent realities. The three together are referred to as Tattvatraya.

288 Sri Ramanuja also disagrees with the asser tions of the Advaita  by Sri Shankara  that the 
Supreme Being is Nirguna  (without attributes) and Niraakaara  (without a form). 
Accor ding to him, in all theisms, God must be supremely adorable and infinitely good 
personal being. He cannot  be quality -less impe rsonal being as if He is not responsive to 
prayers and worship.  
 
Sri Ramanuja proposes the Supreme Lord with an archetypal form. In addition, drawing 
substance from various Puranas  the Acharya  goes on to elaborate the  Swaroopa 
(Satyam, Jnanam , Anantam, An andam, Amalatvam etc) and Svabhavas (Bala, 
Aishvarya, Skakti, Veerya, Kaarunya, Audaarya etc) of the Supreme Being.  
Prapatti  is a special introduction by Sri Ramanujacharya . It is the concept of total 
surrender. It is specially addressed to those who are unable to practice Karma Yoga, 
Jnaana Yoga  or Bhakti Yoga.  Its main characteristics are to conceive what is in 
confo rmity with the will of God and to reject what is disagreeable to Him (more about 
this at a later stage ); to seek Him as the sole refuge and protector and surrender to Him 
completely without any qualification.  
Yet it must be emphasized that it is not invented by him to suit the occasion. The 
following points may be noted.  
1. There are references to “Prapatti ” as a superior means in the Vedas, Upanishads, 
Itihasas and Puranas.  
2. Bhakti  and Parama Bhakti  are the end products of a long and difficult course of     
 discipline of the head and the heart. Only few people may be equipped with the 
necessary intellectual capability and social environmen t required for the practice of 
it. However, Prapatti  is an independent path which guarantees the same benefits.  
More of this will be discussed at a later stage in this chapter.  
3. As an extension to the practice of Prapatti , the accessibility ( Saulabhya ) of the  
Supreme Being (Sriman Narayana ) to a simple devotee has been specially 
handled. Brahma n is not, for Sri Ramanujacharya , a featureless, attributeless, 
indef inite vague presence unsuited for worship and adoration. The Supreme 
person has an archetypa l form (which does not limit Him and he can take any form 
He wis hes). According to the Sri Vaishnava  theology, the Supreme Being has five 
aspects. Refer to the diagram given below – 
  
 Para : Sriman Narayana  in His transcendent status of Vaikuntha.  
      Vyuha: These are emanations of the Supreme Sriman Narayana  
Vibhava:   Special manifestation as Avatara.  
Antaryamin: Indweller in the Universe as a whole and in all its parts.  
Archa:   Consecrated Divine images in great temples.

289  A more detailed discussi on on the aspects of the Supreme Being is being included 
at the end of this chapter.  
 In Gadya Trayam , we will be seeing Lord Narayana  in His transcendent status and 
the Archavatar  being discussed.  
 
4. Gadya Trayam  consists of three prose pieces composed b y Sri Ramanujacharya . 
In these commentaries the Acharya  emphasizes Bhakti/ Prapatti  as the surest 
means to attain salvation.In the Vaishnava parlance , Gadya Trayam  ranks in 
importance to the other popular Trayas  like – Loka Traya, Kaala Traya, Tattva 
Traya  (Cit, Acit and Ishvara), Nama Traya (Narayana, Vishnu, Vasudeva) etc.  
 
 It has already been indicated that Eastern religions are distinguished by the 
emphasis they lay on experience than on authority. Gadya Trayam  is a work 
based on the direct experience by the Sri Ramanujacharya . 
 
       The “Brahmotsavam ” at Srirangam  takes place in the Tamil month of Panguni.  On 
the last date (under the asterism Uttiram ) the Utsava moorthy  of Lord 
Rangana atha is seated on the same dias as the Goddess Ranganayaki . This  is 
celebrated only once a year. On one such occasion , Sri Ramanujacharya , fearing 
the fate of his self and humanity in this Samsaara  poured out his heart to the 
Divine couple. The outcome of this dialogue is Saranaagati Gadya . This is in the 
form of a dia logue between the Acharya  and the Divine couple.  
 5. Sri Ramanujacharya  denotes the Supreme Being as Brahman, Narayana ,  
Bhagavan , Purushottama, Vishnu  etc. Sriman Narayana  takes characteristics such 
as – Satyam  (Truth unconditioned and changeless), Jnanam  (all comprehending 
knowledge), Anandam  (immeasurable bliss), Amalatva  (incorruptible purity – Sriman Narayana  
(Para Vasudeva)  
Antaryami  Vyuha  
Vasudeva  
Sanka rsha
Pradyumna  
Anirudddha  Vibhav
Poornav atar
Amsavatara  Archav atar
Svayam -
vyakta  
Daiva  
Arsha  
Manusha

290 freedom from karma). They are known as His Swaroopa  or inherent nature.
knowledge), Anantam (excellence unlimited categories of time and  
Apart from these, the Acharya  goes on to describe His Kalyana Gunas  – countless 
auspicious qualities. These are called Svabhava.  The popular ones are – Jnaana,  
(omniscience), Bala (omnipotence), Aishvarya  (lordship), Shakti  (creative power), 
Virya  (immutability), Tejas  (splendou r), Gambhirya  (inestimable grandeur), 
Audaarya  (generosity), and Karunya  (compassion). With these attributes the 
Acharya  rejects the concept that the Supreme Being is without any Gunas. Gadya 
Trayam deals elaborately with the Swaroopa and Kalyana Gunas of Sriman 
Narayana.  
6. In the theology of Sri Vaishnavism  the concept of Sri has a great importance. On 
account of the importance attached to the Divine consort, the system has come to 
be known as Sri Vaishnavism  and the God as Sriman Narayana. Sri,  the cons ort, 
is co -eternal with Lord Vishnu . She is Anapaayini  (ever united with Him). She is 
the Mother of the Universe who extends Divine accessibility to even unworthy 
men. As a mother Her love extends to even the most undeserving. In the 
Vaishn ava rituals, pra yer to Sri for Her grace takes precedence over the prayer to 
Lord N arayana Himself.  
 Accordingly, the text of Saranaagati Gadya  begins with a prayer to Sri Devi . The 
Acharya  seeks that Sri Devi should intercede on his behalf and see that Her 
beloved husba nd, Lord Ranganaatha , accepts the Acharya’s  prayers and grant his 
wish of accepting his service.  
7.  The Supreme Brahman, Sriman Narayana , is the creator, container and the cause 
for everything –Sarvakaaranatva.  He transcends everything ( paratva ). Yet ho w is 
He then easily accessible by all His devotees? How do you explain His easy 
accessibility – Saulabhya? Two opportunities are presented – (a) during an 
Avatara  (b) Images or Archas  that stand for extreme accessibility.  
 Well have known incarnations such  as Sri Ramachandra  and Sri Krishna . The 
Lord appears as a human being and lives among them. During the Avatara , the 
Lord leaves behind highly evocative stories of his activities and spiritual 
revel ations. However, Avataras  appear once in an age only. Men are then left to 
contemplate on the accounts of their lives.  
  Consecrated images, Archas , give an excellent opportunity. Archas may be 
class ified into four categories.  
 
 (a)   Svayam -vyakta : This refers to a class of Images that are believed to 
 have bee n self - created. Examples are - images found in temples such 
 as Srirangam, Tirupathi, Kanchi etc.  
(b)  Divya : Refers to images that have been installed and consecrated by 
 Divinities such  as Brahma, Indra.

291 (c)  Arsha : Images installed and consecrat ed by sages and seers such as  
 Bhrigu and Markandeya  
(d)  Manusha : Images installed and consecrated by men and women either  
 in temples or in their houses.  
 The worship of idols consecrated by Divine presence is of Vedic  origin. “We read 
in the Atharva -Veda that a sage, Atharva by name, pays obeisance to a “ prastara ” 
(stone) which belongs to sages and is sanctified by Divinity. “ Prastara ” is the 
precursor of the colloquial “patthar ”. It is clear some stone is referred to in the 
Vedic verse. From Panini’s  aphorisms (5.2.101; 5.3.96; 5.3.99) we know that in the 
5th century BC images were made both for selling and worshipping. We are here 
reminded in Valmiki’s narration that (1) Rama  and Sita spent a night of devotion in 
temple dedicated to Him (2) flags wer e hoisted in temples (3) Rama, Sita  and 
Lakshmana  visited temples dedicated to Vishnu  and other deities in the hermitage 
of Agastya.   
 
 According to the Vaishnava theology, consecrated images have a Divine 
presence. Sriman Narayana , unlike in incarnations,  is always there as the Archa 
for the devotees to commune with through the senses of vision and touch and 
through devoted adoration.  Sri Ramanujacharya , himself, sets a great example 
while wo rshipping at the temples in Kanchipuram  and Srirangam .  
 
8.Sriman Narayana:   
 
 The form:  The basis of assigning a form to the Deities is in the Vedas . The Rig 
Veda  refers to His masculine form. He is tall and has a superb physique. Yajur 
Veda  refers to His right and left hands . Isa Upanishad reveals that the Deity’s form  
as the most gracious.  
 The complexion : According to Bhagavatam , the colour of the Divine is blue like a 
blue lotus ( indivara ). His form is very youthful. While Lord Vishnu is blue, the 
complexion of Goddess Lakshmi is golden hue.  
 
 The Puranas tell us t hese divine Ayudhas  (missiles) are not merely ordinary inert 
objects. They have anthropomorphic aspects as -well. These Ayudhas , when not in 
actual use, assume personal forms and attend The Puranas tell us  that divine 
ornaments and Ayudhas  (missiles) are no t merely ordinary inert objects. They 
have anthropomorphic aspects as -well. The Ayudhas , when not in actual use, 
assume personal forms and attend on the Master. They do have a Divine nature in 
them. Thus it should be understood that the ornaments and the m issiles 
associated with Lord Narayana  have two aspects – impersonal and personal. In 
their impersonal aspect they serve as a jewel or a missile. However, in their

292 personal and anthr opomorphic aspect they serve the Lord as His servant and 
perform specific d uties.  
 
 The ornaments :  
 
 The prominent ornaments of Lord Narayana are – (a) Vaijayanti (b) Vanamaala 
(c) Kaustubha  
 
(a) Vaijayanti: It is a knee long necklace studded with five jewels, namely – 
Emeralds, Rubies, Pearls, Diamonds and Sapphires. However, in her 
anthropomorphic aspect she is a deity and superintends the five 
elements of the earth – Prithvi  (earth), Apas  (water), Tejas (Agni), Vayu  
(Air), Akasa  (ether)  
(b) Vanamaala:  It is knee long garland of sylvan flora, with a kadamba  
flower at the center.  
(c) Kaustubha:  It is a beautiful Ruby pendent for the neck. This is 
exclusively worn by Lord Vishnu alone. In its anthropomorphic aspect it 
is a deity and superintends individual souls.  
 Another exclusive mark of Lord Narayana  is Srivatsa.  It is the foot print 
of Sage Bhrigu , which He always wears on His chest. The sage wanted 
to test the Lord’s excellence and struck Him on the chest with his heels 
while He was reposing. The Lord got up and instead of showing anger 
at the insult started massaging the sage’s foot.  The sage then felt very 
much ashamed. In its anthropomorphic aspect, it is a deity 
superinten ding the Prakruti . 
 
The Divine missiles:   
 
The Rig Veda  reveals that Lord Vishnu  has a conch, a disc and a mace 
in His hands. The Puranas  have added a lotus to t his list. Thus in His 
four arm form, the Lord has a conch, a disc, a mace and a lotus.  
 
Panchajanya :  The name of Vishnu’s  conch is Panchajanya . However, in his 
embodied state, he superintends the Tamas  predominant ego.  
Sudarshana:  This is Lord Narayana’s  discus. During normal times, He attends 
and serves the Lord. In his embodied form he superintends the 
cosmic mind.  
Kaumodaki:   It is the name of Sri Vishnu’s  mace. It is said to be His affectionate 
weapon. It is golden in colour and is too heavy for anyon e other

293 than the Lord to lift. In her personal aspect she superintends the 
Intellect.  
Saarnga:   Saarngna  is Lord Vishnu ’s bow in impersonal appearance. But in 
his personal appearance he superintends rajas - predominant ego. 
The bow is ever ready to protect persons of devotion.  
Nandaka:   The name of the Lord’s sword is Nandaka . It is so called because 
it gladdens devotees in its presence by destroying their 
antago nists. It is omniscience personified and is, therefore called, 
Vidya dhara. In his personal he sup erintends the cosmic 
Notes:   (1) The Gadya text in English is not being included. For one thing, the beauty of 
the masterpieces cannot  be brought out. Secondly, it is not easily readable. It is 
recommended that the reader procures a copy either  in Sanskrit, Hindi, Telugu or Tamil.  
 
(2) The translation of the text is not literal  : Gadya Trayam  consists of three Sanskrit 
prose pieces composed by Sri Ramanujacharya . They are – Sharanagati  Gadyam, 
Sriranga Gadyam  and Vaikuntha Gadyam . Out of this,  Sharanagati  Gadyam is a long 
piece . Sriranga Gadyam is an abridged version of the same.  The third Vaikuntha 
Gadyam is believed to have been composed by him while he was at  Melkote.  
 
In the Sharanagati  Gadyam the Acharya  offers to the Lord in general term s. In the 
second Sriranga Gadyam he offers his prayers particularly addressed to Lord Sri 
Ranganaatha –present in the town of Sri Rangam in archa form. In Vaikuntha Gadya he 
offers his Upadesa to all devotees regarding what could be expected in the Land of  
ultimate bliss – Vaikuntha.  
 
Gadya Trayam  is credited as a commentary on the Dvaya mantra. Dvaya mantra  is 
referred to as Mantra ratna . This along with Stotra ratna  (by Sri Yamunacharya ) and 
Purana ratna  (Vishnu Purana ) establish the essence of Sri Vaish navism . The first part 
of the Dvaya mantra  speaks of Sharanagati  (unconditional surrender) at the feet of the 
Lord and the second part talks about service to the Divine couple.  
Sharanaagati Gadyam  
Sharanagati  Gadyam  is a record of conversations between S ri Ramanujacharya,  Lord 
Ranganaatha  and His consort Goddess Ranganayaki.  On Panguni uttiram  day in 
Srirangam while Lord Ranganaatha  sat in court with His consort on His Divine throne, 
Sri Ramanuja  stood before them, surrendered himself and his all, to the Divine couple 
and begged that all his earthly sins be pardoned and that he be accepted in the service 
of the Divine couple. He got so accepted and in addition he was assured that all his 
spiritual protégés would be accorded the same benefits.

294 The text of  the Sharanagati  Gadyam  begins with a prayer to Goddess Sreedevi . 
Sreedevi  is in eternal association with Lord Narayana . The Dvaya mantra  emphasizes 
this point. She is ever present to intercede on behalf of devotees who approach Him. By 
Himself, He may eit her accept the request of the devotee because of His innate mercy 
or reject the request because of His sense of justice which calls for punishment for sins 
committed. Sri, the mother, sees to it that the devotee is forgiven and his prayers 
accepted.  
 
1. Om. B hagavannabhimataanu roopa Swaroopa ……  
…ananya sharanah sharana maham prapadye.  
 
Free Translation:   
 
 O Sreedevi , mother of the Universe, more particularly my mother, Divine 
queen of the Supreme Lord of all the Devas , pure and faultless, ever 
inseparably un ited with Him, full of all auspicious qualities, with virtues liked 
by the Lord, worthy and matching those of Bhagavan Narayana  having a 
divine charming form, I seek resort in you. I have no other resort and you are 
my sole resort.  
 
 Commentary:    
 
(1)  The characteristics forming Svabhava  of Lord Narayana  are identified 
with six qualities ( Bhagas ) described in the Vishnupurana  as powers 
characterizing the Bhagavan . They are (a) Jnana (omniscience  – all 
knowing) (b) Shakti (creative power) (c) Bala (omnipot ence) (d) 
Aishvarya  (lordship) (e) Virya  (immutability) (f) Tejas (splendour). Lord 
Narayana  has the Bhagas , and for this reason He is always addressed 
as Bhagavan .  
(2 The word Narayana refers to the indwelling supporter of all (creations). 
The need for m entioning the word Narayana  is to remind us that 
Narayana  and Sreedevi  are inseparable. She is Vishnupatni  and He is 
Sriyahpati . They are inseparable – Vishnoh esa Anapaayini .  
(3)  She is dear to Him (abhimata ) in all respects – in form and qualities 
(anuroopa  and vigraha)  
(4)  The word Guna  is used twice. The first one refers to Roopa Guna  and 
indicates beauty of form and limbs. The second one indicates Kalyana 
Guna  and refers to auspicious qualities like love, affection accessibility 
etc.

295 (5)  Some of th e Kalyana gunas that characterize the Goddess are 
enum erated. Vibhava denotes possession great and enjoyable wealth. 
Being His beloved wife, all that is His is also Hers. Hence, She has 
Aishvarya  (lordship and sovereignty). Even the Sarveshvara  listens to 
Her. Sila refers to the ability to mix freely. This one word contains – 
easy access ibility, motherly love and affection.  
(6)  Padmavanaalayam  indicates that She is a resident in a cluster of 
lotuses.  
 (7)  Bhagavat i - The word is used to indicate fitness for worship and 
respe ctability.  
(8)  The word Shriyam  signifies a number of things. Shriyate  is one who is 
worshipped by all beings to act as a mediator for acceptance by the 
Lord. Shrayate  is one who seeks the Lord for saving the devotees who 
approach the  divine couple. She patiently hears the devotees and 
makes them heard by the Lord. She forgives the faults of Her children.  
The word Devim indicates the aspect of divinity associated with Her.  
(9)  Nityanapaayinim denotes that she inseparable from Lord Narayana.  
(10) Niravadyam  denotes Her faultless quality  
 (11) Deva Deva Divyamahishi  means She is the queen of the emperor of     
emperors.  
(12) Akhila jagan maataram . Means mother of all beings in the universe.  
 (13) Asman maataram . She is my mother.  
 (14)  Asharanya sharanyam . Indicates she is the refuge for a refuge -less 
person like me, says the Acharya  
(15)  Ananya sharanah . I have no other place to go.  
(16) Sharanamaham prapadye . I pray to the divine mother to grant me 
refuge.  
 
2. Paramaarthika Bha gavacharanaaravinda …  
 ….. sharanaagatih yathaavasthita avirataastu me  
  
         Free Translation:  
 
 O Sreedevi , I pray and seek your blessings that my sincere and true Sharanagati  
at the feet of Lord Narayana  be accepted and my desire granted.  The one and 
only desire that I have is to be in the service (any form of service) of the Lord at 
all times and under all circumstances. Having attained the infinite and 
unsu rpassed bliss of Bhagavad Anubhava , full, continuous, eternal, clear, and 
having no other e nd in view – the experience which has resulted from 
Parabhakti, Prajnanam  and Parama -Bhakti , may I become the eternal servant of

296 Bhagavan  finding my sole joy in fulfilling all His purposes in all states and 
situations without any exception, owing to the in finite and unequalled delight 
arising from such an exp erience. This is the ultimate desire that anyone  can have 
and nothing better is possible. At the same time the reward of the joy of Divine 
experience is also the ultimate that anyone  can receive.  
 
 One gets to reach the state of Bhagavad Anubhava  or Divine experience, 
gradually, and in stages based on well founded and single minded devotion – 
Para bhakti  (for a vision of the Lord); Parajnaana  (direct perception ); and 
Paramabhakti  (eagerness for a continuo us and un -interrupted experience 
directed at the lotus feet of the Lord) are the stages.  
  
           Commentary:   
 
(1)   After a formal expression of surrender at the feet of Mother, Sri 
Ramanuj acharya  goes on to convey his desire, a one and only desire, tha t 
She pe rsuade the Lord to accept his Sharanagati  prayer. The prayer is for 
the Acharya to be accepted as a prapanna  and kainkaryapara  (servant). 
The prayer is for the Acharya to be accepted for eternal and devoted 
service. The devotion and earning for ser vice on the part of the Acharya  is 
already there and is evident. However, the Acharya  felt it appropriate to 
pray for and obtain it.  
 
(2)   The Acharya’s  desire to be of service to Lord Narayana , any type of service 
as long as it is un -interrupted full and cl ear, he says is due to the 
incompa rable joy of Divine experience ( Bhagavad Anubhava ) that becomes 
possible while in service. However, the Divine experience is not easily 
obtained. It is a result of well founded devotion and the devotee goes 
through the sta ges of  Parabhakti, Parajnaana  and Paramabhakti . It may be 
appropriate to here to understand the stages of development given in the 
Vaishnava system.  
 
 (2.1) Bhakti  is described as the knowledge of Ultimate Reality as one’s highest 
treasure and the conseq uent excessive adoration and attachment to Him. 
Sri Ramanujacharya  equates Bhakti   with Dhyana  (means concentration of 
mind on Him) and Upasana (continuous thought on Him). The system d ivides 
Bhakti  into three stages of development.

297  
 
Perform Nitya, Naimittika, 
Kamya activities  
Moksha  Atma 
avalokana  Surrender to the Lord for 
His grace  Bhakti Yoga  
Perfect it through Ashtanga 
Yoga.  
General pre requites for Bhakti 
Yoga -(1) Viveka (2) Vimoka 
(3) Abhyasa (3) Kriya  
(4) Anavasada (5) 
Anuddarsa  
Prapatti Marga  
(Surrender to Lord)  
The main qualifi cations for a 
Mumu kshu are –(1)Akinchanyam (2) 
Ananyagatitvam.Prapatti has the 
following angas –(1) Anukoolyasya 
Sanka lpam(2) Pratikoolyasya 
varjanam(3) Karpanyam (4) Maha 
Vishvasam (5) Goptrtva varanam  
 Jnana Yoga  Pre requisites  
(Sadhana Chatushtaya)  
(1) Vivek  (2) Vairagya  
(3) Sadhana sampatti (six virtues)  
(4) Mumukchutva Seven Stages of Jnana 
(Jnana Bhumikas)  
(1) Subheccha (2) Vicharana (3) 
Tanum anasi(4) Sattvapatti (5) Asamsakti (6) 
Padartha Bhavana (7) Turiya  Karma Yoga - Qualifications  
Should be absolutely free from Greed, 
Lust, Anger, Egoism, Humble, 
Fearless. H e should bear – disrespect, 
Dishonor, disgrace, harsh words. Have 
no attachment to fruits of actions. 
Dedicate his actions to the Lotus feet of 
God

298  
 
 (2.2) Sadhana  Bhakti:  The first requisite for an aspirant at this stage is a strong faith in 
God as the  highest value and a sense of utter transitoriness of worldly 
achiev ements. He will then have to  turn to the scriptures and a Guru  who will 
impart kno wledge on the Self, Nature and God. Duties  of life have to be done 
without attac hment. For a success in this one must have an  understanding of 
oneself as an Atman (Atmaavalokana).  For this both Karma Yoga  and Jnaana 
Yoga  have to be practiced tog ether. With a strong contemplation a highly qualified 
aspirant can try to overcome the identification of the Atman  with the body. For an 
average aspirant this is very difficult.  
 
(2.3)  Para Bhakti: A number of disciplines will need to be practiced for  developing 
Sadhana  Bhakti into Prema Bhakti (loving devotion). Briefly they are as follows – 
 
(1)Viveka  (Practice of discrimination)  
(2)Vimoka  (Resisting impulses of passions like anger, sexuality, jealousy 
etc) Saadhan  
Bhakti  Para -
Bhakti  Parama -
Bhakti  
Suitable only for those people 
who are permi tted Vedic 
studies and the Upaasana 
indicated in Vedas  Prapatti  
For all people including those 
who were not eligible for 
Vedic study and Upaasana 
indicated in Vedas  Bhagavad anubhava

299 (3)  Abyasa  (Practice of disciplines like – worship , Japa, visiting holy places 
etc) 
(4)  Kriya  (Performing fivefold  disciplines of life - perform fire sacrifices, duty 
to Rishis, duty to ancestors, duty towards mankind, duty towards to 
plants animals)  
(5)  Kalyana (Practice of virtues like Satya (truth), Arjava (straight -
forwardness), Daya (Kindness ), Daana (benevolence) and Ahimsa 
(love to all animals)  
(6)  Anavasaada  (Freedom from despair, pessimism)  
(7)  Anuddharsa  (Capacity for not yielding to excitement, depression and 
preserve an even temperament)  
 By long and c ontinued practice of these moral disciplines and by the 
practice of Dhyana (concentration) and Upasana  (continuous thought of 
God) the mind of the aspirant gets purified and develops the power to 
perceive the Divine as his inner self. Divyadristi  becomes p ossible as a 
matter of Grace of the Divine and one sees all as in Him as His body. 
This is the synthesis of Para -Bhakti, Parajnaana  and Parama -Bhakti . 
This stage is marked by unalloyed devotion and the devotee has 
occasional vision which kindles his desire  for this to become constant. 
At this stage his faith is strengthened by the glow of love and develops 
into Para -Bhakti . The mind of the Bhakta,  even without external 
stimulation goes towards the Lord in place of sense objects.  
 
 This is intensified when the devotee begins to feel the great attraction of the 
Lord. Bhakti  by now would have developed to a -stage called Parama -Bhakti . 
The devotee becomes mad with love and longing and is always in intimacy 
with the Lord. There arises in the aspirant a higher k nowledge that he is 
merely a part or liege of the Lord and the Lord is the Sesi (the Master).  
 
(2.4)  Prapatti:  There is a view that Parama -Bhakti  is identical with another path, 
known in this school, as Prapatti. However, there are some differences. Prapatti  is 
taking refuge in Lord Narayana . It is an independent path offered to all those who 
do not have the intellectual equipment and the social environment called for by the 
Bhakti marga . The devotional attitudes that are essential in taking refuge are as 
follows – 
(1)Resolve to subordinate one’s will to that of Lord Narayana  at all times  
(2)Avoidance of all that is contrary to His will  
(3)Firm faith that the Lord is the saviour of all  
(4)Acceptance that the Lord’s protective grace is always with one.

300 (5) A feeling of o ne’s pitiable state owing to a realization of the 
insufficiency of one’s self effort in the pursuit of Moksha . 
(6)  Resigning oneself absolutely to Lord Narayana’s  care and protection  
 All these attitudes of mind are involved in the Parama -Bhakti  path also 
and in this sense Prapatti  and Parama -Bhakti  are identical. However, 
the Parama -Bhakti  is the end product of a long and difficult course of 
discipline and it is not open to all. On the contrary the demands on 
suitability for those who take to Prapatti are mi niscule in comparison 
and it is open to all. The devotee with unalloyed and unshakable faith 
in Lord Narayana  and His saving grace will surely be rewarded. 
Strong faith in God, resignation to Him and non -attachment are 
qualities that link man with Him and elicit His grace. These are more 
fundamental to Moksha  than the self -effort of man.  
 
(2.5)Sri Ramanujacharya’s  prayer to Sri Devi  starts with “Paaramarthika Bhagavat   
charanaaravinda Ugala aikaantika atyaantika”. Parama  means supreme. The 
choice of the word Paaramarthika refers to the  desire for the highest reward. And 
the reward that the Acharya  is seeking is Bhagavat charanaaravinda Ugala  – the 
lotus feet of Bhagavan  Himself. The word Bhagavan  is used to refer to the 
Supreme Lord complete with all His auspici ous and desirable qualities.   
Using the word aikaantika Acharya conveys that he has no other desire other than 
this one.  
The word atyaantika  means eternal. The Acharya  desires for uninterrupted, 
eternal service directed at the lotus feet of the Lord which  in turn provides him with 
eternal Bhagavad Anubhava .  
 
(2.6)“Para -Bhakti, Para -Jnaana, Parama -Bhakti Krita Paripoorna anavarata Nitya 
vishadatama ananya prayojana anavadhikaatisaya”.  
  
Para -Bhakti, Para -Jnaana, Parama -Bhakti  refers to the various stages that have 
been crossed to reach the pinnacle from where Bhagavad Anubhava  has become 
possible. Paripoorna  qualifies the Bhagavad Anubhava . He desires for the divine 
experience that has the Bhagavan  in full glory, not in parts. Such an experience 
should be unint errupted - anavarata . It should also be Nitya  – continuous. The 
Acharya  desires for a clear comprehension, without any doubt or confusion. He 
emphasizes that this intense devotion is an end in itself and not a means to some 
other end – ananya prayojana. Bha gavad Anubhava  of the Lord in His heavenly 
abode ( Paramapada ) is an experience in limitless bliss

301 (2.7)“Priya Bhagavad anubhava Janita anavadhikaatisaya preeti kaarita 
kainkarya “  
As a result of the limitless ecstasy of the divine experience a yearning for serv ice 
to the beloved is born.  
 
(2.8)“Asheshavastochita asesa sesataika ratiroopa Nitya kainkarya praaptya 
apekshayaa  
paaramaarthika Bhagavad charanaaravinda Sharanagati  yathaavasthita 
avirata 
astu me’ “  
 
Now the Acharya , having stated he has a desire for servic e, qualifies the service 
he has prayed for. Asheshavastochita indicates that he prepared to do service in 
any state – in the court, in the inner apartments or anywhere  that is desired.  
asesa sesataika ratiroopa  indicates that the Acharya  is prepared to do all kinds 
of service without any exception (waving the fan, holding the umbrella) the primary 
object being that the Lord should be pleased.  With this prayer, the Acharya offers 
total surrender, Sharanagati , at the lotus feet of the Lord - Bhagavad 
charana aravinda Sharanagati . The choice of the Bhagavad implies that the Lord, 
who has the full power, knowledge and authority, can grant this desire without any 
assistance or approval.  Paaramaarthika  here means true and proper form. 
Yathaava sthita  means as it sh ould be. In essence, it rejects all other means 
except Shar anagati . avirata astu me’  – This signifies that the state of total 
surrender will co ntinue, uninterrupted, till the wish is granted.  
 
3. Astute; tyaiva sarvam sampasyate  
 
This is Sri Devi’s  reply to t he Acharya. She says “So it shall be. By it 
(Sharanag ati) all your wishes will be fulfilled. It is also interpreted that the fruits of 
his Shar anagati  will continue to be available to all his spiritual heirs.  
 
4.1 Akhila heya pratyanika kalyaana eikataana  …… 
……………………….. jnaanaanadaikasvaroopa  
  
       Commentary  
 
Having received the blessing from Sri Devi, the Acharya proceeds to directly 
address Lord Narayana, since he is seeking eternal and loving service to the Lord 
Himself.  
Having come face to face wit h Sri Devi  and Lord Narayana , the Acharya  in his

302 exuberance, gushes forth bringing out all the pre -eminent aspects of the Lord. This 
is not to be considered flattery for many reasons. There is no one anywhere near 
to the Lord in terms of the Gunas  and His capabilities. Not even the Devas  can 
comprehend the range of the Lord’s powers and capabilities. So no praise can do 
any justice to His pre -eminence.  
 
Heya  refers  to anything that is undesirable.   In the case of matter, the susceptibility 
to change with ti me is inherent and is not desirable. Jeevas  are of three grades –  
 
       Nityasuris, Muktas  and Baddhas . - The Nityasuris  (Adi Shesha, Garuda, 
Vishvaksena  and Sudarshana ) have never been in bondage of Karma  and 
Samsara . They are always in attendance on H im and serve Him.  
 
The Muktas  are those who after many births have been liberated from Samsara . 
 
The Baddhas  refer to the majority of us who have not been liberated from 
Sams ara. 
 
All these categories of Jeevas  have some short coming or other. The Nityasur is 
are in service; the Muktas  are dependent; the Baddhas  undergo the cycle of birth 
and death. However, Lord Narayana  is free from all these. He is distinctly different 
from all others other than Himself. Moreover, He is not tainted by coming into 
contact with anything lowly. On the contrary, He can destroy all evil in others.  
 
kalyaana eikataana  – it means He is the abode of everything that is auspicious 
with no possibility at all of being in -auspicious in any part.  
 
svetara samasta vastu vilakshana  – means that  He is distinctly different from 
every one of the others – other than Himself.  
 
ananta  – means infinite. He is not limited by space or time. He is immanent in all 
in all objects – sentient and non -sentient  
 
jnaanaanadaikasvaroopa  – It means He is Jnaana aikasvaroopa. He is self 
effulgent knowledge. He is the source for all knowledge. Similarly He is also  
ananda aikasvaroopa. He is pure bliss.

303  
4.2  Svabhimataanuroopaikaroopaachintya ……………………..  
……………………….gunanidhi divya roopa  
 
 Sri Ramanujacharya  then proceeds to describe the auspicious Divine form – Divya 
mangala vigraha.  
 
Just as God has a special name, though He may have several other subsidiary 
ones too, He has also got a special Divine form which is not a manifestation of a 
formless consciousness or a temporarily assumed one to favor a devotee, but an 
ultimate fact. The excellences of the Divine form are given in the Gita Bhashya  by 
Sri Ramanujacharya. The form described is as follows – “His one permanent 
celestial form is a treasure store of infin ite qualities such as radiance, beauty, 
fragrance, tenderness, charm and youthfulness which are inconceivable, celestial, 
wondrous,  eternal, flawless, supremely excellent and appropriate to Him”  
Very often, we come across descriptions of beauty and grace of the Divine form. 
Maharshi  Vyasa  has described the beauty and elegance of the form of Sri Vishnu  
in sonorous words and fascinating style. The basis of assigning form to the deity is 
in the Vedas. The devotees pray to Him not to conceal His form from them .  
The descriptions given by Sri Ramanujacharya  in the Sharanagati  Gadya , on the 
form of Lord Vishnu  are the most vivid of the Deity you can ever find in any 
literature 
 
 Free Translation  
 
 Your divine form is most agreeable and suitable for you. It is unc hanging, 
incomparable, divine and wonderful, eternal, pure faultless, of incomparable 
brilliance, possessed of unique loveliness of form and limbs exuding a very 
pleasant odor, charmingly soft, ever youthful – a form that is far beyond anything 
ever witnes sed by anyone, possessing all excellences in infinite measure.  
 
 Commentary :  
 
Sva abhimata  – The Lord can take any form He likes. In this case, it is a form 
which confirms to His wish and is dear to Him  
 
anuroopa  – The form exudes all Divine qualities.  
 
ekaroopa – The form is changeless. In the case of human beings, our form 
changes all the time – from to death. That is not the case with Lord Narayana.

304 Achintya  – cannot  be understood by comparing it with anything or anybody. The 
fact is - there is nothing comparable to it.  
 
Divya  – Divine.  Among the three elements of Sattva, Rajas  and Tamas  
constitu ting the Prakruti, Sattva is considered Ashuddha  or impure as there is a 
mixture of Rajas  and Tamas  in it. . The Vaishnava  system recognizes a category 
outside Prakruti,  designated as Shuddha -Satva  or Pure Sattva. , which has not 
even the slightest of Rajas and Tamas . For this reason it is not included in 
Prakruti. Shud dha-Sattva  has a very important place in the theology Of Sri 
Ramanujacharya . It is called non -material spiritual stuff and this is the stuff which 
constitutes the body of Lord Narayana.  
 
Adbhuta – means wonderful  
 
Nitya niravadya  – means eternally faultless. The structure and the form of the 
Lord are faultless or blemish less.  
 
niratishaya aujvalya  – The Lord’s form dazzles with incomparable brilliance. The 
bright rays emanating from His body are similar to those of a million Suns in 
brilliance.  
 
soundarya, saugandhya  – The beauty of the each one of the limbs, the entire 
body structure and the overall  form are breathtaking. There is nothing comparable 
to this anywhere.  For this reason, devotees fortunate to see Him, pray not to 
conceal His form from them.  The Lord’s body exudes a very pleasant odor. 
 
Sau-kumarya - indicates that He is most charming.  
 
Laavanya  – Refers to the Lord’s enchanting beauty of the form as a whole.  
 
ananta gunanidhi - Lord Narayana is treasure house of innumerable excellences.  
Divya roopa - indicates that His form is celestial  
 
4.3 svaabhaavika anavadhikaatishaya …………….  
……….kaly aana guna ganaugha mahaarnavaa  
  
       The Acharya now moves on to describe the Kalyana gunas  – countless 
ausp icious qualities.

305  
Free Translation  
 
The Lord is addressed here as a vast ocean filled with countless fitting (natural) 
incomparable, insuperable  auspicious qualities. The characteristics forming 
Svabhaava  (inherent nature) are identified with six qualities ( Bhagas ) described in 
Vishnu Purana  as powers characterizing the Bhagavan  (God). They are Jnaana  
(omniscience – all pervading knowledge), Bala (omnipotence), Aishvarya  
(lordship), Shakti  (creative power), Virya  (immutability) and Tejas  (splendour).  
The auspicious qualities are, countless. The Acharya then brings to light a few of 
the kalyaana gunas.  
 
 Commentary:  
 
 Svabhavika anavadhika atishaya  – The most natural, basic and limitless 
exce llence of the Lord are being described  
Jnaana – refers to His all pervading knowledge  
Bala – Refers to His ability to carry the entire cosmos by sheer will  
Aishvarya – Refers to His un paralleled lordship over t he entire cosmos.  
Virya – Refers to His ability to bear and rule all the worlds without a sign of 
tiredness; unalterable nature despite the material cause of all creations.  
Shakti – refers to His ability for creation, activate His creations, ability to carry out  
unbelievable and unimaginable tasks.  
Tejas – Splendour  
The above six are inherent qualities which are unique to the Lord. The next set of 
kalyaana gunas are for the benefit of His devotees.  
sausheelya – ability to freely mix with every other being w ithout any trace of 
condescension. Examples are Sri Rama’s  interactions with Guha  and Shabari.  
Vaatsalya – It signifies tender protective love like the one exhibited by a mother 
cow towards the young calf. Sri Ramanujacharya  describes the Lord as “aashrita  
vaatsalya vivasaha” – one who is overwhelmed by tender protective love for the 
devotee who is absolutely dependent on Him  
aarjava – means straightforwardness. Also signifies oneness in thought and deed.  
sauhaarda – well intentioned friendliness  
saamya – accessible to all.  
kaarunya – mercy to all. He shows mercy and compassion to all creatures without 
expecting any praise or profit  
maadhurya – sweetness. He is sweet to all beings under all circumstances.  
gaambhirya – inestimable grandeur  
audaarya – generos ity

306 chaaturya – means He is very clever.  
sthairya – He has a great strength of mind and firm determination  
dhairya – courageous and absolutely fearless  
shaurya – ability to destroy the enemies of all His devotees.  
paraakrama – courage to be always in the o ffensive in the presence of enemies  
satya kaama – whatever the Lord desires will come true  
satya sankalpa – whatever the Lord resolves will come true. This and the above 
are unique qualities of the Lord.  
krititva – The Lord feels satisfied when the devote es wish has been fulfilled.  
kritajnata  – remembrance. Once the devotee surrenders to the Lord, He 
overlooks all his faults and remembers only his surrender.  
aadi asankhyeya kalyaana guna gana ogha mahaarnavaa – He possesses 
these and many more countless au spicious qualities which are not mentioned. He 
is like an ocean of kalyaana gunas.   
 
1.4 svochita viv idha vichitraanantaascharya ……. …………….. aparimata divya 
bhooshana  
 
Having described Lord Narayana’s kalyaana gunas , the Acharya  proceeds to 
describe the ornam ents that He adorns. They are exclusive and befitting the 
Supreme Lord.  
 
svochita – These ornaments  match the beauty of His form  
 
vividha – a variety of ornaments are worn by the Lord.  
 
vichitra – a range of colorful ornaments are worn by Him  
 
anantaasch arya – immensely wonderful  
 
nitya niravadya – ever without any fault. These ornaments are also Nityasuris  
(ever emancipated souls, whose sole aim is to serve the Lord)  
 
niratishaya – indicates the limitless excellence of the ornaments  
 
saugandha – ornament s have a sweet odor 
 
sukha sparsha – soft to the touch

307  
niratishaya aujvalya – points to the limitless splendour of the ornaments  
 
kireeta, mukuta, cudaavatamsa – refers to a variety of crowns worn by Him – 
one to signify His absolute Supremacy; another to  signify His easy accessibility 
by His devotees; a third to signify His chivalry  
 
makara kundala – an ornament for the lower lobe shaped like a makara  (sea 
fish) 
 
graiveyaka – refers to a necklace  
 
haara – rows of chains adorning the chest  
 
Keyoora – armle t 
 
kataka – ornament for the fore arm.  
 
Srivatsa – This refers to the unique mark on the chest of Lord Narayana. It is 
listed here as a jewel  
 
kaustubha – a celebrated ornament worn only by Lord Narayana indicative of 
His Supremacy  
 
muktaadaama – a string  of exquisite pearls  
 
udaraabandhana – waist band  
 
peetaambara – a beautiful yellow dress worn by Lord Narayana  
 
kancheeguna – a golden belt enhancing the luster of peetaambara  
noopura - exquisite anklet worn by the Lord. This is where the devotees want to 
keep their heads.  
 
aadi aparimita divya bhooshana – He adorns these and many more divine 
ornaments.

308  
 
4.5.1.svaanuroopaachintya shakti ……………….  
………….…………… kalyaana divyaayudha  
 
The Acharya now moves on to describe the divine weapons that the Lord 
carries. It may  be appropriate to recall the earlier observation regarding the 
ornaments and  weapons that the Lord sports. We said earlier – the divine 
ornaments and Ayudhas  (missiles) are not merely ordinary inert objects. They 
assume personal forms and attend on the Master. They do have a Divine 
nature in them.  
 
svaanuroopa – Befitting  the Lord, the weapons shine like ornaments and 
adorn Him  
 
achintya shakti – means unimaginable prowess. The weap ons, when 
employed, carry incomprehensible prowess.  
  
shanka, chakra, gadaa, asi, saargna -  Among the Ayudhas that the Lord 
carries are –  
Panchajanya (conch), Sudarshana (chakra), Koumodaki (gadaa), Saargna 
(bow).  
 
asankyeya divya aayudha – countless cel estial weapons are carried by the 
Lord.  
 
4.6. Svaabhimata nityaniravadyaanuroopa ……….. …………, .evambhoota 
bhoomi neelaanaayaka  
 
Here the Acharya  praises the consorts of Lord Narayana – Sreedevi , Bhudevi  
and Neeladevi.  
 
O Lord, you are the beloved consort of Sree devi (Srivallabha).  Befitting you, 
Sreedevi  is eternally ( Nitya ), faultless and possesses countless unlimited 
unsurpassed auspicious qualities like sovereignty, glory and graciousness. 
Neeladevi  and Bhudevi  who also have similar auspicious qualities are yo ur 
consorts

309 4.7 svachandaanuvartti svarupa sthiti …………..  
…. Parichaarikaa paricharita charana yugala  
  
The Acharya  now describes the attendants, or parijana s, who serve the Lord 
Narayana  and Sri Devi . O Lord, you are served by a host of  followers, men and 
women waiting at your Divine feet to minister to your needs and comforts. Their 
nature, existence and actions conform to your will and pleasure. Ananta (Adi 
shesha), G aruda, Vishvaksena  and others, together with their wives, are serving  
you and their sole delight is in pleasing you. They are endowed with essential 
features such as – eternal and faultless service, unsurpassed knowledge, 
devotion, activity and unl imited ability to get things done in service.  
 
        Commentary:   
 
Sesha, S eesasana, Garuda pramukha, naanaavidha ananta parijana, 
parichaarika: The leading personalities ( pramukha ) serving ( parijana ) the Lord 
are Adi Sesha , Vishvaksena  and Garuda . In addition there are countless 
attendants, male and female, ( naanaavidha, ananta parijana, paricharika ) doing a 
variety of servi ces. They are waiting at your Divine feet to be of service to you.  
 
svacchandaanuvrtti:  It indicates that their ( parijana ) actions are in conformity of 
the Lord’s wishes. They could intuitively foresee the nee ds and desires of the Lord. 
An example is the legendary service of  Lakshmana  to Sri Rama.  
 
asesasesataika ratirupa: These celestial attendants attend to the needs of the 
Lord when commanded. However, they are eager and engage themselves in all 
forms of ser vice to the Lord. Their service is eternal ( Nitya ).  
 
niravadya niratishaya Jnaana, kriya, aishvarya: Remembering that these 
attendants are outstanding celestial beings, they are endowed with countless 
benef icent and desirable qualities such as unsurpassed  knowledge, devotion, 
activity and unlimited ability to act in Lord’s service. In addition they carry out 
actions ( kriya ) consistent with their knowledge. They have an enormous ability to 
command others and get things done in the Lord’s service ( Aishvarya ).

310  
4.7.Paramayogi vaakmanasaa paricchedya………….  
………………….niratishaya Sri Vaikuntanaadhaa  
 
Sri Ramanujacharya  then shifts his attention to the abode of Lord Narayana  – 
Paramapada – Vaikunta. Vaikunta  of divine splendour and the bodies of all its 
denizens, consi sting of Lord Narayana’s  constant attendants (Nityasuris ) and 
liberated Jivas  are made of Suddha -satwa . Time, to which all entities are 
included in Prakruti  are subject, has no sway on it.  
  
Free Translation:  
 
O, Lord of Vaikunta the eternal, faultless and  immeasurable land. It abounds 
with innumerable objects and places of enjoyment all appropriate to you. This 
abode is infinitely wonderful, supreme in glory, faultless, unchanging 
(immu table) and beyond the comprehension of even the greatest of Yogis.  
 
Commentary:  
 
The abode of Lord Narayana ( Vaikunta naadha ) is a land of immeasurable 
greatness and is incomprehensible and cannot  be described even by Supreme 
Yogis (Paramayogi vaakmanasaa paricchedya ). One cannot  site an example to 
describe the land, becaus e, nothing like that exits other than itself. It has been 
created entirely as per His desire ( svaabhimata ). It is full of many kinds of 
(vividha), wonderful (vichitra ), enjoyable sights, sounds, fragrance ( bhogya ). 
Also, it abounds with enjoyable objects (bhogopakarana ) like unfading flower 
gardens and have attendants eager to serve and the like. It has places of 
enjoyment ( bhogasthana ). Full with all these, the place is amazing beyond all 
belief ( ananta a ascharya ) because the objects of enjoyment present e ver new 
facets ( ananta m ahaavibhava ) – all of immeasurable greatness. Jewels, thrones, 
gardens, rivulets, pools appropriately located beautify the places. These appear to 
be neither new or old or crafted by anybody. The entire abode is infinite in 
dimensio n (ananta par imaana ). The Vaikunta  remains ever the same (time has 
no sway on the place), free from any flaws, and great beyond all measures. 
However, the enjoyers of this wealth ( Bhoktas ) have only one goal – to be of 
service to the Divine couple and they  derive their pleasure in seeing the pleasure 
of the Divine couple.

311 4.9. svasankalpaanuvidhaayi`svarupa sthiti ………………  
…………………………………………. Vibhava laya leela  
 
The Acharya  now handles the subject of the role of Lord Narayana in the 
creation, sustenance and dissol ution of Prakruti  and the Jivas.   
 
Some Background on the Vishishtaadvaita  system  
 
The Vishishtaadvaita  system accepts three entities as ultimate realities (a) 
Brahman  (b) Jiva or Chit  (c) Prakruti or Achit . Of these, Brahman  is the 
absolute and independen t reality. The other two Jiva and Prakruti  are 
dependent realities. The three together are called “ Tattvatraya”.   The Jivas  
and Jagat are held together in inseparable union ( Aprthaksiddhi ) with the 
Supreme Being. Lord Narayana . They have no existence apart  from Him. 
There can be no s eparation between Jiva and Brahman . Similar is the case 
between Jagat  and Brahman . In a state of ignorance the Jiva may not know it. 
Jiva and Jagat  always exist as a part of Brahman  as His Body or Mode.  
Jivas  and Jagat  exist in  two states – one during Pralaya  (dissolution) and the 
other during Srishti  (creation). Pralaya  and Srishti  are eternally continuing 
states like day and night. The motivating power between these two states is 
the will of God. In the Pralaya state Jivas  and Jagat would be reduced to their 
primordial condition and would be latent in the Brahman  without nay 
distin ction. In Srishti , caused by the will of Brahman  they gain patency and 
diversity through a process of evolution.  
 
 O Lord, creation , sustenance and dissolution are your sport (Lord Narayana’s 
Lilavibhuti) . This world of your creation is filled with diverse, wonderful and 
innumer able objects of enjoyment, instruments of enjoyment and places for 
enjoyment. Samsaara involves the interpla y of Prakruti, Purusha and Kaala . By 
nature all these three are ever under your control.  
       Commentary:  
  
sva sankalpaanu vidhaayi: The nature, existence and activity of the worlds follow 
your will

312  
Prakruti: Among these, Prakruti is the substratum of  the three Gunas – satva, 
rajas and tamas. It is conditioned by Kaala and for this reason it changes in size 
and form. It is Jada (not self revealing; insentient) by category. It is used and 
cons equently responsible for good and bad experiences of the Jiva s. 
 
Jivas: It is Ajada (sentient) by category. It is associated and sustained by Prakruti  
in the form of food. In the system of Sri Ramanujacharya Prakruti  along with 
Karma  is called Avidya  (ignorance) and Maya. Prakruti , activated by Divine  will 
functions  in order to bring the Karma  of the Jivas  to fruition.  
 
Kaala: Kaala  occupies a special position in the system by Sri Ramanujacharya . 
While Brahman  and Jiva are characterized under Cit, all others come under 
Prakruti as Achit (insentient). However, outsid e the bounds of Prakruti  there is an 
entity (entity without the three Gunas ) which is called Kaala  (Time ). Kaala  resides 
in Him but does not dissolve in Him during Pralaya . It is called insentient. It is a 
special Vibhuti  (unique glory) of Lord Narayana.  The whole creative and 
dissolution process of Prakruti is regulated by this category by the will of God.  
The Prakruti has countless number ( ananta ) of (vividha ), wonderful (vichitra ), 
enjoyable sights, sounds, fragrance ( bhogya ). Also, it abounds with enjo yable 
objects (bhogopakarana ) like flowers, gardens and have attendants eager to 
serve and the like. It has places of enjoyment ( bhogasthana  
svasesateka Swaroopa: Prakruti, Jivas and Kaala  are subservient to the Lord.  
 
4.10. satya kaama satya sankalpa para brahmabhoota Purushottama  
mahaavibhute Sriman Narayana srivaikuntanaatha  
 
The Acharya goes on praise the Lord highlighting some of His outstanding 
qualities. He follows it up with a renewal of his request to accept Sharanagati  at 
the Lord’s feet.  
 
satya kaama: His wishes will always come true.  
 
satya sankalpa: Whatever He resolves will come true.

313  
parabrahmabhoota: He who is recognized as the Parabrahman – the Supreme 
Being  
 
Purushottama: He is the best of all beings  
 
mahaavibhute: He who possesses limitl ess wealth.  
 
Sriman: Lord of Goddess Sri.  
 
Narayana: He who is the Ayana  (dwelling place) i.e. the source, support, and 
dissolving ground of all naras  or Jivas including inert matter too. He is the 
Supreme Being. By addressing the Lord as Sriman Narayana , the Acharya  implies 
that the Divine couple forms the Supreme goal to be attained.  
 
srivaikuntanaatha: Lord of Vaikunta (Paramapada ) 
4.11  apaarakaarunya sausheelya vaatsalya audaarya aishvarya soundarya 
mahodadhe  
anaalochita vishesaasesaloka saranya pranataar tihara aashrita 
vaats alyaikajadhe  
 
The Acharya  then goes on to describe the special qualities of Lord Narayana  
in relation to providing protection to all who come to Him.  He is giving 
expression which claims the Lord’s “aashrayaniyatva”.  
 
apaara Kaaruny a: The word apaara  means limitless. Apaara Kaarunya  
means infinite compassion. The Lord shows mercy to even those people who 
consider Him as their enemy.  
 
sausheelya: He mixes easily with all people coming to meet Him  
 
vaatsalya: signifies tender protectiv e love  
audaarya: Generosity. He gives His devotees what they prayed for and yet 
feels as if He is the beneficiary.  
 
aishvarya: inestimable lordship  
 
soundarya: excellent formation and beauty of the limbs.

314  
mahodadhe: means an ocean. The above qualities are  boundless in 
magn itude.  
 
anaalochita visesa: Aalochita  means carefully thought out and considered. 
Here the Lord’s refuge is granted to any devotee without any consideration for 
birth, conduct or knowledge.  
 
asesaloka saranya: The saranya  or refuge is ava ilable for the residents of 
any loka.  There is no distinction or preference. He is the universal refuge.  
 
pranataartihara: He who removes the ills of all that come to Him.  
 
aashrita vaatsalyaikajaladhe: Refers to His boundless love and affection to 
His de votees. Even undesirables such as the worst sinners are treated as 
desirables. That is the incomparable glory of Lord Narayana .  
 
4.12    Anavarata viditanikhilabhoota jaata ………………  
…..satya kaama satya sankalpa sakaletara vilakshana  
 
The Acharya  continues with  his praise of the Lord and pleads for the grant of his 
requests.  
 
anavarata viditanikilabhoota jaatayatatmya: Refers to one who knows the true 
nature of all beings all the time. This indicates the Lord is omnipresent (present 
everywhere including within u s. Vyaapnoteeti Vishnuh . He who pervades 
everything is Vishnu. He pervades everything but nothing ever pervades Him) and 
omniscient (all knowing). He knows our shortcomings and our helplessness.  
 
ashesha charaachara bhoota nikhila niyamana nirataa: One wh o commands 
everything, both objects / beings chara  (mobile) and achara  (immobile). There is 
nothing that is not subservient to Him.  
 
ashesa chid achid vastu seshibhhoota:  He is the Lord and possessor of all that 
is sentient and non -sentient. It would appe ar that the Acharya  is mildly implying 
that it would be duty of the master to take care of his possessions (should you not 
take care of my needs as well.

315  
nikhila jagadaadhaaraa: Refers to the Lord as the sustainer of all the worlds. The 
Acharya is pleadin g why the Lord is forgetting his existence.  
 
akhila jagat svamin: Refers to the Lord as the master of the entire Universe. The 
Acharya pours his anguish and pleads with Him to remove our sins and take us 
with Him and be under His protective wing forever . 
asmat svamin: Acharya now directly addresses Him as my svamin  – my master.  
 
satya kaama: The Lord does need anything from the devotee – except his 
devotion. We, the Jivas, do not have any right to claim anything from Him. He 
could lift us from this Samsara  through His grace, provided He is pleased with us 
and d esires it. He does not require a permission or agreement from anyone.  
 
satya sankalpa: The will of the Lord always comes true. Acts which seem 
impos sible to us will come true with His will. The Acharya  implores the Lord to lift 
even this worthless (me) to the level of the Paramapada  where he could serve 
Lord Narayana . 
 
sakaletara vilakshana: Lord Narayana is the essence of everything that is 
Supreme. There is nothing comparable to Him. His form, His nat ure, His qualities 
are all unique. The Acharya  questions the Lord – all these superior aspects are 
they not meant for the benefit of His devotees? Are they not meant for the benefit 
of the entire worlds? Surely, they are not meant for His personal enjoymen t? Your 
protection to us will only be complete if You make all these auspicious aspects 
available for the benefit and enjoyment of all your devotees.  
4.13  arthi kalpaka aapatsakha Sriman Narayana asharanya sharanya  
ananya sharana stvat paadaaravinda ugala sh aranamaham prapadye  
atradvayam  
 
arthi kalpaka: Kalpaka  is the name of a divine tree which fulfills all the wishes 
of the seeker. Here Lord Narayana  is being referred to as the Kalpaka  tree for 
His devotees. He grants the wishes of all those who seek Him.  
aapatsakha: He is real friend in distress. The Puranas  are replete with 
incidences where He came and rescued His devotees.

316 Sriman: He is ever associated with Sri Devi  
Narayana: Lord Narayana has taken care of us all the time because of natural 
irrevocable  relationship.  
Here it may be in order to review the Sri Ramanuja’s  metaphysics. As earlier 
indicated, the Vishishtaadvaita  system accepts three entities as ultimate realities 
(a) Brahman  (b) Jiva or Chit  (c) Prakruti or Achit . Of these, Brahman  is the 
absolute and independent reality. The other two Jiva and Prakruti  are dependent 
realities. The three together are called “ Tattvatraya”.  Sri Ramanuja’s  task as a 
Vedantin  is to formulate a theory of unity of all existence in the face of the 
multiplicity posed  by Prakruti and Jivas . According to the Acharya, the unity lies 
in the fact of Prakruti  and Jivas  being held together in -separable union 
(Aprtha ksiddhi ) in the Supreme Being called – Brahman, Ishvara, Narayana, 
Purusho ttama etc. It should be understood th at the dependence entirely is on 
the part of Prakruti  and Jivas . He is not dependent on them. Sri Ramanuja  has 
used seve ral expressive terms to describe this inseparable and integral unity. 
Some of these are – Sareera – Sariri (body and soul); Sesa -Sesi (subordinate 
and the principal); Prakaara - Prakaari  (mode and substance).  
The irrevocable relationship described above may be understood in this light.  
 
asharanya sharanya: The Lord is the refuge for all those who not have a 
refuge 
ananya sharana stvat paad aaravinda ugala sharanamaham prapadye:  
 Addressing the Lord the Acharya says that he may be not worthy of the Lord’s 
protection. But he has no other refuge to go to and seeks Lord Narayana’s lotus 
feet as his sole refuge.  
Atradvayam (manusandeya):  The Dvay a mantra is to be repeated here. (To 
be repeated inaudible to others).  
e)     Pitaram, Maataram, daran …………….  
……………..Sharanam tevrajam vibho  
              These two couplets are from the Puranas. They lend support to the thoughts 
expressed by the Acharya.  
             Free translation:  
 
Renouncing father ( Pitaram ), mother ( maataram ), wife ( daran ), son (putran),

317 relatives ( bandhun ), friends ( sakhin ), teachers ( gurun ), jems ( ratnani ), wealth 
(dhana  dhaanyaani ), lands ( ksetrani ), house ( grhaani)  and also dharmas 
aimed at some goals ( sarva dharmamcha ), all desires ( sarva kamamsaca ), I 
seek you my rightful master ( saranamte aavrajam vibho ). I take refuge at 
your holy feet – which measured the entire worlds (loka  vikranta charanam )  
 
Commentary.  
 
It is important to understand the implication of Sharanagati  or total surrender. 
Refuge at the feet of the Lord will remain as the sole aim for the devotee. 
Nothing else matters. This automatically involves renunciation of everything 
that binds one to this world in the pu rsuit of service to the Lord. Both material 
and even relationships may require to be renounced.  
f)Tvameva Mata cha pita tvameva tvameva bandusca guru tvameva  
tvameva Vidya dravinam tvameva tvameva sarvam mama deva deva  
 
knowledge ( Vidya ); You are my wealth ( dravinam ); You are everything to me 
(sarvam ). 
 
Commentary  
The Acharya  appears to stress that having renounced everything, he still has got 
the Lord with him (who is his mother, father, bandhu etc). So really, he has not 
lost anything from renouncing.  
g) Pitasi lokasya Charaa charasya …………..  
……………lokatraye pyapratima prabhava  
 
This verse and the nex t are verses 43 and 44 of chapter -11 of Bhagavad -
Gita. These are words of praise from Arjuna  after witnessing the cosmic form 
of Lord Krishna . Acharya’s  words and feelings run parallel to that of Arjuna.  
You are the father of the world of the moving and un moving. You are the 
object of its worship and its venerable teacher. None is equal to you, how 
then could there be a greater one than you in the three worlds, O Lord of 
incomparable greatness.

318 h)Tasmaat pranamya ………………  
… priyaayaarhassideva sodhum  
 
Free Tra nslation  
 
Therefore bowing down and prostrating my body before you, Adorable Lord, I 
seek thy grace. Thou, O God, should bear with me as a father to his son, as a 
friend to his friend, as a lover to his beloved.  
 
The supplicant begs to be pardon ed for past offences. He recognizes the need 
for being forgiven in view of his past actions where he acted unmindful of the 
Lord. The Supreme is not to be regarded as a transcendent mystery, but also as 
close as a father is to the son, as a friend to the f riend and as a lover to the 
beloved. These human relations find in God their fullest realization. God as a 
father is a familiar conception.  
 
i)  Manovaakkaayai……………………...  
….sarvaanashesha tah kshamasya  
 
O Lord please forgive me for all the sins that I have committed. The sins 
include those committed by thought, words or deeds ( mano vaakkyaayai ) 
over a long (limitless) time. Also forgive me for sins accrued as a result of my 
doing prohibited acts (prohibited by the Shastras; akratyakarana) ), by not 
doing prescribed duties ( kratyaakarana) , offences committed towards You 
(Bhagavadapachaara ) or your devotees ( Bhaagavadapachara ), Forgive me 
also for any inexcusable offences committed by me in the past ( krtaan ), 
those that are being committed by me  now ( kriya maanaan ) and those that I 
might commit in the future (karishyamaanaan ). Please forgive all my sins 
(naanaa vidha ananta apachaaraan ) without any exception 
sarvaanashesh atah).

319 Commentary:  
 
 It was commented earlier that the devotional attitu des that are essential in 
taking Sharanagati  (refuge) are –  (a) Resolve to subordinate one’s will to 
that of Lord Narayana  at all times (b) Avoidance of all that is contrary to His 
will (c) Firm faith that the Lord is the saviour of all (d) Acceptance tha t the 
Lord’s protective grace is always with one (e) A feeling of one’s pitiable state 
owing to a realization of the insufficiency of one’s self effort in the pursuit of 
Moksha . 
 
It may be noted that Sri Ramanujacharya  is carefully following each and 
every  one of the steps indicated above. Now the Acharya  is addressing item 
(b) above - avoidance of all that is contrary to His will. What are the actions 
that will go contrary to His will? Major apachaaras  are listed below.   
 
 (1)  akrtyakarana (2) krtyaakara na (3) bhagavad apachaara (4) bhaagavad 
apachaara (5)  asahaya apachaara  
 
(1)  akrtyakarana: This apachaara  results when acts prohibited by Shastras  
are done.  Examples are – causing misery to animals, stealing, telling lies, 
eating food that should not b e eaten, extolling unworthy people with speech 
only meant for the Lord.  
 
(2)  Krtyaakarana : This apachaara  results when one does not carry out 
duties prescribed in the Shastras due to laziness, ignorance etc.  
 
(3)  Bhagavad apachaara: This apachaara  resul ts when one commits sin 
against the Lord.  For example – stealing wealth meant for worshipping the 
Lord etc.  
  
(4)  Bhaagavad apachaara: This apachaara  results when one insults 
devotees of the Lord, making fun of the handicapped etc.  
 
(5)  asahaya apachaa ra: All offences against the Lord’s devotees are 
asahya . Not being able to bear the well -being of the Lord or His devotee 
belongs to this class. Sins  committed against one’s Acharya also come in this 
category. Lord Narayana considers  any offences commit ted against His 
devotees are unpardonable.

320  
 
Manovaakkayaih  refers to acts done through mind, speech and body. In fact, 
these three are the vehicles of Karma . They are also the vehicles which help 
us to either realize God or lose Him altogether. Out of the se three, mind is 
the cause of bondage. Karma -phala  for some of the acts committed in a 
fraction of a second cannot  be wiped out even after hundreds of re -births.  
 
j) Anaadikaalapravrttam ………………………………  
…………..vartisyamaanam cha sarvam ksmasva  
 
Here the Acharya  is seeking a pardon from the Lord for actions resulting from 
ignorance and perverse understandings.  
 
Free translation : 
 
O Lord, please forgive me for my ignorance and perverse understanding of the 
nature of the Jiva and the Universe as a whole. Please p ardon me for all the 
perverse actions arising out of this misconception – actions related to everything 
in the past, present and the future to follow.  
 
The Acharya  sites two key areas where misconceptions readily occur – 
knowledge about the Self ( atman ) and knowledge regarding Prakruti.   Perversity 
in knowledge is called “ vipareeta Jnaana ”.  In the case of the atman examples of 
misconceptions are  
 
 (a)  identifying atman with the body  
 
(b)  Understanding that the atman is self -willed ( svatan tra) and not 
depe ndent on the Lord  
 
(c)  assuming that the atman  is subservient to the others and not the Lord.  
 
In the case of Prakruti an example of misconception is –  (a) conceiving beings

321 as man, animal, tree, reptile etc instead of recognizing tha t every created being 
as His form.  
 
These misconceptions lead to perversity in actions. As done earlier the Acharya  
is seeking pardon for every one of the actions – those committed in the past, 
those that are being done now and those likely to be done in the future.  
 
k)Madeeyaanaadikarma ……….  
…iti vaktaaram maam taaraya.  
 
 Free Translation:  
 
As a result of deeds committed by me over many years / births ( anaadi 
karma pravaaha pravrttaam ) I have acquired this body and the ignorance. 
The ignorance casts a veil  over my Lord ( bhagavat svaroopa 
tirodaanakarim ). This ignorance is caused by the relationship between the 
atman  and the Prakruti.  Apart from this, Prakruti  has other ill effects in that it 
produces perverse conceptions as -well ( vipareeta  Jnaana ). One such  is 
identifying the body with the atman. The other examples are - only the body 
appears to exist; there is only self government by the atman and not by the 
Lord. As the root cause for all these Prakruti  aids the Lord’s sport in a 
number of subtle ways. The  three fold qualities of satva, rajas and tamas  
(gunamayim ) form the basis of the Prakruti of the bodies acquired by the 
Jivas.  
Having described the cruel effects of the body, which is really a manifestation 
of the Prakruti), the Acharya prays for the deli verance from the association. 
(maam taraya ).  
 
The Acharya  has repented for his deeds and prays that he be pardoned. 
Here, he begs the Lord to help him shed his body and take him across. The 
effects of Prakruti  (of which the body is a part) ar e also described here.  
The grace of the Lord is essential for our karma  and ignorance to be 
dissolved. The body itself is part of Prakruti . Like Prakruti  it cannot  also be 
destroyed. However, the relationship between the Self and  Prakruti  could be 
snapped . Once the Self is lifted from the mire of Samsara  (or separating the 
atman from the body) the true nature of the soul should shine forth. However,

322 this can only be achieved with the grace of Lord Narayana . Hence, the prayer 
from the Acharya  to help him sh ed his body and take him across.  
 
l) teshaam jnaani nityaukth …….  
………..…sa cha mama priyah  
 
This is verse 17 from chapter 7 of the Bhagavad -Gita.  The following two are 
verses 18 and 19 of the same chapter of the Bhagavad -Gita. 
Sri Krishna classifies His de votees into four kinds (refer verse 16, chapter 7 of 
Bhagavad -Gita). (a) Man in distress (b) the seeker for wealth (c) the seeker for 
knowledge (c) Man of wisdom. Expanding - 
a)The afflicted, those in distress, who have suffered losses, pray to the Lord 
for relief. 
b) The seeker for wealth, want to improve their material position. They are 
dhana -kaama.  
c) The seeker for knowledge. This group is devout and upright and wish to 
know the truth.  
d) The man of wisdom. They are jnaanis , they who know. This Jnaana or 
wisdom is really devotion to one alone, ekabhakti .  
 
Of the four classes of people, three are phala -kaama or desirous of rewards. The 
last category of people is the best. They are single minded worshippers. Others 
ask for favours , but the sage asks nothing a nd refuses nothing. He yields himself 
completely to the Divine, accepting whatever is given to him. His attitude is one 
of self -oblivious non -utilitarian worship of God for His own sake.  Sri 
Ramanuj acharya  prays to Lord Narayana  to transform him into this jnaani.  
 
udaarah sarva evai te …….  
….…. Eva ‘nuttamam gatim  
 
All the above mentioned four classes of people are noble indeed. But the jnaani 
is regarded by Lord Krishna  as His very soul. The jnaani  is perfectly harmonized 
and resorts to the Lord alone as h is highest goal.  Prayer is an effort of man to 
reach God. It is assumed that there is an answering presence in the world. The 
idea being that if we pray it shall be granted. In reality, through the exercise of 
prayer we kindle a light in our consciousness which will gradually show our pride, 
selfishness, greed and fears. This paves the way for the building up of a 
harm onized personality. We start to pray to know more of the Divine. Prayer then 
becomes a way of life.  The Jnaani knows God as He is and loves Him for what

323 He is. The first three categories of people attempt to use God according to their 
ideas. On the contrary, the jnaanis  wish that they be used as per the will of God. 
“Thy will, not mine, be done”. For this reason Sri Krishna  rates them as the b est 
of them all.  Sri Ramanujacharya  begs the Lord to transform him into this type of 
Jnaani.  
 
bahunaam janmanaam ………  
…….….mahatma sudurlabhah  
 
At the end of many lives, the man of wisdom resorts to me. The realization of 
truth is a work of many ages. On e cannot  expect to obtain the reward until one 
has sounded well the depths of experience and all its complexities. All this will 
take time. It takes nine months to make a baby, but it will take a much longer 
time to make a spiritual one. At the end, he rea lizes that Vaasudeva  is all. It 
refers to the God’s imperishable majesty felt by the wise devotee who is humble 
and trustful. It is a consciousness of humility towards God who is everything and 
who truly is. Such a man is great. His equal cannot  be found i n this world or any 
other ( Sudurlabha ). 
 
iti slokatryodita jnaanunan maamkurusva  
 
Sri Ramanujacharya  prays to the Lord to make him one possessed with such 
knowledge (devotion).  
 
m)purushassa parah Paatha! bhaktyaa ……  
……… parabhakti yuktam maam kurusva  
 
The Acharya earlier prayed for knowledge in the form of devotion which is preliminary to 
intense devotion in its three stages. Here he prays for intense devotion which leads to 
the goal of kainkarya (service to the Lord). Parabhakti  is continuous uninterrupt ed 
meditation with love and affection. This leads to Parajnaana  a state where a mental 
vision of the Lord becomes possible. This leads to Parama Bhakti  where the devotee 
becomes mad with the love of God and cannot sustain a single moment without Him. 
The p rayer here is for leading the Acharya  to the first stage – Parabhakti . This will 
eventually lead to the second and third stage.

324  
 
14. parabhakti Parajnaana paramabhakteka svabhaavam maam kurusva  
 
Please make me eternally of the very nature of these stages  of bhakti  
The Acharya is not looking at Bhakti  merely as a means to attain his goal of 
service!!. He is seeking Bhakti as an aid to his service of the Lord. According 
to the Acharya,  service without intense love is lifeless.  
 
15. parabhakti Parajnaana pa ramabhakyeka svabhaavam …..  
…………………………………..……nitya kainkaro bhavaani  
 
You may recall that the Acharya  while addressing Sreedevi , in the 2nd  
curnika talked in detail about the nature of service resulting from deep 
devotion – parabhakti, Parajnaana and Para ma bhakti  … The Acharya  after 
receiving the blessing of the Goddess, reiterates here his desire on similar 
lines.  
“I beg that I be accepted as your eternal servant (engaged in un -interrupted 
service to you). Having enjoyed the experience of the Lord result ing from the 
three stage development it urges me to perform service in all forms and 
under all circumstances. This urge in me has arisen due to the unlimited love 
and devotion to You.  
 
16. evambhutamatkainkarya praapyupaayataayaa ……… ……… ………………  
 …………………….ra tiroopa nityakinkaro bhava  
 
Thus far, we have noted that the Acharya  has first approached Sreedevi  and 
sought Her blessing to get his single desire fulfilled. His desire was to serve 
the Lord eternally in any role that is assigned to him. Having got the 
assurance and blessing of the Goddess he directly approaches the Lord 
Narayana  to grant him his wish. Then he enumerates the various kalyaana 
gunas  of the Lord. He quoted verses from the Gita. He renounced all his 
worldly posse ssions and relatives and sough t the Lord as his all.  
 
The Acharya then proceeds to nullify the negative aspects that might hinder 
his achieving his goal. He prays to the Lord to forgive all the sins committed 
by him in the past, those that he is committing now and those that he may

325 commit in the future. He then requests the Lord to take him across and help 
him shed his body.  
 
All the above is regarded as a practical commentary on the Dvaya Mantra . 
The first part of this mantra speaks of the means, namely, surrender 
(Shar anagati ) at the feet of the Lord. The second part speaks of the end, 
namely eternal service to the Divine couple.   
 
Having heard the prayers from the Acharya , the great Lord Sriranganatha  
was extremely pleased with his devotee and repeats the words of Sri 
Ram anujacharya before  assuring him saying “I am pleased to grant that all 
your wishes be fulfilled”. The Acharya  was overwhelmed.  
The rest of the Sharanagati  Gadyam  are the words expressed by the Lord 
and the assurances given by Him.  
  
Having heard f rom the Acharya , Lord Sriranganatha  said – 
a)  Even though you might not have followed the paths prescribed in the 
scriptures for attaining the desired goal of service to me .  
b)  Even though your immense load of sins may obstruct your following the 
spiritual paths ;  
c) even though you might have acted in a manner that displeased me ;  
d) though you might have incurred displeasure of my devotees through your 
actions ;  
e)   though you might have committed unpardonable sins   
f) even though your essential nature ( atma -svaroopa ) may have been veiled 
by perverse ahankaara  
g)  even though you may have been steeped in perverse impressions g athered 
from previous births which cause and result in the twin features of – 
ahankaara  and  apachaara  
h)  even though you might have been bound t o matter ( Prakruti ) which lead 
you to ahankaara  nd apachaara  
i)  even though you may suffer from obstruction to the three stages of total 
devotion  (Parabhakti, Parajnaana, Paramabhakti ) constantly directed solely 
towards my lotus like feet  
j)  obstruction s resulting from connection with the body (Prakruti) in the form of 
the  three sorrows (aadhyaatmika, aadibhautika and aadhidaivika  
k)   pleasures and pain resulting from material experiences which deserve to 
be rejected and the limitation of knowledge

326  
Despite all the shortcomings you enumerated, you have in some form 
uttered the Dvaya Mantra . Purely by my grace, having – 
(a)   got rid of all the obstructions to the three stage devotion (Parabhakti  
etc) directed for ever at my lotus -like feet  
(b)  develo ped the three stage devotion at my lotus like feet  
(c)  realised My essential nature, My Divine form, My auspicious qualities,   
My worlds of  sport and of bliss ’ 
(d)  comprehended the real nature of your ( acharya’s ) self as solely Mine 
and completely subject to My will  
(e)  expressed the wish of enjoying Myself (the Lord)  
(f)   expressed the desire to be in service to Me only  
(g)  expressed the desire to have a total and un -interrupted experience 
which is always pleasing, clear and an end in itself.  
 
17. evam bhootosi  
 
“ I confirm that you have become my servant.  
You will ever be a servant of Mine, pleased in performing loving service in all 
forms, at all times and under all conditions, urged by the immense pleasure 
resulting from your experiences of Myse lf”. 
When the Acharya  heard all this from the Lord, it occurred to him that the 
mere utterance of the dvayam  was responsible for his being blessed  
 
18. Aadhyaa tmika aadhibhautika adhidaivika ………… …………………….  
…………  ………..…..atraiva srirange sukhamaasva  
 
Free Tra nslation:  
 
“Freed from all traces of obstacles and miseries that come up due to your 
association with the body, in the form of aadhyaatmika, aadhibhautika, 
adhida ivika categories, you shall live happily at Srirangam  till your body falls 
constantly repeati ng the Dvaya mantra  and meditating on its meaning in the 
manner you have done”.

327 Commentary:  
 
The Lord confirms  that the Acharya’s  wish to perform eternal service to the 
Lord has been granted. He commands that the Acharya  continue his service 
at Srirang am with his body just as he would do in the land of bliss – 
Param apada.   
Obstacles and miseries in this world come from three sources – 
 
(a) aadhyaatmika: Refer to difficulties that arise due to us. Physical and         
mental stresses and ailments are e xamples for this kind.  
 
(b)  Aadhibhautika: Refers to the problems faced from other beings.  
 
(c)  Adhidaivika: Refers to problems that arise from outside our control.  
 
Examples are – rain, fire thunder etc.  
 
(It is noted that all Vedic  chants end with Om Shantih, Shantih, 
Shantih . The reason for repeating Shanti  three times to get 
“Shanti” from the three categories of problems mentioned above)  
 
The Lord assures the Acharya , being an exceptional devotee and 
also being one who has been assured to recei ve the greatest gift 
(eternal service to the Lord) he will not be facing any of the three 
obstacles mentioned above ( aadhyaatmika, aadhibhautika, 
adhidaivika dukhavignagandharahitasvam). The Lord indicates 
that the Acharya should constantly chant the Dvaya m 
(Dvayavakta ) and meditate on its meaning as well ( artha 
anusandhaana saha) . The Lord Indicates that the Acharya  pass 
his time here itself (atraiva) in Srirangam (srirange ) till his body is 
cast off ( yaavacc arirapaatam ).

328  
 
19. sarirapatasamaye…………  
… nit yakinkaro bhavisyasi  
 
“When you shed your body you will, by My grace, attain true and extensive 
knowledge. You will be thinking of Me only. Your current resolve that the 
“Lord is my Supreme goal” will not be diminished. You will be ri d of the gross 
and subtle Prakruti  (body, attachment, desire etc). Without any delay you will 
attain the privilege of eternal and uninterrupted service to Me”.  
 
Here the Lord is giving an idea of what awaits him after he sheds his body.  
 
“You will be unique when you shed your body ( sarirapaata samayetukevalam  
madiyayaa evadayaya atiprabuddha ). You will be blessed with a great 
expansion of knowledge. All this will happen due to My grace”. Before 
receiving His grace, Acharya  was aware of himse lf and the Lord. After 
receiving His grace, he would have the Lord as the sole subject (since the 
awareness came as a result of His grace). He will only be aware of the Lord’s 
resple ndent form with all the attributes and His immense wealth ( Vibhuti) .  
With immense faith that the Lord will take care of him, the Acharya  will be 
able to cast off his body easily as one would do with an old garment 
(jirnam iva vastram sukhena imam prakrtim sthula sookshmarupam visrjya).  
The refinement of mind is not possible for ordinary people. These short 
comings are met by Uppaasakas  who try to gain the end through their own 
efforts. If this effort is surrendered to the Lord ( matprasaada labda ), there will 
be no obstacles to these benefits. Salvation is assured.  
 
Lord Sriranga natha details some of the benefits the Acharya will be receiving 
due to His grace. (a) A single minded devotion, perfected at the end of the 
three stage Bhakti Sadhana, directed at the glorious feet of the Lord 
(macc aranaaravinda ugala ekaantika aatyantika  Parabhakti, Parajnaana, 
Parama bhaktih) (b) As a culmination of this intense devotion a complete

329 experience of me based on immense love (d) Pleased with your love towards 
Me and your eagerness to serve, I accept you to serve me eternally.   
 
20. ma te bhud atra samshayah  
 
Let there be no doubt regarding this in your mind.  
 
21. anrtam noktapurvam ….  
…….iti mayaivahyuktam  
 
 I have never told a lie. Nor will I do it in future. Rama  never speaks a double 
world. “To him who surrenders to me once  and says “I am yours”, I offer 
protection from all beings. This is my vow”. These are the words were 
pronounced by Lord Rama  while offering protection to Vibhishana . 
Lord Krishna  tells Arjuna on the eve of the Mahabharata  war “Renounce all 
dharmas (prescr ibed means for salvation) and surrender yourself solely to 
me. I will rid you of all your sins. Grieve not”.  The Lord says that both words 
were spoken by Me ( itimayaivah uktam ). 
 
It may be in order here, to understand the difference between B hakti and 
Prapatti.  
 
Bhakti means  practising  love of God, taking various positive aids in such 
practice with the idea that if we take those ideas as the means, we can  
thereby  attain Him.  
 
Prapatti , on the other -hand, means acceptance of one’s utter helples sness to 
be redeemed by any means and resigning oneself to Him. You are then 
accepting Him both the means and end of your efforts.  
In the Vaishnava tradition these two are illustrated by what are called 
Mark ata-Kishora  nyaya and Maarjaara -Kishora nyaya.  
 
 Markata -Kishora nyaya  refers to the case of a baby monkey. It holds on 
tightly to its mother while being transported depending for its safety and 
chance of reaching the destination on the strength of its hold.

330 Maarjaara -Kishora nyaya  refers to the case of kitten being transported. The 
young cat remains where it is placed and the mother cat carries it to the 
destination without any effort on the part of the young one. And there is no 
risk on the way . Prapatti  means this kind of absolute resignation to the  Lord, 
making Him both the means and the end.  
 
22. atastvam tava …………………  
…nissamshaya sukha masva  
 
You may safely rest without any fear or doubt in the matter of your true 
knowledge about Me and your realization about me.  
 
This ends Sharanagati  Gadya . 
 
Emanations of Sriman Narayana  
 
We shall now briefly discuss the aspects or emanations of the Supreme Being, Sriman 
Narayana.  
Lord Vishnu’s Parama -pada  is Vaikuntha . There the Lord is seated in all glory on a 
beautiful throne. The colour of the deity is t hat of blue lotus. He is clad in yellow 
garment.  
The doctrine of Chaturvyuha  is very ancient. It is referred to in both the Mahabharata 
and the Puranas.   
The Supreme Being Vasudeva  is the first. He is so called because all beings , Brahma  
and others live in Him during Pralaya or because He lives in all beings. In Him all the six 
divine qualities – Jnaana, Bala, Aishvarya, Virya, Shakti and Tejus  are simultaneously 
manifest.  
During the process of creation, the Supreme Person is called Pradyumna . The divine  
qualities of Virya and Aishvarya  are prominent in Him. He is the inner controller of all 
including Brahma . His knowledge of all righteousness is superb. It is He who presents 
Vedas  to Brahma.  
During the process of preserving the creation, the Supreme Per son is called 
Aniru ddha. The divine qualities of Shakti  and Tejus  are prominent in Him. None can 
resist the divine activity of maintaining law and order. He is the inner controller of the

331 Manus  and others who are associated with Him during preservation.  
During the process of destruction the Supreme Person is called Sankarshana . The 
divine qualities of Jnaana and Bala are prominent in Him. He is the inner controller of 
Rudra, Yama  and others.  
The doctrine of Vyuha got a further extension in the Agama liter ature. Each member of 
the Chatur -Vyuha  emanated into three other forms – referred to as Vyuhantaras.   
Emanations of Vasudeva are – Keshava, Narayana, Madhava . 
Emanations of Pradyumna are – Trivikrama, Vaamana, Sridhara  
Emanations of Aniruddha are – Hrishik esa, Padmanaabha, Daamodara  
Emanations of Sankarshana are – Govinda, Vishnu, Madhusudhana  
 
These twelve emanations are said to be the divinities superintending the Sun in twelve 
months. The names of the twelve Sun deities are – Dhaataa, Aryamaa, Mitra, Var una, 
Indra, Vivasvaan, Pusa, Parjanya, Amsa, Bhaga, Tvastaa and Vishnu . The Sun is one, 
but is adored under these names in the twelve months from Chaitra  to Phaalguna  
respectively.  
 
The twelve Vyuhantara  forms and the parts of the body they control are giv en below.  
Vyuhantara  Parts of body controlled  
Kesava  Forehead  
Narayana  Lower abdomen  (centre)  
Madhava  Chest  
Govinda  Front neck (centre)  
Vishnu  Lower abdomen (right)  
Madhusudhana  Right arm  
Trivikrama  Neck (right side)  
Vamana  Lower abdomen (left)  
Sridhara  Left arm  
Hrishikesha  Neck (left side)

332 Padmanabha  Back (lower spinal )  
Damodara  Back (upper spinal)  
Vasudeva  Top of the Head  
 
Since the human body is made out  of Prakrti (matter) which also forms the body of the 
Lord, these Vyuhantara  forms r eside in the parts of the body noted against each form. 
Further, these forms are supposed to represent the twelve signs in the universe, 
corresponding to the twelve zodiacs. After wearing the Sri Vaishnava  marks  (Dvadasa 
urdhva-pundram)  on the spots indica ted, which externally display the Vyuhantara forms, 
the Lord is saluted by chanting the appropriate name with folded arms near the 
corresponding part of the body  
Having studied briefly about the Vyuhas  of Lord Narayana , we may briefly study about 
the oth ers – Vibhavas, Antaryamin  and Archa.  
 
Vibhavas:   
In a strict sense, an Avataara  means a descent as its etymology shows. But the word is 
used to denote any of the three modes (manifestation, descent or birth) of the Lord 
contacting us in a tangible form.  There is no binding on the Bhagavan  of when He must 
assume an Avataara . The purpose of an Avataara is threefold  – (a) Protection of those 
who are noble in character. (b) Destruction of the wicked (c) the re -establishment of 
virtue. 
 
Divine manifestation i s twofold . (a) Primary (b) Secondary.  
(a) Primary : The Primary or Swaroopa Avataara  is that where the Lord Himself is acting 
as in the case of Lord Krishna. Here the divine contact is direct. People, who were 
fortunate to live through the life and times o f Sri Krishna , could hear His voice, talk to 
Him and even touch Him.  
(b) The secondary :  Also called  aavesaavataara  is where He acts through some 
individual soul as in the form of Parashurama . Here the divine contact is indirect.  
It is said that the Lo rd Narayana does not assume any bodies born of men and women. 
On the other hand, the Lord manifests His own eternal form which is made up of bliss 
and consciousness. This sort of manifestation of the Lord is said to be His birth, and 
nothing else.

333 Antar yamin:  
 
Prakruti  and Jivas  exist as His eternal and inseparable modes. God only wills the Srishti  
or projection of Prakruti  into categories and their combinations. The shapes that these 
take depend on the Karma  efficiencies of the Jivas involved in the c yclic process of 
time. God only provides the manifesting power. He is not responsible for the evil and 
sufferings involved in the creative process. The diversification itself does not complete 
the creative process. The Supreme Brahman  has to enter into eac h of these bodies. He 
is therefore the indweller of all including the Jivas . However, it should be remembered 
that the pains and enjoyments of the Jivas  are solely due to their Karma . God is 
untouched by the bondage of Karma .  
 
Narayana Sooktam  gives a go od description of Indweller. Antaryami Brahmana  of the 
Brhadaranyaka Upanishad  talks about the Sareera -Sariri  (Body -soul) relationship. This 
runs partly as follows – “He who dwells in all beings but is within them, whom none of 
the beings know, whose body is all beings and who controls all beings from within.  He 
is never seen but the Seer, He is never heard, but is the hearer...”  
Archa Avatar (consecrated images)  
 
When the image of God is installed and consecrated with sacred mantras, God in His  
boundless  generosity and infinite love for His devotees enters into the image and 
makes it His real form. He does not just reside in the image, but becomes the image 
itself. The concept of Archa avatar  has a significant place in the Vaishnava  tradition. It 
is also at the heart of the temple tradition in India. This increases the accessibility or 
Saulabhya  to an ordinary devotee. We have already discussed the categories into 
which the Archavatar  has been divided into.  
 
 Given below is a table that summarises the maj or aspects of the Vyuhas

334  
 
Vyuha  
  Predominant  
Presides  Activity    Vyuhantara  Colour  What they carry  
   Qualities  Over          in their Four hands  
   Jnana        
Kesava  Golden  Four Chakras  
Vasudeva   Bala  Chitta  Transcendence    Narayana  Dark  Four Conches  
   Aishvarya        Madhava  Sapphire - Four Maces  
   Virya           Blue      
   Shakti                
   Tejus                
   Jnana  Jiva-Tattwa  Sublation    Govinda  Fair Four bows    
Sankarshana   Bala  (Life 
princ iple) (Pralaya)    Vishnu  Saffron Four ploughs  
           Madhusudhana  Lotus  Four pestles  
   Aishvarya  Mano - Tatwa  Creation    Trivikrama  Fire Four swords  
Pradyumna   Virya  (Mind 
princ iple) (Srishti)    
Vamana  Rising Sun  Four thunderbolts  
           Sridhara  White 
Lotus Four spears  
   Shakti  Ahamkara  Preservation    Hrishikesha  Lighting  Four mallets  
Aniruddha   Tejus    (Sthiti)    Padmanabha  Sun Five weapons  
           Damodara  Indragopa - Four nooses  
             insect      PPara Vasudeva  Sriman Naryana

335  
Shriranga Gadyam  
 This piece, in essence is an abrid ged version of the Sharanagati  Gadyam. It 
is explicitly addressed to Lord Ranganaatha  of Srirangam  and for that reason 
is called Sri Ranga Gadyam . While the Sharanagati  Gadyam is often referred 
to as the long Gadyam, Sri Ranga  Gadyam  is referred to as the short 
Gadyam.   
 The Acharya prays for the supreme goal of being accepted in the service of 
the Lord. He seeks the Lord’s feet as the ultimate means for achieving his 
desire.  
 To the devotee who has chosen the path of Prapatti  for gaining salvation it is 
essential that – 
i. he should spend his time in devoted service to the Lord  
ii. worship and serve Him in His temples  
iii. serve His devotees  
iv. if the above were not possible – meditate on His name and qualities  
v. if lacking in depth of devotion – at least utter the Dvayama ntra and 
its import  
 
 The Acharya  intends that this Sriranga Gadyam  as fit for repetit ion in the 
presence of the Lord by devotees to fulfill their desires.  
 
Churnika -1 
1  Svaadheena trividha chetana …………  
 ……………..……nityakinkaro bhavaani  
  Acharya has just one desire and he prays for the fulfillment of it -the desire 
to be in eternal and devoted service to the Lord. The Lord, Narayana  is the 
acceptor of the service. One of the meanings or interpretations of the word 
Narayana    is His Lordshi p over the two lands  – (a) the land of His sport – 
meaning the world we live in (b) the land of bliss – Paramapada.  
 
While making his request, the Acharya brings to focus two telling points. (1)  
He is the Lord of the Universe and of the Vaikunta.  For this  reason there  is 
no need for Him to consult any one in doing what He wants. (2) He has 
innumerable auspicious qualities including those that favour His Aashritas  
(those who seek His protection). On the basis of these the Lord should easily 
be able to grant  his wishes.

336  
 
 Svaadheena … Bhagavantam  
 Lord Narayana has complete control over the variations in the nature, 
existence and activity of both the conscious (Chetana - animate ) and non -
conscious (A-Chetana - inanimate ) forces. And the entire cre ation consists of 
Chetana and A-Chetana varieties only.  
 Chetana - animate or living force is  classified into three groups ( tri- vidha - 
chetana). Similarly, A-Chetana – inanimate kind is  also classified into three 
groups.  
 The classifications of Chetana are –  
 
(a) Samsari:  Under this category come Jivas who have not completed their Karma -
phala and as a consequence are going through the cycle of birth and 
re-birth experiencing happiness and misery. Their ability to know and 
understand is limited  
(b) Muktas:  Under this category come Jivas who, were once in bondage and freed 
after many years by the grace of the Lord, and have been liberated 
from the bondage to the body. The absence of such bondage  will 
enable their intellect to fully blossom. They exist in a s tate of eternal 
happiness in the service of the Lord   
(c) Nitya  They are ever free and have never been in bondage. They are 
engaged in ageless and eternal service to the Lord.  
  
The classifications of A-Chetana are –  
 
(a) Shuddha satva Characterized by to tal by total purity. Paramapada , the material land 
of the Bliss is made up of this material. It is made up of five Divine 
components and referred to as Panchopanisanmaya  (1) Paramesti (2) 
Pumaan  (3) Visva (4) Nivrtti  (5) Sarva.  It is changeless in nature, that 
is, Time has no sway on it. It is helpful to the protective activities of 
Lord Narayana in His forms as  Vyuha  and Vibhava.  
 
(b) Prakruti It is made up of a mixture of the three Gunas – Satva, Rajas and Tamas. 
This is the material making up this world  of ours, men, women and even 
personages like Indra downwards. It is subject to changes and Time has a 
sway on it. The proportion of the three gunas varies  depending on the good 
and bad actions of the Jivas. Their effect is  to hide the true knowledge of  the

337 embodied soul, the Supreme Being, the true goal in life and the means to the 
goal.  
(c) Kaala  (Time) Is different to Prakruti. It controls the existence of A-Chetana  
(inan imate  stuff) and Samsari . Birth, growth, death is completely controlled 
by Ti me. However, it has no sway over Paramapada, Muktas and Nityas.  
 Lord Narayana’s sway over Chetana and A-Chetana consists in being their 
inner -being, Antaraatma, and controlling them.  
 
  Klesha karmaadi ashesha dosha asamsprstam  
 
 Since the Lord is th e inner soul, is it possible for the faults and defects of the 
body  stain the soul?  The answer is – the faults of the body do not touch the 
Lord.  
 
 The causes that lead to misery are, ( klesha karmah adi) - ignorance, self -
importance, greed, desire, anger  and similar such faults. These causes affect 
both men and gods ( Devas ) alike, who have varying life spans, differences in 
nature and intelligence. These causes result in – ageing, sufferings from 
diseases etc. The Lord is ‘asamsprstam ” – untouched by thes e faults.    
 
 Thus far , Sri Ramanuja  has pointed out the complete control that Lord 
Narayana has over everything that has been created, both land and beings. 
The Acharya’s  point is that the Lord should have no difficulty in accepting Sri 
Ramanuja  as His s ervant.  
 
 The Acharya then proceeds to highlight that the Lord is just not Power. In 
addition He is endowed with a number of inherent qualities ( Svaabhaavika ) 
which favours His Aashritas the (devotees who take refuge in Him). The 
Acharya  is pleading with t he Lord to exercise His infinite and wonderful 
qualities ( anavadhika atishaya ) to grant his wish. The six principal qualities 
and sample of twelve Kalyana Gunas (auspicious qualities) out of the infinite 
number that He possesses is given below.  
 
1.  Jnaana All comprehending knowledge.  
2. BalaOmnipotence  
3. Aishvarya  Lordship  
4. Virya Immutability  
5.  Shakti Creative Power  
6. Tejas Splendour

338  Besides these principal qualities, Lord Narayana possesses innumerable 
Kalyana Gunas (auspicious qualiti es). A few of them are listed below. The 
first 12 relate to His concern for His devotees. The next 3 relate to the 
enemies of His devotees. The last 4 qualities enumerate His relationship with 
His dev otees.  
 
Lord’s Concern for the devotees . 
 
1. Sausilya  Natural ability to freely m ix even with the lowliest,    
  completely unconscious of His infinite greatness  
2  Vaatsalya   Affection, in the same way a cow shows its affection to its  
 calf 
3 Maardava          Gentleness  
4.  Aarjava             devot ees whether present before Him or not.  
5 Sauhaarda   Affection/ Friendship; thoughtful of the welfare of His  
   devotees whether present before Him or not.  
6 Saamya   Equality. He treats all His devotees equally without any  
  bias 
7 Kaarunya          Compassion. Selfless sorrow at the distress of others.  
8 Maadhurya        All round sweetness – even while fighting with His  
  enemies.  
9 Gaambhiry a  Inimitable  grandeur. He is un -mindful of the greatness  
  of what He gives and the smallness  what He receives.  
10. Audaarya  Generosity. He is happy that  He is able to fulfill wishes  
 of His devotees.  
11. Chaturya          Skilful. He is very clever in overlooking and hiding the  
 shortcomings of His devotees  
12.  Sthairya  Stability of purpose  or resolve. Even under great  
 pressure from enemies, He would not flinch from  
 His resolve to protect His devotees.  
 
For the enemies of His devotees . 
 
1.Dhairya   :   He is never afraid of anyone and is absolutely confidant  of His abilities. 
His crowning of Vibheeshana, even before the war has started is an 
example.  
 
2.Shaurya       Supreme bravery.

339  
3.Paraakrama    Unbelievable valour  
 
Relationship with devotees.  
 
1 Satya Kaamah   He makes the desires of all His true devotees to come  
 true 
2  Satya sankalpa  His resolves for His devotees come true  
3 Krititva  When the desire of His devotee is granted, it is He  
 who feels elated and fulfilled.  
4 Krtajnata  Remembering a good act. A simple prayer from His  
 devotee seeking His help will be remembered  and all  
 other faults forgotten  
 Only some of His auspicious qualities have been enumerated above. 
However, there are countless others which are not highlighted above 
(asan khyeya  guna gana augha mahaarnavam).  
 
Parabrahma bhootam Purushottama…. Nitya kink aro bhavani  
 
 Acharya then addresses the Lord with words like – Parabrahman (Superior 
Being who is immense and immeasurable); Paramatma  (Superior person 
distinct from all others); Sriranga saayinam (gives immense pleasure to all 
His devotees with His recli ning form at the Srirangam temple); asmat 
swaminam (my Lord).  
 The Acharya then brings up the topic about self. His wish is to be eternally 
subject to the Lord’s command, ever at His service and deriving supreme joy 
from it (Nitya niyaamya Nitya daasaika r asaatma).  
 The next few words highlight stages of Parabhakti  etc. The single minded 
desire to have to have the mental experience of the Lord ( tadeka anubhava ); 
Single minded devotion to the Lord only ( Tadeka priyah); Experiencing the 
Lord clearly and whol ly without any interruption ( Paripoornam Bhagavantam 
nirantara manubhooyah). The word Paripoorna anubhava indicates 
experiencing the Lord’s essential nature – His form, His auspicious qualities 
and all His wealth.  
 The Acharya begs to be accepted as the L ord’s eternal servant (engaged in 
un-interrupted service to you). Having enjoyed the experience of the Lord 
resulting from the three stage development, he wishes to perform service in 
all forms and under all circumstances.

340  
 
Churnika -2 
 
 The second sente nce ( Curnika ) conveys the surrender ( Sharanagati ) by the 
Acharya. He conveys his imperfections, lack of virtues and confesses he has 
no other refuge. He pleads to be accepted in the Lord’s service.  
 
 Swaatma Nitya niyaamya……………  
…………..sharana maham prapady e. 
 Basically, the Acharya  is seeking refuge at the feet of the Lord Narayana. In 
the process, he pours out his personal shortcomings and his inability to 
overcome the bonds of Samsara. Yet, he expresses his intense desire to be 
of servic e in all forms and under all conditions to the Lord. The Acharya  
seeks refuge at the feet of the Lord and His grace to release him from the 
bondage of Samsara  and fulfill his desire.  
 The Acharya, thus far, has conveyed in his prayers the desi red objective – 
praapya . After dwelling on the auspicious qualities of Bhagavan Sriman 
Narayana , the Acharya  conveys that his essential nature is suitability to be 
ever commanded by Him. Aware of this nature, the Acharya meditates 
constantly on His great l ordship ( anavadhikaatishaya svaamya) and His 
auspicious qualities ( akhila guna gana). The devotion which leads to the 
realization of service is Parabhakti. The fruit for this devotion is permission 
from the Lord to accept the services of the Acharya  in all  forms and under all 
conditions. In addition, well defined knowledge ( tadupaaya samyakjnana ) 
regarding the Self and Parabrahman  would lead to devoted service.  
 
 The Acharya then continues to enumerate his personal short comings and 
declares his inability t o overcome them without the grace of Lord Narayana. 
He tells, he is lacking in personal qualities ( tadanuguna saativikaastyaadii 
samasta atma guna vihinah ) like – virtue ( satva ), mastery over inner and 
outer senses, and absence of ego, conceit, and faith i n the grace of the Lord 
etc. Continuing beyond the lack of virtues, the Acharya confesses that he is a 
storehouse of sins ( duruttaraananta tadviparyaya jnana kriyaanugunaadi 
paapavaasanaa mahaarnavaan tarnimagnah ) collected due to the inevitable 
associatio n with Prakruti . He cries out at his state of immersion in the ocean 
of sin and the prospects of committing more sins as time passes on.

341  Reference is made to the veiling nature of Prakruti , (otherwise called Maya ), 
when it is associated with the Self ( Atma). Due to this Maya , the body is 
identified with the soul. Maya is impossible to overcome without the direct 
help from Lord Narayana. The well informed can differentiate the two like the 
presence oil in gingili seed or fire in the firewood.  
 
 I do not find any means to cross this ocean of Samsara  (cycle of birth and 
death) over infinite periods yet to come. O Lord, who is sought by all beings 
that are born ( nikhila jantu jata  sharanya ), I seek refuge in you. He addresses 
the Lord as “ Sriman Narayana ”. Sri has a reference here to Goddess Sri 
Maha Lakshmi, who is sitting next to the Lord. The address includes Mother 
Maha Lakshmi  to intercede on behalf of the Acharya  and request the Lord to 
forgive all previous lists of offences (committed over many previou s births) 
and satisfy the desires of His devotee.  
 
 The Acharya seeks refuge at the lotus feet of Lord Narayana – tava charana 
aravinda yugalam sharana maham prapadye .  
 
Churnika -3 
 
 After taking refuge at the feet of the Lord, the Acharya, begs for an 
immediate fulfillment of his desire with a firm faith that the Lord will respond 
to his prayers.  
 
 Eva mavasthitasyaapi ……  
…….nitya kinkarataam praarthaye  
 
 Though I am in this state (a storehouse of accumulated sins and short 
comings) having nowhere to go,  I seek refuge at your lotus feet. O Lord you 
are well known to be moved to intense sorrow looking at the misfortunes of 
your subjects (As Sri Rama  he has exhibited intense sorrow at the distress of 
His subjects. That is His nature). Witnessing my misery i n Samsara , have 
pity on me and grant my wish. The Acharya  addresses the Lord 
Paramakaarunika  and Bhagavan. The first one highlights the extreme 
merciful nature of the Lord. As Lord Rama,  He was prepared to forgive even 
Raavana , overlooking all his misdeeds , provided the demon king takes 
refuge at His feet. The second one, Bhagavan,  highlights that the Lord has all 
the knowledge and power to bestow deliverance to any one He considers 
worthy. He does not need to consult anyone nor does He need permission 
from anyone to do whatever He wishes. Such being the case, the Acharya

342 implores the Lord to grant his wish. And what is the wish? To be accepted for 
eternal service (daasyam ) to the Lord.   
 
Churnika -4 
 
 Tavaanubhooti sambhoota ……………..  
……….na jaane’ gati many adha  
 
 O Lord, please grant the pleasure of eternal service to you resulting from the 
joy of experiencing you. This is my only desire. O Master (naadha), out of 
mercy ( kripaya ) for my distress please grant me this desire. I do not know of 
any other means ( na jaane’ gati manyadha)  
 
Churnika -5 
 Sarvaavasthocita ………..  
…….kurusva maam  
 
 O Lord be pleased to grant me the love of service to you, an eternal service 
unto you under all circumstances and at all times. I look forward to you for all 
my needs.  
 
Churni ka-6 
 
 Evambhoota tattva  ……..  
…….. me’ manastavamevaadyaiva kaaraya  
 
 Even if I do not possess the true knowledge of the goal or lack adequate 
sincerity for the knowledge, do grant me the correct perception of the means 
and the goal  
 
Churnika -7 
 
 Apaara ka runaam bhudhe’ ……..  
…….. mama naadha namostute  
 
 Acharya  then expresses the qualities of Lord Ranganatha  which would lead 
to the grant of his prayers.  
 
Apaara Karunaambudhe’  – He is the ocean of mercy

343  
Anaalochita visheshaashesha loka sharanye’  – you are fi t to be sought (as 
refuge) by all irrespective of differences due to birth, level of knowledge etc  
 
Pranataartihara – He removes the distress of all, including those who are 
refuge-less, who seek Him with firm faith  
 
Aashrita vaatsalyaika mahodadhe  – He is  ever ready to forgive the faults of 
His devotees – like a cow that cleans up the body of a new -born calf. His 
greatness in this regard is limitless like that of an ocean (mahodadhe’)  
anavarata vidita nikhila bhootajaatayadhaatmya `- He controls the existe nce 
of all beings at all times. He also knows the truth about all beings. You know 
everything about every being, including me  
 
Satyakaama  – His desires are ever fulfilled  
 
Satyasankalpa  – His will always comes true  
 
Aapatsakha  – Friend in distress  
 
kaakust ha – Sri Rama who saved the crow from death  
Sriman  – The Divine Mother is with you  
Narayana  
Purushottama  
Sri Ranganatha  
Mama Naatha  
Namostute’  
I am Yours - not mine. Utilize me for your pleasure – in Thy service.  
 The Acharya’s  appeal is passionate. He hol ds nothing back. There is no 
ambiguity in his request. What he wants is simple – yet rarely asked and 
much rarely given.  
 
 Sri Ranga Gadyam  concludes with this .

344 Sri Vaikuntha Gadyam  
 
 In the Sharanagati Gadya  the Acharya  stressed that Prapatti is the easi est 
means (Upaaya ) and is open to all to attain the Lord. Apart from the Bhakti, 
Jnaana and Karma yogas, Prapatti features as a completely independent 
means for attaining the Lord. These are all the means to attain the Lord. 
When you practice any one of th ese and succeed, what is there at the end of 
it? The Upaaya  (means) has been discussed and it remains for us to know 
the Upeya (the end result).  
 
 In this Gadyam, It would appear, that there are six sections by which the 
topic has been handled  
 
1. The Achary a describes the uniqueness of the sharanya – the 
object of refuge. The Acharya  declares that to attain that object 
(the Lord Narayana  Himself) Prapatti (taking refuge at the feet of 
the Lord) is the only means. The Acharya places his faith on 
God’s qualiti es like  Saulabhya  (easily approachable) and 
Sausheelya  (mixing freely with inferiors)  
2. In the second section the Acharya  states that expressing his 
desire once will be adequate. However, he will repeat this often 
for two reasons. (a) to keep his mind focus ed on his objective (b) 
to spend time fruitfully meditating on Lord Narayana.  
3. In the third section, the path taken by the prapanna (devotee who 
has surrendered to the Lord), after he is sheds his mortal 
remains, all the way up -to the Vaikuntha  is describe d. The 
Acharya  then goes on to describe the Lord’s exquisite form, the 
ornaments that he wears, the company of people surrounding 
Him and serving Him, the weapons that He sports and the Land 
of bliss itself is described.  
4. In the fourth section, it is revea led that the Lord accepts the 
request made by the prapanna  who then goes on to serve the 
Lord.  
5. The fourth section tells about the state of the prapannas  serving 
Him. They stare at His glorious form, making up for the many 
years that have taken them to rea ch this state.  
6. The sixth section describes the way the Lord makes enquires 
regarding the welfare of His devotees.

345  
 Yaamuraarya sudhaambhodhi  
…………. Sandarshayaa mahyam.  
 The Gadyam starts with the Acharya stating that he will bring out the spiritual 
wealth passed on by Sri Yamunacharya  for the daily experience of the 
devotees. Sri Yamunacharya  or Alavandar,  as he was popularly referred to, 
was a very well -known Vishishtaadvaita  philosopher. It was he who was 
responsible for getting Sri Ramanuja  write the  Sri Bhasya . He was , by 
himself,  a brilliant debater and a writer. Following is a list his works -  
1. Chathusloki a popular prayer in praise of Goddess Lakshmi  
2. Stotra Ratnam  a prayer in praise of Lord Narayana  
3. Siddhitrayam  consisting of (1) AtmaSiddhi.  (2) Samvitsiddhi and 
(3) Ishwara Siddhi  which describe the Vishishtaadvaita school of 
thought, describing a relationship  between the Self, 
Paramaatma and Prakruti  
4. Agama Pramanya  stating the authority of Pancharatra agama  
5. Maha Purusha Nirnayam  describing th at the ultimate reality is 
the god -goddess pair Goddess Maha Lakshmi  and Lord 
Narayana  
6. Gitartha Sangraha  a commentary on the Bhagavad Gita  
7. Nityam  
8. Maayaa Vaadha Khandanam  
 The Bhakti yoga mentioned, in fact, refers to Prapatti.  
 Svaadheena tr ivdha chetanaachetana Swaroopa sthiti  
………tatgata svabhavena sharana manuvrajeth  
  
               Free Translation  
 
 While wishing eternal service to Ishvara, Lord Narayana, the only means of 
attaining this goal is, Prapatti, to seek refuge at His lotus fe et. He is the 
Master and controls everything in this Universe. He does not need to consult 
anyone or take permission from anyone while satisfying His devotees. 
Among the Lord’s innumerable auspicious qualities ( Kalyana  Gunas ) the key 
ones are Saulabhya  (easy to approach) and Sausheelya  (mixing freely with 
inferiors). These are qualities of the Bhagavan  that make Him take  
compassion on us

346  This is the essence of this section  
 
Commentary:   
 
  The Supreme Being, Lord Narayana, is in complete control ( Svaadhee na 
indicates this ) of everything in this Universe – Chetana  (sentient - meaning 
live, responsive  and conscious), Achetana  (non-sentient beings meaning - 
not live, not responsive  not conscious), Divine beings, Time, their very 
nature, qualities, and their  very  existence itself ( Sthiti ). The Curnika starts 
with – “Svaadheena Trivida chetana  Achetana Swaroopa sthiti”  Svaadheena 
refers to the state of complete control. It refers to the complete control of the 
three types. This has already been explained in  Sri Ranga Gadyam . 
 
 Lord Narayana is quite the opposite of any other Master – be it among the  
humans or Devas. He is untouched by any faulty, lowly qualities - “asesa 
dosha asamprstam” . The Lord is free from all faults. For example – He is free 
from klesa  (person subject to desire and hate), karma (virtuous and sinful 
acts) adi (similar)  defects. He is the abode of all that is noble and auspicious. 
In addition He is the abode of innumerable noble and auspicious qualities. 
These qualities have not been acquired as a result of any boon given to Him. 
They are a part of Him. His  greatness cannot  be comprehended by the mind 
much less expressed in words.  The”svaabhaavika  anavadhika atishaya 
Jnana Bala aishvarya Veerya Shakti tejah”. These have been explai ned in Sri 
Ranga Gadyam . 
 
 The Acharya addresses Lord Narayana as “Bhaga vantam”. There is a 
special purpose in this. The Supreme Being has special qualities referred to 
as Bhagas. The special qualities are possessed by Him only and no other. 
They are – Jnana. Bala, Aishvarya, Veerya, Shakti and Tejas”. Though we 
refer to others as Bhagavan , it is only out of our reverence to them.  
 
 Before making his special and only request the Acharya recalls his special  
relationship with the Supreme Lord. “ Svaamitve na, Gurutvena, Suhrtvena 
cha  parigrhya ”.  He is the Lord, preceptor and friend. In fact, this special 
relationship is enjoyed by not just by the Acharya alone, but by everyone in 
this world. “ Tat paada aravinda Dvaya paricharya, eka manorathah 
aikantika ”. Having accepted Lord Narayana as the Lord, it is only natural that 
one should consider himself as  the servant. The servant then wishes for 
service. He seeks personal service to the  lotus feet of the Lord. That is the

347 only goal of the Acharya – eka man oratha . While  this is the end in view, the 
means pr oposed to be adopted is Prapatti.  
  
 Other means such as Jnana  and Bhakti are also recommended in the 
scriptures for gaining the grace of the Lord. However, the Acharya  confesses 
that while they  are sui table for devotees with greater will and capacity, they 
are not suitable for a man like him steeped in ignorance, Karma etc. “ kalpa 
koti sahasrenapi” – just as a ball of cobweb will not germinate, even if soaked 
in water for thousand days, the Acharya  says he will not qualify for the Lord’s 
grace if he follows the other  means. Prapatti is the only means suitable for 
him to pursue.  
 
 He is confident that Bhagavan Narayana , with countless auspicious qualities, 
will overlook his shortcomings and grant him his wish. Why is the Acharya 
confident? The Lord is an ocean of compassion ( akhila satva dyaika 
saag arasya). His compassion is for all living creatures without any distinction. 
In addition, He  overlooks the faults of all His devotees. He does not wait t o 
examine (anaalochita ) whether the seeker is ignorant or learned, theist or 
atheist, ethical  or un -ethical, humble or haughty. His grace is available for all 
(Akhanda Jana ) without any differentiation whether he is human or Deva. He 
mixes with everyone  without considering His own superiority and the 
lowliness of the other person. This characteristic is always with Him.  
 
 Having dealt with the auspicious qualities of the Lord, the Acharya  proceeds 
to talk about His form and the body. The extraordinary b eauty and the 
symmetry of the form of the Lord has never been experienced by any one – 
be they Gods, humans or animals ( akhila jana hridaya anandasya). Everyone  
who met Lord Rama was wonderstruck at His extraordinary beauty.  
 
 How does the Lord feel abo ut the devotees approaching Him? The Acharya   
explains it as – ashrita vaalsalyaika jaladhe’. For all those who sought Him  
(ashrita ), He overlooks all their faults and admires only their good aspects. 
His  love for His devotees is like that of a cow for a  new born calf  
(vaatsalya ). He does  not think of a single moment’s separation from those 
truly devoted souls - –bhakta Jana samshlekaishya bhogyasya  
 
  He has the pleasure of the company of innumerable souls (devotees) in  
Paramapada serving Him. He has  all the facilities for the enjoyment of these  
pleasures and these facilities are under His control – Nitya Jnaana kriya  
aishvaryadi bhoga saamagri samrddhasya. Where are all these facilities

348 located? It is at ‘ mahavibhuteh”. It is in the infinite land of the bliss - referred 
to as Nitya Vibhuti or Paramapada.  Lord Narayana  resides here together with 
Mother Sri  Maha Lakshmi . The Lord is the personification of bliss and ever 
fulfilled desires (avaapta samasta kama ). If that is the case what role does 
Sri Maha Lakshmi fulfill? The answer is – the Lord’s pleasure is in uplifting 
souls. She is His companion and mediates between the sinful souls and the 
Lord. She pleads with the Lord on behalf of the sinners.  As a reminder, the 
land we all live in is c alled “Lilavibhuti ” – land of sport. It is the land of sport 
for Lord Narayana.  
 
  May the devotees seek the lotus feet of the Lord ( sree mat charana 
aravinda ugalam ) with the firm conviction that nothing else will deliver us 
(ananya atma sanjeevanena ). May you be fully concentrated on this single 
goal and nothing else  (tat gata sarva bhavena ). Take refuge at the lotus like 
feet of Lord Narayana   (sharana manu vrajet ).  
 
  Tatascha pratyaha aatmojeevanaaya aiva anusmaret  
 
  The question is – Is seeking Saranaagati once adequate? Of course, 
the Lord has declared that He will provide protection to anyone who has 
sought Him saying “I am yours”. However, declaring once is one thing and 
seeking Him day in and day out with no other thought excep t Him on the 
mind is quite another matter. The  later exhibits a complete surrender. For the 
uplift of the self ( aatmojeevanaaya), everyday remembering is required  
(Pratyaham)  
 
Churnika -3.1 
 
 Chaturdasha bhuvanaatmakamandam ……….  
srimati vaikunthe’ divyal oke 
 
 The Acharya  then describes the divine land of bliss, Srivaikunta, the beauty 
and splendour of which is beyond comprehension and words even for the 
great Brahma .  Srivaikunta is far beyond the egg shaped unit containing the 
fourteen regions which incl udes the Bhooloka  the region we live in – there 
are seven regions above Bhooloka and seven below it. The andam also 
includes the areas that separate the fourteen regions ( avaranas ). Each 
region is ten times larger than the one below it. The seven avaranas are 
constituted by the same principles that constitute Prakruti  – water, fire, ether

349 etc. These regions, constituted by various principles, are yet related by cause 
and effect ( kaarya kaarana jaatamateetya). Beyond all this mass of Prakruti , - 
which though  eternal is continuously subject to change, creation and 
dissolution – is situated Srivaikunta.  Contrary to Prakruti , Srivaikunta is 
changeless. It is r eferred to here as Parama vyoma (i.e.) Paramapada . It is 
very vast and seve ral times the size of Prakrut i Mandala . It is also very clear 
and nothing is hi dden. In this Divine land ( Divya loke’), constituted out of 
Shuddha  Sattva , there is no veil of ignorance limiting the knowledge.  
 
Churnika -3.2 
 
 Sanakavidhi shivaadibhirapyacintya ……….  
…….. svabhaavmiti p aricchettumayogye’  
 
 The splendour and wealth of Srivaikunta is beyond the comprehension of 
great sages like Sanaka and other Gods like Brahma and Shiva. This Divine 
Loka  is populated by great souls like Nityas, countless in number  (anantaih). 
Nityas, you may recall, are eternally free souls and do not go through the 
cycle of Samsara.  Steeped in complete realization of Lord Narayana their 
only activity is service to the Lord. Their enjoyment is Bhagavad Anubhava . 
In addition there are divine persons ( divyap urishaih) and great souls  
(mahaa tmabhih)  serving the Lord. The Lord, in turn, cannot bear separation 
from these great souls. Srivaikunta is eternally populated (apurite’)  by such 
great souls.  
 
Churnika -3.3 
 
 Divya aavarana shata sahasra aavarane …..  
…… div ya alankaara alankrte  
 
  The Acharya then proceeds to describe the wealth of the land of the 
Bliss.  
  The term Divya  has been used to indicate the uniqueness of the place. 
We are used to admiring the beauty of the nature around us here in 
Bhoomandala  (earth). Srivaikunta is an entirely different region. To start with, 
it has been made out of a different stuff altogether – Shuddha satva. It has 
been specially created by the creator of creators and the Supreme Lord 
resides there.  The region has hundreds of  thousands of fortifications 
(aavar ana). The word fortification has been used to indicate the immense 
wealth of the place. In fact, there is no danger either to the Lord or the wealth

350 of the place from anyone. Rows of Kalpaka trees ( divya kalpaka taru 
shob hite’) lend great beauty to the paths around the place.  
 
 The magnificent temple of the Lord stands at a central location. Innumerable 
number of gardens surrounds this temple. ( divyodyaana shata sahasra kotibh 
aavrete) . The gardens and the temple, coverin g a vast area (ati pramaane),  
serve as the playground for Sri Vaikunta Naadha  and His consorts.   
  
 Having described the location of the temple in a general way, the Acharya 
proceeds to give more details of the temple. He starts with the hall of  
audience  located in the temple (kasminschit) . The special hall of audience 
(divya asthana mantape ) is studded with different varieties of rare gems 
(vichitra ratnamaye ). It has a countless number of pillars studded with 
precious stones ( divya ratna sthambha  shata  sahasrakotibh  rupashobhite ). 
The floor itself is paved with a variety of rare divine gems. ( divya nana ratna 
krta sthala vichitrite ). The hall is decorated with many canopies, drapes and 
other fu rnishings ( divya alankara alankrte ) 
 
 The Acharya  reverts back to the temple gardens. Varieties of trees beautify 
the garden. Sweet smelling Flowers with different colours ( nana nana gandha 
varnaih ) from varieties of trees, scattered everywhere [ paritaih  (flowers), 
patitah (fallen from the trees), patamaanaih (still falling), paadapasthaisca  
(still remaining on the tree)] in the garden, render an exquisite beauty to the 
place. Beautiful flower gardens (divya pushpavanaih upashobhite ) with 
bunches of rare flowers (divya pushpaih shobhamanaih)  with sweet smell 
surro und the place.     
 Details of other salient aspects of the garden are given. Parijata, 
harichand ana and kalpaka  trees are lined up in the garden. It has a large 
number of resting and sporting places (mantaps ) decorated with fine flowers 
and pr ecious stone  (antahsthah Pushpa ratnaadi nirmita divya leela mantapa 
shata sahasrakoti roopa shobhitaih) . Though these gardens are continuously 
used, their breath taking beauty never stopped to inspire a sense of 
astonishment on the inmates. Innumerable hillocks of sp ort (kreedaa shailaih 
shata sah asraih alankrte) break the monotony. Some gardens are exclusively 
for the use of the Lord, some for the use by Sri Devi  and some others are for 
gene ral use. The sounds made by birds like parrots, cuckoos, peacocks and 
others fill the air  
 
 The Acharya then gives detailed descriptions of ponds, tanks and lakes 
intended for aquatic sports. Steps leading to the water are studded with

351 pearls, corals and other precious stones ( mani mukta pravaalakrta 
sopaanaih ). The singing by a la rge number of birds could be heard. The 
tanks are filled with pure water tasting like nectar. Royal swans ( divya raja 
hamsaavali virajitaih ), spotless white in colour, swim around in the water.  
 
Churnika -3.4 
 
 nirastaatishaya rasataya …………….  
……….. mahati divya yoga paryanke’ ananta bhogini  
 
 The couch on which Lord Narayana and His consorts are seated is 
described. Seats affording great comfort ( nirasta atishaya aanandaika 
rasatayaa ) are located artistically and cleverly between flower bedecked 
spaces. Clu sters of bees, drinking honey from the divine flowers provide an 
exhilara ting feeling for the visitors there. The gentle breeze is saturated with 
fragrance gathered from trees like chandana  (sandal), agaru  (lacquer), 
karpoora (camphor). The Lord is seated on a spacious divine seat provided 
by the great serpent – Adisesha.  
 
Churnika -3.5 
 
 Srimadvaikuntha aishvaryaadi divyalokam  
………………………….  sriyaa sahaasinam  
 
 Lord Narayana’s consorts and attendants are described here.  
The presence of Mother, Sri Mahalaks hmi ever united with the Lord, by Her 
very presence makes this divine and amazing Sri Vaikuntha  glow with a rare 
brilliance. She matches the Lord with her qualities such as Sheela  
(miscibil ity), Roopa (bodily form), guna  (merit), love, affection and so on.  In 
addition the Lord is served by divine attendants  such as Adisesha 
(sheshaashana – refers to them who live on the remnants of Lord’s meal ), 
Vishvaksena  and others.

352  
 
Churnika -3.6 
 
 Pratyagrormeelita sarasija sadrsha nayana yugalam  
……………chaturbhi raaja anu vilambhi bhirbhujair virajitam  
 
 In the next few lines the Acharya describes Lord Narayana Himself.  
 The Lord is the essence of perfection in all aspects. He has wide eyes like 
the freshly blossomed lotus ( pratyagra unmilita sarasijadrsa nayana ugalam ): 
His complexion is like that of clear blue cloud ( svaccha neela jeemuta 
sankaasham );  He is resplendent with the yellow silk adoring His waist 
(atyujvala peeta vaasasam); He shines with His own radiance ( svayaa 
prabhaaya); He is extremely faultless ( ati nirmalayaa); He is very cool ( ati 
sheetalaya); He is very youthful ( ati komalaya ); He exudes the brilliance of a 
gem ( svaccha maanikyaabhaya); He illuminates the entire Universe ( krtsnam 
jagat bha asayantam);   His beauty is un -imaginable, Divine, and is like  a 
wonderful ocean of nectar filled with youthful beauty ( achintya Divya, 
Adbhuta, nitya yauvana Svabhava Laavanya amrta saagaram). Curls of 
forelocks play on His tender forehead moist with mild sweat.  
 
 His face and eyes open up with joy ( prabuddha mugda  ambuja chaaru 
lochanam ), like a tender lotus,  on seeing His devotees. His raised eye brows 
resemble a creeper while showing concern to His devotees ( savibhrama 
bhrulata). He has beautiful lips ( ujjvala adharam). He has a bewitching smile 
(shuchi smitam);  has beautiful cheeks ( komala ganda ); has a raised nose 
(unnasam ); has a slim and conch like neck whose beauty is enhanced by the 
locks of curly hair and the long ear rings .  
 
 Sri Maha Lakshmi embraces the Lord out of sheer joy when she notices that 
her c hildren (devotees) were protected and taken care of by the Lord. The 
blue lilies worn by Mother on Her ears, Her ear rings and braids of hair all 
leave their marks on His hands during this act. His four arms, long as they 
are and reaching down to His knees , flourishing like branches of a Kalpaka 
tree provide protection to His devotees.

353  
Churnika -3.7 
 
 Ati komala divya rekhaalankrta taamra karatalam  
……………. Divya aayudhais sevyamaanam  
 
 His beautiful rosy palms are decoratively marked by figures such as lotu s, 
conch, and discus. He has slim, long rosy fingers ending with shining fine 
finger nails Valuable, dazzling rings adorn these fingers. As for His feet, they 
are like fresh blossomed lotuses. The jewels appear more beautiful and 
radiant adorning the Divin e form of Lord Narayana. The beautiful Crown ( ati 
manohara kireeta mukuta chooda vatamsa ) adorning His head is indicative of 
His Lordship over the Universe – they also indicate His accessibility to all and 
love to all beings. Ear drops with fish motif ( makara kundala ) adorn His ears. 
Neckbands ( griveyaka ) and rows of chains (haara ) of unbelievable beauty 
adorn His chest. Arm bands ( keyura ) and circular bands ( kataka ) adorn His 
arms and wrists.  
   
 Srivatsa , mole like mark, distinctive of Lord Narayana could be seen on His 
chest. Srikaustubha, the incomparable chest jewel, distinctive of the Lord and 
rows of stringed pearls ( muktaadaama ) could be seen. He wears a band 
above the navel ( udara bandana ) and a dhoti made out of golden yellow silk 
cloth, once agai n distinctive of the Lord Narayana.   He wears anklets 
(nupura) and many more jewels not specifically describer here. It is to be 
noted that all the jewels are worn by the Para Brahman  Himself. As such, 
they are different from any other similarly termed jew els. In fact, they are the 
person ification of the Lord Himself. They are soft and flower like to the touch 
(atyanata sukha sparshaih ). They exude sweet fragrance ( divya gandhaih ). 
They are decorated by divine ornaments ( bhushanaih bhushitam). The Lord 
wear s a garland of unfading flowers known as Vaijayanti.  
 
 The Lord is served by the celestial weapons like conch ( shanka ), discuss 
(Chakra ), mace ( Gada ), sword ( Nandaka ), bow ( Saargna ) – the five weapons 
(Pancha aayudhas ).

354  
Churnika -3.8 
 
 Sva sankalpa maatr aavaklapta jaga janmasthiti dhvamsaadike  
…………………… Naaraayanam dhyaana yogena drstvaa  
 
 The Acharya then proceeds to describe the wealth of His attendants and His 
own qualities which please His devotees.  
 
 The first reference is to Sri Vishvaksena  - who is the Lord’s Senaapati,  and it 
is with him that the entire wealth of the Lord is entrusted. Sri Vishvaksena is 
capable of managing the creation, protection and destruction of all movable 
and immovable objects by his mere thoughts. The Lord delegates all His 
powers to this trusted deputy. Besides, the Lord is served by other close 
attendants like Garuda (Vainateya).  Still there are innumerable attendants 
like Gajavaktra  and his group called gananaayakaas.  All these attendants, by 
their very nature, are free fr om the bondages of Samsaara for ever 
(svaa bhaavato nirasta samasta saamsaarika ). For this reason they are 
referred to as Nityas . They are born for service unto His lotus feet ( bhagavat 
parich aryaa kaarana yogyaih). In turn, they are also ever sustained by the 
pleasure of service to the Lord ( bhagavat parichayaika bhogaih ). 
 Now the Acharya  goes on to describe the graceful looks of the Lord. With His 
graceful looks ( divya kataaksha ) is pleasing to the entire world ( vishvam 
aahlaadayantam). Words emanating fr om His partly opened mouth add 
beauty to His mouth. Admirable characteristics like clarity, sweetness of 
voice make it more pleasant. Pregnant with ideas ( bhaava garbhena) , His 
words fill the i nnermost recesses of the hearts of His devotees ( akhila jana 
hridaya  antara ani aapurayantam ), and serve like nectar ( amrita ) to His 
devotees. The dev otees realise Lord Narayana  through the vigorous 
discipline of meditation ( Bhagavantam Narayanam dhyaana yogena drstava).  
 
Churnika -3.9 
 Tato bhagavato Nitya svaamyam aat mano nitya daasyam  
………………. Bhagavat paricharyaayam asam vardhayitva  
 Having described the Srivaikunta, the gardens, the temple, the attendants, 
Maha Lakshmi and the Lord Himself, the Acharya could not contain his 
expectation, eagerness and anxiety. Inevit ably, the questions are now being 
posed – when am I going to see Him? When will I Realise Him? When will I 
be accepted into His service?

355  While itching to be admitted into the service of Bhagavan Narayana , who is 
the rightful goal, the Acharya enumerates and stresses his true relationship 
with the Lord. “You are my true Master ( mama naadham ); You have been our 
Master for generations ( mama Kula daivatam ); You have been my saviour in 
all emergencies obtained through proper succession ( mama kula dhanam ); 
You have been most enjoyable to me ( mama bhogyam ); You have taken 
care of me like a mother ( mama maataram ); You have raised me like a father 
(mama pitaram ); You are all to me (mama sarvam ). Similar statements are 
contained in the Upanishads  – “maataa, pita, bh raataa, nivaasah, saranam, 
suhrt gatim Narayana”  (Narayana  is my mother, father, brother, place of 
residence, sole means for salvation, friend and my goal. The Acharya cries 
out- when shall I actually see Him with my eyes ( saakshhat karavaani 
chaksh usha)? When can I have His lotus feet on my head ( kadaa ham 
Bhagavat paadaambujadvaya sirasaadhaara ishyaami)? When shall I 
approach the two lotus feet of the Lord, being rid of worldly pleasures and 
devoid of love and hate associated with worldly life? When shal l I be graced 
by the cool gaze of Lord’s eyes and be commanded by Him in His friendly 
voice? The desire of the Acharya to be admitted into the service of the Lord 
is expressed as above.  
 
Churnika -3.10 
 
 tayaiva aashayaa tatprasaadopabrmhitayaa  
……….. pranaa mya aatmaanam bhagavate nivedayet  
 
 The approach to the Lord with an intense desire to be accepted into His 
service is now being detailed.  
 
 The Lord is seated on the Sesha  couch with Sri Maha Lakshmi attended by  
Garuda (Vainateya – son of Vinata) and oth er Nityasuris. To this Lord 
Narayana, ever wedded to  Sri Maha Lakshmi  surrounded by all His retinue 
(samasta parivaaraaya srimate Narayanaya namah) , I offer myself, even 
from far, by repeated prostrations and raising up (as a mark of great affection 
and r egard) (utthaiya utthaiya punah punah pranaamya). The salutations are 
being offered with a feeling of awe and bowing before Him ( atyanta 
saadhv asavinayavanato bhutva). While approaching the Lord devotees are 
looked upon with great friendliness and sympathy  by the Lord’s attendants 
and ot hers. Devotees approach the Lord after showing respect to them and 
receiving their permission to see Him. While approaching the Lord, the great 
Moola mantra  is chanted. The devotee then falls at the feet of the Lord with

356 the request “O Bhagavan  please make this lowly self solely yours and accept 
me in all services in boundless measure”. Bhagavato nivedayet  – surrender 
this self solely to the Lord.  
 
 tato bhagavataa svayamevaatma sanjeevanena  
………. krtaanjaliputah bhagavantamupaasita  
 
 The devotee, after conveying voluntarily to the Lord his desire to be accepted 
for eternal service, waits for His acceptance. The Lord, in turn, conveys His 
acceptance with a very loving and affectionate look ( amaryaada seelavata ati 
premaanvitena avalokanena ). The devotee is accepted to serve the Lord at 
all times, at all places and under all circumstances (sarva desa sarva kaala 
sarvaavasthochita atyanta sesa bhaavya ). Having thus been accepted, the 
devotee stays before the Lord in g reat humility – with folded hands and 
bowed head ( atyanta saadhva savinayaavanatah kinkurvaanah 
krtaanjalip utah).  
 
 tatascha anubhooyamaana bhaava viseshah  
………..….. avalokenaavalokayannasita  
 
 Having just been accepted into the Lord’s service,  the devotee is completely 
overtaken by the joyous experience of watching the majestic form of Lord 
Narayana.  Watching Him the devotee starts experiencing the greatness of 
the Lord, as the protector of the Universe; still more His nature, essential 
qualities such as His purity, overflowing and incomparable affection and 
many more. This astounding experience leaves the devotee totally absorbed 
and incapable of any action – seeing, doing or cognizing ( anyat kinchit 
kartumdrstam smartum ashktah). They remain g azing at the Lord. Fearing 
that the great experience may be cut short, the devotee pleads that the 
service should last forever . 
 
Churnika -6 
 tato bhagavataa svayameva atma sanjivanena  
…………….…….sarvaavayavah sukhamaasita  
 The devotee, at first, hesitates to  go near to the Lord being aware of his 
lowliness against His immeasurable greatness. However, with a gracious

357 look and a smile the Lord encourages and invites the devotee to come nearer 
in a sweet voice. He removes all the uneasiness on the part of the de votee 
(samasta kleshaapaham ). When they are placed on the head of the devotee 
(shirasi krtam dhyaatvaa) , the Lord’s lotus feet ( srimat paada aravinda 
ugalam) , are extremely comforting (niratishaya sukhaavaham) . The devotee 
feels that he is immersed in an o cean of bliss ( amrita saagara antar nimagna ) 
and the joyous experience spreads throughout his body (sarvaavayavah 
sukhamaasita) . 
 
 This is an account of the experience awaiting a devotee, who surrenders 
himself completely to Lord Narayana.  
 
 As long as one  is alive in this world one should keep thinking of Lord 
Narayana  praying for the release from Samsara  with the confidence that the 
Lord will surely grant it. It is a practice of our elders to meditate on the last 
portions of Sri Vaikunta Gadyam before ret iring to bed . 
 
This ends Sri Vaikunta Gadyam  
 
Sri Vaishnava Mantras  
In general, the human body must undergo a number of Samskaras  before one is ready 
for God realization. The Vaishnavaits  regard that among all the Samskaras , the 
Pancha -Samskara  is superio r to all. According to them true life as a  Vaishnavaite starts 
with Pancha -Samskara – the five Samskaras . During Smaashrayanam the Pancha -
Samskara is performed. Smaashrayanam means to approach ( Acharya ) with all 
since rity. The Acharya initiates the person as his Sishya. On the part of the Sishya, t his 
means, that he or she will live as per the wishes of the Acharya.  
Vaishnava Brahmins  in the south of India have a title  “Iyengar ”. They are called so since 
they follow the five Samskaras  - “Iyendu angam Uday avar”.  The Pancha Samskaram  
gives  
 The  Pancha -Samskara  refers to the five angas of Prapatti . They are – 
Thaapa Samskaram:  
 
 Here, the Acharya  embosses the impressions of Conch and Discuss on the 
left and right arms of the disciple. Sudar shana Azhvar’s protection is always 
given to the devotee. Panchajanya, the Conch shatters all evils.

358  
Pundra Samskaram:  
 
The Acharya makes the disciple aware of the places on the body where the 
Upavyuha forms of the Lord are to be saluted – they are twel ve in all. During 
this  initiation the disciple is made aware of the names of the Lord and His 
consort associated with each Upavyuha form of Lord Narayana and of the 
way he has to  offer his salutations. Each Upavyuha form of Sriman Narayana 
is externally  represented by the “Oordhva Pundram” (Tiruman Kaapu  or 
tilak). The Tiruman  represents the Lord and the “ Sri Choornam ” represents 
the consort. The twelve “Oordhva Pundrams” are known “Dwaadasha 
Oordhva Pundram”  
 
Nama Samskaram:   
 
The Acharya adds the na me “ Daasa ” at end of the disciple’s name. It 
signifies that the disciple will be a servant of Lord Sriman Narayana  and Sri 
Ramanuja  forever.  
 
Mantra Samskaras  
 
Among the Pancha -Samskaras, Mantra Samskara  is rated high. This 
samskara involves the learning  from the Acharya  of three esoteric 
Srivaishnava mantras along with their invocatory verses.  The mantras are 
(a) Ashtaa ksharam  (also referred to as the Moola mantram  or  Thiru  
Mantram ) (b) Dwaya mantram  (also referred to as Mantra Ratna ) (c)  
Charama Shl oka.  
 
Yajna (Yaaga) Samskaram  
 
In this Samskara,  the Acharya  teaches the disciple Bhagavad Aaradhana . 
Aaradhana  is the way of worshipping Lord Narayana . Basically two forms of 
Aaradhana  are recognized – (a) Baahya (external) (b) Manasika (internal).  
 
 In this section we will be discussing Mantra Samskara. As indicated earlier, 
the initiation of the  Mantras  must be through a competent Acharya  
(Sadaacharya  – who is eligible to perform  Smaashrayanam  to others) and

359 only to disciples considered deserving by hi m. This is to enable the devotee 
to get linked to the  Parampara . The mantras  are highly potent and contain 
deep philosophical meanings. It is only initiated to disciples who have 
undergone Smaashrayanam. The utterance of Pranava  (AUM) in public is 
restrict ed. However, anyone without any restriction to cast or creed can chant 
aloud in public “ Namo Narayana ”. 
Ashtaaksharam  
 
The Ashtaaksharam (referred to as Moola mantra or Thiru mantram) is   “Aum Namo 
Narayana”. It consists of eight syllables and three wor ds.  
 This mantra  has been initiated to Sri Pundareeka  and the great Bhakta 
Prahlada by Sage Narada  himself. Lord Narayana  has initiated this to 
Tirumangai Azhwar . 
 (a)  The first word is Pranavam  (Aum) and it has three letters.  
 The first letter “a” ( akaaram ) refers to Lord Vishnu. A is the beginning of all 
letters and Lord Vishnu is the origin of beings. The Lord, in turn, provides a 
complete protection to all souls – at all places, at all times and in all states.  
 The second Letter: u” ( ukaaram ) refers  to Goddess Lakshmi.  
 The third letter “m” ( makaaram ) is the 25th letter in the Sanskrit alphabet. 
Similarly, the soul or Jivatma is the 25th tattva (First tattva  is matter; the 
second is mahat;  then the 5 gross elements starting from Ether; then the 5 
subtle elements starting with sound; then the 5 Jnanendriyas;  then the 5 
karmendr iyas. The total number of  tattvas  so far is 23; The 24th is Manas ; 
The 25th tattva  is the Jeevatma). Summarizing the Jivatma is a servant of 
Lord Narayana  and Mother Maha Lakshmi .  
(b) The second word of the Tiru-mantram  has two letters – “na” and “ma”. This 
leads to two meanings .  
 
The first one is - Namah refers to salutations to Lord Narayana. The second 
meaning arises when you split it as two words – Na Maha. It means “not 
mine”  Now Namah can be interpreted to mean –I am not mine. I am only a 
servant to the Lord, I belong to the Lord.Nothing is mine. Everything belongs 
to the Lord. Independence is not mine. I am depending on the Lord.  
Mastership is not mine. I am not the master o f anybody, including myself. 
Lord Narayana  is the master of everyone.

360 (c ) The third word of the Tiru-mantram  is “Narayana”.  
 
The word “ra” refers to that which perishes and hence to “achetana”. Thus  
“nara” refers to that which does not perish and that is  - Chetana or Jivatma .  
That which does not perish includes the Lord also  Now the word “ ayana”  has 
three interpretations - (1) A resting place or abode (2) “ Upaya”  or means (3) 
Fruit or objective  
 Against this background, what is the meaning for the word Narayana ? We 
come with two interpretations – 
 
(1) When “ayana ” is interpreted as the resting place, the Narayana has two  
meanings -  
a) One who is the resting place for all Naras – Chetanas and Achetanas. 
He contains all Naras. Hence, He is bigger than al l of them  put to- 
gether.  his quality of the Lord is referred to as “Bahir Vyaapti”   
b)  One who’s resting place is Naras  – this refers to all Chetanas and 
Achetanas. He is contained in each one of them. Hence He is smaller 
than the smallest of them.  This quality is referred to as “Antar Vyaapti”  
 So far we have talked about the various interpretations of the words in the 
Ashtakshara. Scholars have p ut them together, and ten different meanings  
are now available for the Ashtakshara. They are given be low.  
Ashtakshara is, just not a  Mantra to be mechanically  repeated. The surrender to the  
Lord has to be total and not conditional. Attitude of approach, mental and  physical 
(Bhaava) has to be that of a servant.  
(a) Salutations to Lord  Narayana  
(b) I surrender myself to the Lord. My existence is merely for the pleasure of  the 
Lord. I surrender the protection of myself to the Lord.  
(c ) I am the servant to Lord Narayana  and Mother Sri Maha  Lakshmi . I am not 
 subservient to anyone else. I am totally depend ent on them  
(d) I surrender myself to the Lord. He is my only protector

361 (e) I will do service to only Lord Narayana  and Sri Maha Lakshmi.  My service is 
 purely for the pleasure of the Lord and Mother and not for myself.  
(f) I will do service to the Lord an d Mother at all times. I will also do service to 
Bhagavathas.  
(g) I own nothing. I belong to the Lord. Anything and everything that I have 
 belongs also to the Lord.  
(h) I do not have any Upaya  (means) other than Prapatti – a total surrender at 
 His feet.   I want Him to bless and release me from the cycle of birth and 
death and do service to Him.   
(i) I cannot protect myself. The Lord has to protect me. I pray to Him to overlook 
 all my sins and bless me with eternal service to Him.  
(j) I belong only to t he Lord. I will do eternal service to Him.   
Dwaya Mantram  
 The Dwaya Mantra  is referred to as the Mantra Ratna.  This helps the 
Sadhaka  to perform Sharanagati  to Lord Narayana.  It is recommended that 
this Mantra be repeated as a Manasika Japa  continuously without any regard 
to time or place.  
 
 Dwayam is considered even superior to Ashtaaksharam . This is because 
Dwayam directly states both the Upaaya (means to be adopted for salvation)  
and Upeya ( indicates the fruit to be gained ) whereas in the Ashtaaksharam  it 
appears in a concised form. The  Dwayam  illustrates the means to be 
adopted and the prayer for the goal. Since this illustrates the two meanings, it 
consists of two lines. Since it has two lines, it is called Dwayam.  
 
 The mantra consists of two sectio ns – 
 
 Poorva Khandam  – “Sriman Narayana Charanau Sharanam Prapadye”  
 Uttara Khandam - “ Srimate Narayanaaya namah”  
 
 Different scholars have interpreted this Mantra  in different ways. They are all 
based on the grouping of the words. Some have treated the  Dwayam  as one 
part (since only one Mantra  is involved). Others have treated it as two parts 
or more. However, the essence remains the same. Here, we will give an

362 interpretation treating the Mantra  as consisting of ten words. The words are 
given below.  
1. Sri 
2. Math  
3. Naaraayana  
4. Charanam  
5. Sharanam  
6. Prapadye  
7. Srimathe  
8. Naaraayana  
9. Aya 
10.Namaha  
 Let us examine each of these words and observe what they convey  
 
a)   Sri   - The common understanding of Goddess Sri Mahalakshmi is that 
She is the Goddess of wealth. Wealth is som ething you can only enjoy 
while you live in this world. Does that mean that Her role is finished once a 
person dies?  
 She is Loka Maata  and like Lord Narayana She has a direct interest in 
the welfare of all Jeevatmas. And as such She has a number of other  
functions as well. One such is the recommendatory function. She also 
leads the Jeevas  to take refuge at the lotus feet of Lord Narayana.  This 
recommendatory function that She performs is called as “ Purusha karat 
vam” . 
      The word “Sri” has six differen t interpretations. All these confirm the 
recommendatory role that She fulfills. They are -  (a) Sreeyathey (b) 
Srayathey (c) Shrunothi (d) Shraviayathi (e) Shrunathai (f) Shreenathai.  
 Taking the first word “ Sreeyathey”  it gives the meaning that all go to 
the Goddess with a request to make them acceptable to the Lord and 
shower His kindness.  
 The second form of “Sri” yields the meaning that Sri Mahalakshmi  
freely reaches Lord Narayana and requests the Lord to accept the Jeevas  
and bless them

363  
b)   Math   -   The word  Math is attached to  Sri.  It signifies togetherness at all 
times.. Goddess Sri Mahalakshmi is inseparable from Lord Narayana.  For 
this reason She is also referred to as “ Anapaayinee”. This togethe rness 
will ensure that whenever the Jeevas approach  the Lord, Mother 
Mahalakshmi  is always there to plead on behalf of the Jeevas. She pleads 
that their faults and sins be overlooked and accept the plea of the  Jeevas 
for liberation.  
 
c) Naaraayana   - While on this, some of the Kalyana Gunas  of Bhagavan 
Naray ana may be recalled. They are (a) Vatsalyam  (Love) (b) 
Swaamitvam  (Lordship) (c) Sowsheelyam  (mixing with every one 
irrespective status etc) (d) Soulabhayam  (Easy to approach) (e) Jnaanam  
(knowledge) (f) Shakti (ability to accomplish anything). These essen tial 
attributes ( Samuchitha guna jatham)  of the Lord are relevant in this 
context .  The sternness of the Lord melts at hearing the pleas from the 
Goddess. He forgives the Jeevas.  
 
d) Charanam  - Charanam  refers to the feet of Lord Naaraayana . The feet of 
the Lord are resting on the lap of the Goddess. They are, in fact, the 
centre for all the qualities attributed to the Lord. The form and the body are 
all auspicious and are referred to as “Divya Mangala”.  
 
e)  Sharanam  - Sharanam is the means to attain the Lord is to take refuge at   
His feet. This is the Upaaya.  
 
f) Prapadye   -  The Jeeva takes refuge at the feet of the Lord.  
 
g) Srimathe  -  We now come to the Uttara Khandam. Srimathe refers to the 
Lord who is always in union with Sri Mahalakshmi. The request is  being 
made to render eternal service (Kainkaryam) to the Divya Damp athi – 
Lord Narayana and Sri Mahalakshmi.  
 
h) Naaraayana   -  This indicates that He is the supreme Lord for all the 
Lokas. As such it is appropriate that all services are to be performed to  
Him only.

364 i) Aya - This indicates a prayer to perform service to the Lord. 
Rendering service includes – service at all places, at all times and at 
all stages. The request also implies the removal all obstacles to 
performing se rvice. The Jeevatma  has taken refuge at the feet of the 
Lord. As a fruit for this refuge a request is being made to give 
permission to serve the Lord eternally.  
 
j)Namah  - Here the request is being made to remove “ Kainkarya 
Virodhi”. The only purpose for the Jeevatma’s  request to render  
service to Lord Narayana and Sri Mahalakshmi is for the happiness 
of the Divya Dampathi – not for the happiness of the Jeevatma . If the 
Jeevatma  starts to enjoy the service then it becomes a “prabala thara 
virodhi”. The request here is for the removal of this obstacle. This is 
the expl anation for the word “Namaha”  . 
 
Charama Shloka  
 
 No one wants to suffer much less die. In fact, we do not want to even get old. Yet, in 
real life this cannot be prevented. Both scientists and seers from India have been 
looking for a solution. The Indian thought has been centered around the fact, that if one 
can get out of the cycle of birth, death and rebirth then we could achieve Moksha  and 
thereby eternal happiness.  
 
 And how do you get out of this cycle? For the Kaliyuga  (the present era) two prominent 
means are available.  (a) Bhakti  (b) Prapatti . 
 
 A number of people are under the impression that Bhakti means  is suitable for a 
common man during the current times and what is being practiced today is the Bhakti 
marga . In fact, both the assumptions are wrong. This does not mean that Bhakti marga  
will not lead us to Moksha.  It is a much more difficult route to follow and even minor 
slips will derail the efforts. More importantly, it is not open for all (sex and caste 
restri ctions apply).  
 
 We will try to understand the requirements for each marga  
 
 There are some activities that everyone has to perform irrespective of which yoga he 
chooses to pursue on his way to salvation. They are called Nitya  and Naimittika  karmas.

365  Nitya karma refers to activities that one has to perform compulsorily. By performing 
these one does not get any benefits or Punya. However, not performing these will incur 
sin or Paapa. Example is Sandhyaavandana. These are called Ajna kainkarya.  
 
Naimittika k arma refers to activities which one has to perform on particular occasions. 
Example is Tarpana during eclipse time.  There are some activities which are desirable 
to perform. By performing these you get Punya. However, not performing these will not 
attract Paapa. They are called Anujna Kainkarya.  
 
(a) Karma Yoga  
 Karma Yoga is consecration of all actions and their fruits to Lord. In other 
words, it is the performance of duties with no thought of reaping of any 
benefit. It is to be done as a service to the lo rd and purely for the purpose of 
pleasing Him and not yourself. It is the Yoga  of action which purifies the heart 
and prepares the Antahkarana (the heart and the mind ) for the attainment of 
Divine light or attainment of the knowledge of the self. When you act, what 
binds you to Samsara  is not the action but the idea of doer- ship and enjoyer 
-ship.  If you act with the thought that your are acting as an instrument in the 
hands of God and without expectation for the fruits of the action then it does 
not bind you. Surrender both the action and the fruits to God.  When Karma 
Yoga  is properly done Karma  Yoga  can lead to Jnana Yoga.  Or Karma Yoga  
can also directly lead to Bhakti Yoga  – bypassing Jnana Yoga.  
 
(b)  Jnana Yoga  
 The aim of Jnana Yoga is Atma -Saakshat kaara . Unceasing meditation on the 
true nature of the self (atman) is the means to be adopted to obtain a direct 
vision of the self ( Atmaavalokana ). This is possible only after one has 
attained control over the mind and senses. Once this has been achieved it 
will, in turn, help to achieve realization of God by Bhakti Yoga.   
The practice of Jnana Yoga  requires strict observance of Yoga  practice as 
described in the Bhagavad Gita . The eightfold moral and spiritual discipline 
as detained in Ashtanga Yoga  will n eed to be practiced. This is not an end in 
itself. The practice of Bhakti Yoga  or meditation on God will be the next step 
from the stage of Jnana Yoga . The bliss derived from Paramatma 
Saaksha tkaara  is far superior to Atmaavalokana . 
 
(c) Bhakti Yoga  
 Bhakt i and Prapatt i are the two Saadhya Upaayaas  (means) through which 
the Baddha Jeevatmas  become eligible to be considered for the grant of 
Moksha. It must be stressed that these two methods by themselves do not

366 guarantee the attainment of Moksha. In the end it is the grace of Sriman 
Narayana  that will decide as to who will be blessed with this ultimate goal of 
Moksha .  
 Bhakti Yoga  cannot even be started before achieving Atma - Saakshatkaara  
by performing Karma Yoga  or Jnana Yoga.   
 Bhakti Yoga  is the most dif ficult to practice. Even if one succeeds in 
faultlessly practicing the marga , the award of Moksha  is not guaranteed to 
occur at the end of the present birth of the Sadhak . It may take a few births 
before it can materialize.   
 Sometimes, Bhakti  is interpre ted as “devotion” to Sriman Narayana which 
need not be the matured state of Jnana as expressed in scriptures.  
 There are seven pre -requisites for Bhakti Yoga . They are – 
 
(1) Viveka:  Discrimination in the food that you take  
(2) Vimoka:  Only desire is to me ditate on Lord Narayana  
(3) Abhyasa : Practice worshiping Lord Narayana  with vigour  as per 
details given  in scriptures  
(4)  Kriya : Proper adherence to Varna ashrama dharma  ( note some 
varnas  are not eligible to do this)  
(5)  Kalyana:  Practice virtues like truthfulness, integrity, compassion, 
benevolence, ahimsa etc  
(6)  Anavasaada:  Freedom from despair due to disappointments and 
calamities  
(7) Anuddarsa:  Avoid excessive  joy or absence of it  
 
It must be pointed out, one still needs the grace of God to be granted Moksha.  
 
(d)  Prapatti  
 There is a common belief that, in this Kali Yuga, Bhakti  marga  is the most 
suitable means for a common man to attain Moksha  and what is being practiced 
now is Bhakti marga . In fact, both the assumptions are incorrec t.  
 
 In this age of Kali Yuga,  Prapatti  offers a sublime path for attaining the grace of 
Lord Narayana.   
 
 Prapatti is self surrender or Saranaagati . God is the devotee’s sole refuge and 
the only saviour. So the desire to surrender to Lord Narayana and  to serve Him is 
in the nature of things.

367  Prapatti is also referred to by other names – (Atma) nikshepa, Nyasa vidya, 
Tyaaga, Saranaagati , and Bhara Nyasa. It can be performed by anybody 
irrespective of age, sex or caste. The details are given Ahirbudhnya samhita . 
There are references to it in the Puranas as well. The main qualifications for a 
Mumu kshu (one desiring Moksha) wanting to adopt Prapatti are as follows – 
 
(1) Akinchanyam : Destituteness which may result from (a) Lack of 
mental / physical strength o r knowledge of scriptures to adopt 
Bhakti Yoga. Also cannot tolerate delays  
(2) Ananyagatitvam : Seek Lord Narayana as the sole refuge and does 
not accept any other reward other than Moksham  
(3) Anukoolyasya Sankalpam : Only do acts that will please Lord 
Narayana and Goddess Maha Lakshmi  
(4) Pratikoolyasya Varjanam : Avoid doing acts that will displease the 
Divine couple  
(5) Kaarpanya:  Feeling utter helplessness and total dependence on 
His grace  
(6) Maha Vishvasam : Intense faith in Divya dampatis  
(7) Goptrtva Varanam : Begging Lord Narayana for offering protection  
(8) Kartrutva Tyaga : Reject the idea that you are responsible for doing 
the acts. It is due to the Lord’s grace that you are able to perform 
the act of Prapatti  
(9) Mamata Tyaga : Give up the thought of mine. Everyt hing is being 
done for the pleasure of the Lord.  
(10) Phala Tyaga : Give up the thought that the fruit for performing 
Prapatti goes  to you. It belongs to only to Lord Narayana.  
 
 In the Bhagavad Gita , Chapter 18, Sloka  66 we come across the famous 
Charama Sloka .  This is the noblest Sloka  in the Bhagavad Gita . This has been 
extensively commented upon by Acharyas  and Scholars . For a common man / 
woman, ignorant of shastras , unable to stand -up to the rigid demands of Karma 
yoga / Jnana Yoga / Bhakti Yoga and looking for a  Tarunopaya , Lord Krishna  
throws the life line and a guarantee.

368  
   
 The Sloka is given below – 
 
 Sarvadharmaan parityajya maam ekam saranam vraja |  
Aham thvaa sarva paapebhyo Moksha yishyaami maa sucha: ||  
 
In short it means – 
 
 Only those, who have mastered Shastras  and acquired exceptional 
command, can practice Karma yoga, Jnaana yoga  and Bhakti  yoga  
successfully. Others will conclude, after their difficulties in practicing, that 
these yogas are not meant for them. They will then drop out i n their quest for  
Moksha  altogether.  
 “As a result, the above three  yogas  are recommended only for the 
knowledgeable and competent ones in Shastras . All the others, who are 
overwhelmed by their personal deficiencies, are instructed to approach Me 
and surr ender unto Me. I will stand in the place of all these difficult upaayams 
and grant them the fruits of Moksha”.  
 
Refer to diagram given below.

Roots – Selected Sthutis  
369  
Sadhak  Karma Yoga - Qualifications  
Should be absolutely free from 
Greed, Lust, Anger, Egoism, 
Humble, Fearless. He should bear 
– disrespect, Dishonor, disgrace, 
harsh words. Have no attachment 
to fruits of actions. Dedicate his 
actions to the Lotus feet of God  
Jnana Yoga  Pre requisites  
(4) Mumukchutva Seven Stages of 
Jnana (Jnana Bhumikas)  
Tanumanasi(4) Sattvapatti (5) Asamsakti 
(6) Padartha Bhavana (7) Turiya  Perform Nitya, Naimittika, 
Moksha  Surrender to the Lord 
for His grace  Bhakti Yoga  
Perfect it through 
Ashtanga Yoga.  
General pre requites for 
Bhakti Yoga -(1) Viveka (2) 
Vimoka (3) Abhyasa (3) 
Kriya  
Prapatt i Marga  
The main qualifications for a 
 Atma 
avaloka
na

370 
 Chapter IX -   Hindu Yoga  
 
Indian thinkers did not separate the goal of life from the view  of life. Man’s view of 
life matures by what he wants to achieve in his life. This resolve, in turn, leads him 
to attain some goals of life.  
In Sanskrit, the word Artha has many meanings. In this context, it means “goal”. 
What is sought after by everyone is called Purushaartha. Purusha in this case does 
not refer to a male person only. It also refers to females as well. In fact, 
Purushaa rtha here refers to Manushya artha . We may have hundreds of goals to be 
achieved in our lives. All the goals may be class ified into 4 categories. They are 
called “Chaturvidha  Purusharthas ”. The Purusharthas are – Artha, Kama, Dharma  
and Moksha.  The fourth one, Moksha , is God realisation.  
There are five spiritual paths for God -realisation. They are Karma Yoga, Bhakti 
Yoga, R aja Yoga , Jnana Yoga and Prapatti marga . It must be stressed here, that 
Yoga  is not to be understood in the naturalist view, but in the  Aadhyaatmika  way. 
Yoga  really means Union with God. It must be cautioned that the goal of  Moksha is 
not an easy fruit to  get at – irrespective of the path chosen. In addition, 
notwit hstanding the path you choose and the perfection you may achieve at it, 
ultimately God’s grace is essential. At the end, it is the grace of the God that will 
result in Moksha  
Karma Yoga  
 
Karma Yoga  is the path of action. Work brings as its effect or fruit in terms of either 
pleasure or pain. In addition, each work adds a link to our bondage of Samsara  
leading to repeated births. This is the inexorable law of Karma. Karma Yoga  
teaches a way by wh ich this link to our bondage could be avoided. Karma  when it is 
done with the right mental attitude, right spirit, right -will through Yoga,  without 
attachment, and expectation of fruits, without the idea of agency or doership, and 
with a mind balanced in s uccess and failure – then the link to bondage does not 
occur. The Karma Yogi  should dedicate his actions at the altar of God with the 
feeling of Ishvara -arpana . Non attachment brings freedom from sorrow and fear. As 
he ded icates his actions at the Lotus fe et of the Lord, he develops devotion to God 
and a pproaches Him nearer and nearer.  A rigid moral discipline and control of 
senses are indispensable for the practice of Karma Yoga.  Practice of Brahmacharya

371 
 is esse ntial. Cultivation of a number of virtues are  also essential such as – 
tolerance, adaptability, sympathy, mercy, equal vision, balance of mind, patience, 
perseve rance, humility, generosity, nobility, self -restraint, control of anger, non -
violence, truthfulness, eating habits, simple living and endura nce are essential.  
The practice of Karma Yoga  does not demand that you should possess enormous 
wealth. You can serve with your body and mind. God is more pleased with one who 
helps the helpless people than with a rich man conducting puja with pomp and 
vanity. 
Jnana Yoga  
 
Jnana yoga  is the path of knowledge. The student of Jnana yoga  has to equip 
himself with four means. They are (a) Discrimination ( Viveka ) (b) Dispassion 
(Vairagya ) (c) the six -fold virtues otherwise called Shat-Sampat -viz., tranquillity 
(Sama ), restraint ( Dama ), renunciation ( Uparati ), endurance ( Titiksha ), faith 
(Shraddha ) and concentration ( Samadhana ). In addition the Sadhak  must have a 
strong earning for liberation ( Mumukshutva ). The he hears the scriptures sitting at 
the feet of a com petent Guru  who is both (a) learned in scriptures ( Srotriya ) (b) well 
established in Brahman  (Brahma -Nishta ). After this the Sadhak  practices reflection 
which will r esult in dispelling all doubts. Finally, he practices deep meditation on 
Brahman which will  lead to Brahma Saakshatkaara .  
There are seven stages of Jnana  or knowledge: viz., (1) aspiration for the right 
(Subhechha ) (2) Philosophical enquiry (Vicharana) (3) Subtlety of mind 
(Tanum anasi) (4) Attainment of light ( Sattvapatti ) (5) Inner detachment  (Asamsakti ) 
(6) Spir itual vision (Padarthabhavana) and (7) Supreme freedom ( Turiya ).  
It may be appropriate to state here that there is a vast difference in the meaning of 
Jnana  between the Advaita  and Vishishtadvaita  systems. In the  Advaita , it is the 
intuitive understanding that the  Jiva is one with the  Ishvara. In the  Vishishtadvaita at 
the first level it is to be understood that one is Atman and not a mere body - mind. 
An aspirant who has achieved this moves on by gradual effort to get a continuous 
and unobstructed flow of consciousness towards the Supreme Lord.  
Raja Yoga  
 
Raja yoga is the path that leads to union with the Lord through self -restraint and 
control of mind. It teaches on (a) how to control the senses and the thought waves

372 
 (mental Vrittis ) that arise from the mind (c) how to commune with God. While 
phys ical discipline is taught in Hatha Yoga, Raja yoga  teaches mental discipline.  
Eight limbs of Raja Yoga :  Yama, Niyama, Asana, Pranayama, Pratyahara, 
Dharana, Dhyana  and Samadhi  are the ei ght limbs of Raja yoga.  This is also 
referred to as Ashtanga Yoga.  Yama  and Niyama  constitute the ethical discipline 
which purifies the heart.  
Yama     - consists of (1)  Ahimsa  (non-injury) (2) Satya  (truthfulness) (3) 
Brahmacharya  (continence) (4) Asteya  (non-stealing) and (5) Aparigraha  (non-
receiving of gifts conducive to luxury).  
Niyama    - is observance. It consists of (1) Saucha  (internal and external purity) (2) 
Santosha  (contentment)  (3) Tapas  (austerity) (4) Svadhyaya  (study of scriptures 
and Ja pa of mantras) (5) Ishvara - Pranidhana  (self surrender to God). He who is 
well established in Yama  and Niyama will make a quick progress in Yoga.   
Asana, Pranayama  and Pratyahara  are preliminary accessories to Yoga:  
 Asana  is steady pose.  
Pranayama  is regulation of breath.  
Pratyahara  is withdrawal of senses from their objects.  
Dharana  is concentration of mind on any object – chakra  or Ishta -devata  for 
example.  
Dhyana  is meditation on one object.  
Samadhi  – Dhynana  leads to Samadhi , where the meditato r and the meditated 
become one. All Vrittis  or waves of the mind subside. Concentration is the key to 
success. It may take some time to master but it is essential to attain Samadhi.  
 
Bhakti Yoga  
 
Due to lack of an appropriate word, the term Bhakti  is some times used to imply 
“devotion” to the Supreme Being which need not be the matured state of  Jnana  
called for. It is generally assumed that processes like Bhagavat Kalyana Guna 
sravanam, Nama sankeertanam , visiting holy places, bathing in holy rivers, 
conduc ting rituals etc automatically assure the devotee of salvation or Moksha.  This

373 
 is not true at all. It is not everything that becomes Bhakti.  Surely these acts 
culminate in either Bhakti or Prapatti (to be dealt with a little later). Yet there is still a 
fair way to go to achieve the goal. Let us understand Bhakti.  
There are seven general pre -requisites for Bhakti Yoga.  They are – (1) Viveka 
(discrimination. Purification of body through proper intake of satvik food) (2) Vimoka 
(Freedom. Renounce all desire s other than meditating on God) (3) Abhyasa 
(practice. Worship the Lord with full enthusiasm. Would involve strict adherence to 
scriptures etc) (4) Kriya (work. Proper adherence to varnashrama dharma mainly 
dealing with pancha maha yajnas.) (5) Kalyana  (auspiciousness. Practice virtues 
like trut hfulness, integrity, compassion, benevolence, ahimsa  etc) (6) Anavasada  
(being without any despair due to disappointment and completely forgetting all past 
sorrows) (7) Anurddharsa (absence of exaltation. No excess j oy or absence of it).  
In essence, Bhakti may be equated to Dhyana  and Upasana. Dhyana  means 
concentration of mind on Him and Upasana  is continuous thought of Him. Sri 
Raman ujacharya divides Bhakti into three stages of development – (a) Sadhana 
Bhakti  (practice of devotional means) (b) Para Bhakti  (higher devotion  
(c) Parama Bhakti  (Supreme devotion).  
Sadhana Bhakti  is a strong faith in God. The aspirant then turns to the scriptures 
and teachers (who impart correct knowledge of Self, Nature and God). Duti es of life 
have to be done without attachment. Karma Yoga  and Jnana Yoga  have to be 
practiced together. Aspirant must overcome the identification of Self as Body. All 
this is possible for a highly qualified aspirant but almost impossible for an average 
one. 
Vishishtadvaita  scholars argue that severe practice of  Karma and Jnana Yoga can 
only bring forth a stage for performing Bhakti yoga . The person performing Jnana 
yoga  (constant meditation on self or Jivatma) is known as  Kevala. It results in Atma 
Saakshat kaara  (self realisation). On the contrary, the person performing Bhakti 
yoga  is called Jnani.  This results in God realisation. The perfection of Bhakti yoga  is 
through Ashtanga Yoga  described above.  
 
Prapatti Marga (Bhara Sam arpana Yoga  or Nyasa  Yoga)  
 
 Vishishtadvaita  scholars point out that Bhakti Marga  does lead the devotee to attain 
Moksha . However, it may take several births to achieve it. It can only be practiced 
by scholars who have studied Shastras.  One may ask the question “Can you love

374 
 God really?  Does every part of your being respond to the love of God?” This is a 
very important question. Nobody can love truly unless God grants one such love 
through His grace. To love truly means that one cannot live without love of God. 
Some great men, like the Alwars  or the Saiva  saints withstood this test. An ordinary 
man may find that he is not capable of reaching any level , either because of his 
birth or because of his status or because of his condition or because of the debacle 
that comes to man at any time.  As such a large section of people find they ineligible 
to practice it. He may ask “To whom shall I go? Who will save me?”  
 This leads us to an important Yoga  to which Sri Vaishnavism  has referred to as 
Bhara Samarpana  Yoga  or Nyasa  Yoga.  This is a unique feature of Gita.  Says our 
Lord “ sarvadharman  parityajya mam ekam saranam vraja; aham tvam 
sarvap apebhyo moksayisyami, ma  sucah ” – “If you cannot do all the three yogas 
and even if you are lingering over, surrender all of them and take me alone as your 
sole Refuge. Surrender unto me and I shall take you through the whole yoga.” 
Yogaksemam vahamyaham . Here ksema  is freedom; and Yoga  is again to eternally 
abide with one’s God,  in all parts. This Mantra  has been expounded with 
extraordinary lucidity by the Sri Vaishnava Acharyas.  The Alwars have stated this 
position of Omnip otence of God’s grace firmly. In essence surrender is the 
fundamental thing that will lead us further to the ultimate state of living in God. Do 
not have any doubts about God’s grace. Your ca pacity for reasoning into God’s 
nature  or your capacity to pe rform Yajnas is very limited. And we do not, nowadays, 
have even teachers to tell us how to perform them. For example, we all are aware 
that we are not able to do Karma Yoga , nor able to follow Jnana Yoga . Most of us 
do not know how to do Ashtanga Yoga. Gita  says, “I am the path. I am the Upaya ; I 
am your Purushartha;  in me you shall find your freedom.”  
 If a man is solely devoted to God and surrenders to Him, he has done all that has to 
be done. If he does it, and does it consistently through abyasa , that is, pursues it, 
holding on to the feet of the Lord without those vices of mankind, namely 
asuya , envy and greed, he will achieve the goal, namely God Realisation  which is 
Moksha . That is how the whole thing has been so brilliantly summarized in the last 
chapter of the message of  Gita.  
Here Sri Aurobindo  brilliantly explains the beginning of spiritual  life or describes 
God’s Yoga  as leading to Divine  Evolution. He says “You must find the Lord act ing 
through you in every one of your limbs and in every one of your parts and see the 
transformation  of mind  and body.” The surrender  of each part is necessary.   You 
may say it is a very difficult process. You may say, “How can I surrender?” the 
answer is “Do not worry. Be surrendering to God. Only keep yourself fit for God. Do 
not obstruct God’s activity”. God’s love for man is something very different from

375 
 man’s love for God. When you surrender your entire offering of love to God, then 
God reveals His lov e to you by giving Himself to you. His takes up residence in you 
consciously, moulds it and changes you completely. This is what we mean by the 
descent of God which leads to the ascent of the man.  
 The main qualifications for a mumukshu to adopt  Prapatti  are:  
(1) Akinchanyam : Destituteness which may result either due to one’s lack of 
mental and physical strength to adopt Bhakti Yoga , lack of requisite knowledge from 
Shastras,  prohibition by  Shastras  regarding the adoption of Bhakti Yoga  
(2) Ananyagatitva m: Seeking the Supreme Lord Sriman Narayana  as the sole 
refuge with complete aversion to all fruits other than Moksha  
Prapatti  has the following five angas (accessories).  
(1) Anukoolyasya Sankalpam : Determination to perform whatever is 
pleasing to Srima n Narayana  
(2) Pratikoolyasya Varjanam : Avoidance of acts that are displeasing 
to Sriman Narayana.   
(3) Karpanyam : Feeling of utter helplessness. Utter dependence on the 
mercy of the Divya Dampati  is needed.  
(4) Maha Vishvasam : Intense faith that Sriman N arayana  will certainly 
grant Moksha Extensive  knowledge in various fields of Shastras 
wouldn’t necessarily yield this supreme unshakable faith.  
(5) Goptrtva Varanam:  Begging Sriman Narayana  for offering 
prote ction. This is the prayer to the Lord for grant ing Moksha  
Performance of Prapatti is done with satvika tyaga . The three components of the 
satvika tyaga  are:  
1. Kartrutva tyaga : One should shed the doership attitude and 
realize that Sriman Narayana  is the actual doer, since it is the 
ocean of His daya th at is responsible for one to perform the act 
of Prapatti.  
2. Mamata tyaga : One should give up the thought of “mine” while 
performing Prapatti.  It is also done for the pleasure of Sriman 
Narayana.

376 
 3. Phala tyaga : One should give up the thought that the fruit of  
performing Prapatti  belongs to him/her and realize that the fruit 
of Prapatti also belongs to Sriman Narayana.   
In the Vaishnava  tradition demands made on the devotees, practicing Bhakti and 
Prapatti  are illustrated by what are called Markata Kishora Nyay a and Maarjala 
Kishora Nyaya . In the Ma rkata Kishora Nyaya a baby monkey holds on tightly to its 
mother while being transported from place to place. Its safety depends on how 
tightly it is holding on to the mother. In the case of Maarjala Kishora Nyaya  the 
mother cat carries the baby without any effort from the baby. The case of Prapatti 
marga is similar to the Maarjala Kishora Nyaya.  The devotee’s absolute resignation 
to the Lord makes the Lord both the means and end.

377 
  
Chapter – X -  Of Bodies, Sheaths, A vasthsas and Gunas   
 
The purpose of life is to realize one’s essential nature. But it is not easy to achieve. 
We tend to identify the Atman  with the body. This is called Deha -Adhyasa. This is 
the greatest obstacle to Self -Knowledge or Atma -Jnana. To get over the delusion, 
ancient seers have made a systematic and detailed analysis and proved that Jiva is 
not the body. The study of the three bodies, the five sheaths, and the three states of 
waking, dream and deep sleep helps a man to understand  that he is different from 
these modifications. He has to transcend all these in his journey to Self -knowledge.  
Bodies  
  
The Jiva is enveloped by several layers (or bodies ) of matter. These are there 
toassist in our objective awareness. The physical or gross body consists of three 
bodies.  
 
(a) The physical or gross body ( Sthula shareera )  
 
(b) the subtle body ( Sookshma shareera )  
 
(c) causal ( Karana shareera ) are the three bodies.  
 
Brief details about them are given below. From the time of birth, the  body 
unde rgoes changes and they are called Shad -bhava -vikaras . The human being 
gradually gets drawn into  Samsara  and the links are explained below.  
 
From  Ajnana  (ignorance), Aviveka  (non-discrimination between real and the unreal) 
is born.

378 
  
From Aviveka  is born Ahamkara (ego).  
 
 Ahamkara , in turn, leads to Raga -dvesha  (likes and dislikes).  
 
Karma  (action) arises from Raga -dvesha .  
 
From Karma  the body or  Deha  is produced.  
 
This chain of Samsara , involving birth and death, will continue till a deliberat e effort 
is made. This can be done by destroying  Ajnana (ignorance), the root cause for the  
Samsara , through the attainment of knowledge of Brahman.        
Sheaths  
 
 The human being is composite of physical and psychological aspects that function 
together a s a holistic system. The Kosha  system refers to these different aspects as 
layers of subjective experience. The layers range from the dense physical body to 
the more subtle levels of emotions, mind etc.  
 Kosha  means sheath. There are five illusory Koshas . These Koshas  envelop the 
Atman  (Self). Due to ignorance man naturally identifies himself with these illusory  
 
sheaths. The diagram given above   illustrates the point.  
The five sheaths

379 
   (1) Annamaya; (2) Pranamaya; (3 ) Manomaya ; (4) Vijnanamaya  and  
(5) Anandamaya Kosha . 
 
 Man identifies himself with the Pranamaya Kosha  and thinks 'I am hungry, I 
am thirsty, and I  did this action.' In fact, the Pranamaya Kosha  is quite 
foreign to the real Self.  Man identifies himself with the Manomaya Kosha  
and regards himself as the thinker and thinks 'I am angry, I am lustful, I am 
greedy.' In fact, the Manomaya Kosha  is entirely distinct from the real Self of 
man.  Man identifies himself with the Vijnanamaya Kosha  and regards 
himself as the cognisor and thinks 'I am intelligent, I know everything, I am 
the enjoyer.'  
 
Man identifies himself with the Anandamaya Kosha and feels 'I am happy.'  
 
Both the Vijnanamaya and the Anandamaya Koshas are quite foreign to the 
real Self of man.  
 Through meditation the intellect of the man becomes pure. He develops the 
faculty of true discrimination between the real and the unreal, between the 
permanent and impermanent. Step by step he abandons one Kosha after 
another and eventually attains the knowledge of unity with Brahman.  
 The A nnamaya Kosha constitutes the gross physical body.  
The Pranamaya, the Manomaya  and the Vijnanamaya Koshas  constitute the 
Linga Shareera   r subtle body (astral body).  The Anandamaya Kosha   
constitutes the causal body ( Karana Shareera ). The physical body i s formed 
of the essence of food. The subtle body is formed of un-compounded  
elements. The casual body is formed of Samskaras  or Moola Ajnana  
(primitive ign orance). The Birth and death are the Dharmas  (attributes) of the 
Annamaya Kosha.   Anandamaya Kosha  is the cause for the remaining four 
sheaths.  
 
Hunger and thirst are the  Dharmas  of the Pranamaya Kosha.   
Moha  (delusion) and  Shoka  (grief) are the attributes of the Manomaya 
Kosha.  
The Atman  is ever pure and unattached. He is absolutely free from the Shad

380 
 Urmis or six waves of the ocean of Samsara , viz., birth, death, hunger, thirst, 
delusion and grief.  
 The physical body operates during the waking state. The subtle body 
functions during the dreaming state; and the causal body operates during 
deep -sleep stat e. During deep -sleep it is the thin veil of Anandamaya Kosha  
that separates the individual soul from the supreme Soul or Brahman . 
 
The following table gives brief details of the bodies and the Koshas.  
Jagadguru Shankaracharya  has written commentaries on al l the principal 
Upanishads. He explains that Maya  is the material cause of the Universe.  
Maya  is made up of the  Gunas  – Sattva  (purity), Rajas (passion) and Tamas  
(darkness).  Tamas is the cause of Annamaya Kosha. So inertness 
predom inates in this Kosha . It is not endowed with Kriya Shakti  (power of 
action) or Jnana Shakti  (power of cognition).  
 Rajas is the cause of the Pranamaya Kosha . It is endowed with Kriya Shakti  
(power of action).  The cause of the Manomaya Kosha  is Sattva  mixed with 
Tamas . Therefore the Tamasic  qualities, hatred etc., are present in the mind.  
The cause of the  Vijnanamaya  Kosha is Sattva  mixed with Rajas . Man as 
mind and intellect ( Buddhi ) is a product of Jnana -Shakti.  Through Jnana - 
Shakti  man gets the knowledge as how to possess hi s desired  objects. Through  
Kriya Shakti  he exerts and possesses the objects . 
Gunas, Avasthas and Vrittis  
Gunas  
 
The mind has three Gunas . They are  
 
(a)  Sattva  (light, bliss, goodness);  
 
(b)  Rajas (passion and motion)  
 
(c)  Tamas (inertia, darkness).

381 
  There are three Vrittis  in the mind corresponding to the three Gunas.   
(1) Santa Vritti  (peace) comes out of Sattva Guna . Equilibrium comes out of this  
Guna . 
(2) Ghora Vritti  comes out of Rajo Guna.  Anger comes out of this Guna.  
(3) Mudha Vritti comes out of Tamo Guna . This Guna  yields carelessness, 
laziness and drowsiness.  
Sattva Guna:  
 Fearlessness and purity of heart will be displayed. It is favourable for the attainment 
of Moksha . The mind will always be steady. The person may stick to one pl ace for a 
long time. The person will keep friendship with persons for a long time. There will be 
purity of thought (Bhava Samsuddhi) and purity of heart ( Sattva Samsuddhi ). 
Rajo Guna:  
 The person will be troubled by a hostile force which will pull him d own to Samsara . 
He will exhibit vices like Damba, Darpa, and Krodha  etc. The person will be 
restless. It will force him to continuous work. Rajasic  type always wants company 
and talk. They have a tendency to look into defects of others. They remember bad 
deeds done to them by others and forget good deeds done by them. At times 
intense Rajas turns into Sattvic.   
Tamo Guna:  
 Tamas has two basic characteristics: gurutva  (heaviness) and avarnaka (the 
capacity of covering or concealing). Due to its gurutva gu na, it suppresses and 
dominates over rajas and Sattva  gunas. The third characteristic or the result of 
Tamoguna  is visada, which refers to ignorance (ajnana), delusions (moha or mithya 
jnana), depression and similar properties  
       
Avasthas  
Avasthas  Mind has got three Avasthas  (states) – Jagrat (waking state), Svapna 
(dreaming state) and the Sushupti (deep sleep state).  
 
Jagrat Avastha  (waking state):  
  The individual soul is called awake as long as it is connected with external objects 
by means of the m odifications of the mind. It identifies itself with the gross body

382 
 which is one of those external objects. During waking state the mind occupies the 
brain  
Svapna Avastha (dreaming State):  
  
           In dream, the senses are thrown off. The senses are qu iet and absorbed in the 
mind. Mind alone plays during dream state. Objects observed during waking state 
are used by the mind to project various forms. In the dream, the mind assumes 
different forms – flowers, mountains etc. In a dream, you could be talking  to people 
whom you never met. The objects seen perceived during a dream have an external 
reality to the dreamer only and no one else. The mind is the subject. It is also the 
object. The seer and the seen are one. The perception takes place through an 
internal organ called “Manas”.  So it is called “inner perception”.  The difference 
between the waking state and the dreaming state is this. During waking state the 
mind depends on outward impressions. During dream state the mind creates its 
own i mpressions and  enjoys them. In other words, in the Jagrat  state objects exist 
independent of the mind. In the Svapna state, objects are manufactured out of the 
mind. When the mind drops to waking state, all dream objects vanish.  
Sushupti Avastha  (deep sleep state)  
 
 When the mind enters Puritat Nadi , the state of deep sleep sets in. In Dridah 
Sushupti  (dreamless sleep) there is no play of mind. In here there is no play of 
Indriyas or organs. There is neither Raga  nor Dvesha  (attraction or dislike). You feel 
that you hav e existed even during sleep as soon as you are awake. Vedantins build 
their philosophy around this Sushupti Avastha . Sri Shankara  observes that the 
phenomena of duality caused by the action of the mind are present in the waking 
and dreaming states only, bu t absent in deep sleep state. In waking and dreaming 
states, there is the play of the thoughts (and the simultaneous occurrence of names 
and forms) and hence the world as well. In dreamless sleep, there are no thoughts; 
and hence, there is no world too. We  taste the nature of absolute bliss in dreamless 
sleep, where a man is cut off from the distracting world. It is the mind that creates 
differences, distinctions, duality and separateness.

Roots - Hindu Yoga  
383 
  
Components  5 1. Earth (Prithvi)  
2. Water (Apah)  
3. Fire (Tejas)  
4. Air (Vayu)  
5. Space (Akasa)   Principles ( Tattvas ) 19 5- Jnana Indriyas  
5- Karma Indriyas  
5- Pranas  
1- Manas ( mind)  
1- Buddhi ( intellect)  
1- Chitta  
1- Ahamkara  
The Sookshma 
Shareera gets 
dissolved in Videha 
Mukti.  What is Karana 
Shareera  The great ignorance that is 
indescribable is called the 
causal body. It is the cause 
of gross and subtle bodies.  
 Essences  7 1. Chyle (Rasa)  
2. Blood (Asra)  
3. Flesh (Mamsa)  
4. Fat ( Medas)  
5. Bone (Asthi)  
6. Marrow (Majja)  
7. Seman ( Sukla)  
Table -1 
Shad 
Vikaras  6  1. Existence ( Asti)  
2. Birth (Jayate)  
3. Growth (Vardhate)  
4. Change (Viparinamate)  
5. Decay (Apaksheeyate)  
6. Death (Vinashyate)     
Links to 
Samsara  7 1. Body ( deha)  
2.  Action (karma ) 
 3&4 Love and hate ( raga-
dvesha)  
5. Egoism  (ahankara)  
6. Non -discrimination 
(aviveka)  
6. Ajnana (ignorance).  
Because the body decays  Bodies  
Sthula Shareera  Sookshma Shareera  Karana Shareera

384 
    
 (Sheeryate ) due to old age 
it is called Sharira . Because 
it is cremated or burnt 
(dahyate),  it is called  Deha .  
 Location of Koshas  in the Shareera  
 Sthula 
Shareera  Sookshma 
Shareera  Karana 
Shareera  
1. Annamaya Kosha  
  
2. Pranamaya Kosha.   
  
  
3. Manomaya Kosha   
  
  
4. Vijnanamaya Kosha   
 
  
5. Anandamaya Kosha   
 
 
Table -3 Sheaths – Table -2 
Kosha  means sheath. The body has 5 sheaths. The Atman  is covered by these 5 sheaths. Anandamaya Kosha  is 
the subtlest of them all. In decreasing order of subtlety come the rest of the  Koshas  – Vijnanamaya Kosha , 
Manomaya Kosha, Pranamaya Kosha  and Annamaya Kosha.  
 1. Annamaya Kosha  
2. Pranamaya 
Kosha.  It is the food sheath. It is 
called so because it lives 
on food. It is the gross

385 
 body made up of 5 gross 
elements  
3. Manomaya 
Kosha  It is made up of Pranas 
(vital airs) plus the 5 
karmendriyas  (organs of 
action) There are 5 Mukhya  
Pranas plus 5 Upa Pranas  
(a) Mukya Pranas  - 5 
     1. Prana  
     2. Apana  
     3. Vyana  
     4. Udana  
     5. Samana  
 
(b)  Upa Pranas  - 5 
     1. Naga  
     2. Kurma  
     3. Krikara  
     4. Devadutta  
     5. Dhananjaya  
  
Functions  
1. Prana : Inhalation & 
Exhalation  
2. Apana : Excretion of farces 
& Urine  
3. Vyana : Circulation of blood  
4. Udana : (a) Helps digestion  
 (b) Takes Jiva to rest in deep 
sleep  
(c) Separates astral body from 
physical body at the time of 
death  
5. Samana : Digest ion of food  
Functions  
1. Naga : Burping  
2. Kurma : Opening & closing 
of eyelids  
3. Krikara:  Causing hunger  
4. Devadutta:  
    (a) Nourishing the body  
    (b) Decompose body after 
death  
    (c) Eject child out of womb 
at the time of child birth  
4. Vijnanamay a 
Kosha  This is the Mind sheath  It consists of - 
1. Mind (Manas )  
2. Subconscious ( Chitta )  
3. Plus Five Jnanendriyas 
(Sense organs)

386 
  
 5. Anandamaya 
Kosha  It is the Intellectual sheath  It consists of - 
Intellectual and the ego 
working with the help of 
Five Jnanendriyas   How many sheaths operate during  
 Waking 
state  Dreaming 
state  Deep sleep 
state  
1. Annamaya Kosha     
2. Pranamaya Kosha     
3. Manomaya Kosha     
4. Vijnanamaya Kosha     
5. Anandamaya Kosha     
Table -4

387 
  
Sattva 
Guna 
  
Rajo 
Guna  
  
Tamo 
Guna  
1. Annamaya Kosha  
   
 
 
2. Pranamaya Kosha   
 
 
 
3. Manomaya Kosha     
4. Vijnanamaya Kosha  
  
  
  
 
5. Anandamaya Kosha  
    
Table -5 
 
 Vikaras  & Dharmas  of various Koshas  
1. Annamaya Kosha  Vikaras : Existenc e, birth, growth, change, decay 
and death  
2. Pranamaya Kosha  Dharmas:  Hunger, thirst, heat and cold.  
3. Manomaya Kosha  Vikaras:  Sankalpa - Vikalpa  (thinking & 
doub ting), anger, lust, harsha (exhilaration), 
Shoka (depression) and Moha.  
4. Vijnanamaya Ko sha Functions:  Discrimination and determination, 
Kartritva and Bhoktritva  (agency and 
enjoye rship)  
5. Anandamaya Kosha  Dharma:  Experience of happiness.  
Table -6

Roots - Sanatana Dharma  
388 
 Chapter – XI -   Sanatana Dharma  
Definition of Dharma  
 
That which brings well -being to man is  Dharma . The word Dharma  is derived 
from the root Dhar , meaning to hold. That which holds the whole creation from 
macrocosm to microcosm is Dharma . It is the eternal Divine  law of the Lord. 
The entire creation is held toge ther and sustained by the law of the Supreme 
Being. Dharma  covers not just external deeds only but also the internal or 
mental practices. According to the Hindus, Dharma  comes from the Divine 
and leads you to the Divine. It is difficult to find a word in E nglish which is 
equivalent to the word Dharma  in Sanskrit. Sometimes it is defined as 
“righteousness” or “duty”. The best definition for Dharma  has been given by 
Rishi Kanada , the founder of the Vaiseshika  system of philosophy. He defines 
it as “Yato -bhyud ayanihsreyasa -siddhih sa dharmah”.  It means “that which 
leads to the attainment of Abhyudaya  (prosperity in this world) and  
Nihsreyasa (total cessation of pain and attachment to eternal bliss hereafter) 
is Dharma ”.    
Changing Dharma  
 
In the matter of Dha rma, the Vedas are the ultimate authority. Hinduism 
prescribes different duties for different people. Rules for men are different 
from rules for the women. Rules for different Varnas and Ashramas vary. 
However non -violence, truth, non -stealing, cleanliness  and control of senses 
are duties common to all men. Dharma also depends upon time, 
circumstances, age and degree of evolution. Under special circumstances 
variations are allowed (e.g.) Aapad dharma.  
According to tradition in ancient days, there are fourt een branches of 
know ledge which are common to both general education and dharma.  These 
are described as sources of vidya  and dharma.  The fourteen “chaturdasa 
vidyas”  are – four Vedas, six Vedangas  and six Upaangas.  The six angaas of 
Veda  are: Siksha,  Vyaka rana, Chandas , Niruktam, Jyotisham  and Kalpa.  The 
four Upaangas  are: Puranas, Nyaya , Mimamsa  and Smritis . The Smritis  deal 
with the Dharma Shastra  portion Vedangas . Between the Vedangas  and 
Upaa ngas, almost all branches of knowledge are covered. Apart from  these 
fourteen branches of knowledge four other branches of knowledge, known 
Upavedas , are included in the general education.  
Vedas  do mention here and there the duties and rites to be performed by us. 
Dharma Shastra  deals with them in a codified form. Ho wever, it must be

389 
 emphasised that Vedas  are the root of all dharma – “Vedo Khilo 
dharmamulam”.  The work that the  Vedas  bid us to perform is both for our own 
wellbeing as -well as for the good of the world. But the rites and duties are not 
given in an orderl y form in the Vedas.   
The sixth Vedanga, Kalpa,  contains Dharmasutras, Grhyasutras  and 
Srautasutras  relate rites based on Vedas . But Sutras (written by Apastamba, 
Gautama  and others) are brief and do not constitute a detailed guide. This 
gap is filled by Dharma Shastras  and they elaborate upon what is given in the  
Dharmasutras  without leaving any room for doubt.  
Manu, Parasara, Yajnavalkya, Gautama, Harita, Yama, Visnu, Sankha, 
Likhita, Brhaspati, Daksa, Angiras,  Prachetas, Samvarta, Acanas, Atri, 
Apastamba  and Satatapa are the eighteen sages who mastered the Vedas  
with their superhuman power and derived the Smritis  from them.  
As explained earlier Vedas  are the root of all Dharma . However the rites and 
duties are not given in an orderly manner in the Vedas.  Dharmasutras, 
Grhyasutras  and Srautasutras relating to rites are based on the  Vedas . Since 
Sutras  contain only terse statements Dharma Shastras  have been written to 
elaborate and make them easier for people to follow. Dharma Shastras  are 
called Smritis  and are in verse form. The Smritis  contain detailed instructions 
on rituals to be conducted one has to perform through one’s entire life. 
Thorough though they, variances have been found among the Smritis . These 
are sought to be cleared by “Dharma Shastra Nib andhanas”.  These 
Nibandhanas  do not leave out any rite or Dharma  and differences have also 
been reco nciled.  
There is a wrong impression about the Dharma Shastras  even among those 
who treat them with respect. They think that the rules and duties of the  Smritis 
were formulated by their authors on their own. They call these authors 
"lawgivers" who, in their opinion, laid down "laws" that reflect their own views. 
Further they think that the Dharma Shastras were composed in the same way 
as Constitution. If the Smritis  really represent the views of the authors there is Vedas  
Dharma 
Sutra 
Dharma Shastras  
or Smritis

390 
 nothing wrong in what these people think about them. But those who want the 
Dharma Shastras  changed do not seem to know that the Smritis  do not reflect 
the views of the sages who composed them. What  the authors of the Smritis  
have done is to present us in an orderly fashion what is already contained in 
the Vedas.  The Vedic  word cannot and must not be changed at any time and 
on any account. The same applies to the rules and laws laid down in the 
Smritis.It is not correct to discriminate between Shruti and Smriti . Shruti, 
Smriti  and the Puranas  all the three belong to the same tradition. The rites 
that are not explicitly mentioned in the Vedas  but are dealt with in the Smritis  
are called Smarta karmas and those that are explicitly mentioned are called 
Srauta karmas . This does not mean that the Smarta rites are in anyway 
inferior to Srauta.  
Kinds of Dharma s 
 
Dharma was classified as under according to Manu.  
(1) Sanatana Dharma  (Eternal Law)  
(2) Samanya Dharma : Universal Dharma  includes – Contentment, 
forgiveness, self -restraint, non -stealing, purity, control of senses, 
discrimination between right and wrong, between real and un -
real, spiritual knowledge, truthfulness and absence of anger.  
(3) Vishesha Dharma : (Sp ecial duty)  
(4) Varnashrama Dharma : (Duties of caste and order)  
(5) Svadharma (One’s own duty)  
(6) Yuga Dharma  (Duty of the age)  
(7) Kula Dharma  (Duty of family)  
(8) Manava Dharma  (Duty of man)  
(9) Stree Dharma  (Duty of female)  
(10)  Raja Dharma  (Duty of King)  
(11)  Praja Dharma  (Duty of subjects)  
(12)  Pravritti Dharma  (Duty in worldly life)  
(13)  Nivritti Dharma  (Duty in spiritual life)  
Sanatana Dharma  
Sanatana Dharma  means the eternal religion. This is based on Vedas . This is 
the oldest living religions. Hinduism is known by the name Sanatana Dharma . 
The foundation of Sanatana Dharma  is Shruti . The Smriti stands next in

391 
 authority to the Shruti.  Hinduism is highly flexible and adapted to every human 
need. In fact, the history of India is a history of religion.  
Sam anya Dharma  
Every relig ion has a generic form or Samanya -rupa and a specific form 
Vishesha -rupa. The generic form almost never changes and remains the 
same. It is not affected by changes in time, place etc. Samanya Dharma  is the 
general law for all men. Vishesha Dharma  deals wi th special cases.  
Basics of Dharma  
Puranas  like Padma Purana, Matsya Purana  enumerate a number of 
fundamentals of  Dharma . Examples are – forgiveness, truthfulness, charity, 
non-violence etc. Patanjali Maharshi  recommends that ten virtues should be 
practiced by all men. The first five constitute Yama  or self -restraint. They are 
– Ahimsa  (non-violence),  Satya  (truthfulness), Brahmacharya (celibacy in 
thought, word and deed), Asteya  (non-stealing) and Aparigraha  (non-
covetousness). The next five constitute N iyama or religious observance. They 
are- Saucha  (internal and external purity), Santosha  (contentment), Tapas 
(austerity), Svadhyaya  (study of scriptures) and  Isvarapranidhana  
(consecr ation of the fruits of all works to the Lord).  
All the virtues may be re garded as branches of four cardinal virtues. They are  
(1) non -violence ;(2) truth (3) purity and (4) self control.   The eternal cannot 
be attained without attainment of purity. Brahman  is truth. Eternal cannot be 
attained without practicing truth. Brahman  is fearlessness.  
(1) Ahimsa : Ahimsa  or non -violence is the most important virtue. 
Practice of Ahimsa  must be in thought, word and deed. The 
practice demands immense patience, forbearance endurance, 
infinite inner spiritual strength and great will power.  
(2) Truth: Brahman  is Sat. Once truth must be observed in 
thought, word and deed. In  Taittiriya  Upanishad , it is said 
“Satyam Vada  – speak the truth”  
(3) Purity : It comprises both external (body) and internal purity 
(mind). One must be pure in thought, word and deed .  
(4) Self Control : It implies control of both body and mind. Self 
control implies self -service, destruction of egoism, patience, 
endurance, forbearance and humility.

392 
 Varnashrama Dharma  
 
The principle of Varnashrama dharma  is one of the basic principles of 
Hinduism. The duties of the varnas  are Varna dharma.  The four  varnas  are 
Brahmana, Kshatriya, Vaisya  and Shudra.   
The division is according to Guna and Karma . Sattva guna  predominates in 
Brahmanas ; Rajo guna  is predominant in the Kshatriyas; Tamo guna  is 
predominant in Vaisya;  there is no predominant guna  in the S udras. The 
philos ophers correspond to the Brahmanas , warriors to Kshatriyas,  trade to 
Vaisyas and action service to Shudras.   
 
Ashrama Dharma  
 
The four Ashramas  or orders of life are – Brahmach arya, Grihasta, 
Vanaprastha  and Sannyasa.  The four  Ashramas  are stages in life. 
Brahmacharya or the period of studentship, Grihastha  or the period of 
hous eholder, Vanaprastha  or the stage of forest dweller and Sannyasa or the 
life of renunciation. Each sta ge has its own duties. These stages help the 
evolution of man. The first two ashramas pertain to Pravritti marga  or path of 
work. The last two stages pertain to Nivritti marga  or the path of renunciation. 
Life is a rranged in an orderly and systematic manne r in Sanatana Dharma . 
There is opportunity for the development of the different sides of human 
activity. Due occupations and training are assigned to each period of life. Like 
in nature man’s evolution is gradual and not revolutionary.  
 
Yuga Dharma  
 
Dhar ma changes according to the Yugas . Man is undergoing change. So his 
external form of Dharmas should change. That which is achieved through 
contemplation in Satya Yuga,  through sacrifices in Treta Yuga,  through 
worship of Lord Narayana  in Dvapara  Yuga  may b e attained through Kirtanas 
of Lord Vishnu’s name in Kali Yuga.

393 
 Chapter XII - Hindu  Theological Classification  
 
Hinduism is extremely liberal, tolerant, and elastic. This is the wonderful 
feature of Hinduism. A foreigner (visiting India) is  struck with astonishment 
when he hears about the diverse sects and creeds of Hinduism. But these 
varieties are really the strength of Hinduism. They are certainly not its defects. 
There are various types of minds and temperaments. So there should be 
vario us faiths as well. This is but natural. This is the cardinal tenet of 
Hinduism. There is room in Hinduism for all types of souls - from the highest to 
the lowest and for their growth and evolution. Hinduism provides food for 
reflection for the di fferent typ es of thinkers and philosophers from all over the 
world. All sorts of philosophy are necessary. What appeals to one may not 
appeal to another and what is easy for one may be difficult for another. 
Sanatana -Dharmists, Arya -Samajists, Deva - Samajists, Jainas , Buddhists, 
Sikhs and Brahmo -Samajists  rose from Hinduism, and emphasized one or 
more of its aspects.  
Hindus  believe that the Vedas  are of divine origin and the term śhruti  ("what is 
heard") refers to this. The Hindu  belief that the cosmos is eternal; was not 
created and will always exist, also applies to the Hindu  view of the Vedas. The 
Vedas  is divine knowledge and is only "heard" by humans ( apauru ṣeya – 
meaning not of human agency). The Vedas is integrated into the life of 
Hindus, though many Hindus have never read it. Vedic mantras are recited at 
Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions.  
The various Indian religious sects differ in their id eas about the Vedas.  Hindus 
cite the Vedas  as scriptural authority and they class themselves as "orthodox" 
(āstika ). Buddhism  and Jainism , two religious sects with a close affinity to 
Hinduism , do not regard the Vedas  as scriptual authority and Hindus  refer to 
them as "heterodox" or "non -orthodox" ( nāstika ). Hinduism places very little 
importance on criticism of  other religions because Hindus  believe that the 
path to God transcends all human thought. In this respect, a Hindu would not 
consider Buddhism  or Catholicism  to be wrong, only different.  
The Sutras or aphorisms of Sri Veda Vyasa forms one of the basis fo r 
Vedanta philosophy. The Sutras have been differently interpreted by various 
commentators. These different interpretations formed the basis for the 
different schools of  philosophy – Kevala Advaita (Sri Shankaracharya), 
Vishis htadvaita (Sri Ramanujacharya ), Dvaita (Sri Madhvacharya),

394 
 Bhedabheda (Sri Nimbarkacharya), Suddha Advaita (Sri Vallabhacharya), 
Acintya Bhedabheda (Sri Chaitanyaswamy).  
The Upanishads, Brahma -sutras  and the Bhagavad -Gita are regarded as 
basic classics for Vedanta.  Upanishads  are man y and are cast in a language, 
which is ancient. Except for the highly learned, they appear to project 
divergent metaphysical ideas! Brahma -sutras  come to the scene at this stage. 
Their function was to co -ordinate the teachings and set forth a logical 
justification of the doctrines advanced. Reason was the supreme instrument in 
this process. While doing this, the substance of the thoughts were not well 
formulated. Bhagavad -Gita filled this gap. It draws up pictures of ideal life and 
offers comprehensive dire ctions for ethical and spiritual realisation. The 
Upanishads  and the Brahma -sutras  offered little scope to the Acharyas  for 
developing a philosophy of conduct and self -culture. The Bhagavad -Gita 
offered the grea test scope. By and large it is in the renderi ng of the 
philosophy of the Gita and the subtle differences in their interpretations that 
has led to the different sy stems of Vedanta  
The Rig -Veda declares - Truth is one; sages call it by various names - “Ekam 
Sat Vipra Bahudha Vadanti."  The Upanishads d eclare that all the paths lead 
to the same goal, just as cows of different colours yield the same white milk. 
Lord Krishna says in the Gita: ‘Howsoever men approach Me, even so do I 
welcome them, for the path men take from every side is Mine." All diversit ies 
are organized and united in the body of Hinduism.  
In the following pages, we will examine some of the notable schools of 
philosophy . 
Advaita Philosophy of Sri Shankara charya  
Brahman, the only Reality  
The word Advaita means “non-dual”,  “one without a second”.  The system 
recognizes Brahman  (the Absolute) as the only reality and denies permanent 
reality to all others such as the Jagat  (the world) and the Jivas  (individual 
souls). The word Brahman  comes from the root “ Brah” which means vastness, 
power, a nd growth. Thus, Brahman  indicates the Supreme Being.  
Anirvachaneeya Khyaati  
However, this world consisting of you, me and millions of other living beings – 
the world of multiplicity is our day to day experience. Hence, it becomes 
necessary to offer an ex planation as to how Brahman , the One without a 
second, appears as this world of multiple names and forms. The explanation 
given by Advaita  is that it is an  erroneous cognition - Anirvachaneeya 
Khyaati . An e xample for an erroneous cognition is given. Imagi ne the viewing

395 
 in semi dar kness of a coil of a rope. You are convinced that a snake is 
superimposed on a rope and get frightened.  You switch a light on. And you 
could see that it is just a coil of a rope. It is the darkness and your imagination 
that has p layed a trick on you.  Similar is the case when dealing with this 
world. The darkness of ignorance is the cause of illusory presentation of 
multiplicity. In the presence of the light of knowledge, the illusion disappears. 
And the non -dual Parabrahman  will be the ultimate truth that will be revealed. 
This superimpos ition is called “Adyaasa”.  It is the cause for the 
“Mithyajnaana” (false know ledge). The perception of the snake is neither Sat 
(real) nor Asat (unreal). It is not unreal, since it has actually b een perceived. It 
is also not real since it di sappeared as soon as the darkness vanished. To 
explain such a peculiar ph enomenon Sri Shankara  creates a third type of 
perceived objects, which is called “ Sad – Asad vilakshana”.  The “Khyaati”  or 
cognition its elf is described as “Anirvachaneeya”  – incapable of precise 
definition or description.  
Ajnaana or Avidya  
 
The basis for erroneous perception is termed Ajnaana  or Avidya  (Ignorance). 
This ignorance or Avidya  is supposed to be Bhaavaroopa  (existent) and ha s 
two powers or Shakti. The first power is  “Aavarana Shakti” . It has the power to 
veil the true nature. The second one is “Vikshepa Shakti” - the power to 
transform. It showed the rope as the snake. The apparently transformed 
object is called “ Vivarta”  of the original. The theory that propounds this is 
called “Vivarta vaada”.  
Maya  
 
Now we are ready to explain how this world consisting of innumerable living 
beings has evolved out of the non -dual Reality called Parabrahman. The 
world that we live in and expe rience every day can be broadly divided into two 
categories – (1) the “Drk”  – the one who sees (2) The “Drisya”  – those that are 
seen. Both these in turn consist of innumerable living beings (Jivas) and 
countless objects if creation. It is Avidya  or ignora nce that causes the 
Brahman to appear as many Jivas . It is Maya  that causes this world of 
phenom enon. Maya  is Avidya  at the cosmic level.

396 
  
Three Degrees of Reality  
 
Sri Shankara  accepts three degrees of Reality.  
 
1. Praatibhaasika Satya:   It means apparent  truth. The rope appearing 
as the snake illustrates this. It is illusory in nature.  
2. Vyaavahaarike Satya  :  This is illustrated by our day to day 
experience. This has a much higher degree of reality and lasts for a 
longer time than the previous category. I t lasts till one gets Aatma 
Jnaana  or Brahma Jnaana.  
3. Paramaarthika Satya :  This is the highest truth and the only truth that 
exists. This truth is Brahman  or Aatman. This Brahman or Aatman  is 
Nirguna  (without any attributes) and Niraakaara (without any fo rm). 
Due to this, it is not possible to describe Brahman  except, perhaps, in 
negative terms ( neti, neti  – not this, not this).  
 
Creation  
 
According to this philosophy, Brahman  associated with Maya  is Saguna 
Brahman  (Brahman with attributes). It is this as pect of Brahman  that is 
responsible for creation, preservation and destruction.  
Sri Shankara  proposes that this world of process is illusory – Vivarta.  As such, 
the various steps towards evolution of it are not an important topic. In any 
case he character izes such descriptions as giving the “tatasthalakshana” of 
Brahman.  It means accidental or casual characteristics. He emphasizes that 
Brahman  can be comprehended only through its “Swaroopalakshana”.  
Swaroopalakshana refers to the essential characteristics.  The essential 
characteristics of Brahman  are – Sat (eternal reality), Chit (pure 
consciousness) and Ananda  (unalloyed bliss). Sat-Chit-Ananda  is not merely 
its characteri stics. In fact, it is its essence.

397 
  
Jiva 
This Brahman  or Aatman , which is Sat-Chit-Ananda , has inexplicably got itself 
involved in the body -mind complex. This involvement is due to Avidya . Since, 
the origin of this involvement cannot  be satisfactorily explained, Avidya  is 
stated to be “ anaadi” or that without any beginning. This involve d Aatman  is 
designated as  “Jiva”.  
This Jiva or Aatman -in-bondage performs actions motivated by desires, 
experiences pleasure and pain due to Karma.  It undergoes the cycle of birth 
and death till it is liberated. Sri Shankara  declares that this Jiva when shorn of 
its Upaadhis  or limiting adjuncts like the body and mind is identical with 
Brahman.  For both, the Swaroopalakshana  is Sat-Chit-Ananda.   
Sadhanas and Mukti  
The main problem with the Aatman  in bondage is its “Taadaatmya”  or false 
identification wit h the body and mind. Adhyaasa  or superimposition brings this 
about. The only remedy for this is de -superimposition or Apavaada.  This 
process involves a few stages. The first stage is a preliminary fourfold 
discipline called “Saadhana Chatushtaya”.  (1) Viveka (discrimination between 
the eternal and the non -eternal). (2) Vairaagya  (dispassion). (3) Shatka 
Sampatti (cultivation of six virtues – Sama, Dama, Uparama, Titiksha, 
Shraddha and Samadhana). (4) Mumuksutva  (desire for liberation). The 
second stage is t o approach a competent Guru  and learn the Truth from him. 
This will lead to the ultimate realization that one is Aatman. This realization 
leads to  Mukti or liberation. This realization resulting in Mukti  can be had while 
one is living in this body. It is c alled “Jivanmukti”.  Then, Mukti  is not liberation 
from transmigration but recognizing the already existing original state.  
Vishishtaadvaita  Philosophy of  Sri Ramanujacharya  
The Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Darsana is not a creation of Sri Ramanujacharya 
(AD 1017 -1137) alone.  It started much earlier to him. The twelve Alwars  like 
Nammalvar , Kulasekhara and Andaal as also Acharyas  like Naathamuni (AD 
824 to 924), Yamuna (AD 918 -1038).  
Sri Ramanuja  evolved the system out of the more ancient teachings. 
However, Sri Ramanuja  was its best exponent. As a result of the stupendous 
work he turned out in the cause of the system, it is often referred to as 
“Ramanuja Darsana ”. The system accepts both the Sanskrit Prasthaanatraya  
and the Tamil  Prabandhams  as equally aut horitative. Hence, the philosophy is 
also called “ Ubhaya Vedanta  ”.

398 
 Ontology  
Vishishtaadvaita accepts three entities as ultimate realities –  
1.Brahman  or Ishvara  
2.Jiva or Chit  
3.Prakruti  or Achit.  
Of these, Brahman  is the absolute and independent reality . The other two, 
Jiva and Prakruti  are dependent realities. The three together are called 
“Tattvatraya”.   
The Vedanta  of the Upanishads  mainly preaches the doctrine of Absolute 
being, who is the non -dual source, substratum and dissolving ground of the 
many that constitute this world of our experience. Sri Shankaracharya  
interprets this Non -dual being in whom this world of many is a mere 
appearance ascribed by ignorance and not actually existing. He gives, 
however, a prima facie reality (Vyaavahaarika Satya ) to the world of the many 
and also to the God who is its cause. This God is the Saguna Brahman.  When 
ignorance is overcome by proper metaphysical insight, the aspirant realises 
that what he considered as his “I” is really the Absolute Brahman  into whom 
the world and the God dissolve. According to Sri Shankara  an unmodified and 
attributeless Consciousness alone is the ultimate reality.  
Sri Ramanuja  disagrees with this doctrine on the fronts of  
1. Saguna Brahman  ; who is less than the Absolute 
Brahman   
2. theory  of ignorance or Maya  ; Compartmentalisation of 
reality into  Paramaarthika (ultimate reality)  and  
3. Vyaavahaarika  (day to day reality).  
Sri Ramanuja  disagrees that the Supreme Being is Nirguna  (without 
attributes) and Niraakaara  (without a form). Accordin g to him, in all theisms 
God must be supremely adorable and infinitely good Personal Being, who is 
distinct from the world and the multiplicity of spirits. He cannot  be a quality -
less impersonal being as if He is not responsive to prayers and worship.  
 Sri Ramanuja  proposes the Supreme Lord with an archetypal form, which 
does not, however, limit Him. The Lord can take any form He likes as He 
pervades every being as their indweller and container. The Lord is not one 
without attributes. Out of the countless  attributes five are central. 1) Satyam 
(Truth unconditioned and changeless), (2) Jnanam  (all comprehending 
knowledge), (3) Anantam  (excellences unlimited by time, space etc), (4)

399 
 Ananda  (immea surable bliss) and (5) Amalatvam  (stainless -ness or 
incorruptib ility ( i.e.) freedom from the hold of Karma  which is the cause of all 
imperfections in Jivas .) 
Apart from the above attributes, called as Lord Narayana’s Swaroopa, He has 
other countless auspicious qualities ( Kalyaana Gunas ). The important six 
qualities a re identified as Bhagas . They are Jnana  (omniscience), Bala 
(omnipotence), Aishvarya  (lordship), Shakti  (creative power), Virya  
(immutability) and Tejas  (splendour). Few other significant qualities are 
Gaambhirya  (inestimable grandeur), Audaarya  (generosit y) and Kaarunya  
(compassion).  
Metaphysics  
Sri Shankara establishes the unity of the Parabrahman  by his theory of 
Adhyasa  (superimposition). According to him Avidya  (ignorance) is the cause 
of this superimposition. In other words, multiplicity (of many Jivas and Jagat ) 
is ultimately unreal. However, according to Sri Ramanuja , the plurality of the  
Jivas and the changeful order of the Jagat  (Nature) are real. The unity lies in 
the fact of their being held together in inseparable union ( Aprthaksiddhi ) with 
the Supreme Being. They have no existence apart from Him. Aprthaksiddhi 
can be explained by an analogy. The body of the man consists of millions of 
individual cells. Each cell or part of the body may have its own function to do. 
All of them combined result in  the formation of the body – unified as a whole 
by the will or life energy of the body. They solely serve the interests of the 
body. Apart from the whole (i.e. the body) they do not have a separate 
existence. If separated from the body they perish. The rel ationship between 
the Jiva and Brahman  is similar. The only difference is – there can be no 
separ ation between them. They are inseparable – though in a state of 
ignorance the Jiva may not experience or understand it. The relationship 
between Jagat  and Brah man is also similar. Hence, there is no separate 
origination as Jivas  and Jagat.  They always exist as part of Brahman  as His 
body or mode.  
According to Sri Ramanuja , the Jiva or individual self is different from the 
Ishawara  though individually connected to Him as His mode. Jiva essentially 
is a conscious entity – Jnana  Swaroopa. Its consciousness has two aspects. 
The first is its basic or substantive consciousness, called Dharmi - Jnana . By 
virtue of this Dharmi -Jnana , the Jiva has self -awareness and only that. The 
second is the attributive consciousness of the Jiva, called Dharma -bhuta -
Jnana . It is this consciousness that makes it aware of others including 
Ishawara.  In the state of ignorance, due to the load of Karma , the Jiva is 
almost one with the uncons cious matter, the Prakruti.  However, Dharmi - 
Jnana  keeps up its individuality and the possibility of developing the Dharma -

400 
 bhuta -Jnana . Hence, what stands in the way of this expansion of Dharma -
bhuta -Jnana  is the load Karma.  Karma is the effect of the acti ons of the Jivas  
in the previous embodiments. Divine will causes Jivas  to obtain bodies suited 
for their enjo yment of their Karmas.  
Jivas  and Jagat  exist in two states – one during Pralaya  (dissolution) and the 
states like day and night.  The motivating power between these two states is 
the will of God. In the Pralaya  State, Jivas  and Jagat  (or Prakruti)  would be 
reduced to their primordial condition and would be latent in Brahma n without 
any distinction. In Srishti  (or creation), caused by the will of the Brahman , they 
gain patency and diversity through a process of evolution.  
Insentient matter is known as Prakruti. It becomes dynamic by the will of Lord 
Narayana . Its dynamism e xpresses itself as the alternating process of Srishti  
and Pralaya.   Involvement of Jiva in the recurring process of Prakruti  is called 
Samsara . It takes the form of repeated successions of births and deaths, with 
loads of enjoyment and suffering determined  by the effect of maturing load of 
Karmas  called Praarabdha  of the Jivas.  This will continue till Jiva becomes 
aware of its true nature and its relationship with God. Release from this is 
called Moksha.   
Means of Liberation  
Mumukshus , or those desirous of  liberation, have to know three things - (1) 
Tattvatraya or  Reality (2) Hita or the means of attaining that Reality (3) 
Purushaartha or the nature of attainment.  
We have already discussed Tattvatraya.  
Scriptures have described Hita in various ways. They c an be grouped under 
five headings referred to as “ Arthapanchaka”. They are (1) Sva-svaroopa 
(One’s own nature). (2) Para -Swaroopa (nature of God). (3) Purushaartha 
(nature of four ends in life) (4) Upaaya -Swaroopa (nature of the means to 
liberation). (5) Virodhi -Swaroopa (nature of obstacles in spiritual path).  
We have already discussed 1 and 2. Purushaarthas are four. (1) Dharma 
(practice of righteousness). (2) Artha (Material gains). (3) Kama  (Pleasures 
and enjoyments in life). (4) Moksha (freedom from Samsara ). Mumukshu 
should realise that the real Purushaartha is Moksha.   
Upaaya, or the means of liberation, is fivefold. (1) Karma . This includes acts 
such as Yagna, Dana , Sandhya, Panchayajnaas, Dhyana, Teertha yatra  etc. 
Jnana  or Jnana  yoga  consists o f self -renouncement ( Vairagya ) and ceaseless 
practice of contemplation on Lord Narayana. This leads to the realisation of 
the Self but not that of the Lord.

401 
  
The next step is Bhakti or Bhakti -yoga . This marks the consummation of the 
moral and spiritual e ndeavour as attained in the other two Yogas . The seven 
aids to Bhakti  are  (1) Viveka.  Purification of the body as a temple (2) Vimoka, 
which m eans inner detachment. (3) Adhyasa . It refers to ceaseless practice of 
God as the inner self. (4) Kriya. It refer s to service to all beings. (5) Kalyaana. 
It is the practice of virtues. (6) Anavasaada. It is freedom from despair. Have 
faith in the Lord and leave the burden on Him (7) Anuddharsa. It is the 
absence of exultation.  
Prapatti  
It is the concept of total s urrender. It is specially addressed to those who are 
unable to practice the Karma yoga, Jnana  yoga or Bhakti yoga. Its main 
characteristics are to conceive what is in conformity with the will of God; to 
reject what is disagreeable to Him; to seek Him as th e sole refuge and 
protector and surrender to Him completely. It can be practiced by anyone 
without any di stinction of cast or creed.  
Acharya abhimaana  is the strong faith in the Guru and his affectionate 
attachment to the disciple.  
The obstacles to the spiritual path ( Vorodhi),  which are the last of the Arthapanchaka  
, are again fivefold. (1) Obstacles to the realisation of the Self (2) To the realisation of 
God (3) To Moksha  (4) To the means of the realisation (5) To the attainment of the 
goal.  
State o f Liberation  
The liberated soul has a direct vision of Brahman in Vaikuntha and is 
absorbed in the eternal bliss of union with Him ( Saayujya). To him the 
pluralistic world remains but the pluralistic view is removed. The distinction 
between Brahman  and hi m remains but there is no loss of personality. He will 
continue forever  to enjoy this state of bliss by serving Brahman . 
Thus Vishishtadvaita  is not dry metaphysics, but a philosophy of religion. In it, 
reason and faith are nicely synthesised. It guarante es the vision of God and 
salvation to all finite beings, human, sub -human or celestial. The view that 
God is immanent in all for the purpose of cosmic redemption inspires the 
feeling that the God of all religions is ultimately one, though various sects may  
give different accounts of Him.  
Tenkalai and Vadakalai Schools of though t 
The two different schools of thought came to light many years after Sri 
Ramanujacharya. The Vadakalai sect of Sri Vaishnavism associates

402 
 themselves with the great Acharya Vedanta D esika. Sri Pillai Lokacharya is 
associated with the Tenkalai sect. Acharya Desika has mentioned that there 
are no di fferences on essential points and the differences are in interpretation 
only. The following table highlights some of the differences  
Sl No  View Point  Vadakalai  Tenkalai  Comments  
 Position & Role of 
Sri Mahalakshmi     
1  Sri Mahalakshmi's role and 
position:  
(a) She acts as a mediator 
pleading with Sriman 
Narayana to forgive the 
faults of the Jeevatma 
(the Baddha category ) 
and grant his wishes)  
 
(c)Just as Lord Narayana 
She, by Herself, is the 
means for attaining 
Paramapada ( Upaya)  
( c) She is also the object of 
attainment ( Upeya)    
 
 (a)Accept the view 
regarding the 
role of Sri 
Mahalakshmi as 
the mediator  
(b) Do not Accept 
the view that 
She is also  th e 
means  for 
attaining 
Paramapada  
(c)Accept that She, 
along with Lord 
Narayana, is 
the object of 
attainment   
2  Sri Mahalakshmi is 
Paramatma (along with Sri 
Narayana) and NOT a 
Jeevatma  Sri Mahala kshmi 
is a Jeevatma, like 
any of us   
3  Sri Mahalakshmi is inf inite 
(Vibhu)  in nature  Sri Mahalakshmi 
is atomic in 
nature, like a 
Jeevatma.   
4 Kaivalya  Kaivalya  is inferior to 
Paramapada  or Moksha . 
So Kaivalya is located 
outside SriVaikuntha  Accept that 
Kaivalya is inferior 
to  Sri Vaikuntha. 
However, 
Kaivalya is 
located just 
outside 
SriVaiku ntha but 
still within it.  
The liberated 
Jeevatmas, 
Muktas, enjoy 
eternally 
Param apada.  "Kaivalya" wherein a 
person attains the state 
in which he simply 
meditates on his own 
self.Those who have 
performed Jnana Yoga  
perceive and e njoy 
their own souls  
5 Bhakti  and 
Prapatti Margas  Accept that Bhakti as the 
means for Moksha. 
However, Bhakti Marga is 
more difficult while Prapatti 
is easy and immediate  Does not accept 
Bhakti Marga as a 
means The 
Jeevatma is 
entirely dependent 
on Lord 
Narayana . So  
he is incapable of 
adopting Bhakti or 
Prapatti Marga as 
a means for 
Liberation   
6 Prapatti  Prapatti has to be a 
positive and specific act of  
surrender by the Jeevatma Does not consider 
that a positive act 
of surrender is

403 
 to Paramatma.  necess ary. The 
view is – 
(a)Knowledge of 
the Swaroopa 
of Jeevatma.  
(b) Confidence and 
mental 
acceptance that 
the Lord will 
grace him 
liberation is 
essential.  
7 Lord's grace 
(Kripa)  A positive effort must be 
made by the Jeevatma  to 
win the grace of Lord 
Narayana. T he Lord 
cannot grant Moksha in an 
arbitrary manner. He could 
be accused of partiality. It 
is like Markata - Kishora 
Nyaya. The baby has to 
make an effort in clinging 
to the mother while being 
transported.  Lord's grace is 
spontaneous. He 
is not  answerable 
to anyone. He can 
grant Moksha to 
anyone He 
considers worthy. 
It is like Marjala -
Kishora Nyaya 
where the bay 
does not have to 
make an effort. 
The mother grabs 
the baby and 
transports it.   
8 Sinners  When the Jiva surrenders , 
Lord Narayana  overlooks 
the sins committed by His 
devotees.   Just like a mother 
cow does not hate 
the calf for the dirt 
on its body. The 
dirt is eventually 
cleaned by the 
mother cow.   
9 Performance of  
compulsory duties 
Sandhya -Vandana  
 The compulsory duties are 
laid down in the Shastra s 
which is tantamount to 
Lord's commandments. All 
people will be expected to  For exalted souls, 
about to receive 
the Lord's grace, it 
will not be 
considered an 
offence to give up 
the pe rformance 
these duties.   
10 Interpretation of 
Charana Sloka  The Dharma s that are 
referred to in the Shloka 
relate to the Vidyas in the 
Bhaktiyoga. Due to his 
inability, the aspirant 
seeking Moksha has 
already given up these 
Vidyas.  As per the Shloka 
all dharmas must 
be given up first, 
before seeking 
refuge of the Lord.  This is the noblest of all 
Slokas in the Bhagavat 
Gita. To Sri 
Raman ujacharya, this 
is the final verse of 
Bhagavat Gita 
(Charama Shloka) - 
chapter 18; Shloka 66.  
What does it say – 
"Sarvadharman 
Parityajya Mam Ekam 
Sharanam Vraja | 
Aham tva Sarva 
Papebhyo 
Moksh ayishyami 
Masuchaha"  
The implied meaning 
as per Sri Ramanuja is - 
perform Sadhanas like 
Karma yoga,  Jnana 
yoga, Bhaktiyoga etc, 
he can perform this

404 
 alternative Sadhana 
through Charama 
Shloka. The first part of 
the Shloka states - 
Having given up all 
Dharmas  or rites 
unintentionally, 
surrender to the Lord 
alone. This is the thing 
to be done by the doer 
of Saranaagati. The 
second sentence 
assures. "I will release 
you from all sins and 
give Moksha; Do not 
despair". The message 
conveyed is - "Your 
knowledge is l imited; 
Your ability is 
insignificant; Your life is 
short; You are also 
impatient of delay;  
Therefore do not go 
about seeking other 
Upayas  which you 
cannot fully 
understand; which you 
cannot easily adopt to. 
Realise that I, who am  
easy to access to all, 
who am the Saviour of 
the worlds and who am 
endowed with attributes 
essential for a Saviour, 
am the only Upaya  and 
perform the surrender."  
11 Lord's grief at the 
suffering  of souls  One can have grief, when 
he finds himself incapable 
of removing the suffe ring 
of another. In this case, the 
Lord is capable of 
remo ving the suffering of 
any one. So there is no 
need for Him to grieve. Sri 
Rama  has shown how a 
human would feel and how 
one should react on seeing 
the misery of others.  The Lord also 
grieves when a  
person is suffering   
12 Lord is 
everywhere  Lord is smaller than the 
atom in beings that are 
atomic in size. This is 
called "Antar Vyapti" 
(Immanence). He is also 
present in  infinite sizes. 
This is called "Bahir 
Vyapti"(Transcendence)  His presence in 
atomic and  
infinite sizes is 
achieved by 
special powers 
that He 
possesses. It is 
called  "Agatitha 
Ghatana 
Saamartya". He 
can perform 
anything which is 
not po ssible to 
anyone else.

405 
 Dvaita philosophy of Sri Madhvacharya  
 
Sri Madhvacharya (1239 -1319) evol ved a dualistic system of philosophy 
interpreting the Prasthana  Traya – Upanishads, Bhagavad Gita and Brahma 
Sutra.  It is an unqualified dualism. It is also called Sad Vaishnavism in order 
to distinguish it from Sri Vaishnavism of Sri Ramanujacharya.  
Sri Madhvacharya is known by several other names – Ananda Tirtha, Sukha 
Tirtha, Poornaprajna, Purna -bodha. His philosophy is also known by various 
other names – Bheda -vaada, Tattva vaada, Bimba -pratibimba - vaada.  
Sri Madhvacharya’s  philosophy has many points  in common with that of Sri 
Ramanujacharya.  (1) Hari (Sriman  Narayana) is the Supreme being (2) 
Prakruti or the world is real (3) Jiva is real (4) Hari is the independent reality, 
where as animate and inanimate objects are dependent realities – but they 
are different. (4) Perception, inference and scriptures (Vedas) are the three 
Pramaanas  – means of knowledge.  
Dvaita Philosophy  
Sri Madhvacharya makes an absolute distinction between the Supreme Being 
and the animate, inanimate objects – it is a philosophy  of absolute differences 
– it is Atyanta Bheda Darsana. He insists on Pancha -Bheda (5 great 
distin ctions).  
1.Distinction between Sri Hari  and Jeevatma  
2.Distinction between Sri Hari  and matter  
3.Distinction between Jeevatma and matter  
4.Distinction between one Jee vatma and another  
Tenets of Tattvavaada  
There are nine important points to be noted.  
1.Sri Hari (Sri Vishnu) is supreme  
2.Universe is real  
3.The five differences stated above are real  
4.There is plurality of Jivas and all of them are dependent on  Sri Hari  
5.There are different grades among the Jivas.  
6.Mukti is the experience of Jiva’s own innate joy.  
7.Mukti is achieved by flawless devotion to the Supreme Lord and having 
correct  knowledge  
8.The three Pramaanas are – Pratyaksha , Anumaana and Agama 
(scriptures)  
9.Sri Hari is the only entity (primarily) described in all Vedas.

406 
 Divine Hierarchy (Taaratamya)  
The Supreme Being is Sri Hari . He may be worshipped by all other deities and 
by everyone to their best ability. All other deities are iconic representatives of 
the Lord, and not independently authoritative figures. Madhvas  believe that all 
deities except Sri Hari’s  eternal consort Sri Maha  Lakshmi are “ aamukta 
Jivas ” (un-liberated souls) performing service to Him.  
Madhvas have a hierarchy of deities after Sri Hari.  This i s important in 
consi deration of worship, since each lesser deity is worshipped as an iconic 
representative of the next higher one. The idea is that, ultimately, all worship 
is meant for Sri Hari  only. The system accepts a hierarchy of worth among 
deities o ther than Sri Hari.  Each lesser deity is akin to an image in a mirror of 
the higher one. This concept of images captures (a) a notion of difference 
(since the object and image are not identical) (b) a hierarchy of worth (since 
the image does not have the s ame worth as the object). It is for this reason 
the ph ilosophy is referred to as “Bimba - pratibimba - vaada”. This Taaratamya, 
imposes the discipline that the icon should never be worshipped as the Lord.  
 
Supreme Being and His Consort  
 
The Supreme Being is  Sri Hari or Sri Maha Vishnu and He is the personal first 
cause. He lives in Vaikuntha along with Sri Maha Lakshmi. Both are Real. 
Brahma and Vaayu  are His sons. One can know His nature through the study 
of Vedas . He manifests Himself through various Vyuha s and through 
Avataras. He is present in the sacred images. He is also the Antaryamin  or 
inner controller of various souls. He creates, maintains and destroys the 
world.  
He is free from Doshas  or faults. He is endowed with all auspicious qualities. 
He is  Omni -potent and independent. He is beyond time and space. He is 
greater than Sri Maha Lakshmi . However, there is no one else greater than 
Sri Maha Lakshmi. She is foremost of the dependents. She is His Shakti or 
Energy. She is co -eternal with the Lord and  all pervading. She is Nitya Mukta  
(eternally free from Samsara ).  
Prakrti  
The Lord is the efficient but not the material cause of Prakruti . (because 
Prakruti is world stuff and is different from Him). Prakruti  is the material cause 
of the world. All obje cts, bodies , organs of the soul are made out of Prakruti . 
The Lord energizes Prakruti  through Sri Maha Lakshmi . Avidya, is a form of 
Prakruti obscuring the spiritual powers of the individual soul. Mahat,

407 
 Ahamkara , Buddhi , mind, the five Jnanendriyas , the five Karmendriyas and 
the five great elements are all  odifications of the Prakruti . 
Plurality and Classification of Jivas  
There is plurality of Jivas . They are all atomic in size. No two Jivas  are alike in 
character. There are different grades among the m. The Jivas  are different  
 
from the   Lord and Prakruti . Though limited in size, the Jiva pervades the 
body owing to the quality of its intelligence. They depend on the guidance of 
the Lord. The Lord impels the Jivas  to action in accordance to their previ ous 
conduct. Bliss is their basic nature. However, the connections with material 
bodies due to their past Karma  make them suffer and undergo the cycle of 
birth and death. This will go on till their impurities are removed. After that they 
attain Moksha.   
As in Vishishtadvaita  the souls are classified into Nitya, Mukta  and Baddha  
categories.  The following figure explains the classifications. Some souls are 
pre-ordained for final emancipation by their inherent aptitude. Some others 
are eternally destined eit her to wander in Samsara without end or to go to the 
world of darkness. Sattvika  souls go to heaven. Rajasa souls revolve in 
Samsara and Tamasa  souls fall into hell.  
 Nitya 
Samsarin  
Subject to 
eternal 
rebirth Jivas  
Nitya  Mukta  Baddha  
Those eligible 
for Moksha  
Tamo -yogyas  
Those whose 
destiny is hell  Those not eligible 
for Moksha

408 
 Bhakti is the means for Salvation  
 
Bhakti is the only means for Salvation. All Jivas  attain salvation through the 
grace of God. That grace comes to the devotee through the mediator – 
Vaayu , the son of Lord Vishnu.  God cannot  be approached directly. Vaayu  is 
the mediator. The greater the intensity of devotion the greater will be His 
grace. Wo rship of God is the indispensable preliminary condition for obtaining 
His grace.  
The worship of Sri Vishnu consists of four practices – 
1.Ankana:  Marking the body with His symbols  
2.Namakarana:   Giving names of the Lord to children  
3.Bhajana:   Singing His glor ies 
4.Smarana :  Constant practice of remembering God.  
 
Achintya Bhedabheda Philosophy of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu  
Chaitanya Mahaprabhu or Gauranga (1486 – 1534)  is regarded as a great  
Vaishnava teacher . He was a saint as well as a social reformer. He had a 
large heart and accepted converts from Islam freely. His disciple Haridas was 
a Muslim Fakir.  Popular belief is that he is an incarnation of Lord Krishna.  He 
was a notable proponent of the Vaishnava  school of Bhakti Yoga  based on 
the philosophy of Bhagavata P urana  and Bhagavad Gita . He worshipped the 
forms of Radha  and Krishna. He has left one written record in Sanskrit  called 
Siksastaka.  
Chaitanya's  epistemological, theological and ontological teachings are 
summarized as ten roots or maxims - dasa mula  
1. The statements of amnaya  (scripture) are the chief proof. By these 
statements the following nine topics are taught.  
2. Krishna is the Supreme Absolute Truth.  
3. Krishna  is endowed with all energies.  
4. Krishna  is the ocean of rasa  
5. The jivas (individ ual souls) are all separated parts of the Lord.  
6. In bound state the jivas are under the influence of matter, due to their 
nature. 
7. In the liberated state the  jivas are free from the influence of matter, due to 
their nature.  
8. The jivas and the mate rial world are both different from and identical to the 
Lord.  
9. Pure devotion is the practice of the jivas.  
10.Pure love of  Krishna  is the goal.  
11.Krishna  is the only lovable blessing to be got.

409 
  
Ultimate Reality  
The ultimate reality is Lord  Vishnu . He is Sat-Chit-Ananda . As he is free from 
the qualities of Maya  and for this reason he is Nirguna . But then He is Saguna  
also because He is endowed with attributes – Omnipotent and Omniscience. 
He is the material and efficient cause of the world.  
Just as th e Sun has both light and heat, Lord Krishna has energies which are 
both mysterious and incomprehensible.  
Creation  
The Lord creates the Universe from the principle of Mahat. Beyond that, 
further work on creation is given to Lord Brahma.  Jivas  and matter ar e 
manife station of God’s energy.  
Lord appears in D ifferent Forms  
The Lord assumes endless forms. He appears in Avataras also. He manifests 
as Brahman to Jnaanis ; as Paramatma  to yogins; and as Bhagavan full of 
glories and attributes to His Bhaktas .  
Philo sophy  
His philosophy is called Achintya Bhedabheda. It represents the philosophy of 
inconceivable one -ness and also the difference. It occupies a position of 
midway between pure monism (God and soul as one entity) and pure dualism 
(God and soul are absolu tely separate). The world and soul depend on God, 
though they are separate and distinct from Him. They are neither one with 
God nor different from Him. There is an incomprehensible “difference - non-
difference” .  
The Lord  
Lord Krishna is recognized as Svayam Bhagavan.  This title is used to 
represent to designate Krishna  only. Krishna is accepted to be the source of 
all Avatars.  The term Svayam Bhagavan  refers to the absolute representation 
of the monotheistic God within Hinduism.  God assumes infinite for ms and the 
chief is that of Krishna . Radha is the essence of the delight giving power of 
Lord Krishna .  
The Jiva  
Jiva is of atomic size. He is the eternal servant of the God. He bears the same 
relationship to God that the Sun’s rays bear to the Sun. The r ay though it 
radiates from the Sun is not part and parcel of the Sun and it is also not the 
Sun. Jiva is partly similar to God in respect of his spirituality and at the same

410 
 time dissimilar to God due to his animal nature and susceptibility to the 
influence of Maya . Hence he is not God himself.  
Jiva is bound by the power of Maya. Maya makes him forget his real, 
esse ntial and divine nature. When he is thus influenced, he can have no 
knowledge of Lord Krishna.  Lord Krishna out of his infinite mercy created the 
Vedas  and reveals Himself to the Jiva through the media of scriptures, Guru 
and intuition. The Jiva is then convinced that the Lord Krishna  is his Lord and 
saviour.  
Jiva can have God realization  through spiritual love or  Prema to Lord Krishna . 
Bhakti overcomes the force of Karma. He is then freed from the cycle of birth 
and death. The devotee who has developed Prema is in constant communion 
with the Lord. He never cares for earthly objects or material success. Krishna 
Prema is regarded as a supreme att ainment.  
Other teachings  
Veneration of the Guru is fundamental feature of Sri Chaitanya’s  teachings. 
Study of the Vedas , the Bhagavata Purana  etc is inculcated. Mercy towards 
creatures, humility, purity of heart, truthfulness, freedom from mundane 
desires  is essential. Distinction of caste is to be ignored. Anyone  can obtain 
the grace of God.  
 Saiva Siddhanta Philosophy  
The Saiva Siddhanta School  is one of the most ancient schools of Saivism 
having a history of more than 2000 years. Currently it is popular  mostly in the 
south of India. Its philosophy midway between Sri Shankaracharya’s  Advaita  
and Sri Ramanujacharya’s Vishishtadvaita .  Its literature consists mainly of  
1.The 28 Saivaite Agamas  
2.“Tirumurai” – a collection Saivaite hymns  
3.“Periya Puranam” – collection of lives of Saivaite saints.  
4.“Siva jnana bodhanam” written by Sri Maykandar  
5.“Sivajnana suddhiya” written by Sri Arulnandi  
6.Works by Sri Umapathi  
 
Saivism was made popular in the south India by a number of well -known 
saints. The prominent ones among them are – Appar , Sundarar, 
Samban dhar, and Manikkavachakar.  
The central doctrine of the Saiva Siddhanta philosophy is that Lord Shiva is 
the Supreme Reality. Jiva is of the same essence as Shiva but not identical. 
Pati (soul), Pasu (bonds), Pasa (bonds)  and the principles that constitute the 
world – 36 Tattvas (as recognized by Saivism ) are all Real.

411 
 Supreme Reality  
The Supreme Reality is Shiva.  He is infinite, pure consciousness, eternal, 
changeless, formless. Omnipotent, omniscient, beginning -less, ever  pure, 
ever perfect. He is not limited by space or time. He is Sat Chit Ananda . Lord 
Shiva  is God of infinite love. Out of infinite love for mankind, He assumes the 
form of a Guru  so that all could know Him and attain Shiva -Pada. He helps to 
liberate indiv idual souls from the earthly bonds.  
The five activities of the Lord are called Pancha Krityas.   
1.Srisht i (creation)  
2.Sthiti (preservation)  
3.Samhara  (destruction)  
4.Tirobhava  (veiling)  
5.Anugraha  (grace)  
 
Shiva, Shakti and Maya  
Lord Shiva  pervades the whole worl d by His Shakti.  In fact, He works through 
His Shakti and She is the conscious energy of the Lord. She is the very body 
of the Lord Himself. Lord Shiva  is the first cause of the world; Shakti  is the 
instrumental cause and Maya  the material cause for it. Th is is best 
understood by an example. The potter is the first cause for the pot. The stick 
and the wheel are the instrumental causes while the clay is the material cause 
for the pot. Shakti (nature of chaitanya ) acts as an intermediate link between 
Lord Shiva (pure consciousness) and matter (pure unconsciousness)  
Evolution of Tattvas from Maya  
The world undergoes evolution for the benefit of souls. In fact, the entire 
process of creation is for the sake of salvation of souls. The Saiva Siddhanta  
analyses th e universe into thirty six Tattwas  or principles. These Tattwas  arise 
from Maya.   
Maya is classified into two types. (a) Shuddha Maya  (b) Ashuddha Maya . The 
Shuddha Maya (pure Maya ) gives rise to five pure principles –  
 (a) Shiva Tattwa  (b) Shakti Tattwa  (c) Sadasiva Tattwa  (d) Ishvara  Tattwa  ; 
(e) Suddhavidya Tattwa .  
Using these five Tattwas, Lord Shiva creates bodies, organs, worlds etc  for 
the pure souls.  
The Ashuddha Maya  is the cause for the Prakruti - Maya.  This gives rise to 
twenty four Tattwas – Pancha Mahabhutas  (air, water, ether, fire and earth); 
their five qualities (touch, taste, sound, colour and odour); Five Karmendriyas -

412 
 organs of action (feet, hands, rectum, genitals, mouth); Five Jnanendriyas - 
sensory organs  (ears, eyes, nose, tongue, ski n); four internal organs (mans, 
Buddhi , chitta and Ahamkara ). These impure Tattwas are used by Lord Shiva 
for the creation of bodies, organs, worlds for impure souls.  
Binding the soul  
Similar to Shiva , the Souls  (Pasu) by nature are infinite, all pervading , eternal 
and all knowing. However, due to their bonds ( Pasa), they think they are finite, 
limited, ignorant and temporary. Three bonds or Malas (impurities) are 
responsible for this ignorance.   (a) Anava ( b) Karma   (c) Maya                                                                                                                                                
(a)Anava : This is the impurity that makes the all - pervading Jiva to 
think itself to be finite and atomic (anu). It is a natural impurity 
and will  remain with the soul till it attains Kaivalya or sameness 
with Lord Shiva.  
(b)Karma :On account of its limitations the soul does good or bad 
actions. Karma  binds the soul to the consequences of its 
actions. Karma  brings about the conjunction of the soul and the 
body. The results of the karma  have to be worked out in the 
world and knowledge acquired.  
(c) Maya:  Maya is the material cause of this world. The soul gets 
experience and limited knowledge through Maya.  It binds the 
Jivas  to sense objects through desires and ignorance. The soul 
learns by long experience that this Samsara is full of pains and 
is transitory. The soul develops Vairagya  (dispassion) and 
Viveka  (discrimination between the real and un -real; between 
the permanent and impermanent). Eventually, the  Jiva learns 
that it can attain eternal happiness only by attaining Shivatva.  
However, Jiva cannot know God through the knowledge of the 
senses or the knowledge gained by the mind. Yet, it is not as if 
He is unknowable. He can be known by Pati-Jnana , eithe r 
through a Guru or by the Lord’s grace. In Shaiva Siddhanta  
liberation is a gift from God. Knowledge of scriptures and routine 
prayers are not adequate for this ultimate gift. Lord Shiva, as a 
personal Guru, gifts it to devotees whom He judges as 
deser ving.  
Attainment of Shivatva or God realization  
You must free yourself from the three bonds if you want to attain salvation. 
The bonds can be removed only through rigorous Tapas, proper discipline, 
help of a Guru and above all the grace of Lord Shiva. Four paths constitute

413 
 discipline and they are not alternatives to one another. Guru decides a 
suitable path for his disciple  
a) Charya  (observance): Involves serving Lord Shiva in a temple or a 
religious place. This is called Dasa -marga – the path of a servant . Various 
tasks such as – cleaning, cooking, gathering flowers etc may be performed.  
b)Kriya  (rites ): Involves tasks such as worshipping the idol of Lord Siva, 
reciting mantras, dressing His idols etc. These are services similar to those 
performed by a so n to his father. For this reason they are termed Sat-putra -
marga.  
c)Yoga  (Yama, Niyama, etc.):  Involves practicing Yoga  exercises and 
meditation. This enables the devotee to live in constant company of the Lord. 
This is called Sakha -marga – the path o0f f riendship  
d)Jnana  (path of knowledge):  This is considered to be the direct and a 
superior path. It takes the Jiva closer to Sat or Truth.  
When the aspirant practices in right earnest the path chosen for him, he 
obtains the grace of Lord Shiva.  The Lord t hen instructs the soul, reveals 
Himself and illumines him. Attainment of  Shivatva  does not mean a complete 
merging of the soul with Shiva . The liberated soul does not lose its identity 
and continues as soul in God. Shivatva is thus an identity of essence i n spite 
of difference – Bheda - abheda.  
 
Jainism  
Jainism is said to be an ancient system of thought founded by Jainas. The last 
of them in recorded history was Vardhamana Mahavira (540 BC) of Vaisali.  
The Jain tattvas, or principles, form the crux of Jain philosophy. It deals with 
the theory of karma, which provides the basis for the path of liberation. Jain 
literature explains nine fundamental tattvas. Without the proper knowledge of 
these tattvas, a person cannot  progress spiritually. The proper understan ding 
of this subject brings about  (a) right faith (samyak - darshana) , (b) right  
know ledge (samyak - jnana), and (c ) right  conduct to an individual.  The nine 
tattvas are tabled below.  
 
Jiva  Soul or living being (consciousness)  
Ajiva   Non-living substances  
Asrava  Influx of karma  
Bandha   Bondage of karma  
 Punya   Virtue

414 
  Paap   Sin 
Samvara                Stoppage or arrest of the influx of karma  
Nirjara   Exhaustion  of the accumulated karma  
Moksha   Total liberation from karma  
            
Punya and Papa ar e the diverse results of Asrava and Bandh. Some 
exponents of Jains do not treat them as separate tattvas. According to them, 
there are only seven principles instead of nine.  
 
Soul (Jiva) or Living Being Substance  
Jiva or Soul is the only substance, which i n pure state possesses infinite 
knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. The pure soul is a liberated soul. The 
worldly soul is covered by karma particles. The karma subdues the natural 
qualities of the soul. The qualities of the impure soul are as follows:  
1.Limited Knowledge, Vision, Power, and Bliss  
2.Possesses a body (plants, hellish, animal, human, or angel)  
3.Wanders into the cycle of life and death  
4.Suffers from birth, death, pain, and pleasure  
 
The ultimate goal of human life is to remove all karma particl es, which are 
attached to the soul. Then the soul will become pure and liberated.  
Non-Living (Ajiva) Substances  
 
Except soul, everything else in the entire universe is non -living substance. 
The non -living substances are classified into five categories.  
Matter Pudgal  
Space  Akasa  
Time  Kaala  or Samay  
Medium of Motion  Dharmastikay  
Medium of Rest  Adharmastikay      
 
Out of five categories, only matter substance possesses body, colour , and 
senses. Karma is one of the categories of matter. It is known as kar mic matter 
(karma pudgala). Karma particles are of very fine matter not perceptible to the 
senses. The entire universe is filled with such karmic matter.  Every living 
being is covered by karmic matter from their eternal existence. It is the karmic 
matter t hat keeps the soul away from realization of its true nature. It is due to 
karma one feels pleasure and pain, reincarnates in the different form of life, 
acquires certain types of physical body, and the duration of life.

415 
  
Asrava (Influx of karma)  
Asrava is  the cause, which leads to the influx of good and evil karma which 
lead to the bondage of the soul. Asrava may be described as attraction in the 
soul toward sense objects. The following are causes of Asrava or influx of 
good and evil karma:  
Mithyatva  Delus ion or ignorance  
Avirati  Lack of self restraint  
Pramada*           Unawareness of unmindfulness  
Kasaya  Passions like anger, conceit, deceit, and lust  
Yoga  Activities of the mind, speech, and body  
 
Bandha (Bondage of karma)  
 
Bandha is the attachment of karmic matter (karma pudgala) to the soul. The 
soul has had this karmic matter bondage from eternity. This karmic body is 
known as the karmana body or causal body or karma.  Karmic matter is a 
particular type of matter which is attracted to the soul because  of soul's 
delusion or ignorance, lack of self restraint, unmindfulness, passions, 
activities of body, mind, and speech.  The soul, which is covered by karmic 
matter, continues acquiring new karma from the universe and exhausting old 
karma into the universe  through the above mentioned actions at every 
moment.  Because of this continual process of acquiring and exhausting 
karma particles, the soul has to pass through the cycles of births and deaths, 
and experiencing plea sure and pain. So under normal circumsta nces the soul 
cannot attain freedom from karma, and hence liberation.  When karma 
attaches to the soul, its bon dage to the soul is explained in the following four 
forms:  
Prakruti  bandha  Type of karma  
Sthiti bandha  Duration of attachment of karma  
Anubhava bandha    Intensity of attachment of karma  
Pradesa bandha  Quantity of karma

416 
  
Prakriti Bandha (type of karma ) 
When karmic matter attaches to the soul, it obscures soul's essential nature of 
perfect knowledge, perfect vision, bliss, perfect power, eternal e xistence, 
non corporeal, and equanimity. The different types of karma obscure  different 
quality or attributes of soul. This is known as Prakruti  bandha.  
Prakruti  bandha is classified into eight categories, according to the particular 
attribute of the soul that it obscures. These eight categories of karma are 
grouped into two major categories , known as Ghazi  karma, which subdues 
the qualities of the soul, and Agate  karma, which relates to physical body of 
the living beings.  
Ghati karma  
 
Jnana varaniya 
karma  Covers the soul's power of perfect knowledge.  
Darasna varaniya 
karma                    
                    Covers the soul's power of perfect visions.  
Mohniya karma  Generates the delusion in the soul in regard to its 
own true nature. The soul identifies itself with other 
eternal substances and relationships.  
Antaraya karma  Obstructs the natural quality or energy of the soul 
such as charity and will power. This prevents the 
soul from attaining liberation. It also prevents a living 
being from doing somethi ng good and enjoyable.  
Aghati Karma   
 
Vedniya 
karma  Obscures the blissful nature of the soul and thereby produces 
pleasure and pain.  
Nama 
karma  Obscures the non -corporeal existence of the soul and provides 
the body with its limitations, qualities, facili ties, etc.  
Gotra 
karma  Obscures the soul's characteristics of equanimity and determines 
the caste, family, social standing, and personality.  
Ayu karma  Determines the span of life in one's birth, thus obscuring the 
soul's nature of eternal existence.

417 
  
When a person destroys all of his ghati karmas, he attains keval  jnana 
(absolute knowledge). At that time he is known as Arihant. However, he 
continues to live his human life until all his aghati karmas are destroyed. He 
attains li beration only after his dea th at that time all aghati karmas are 
destroyed.  
 
Sthiti Bandha (Duration of attachment)  
When karmic matter attaches to the soul it remains attached for certain 
duration before it produces the result. The duration of the attachment is 
determined according to the intensity or dullness of the soul's passions or 
actions when the karma is being attached to the soul. After producing the 
result, karma will separate from the soul.  Anubhava Bandha or Rasa Bandha 
(Intensity of attachment) :  What fruits the karmic ma tter will produce are 
determined at the time of attachment by varying degrees of soul's passions.  
 
Pradesa Bandha (Quantity of karma)  
The intensity or dullness of the soul's action determines the quantum of 
karmic matter that is drawn towards the soul for attachment.  
Punya (Virtue)  
 The influx of karmic matter due to good activities of the mind, body, and 
speech with the potential of producing pleasant sensations is called punya or 
virtue. Activities such as offering food, drink, shelter, purifying thought , 
phys ical and mental happiness result in producing punya karma.  
Paap (Sin)  
The influx of karmic matter due to evil activities of the mind, body, and speech 
with the potential of producing unpleasant sensations is called papa or sin. 
Activities such as vio lence, untruth, theft, unchastely, attachment to objects, 
anger, conceit, deceit, lust result in producing papa karma.  
Samvara (Stoppage of Karma)   
The method that stops fresh karma from attaching into the soul is called 
samvara. This process is a reverse process of asrava. It can be accomplished 
by constant practice of:  
Right belief  
Observance of vows

418 
 Awareness  
Passionlessness  
Peacefulness of vibratory activities  
 
Nirjara (Exhaustion of the attached karma) :  
The attached karma exhausts  themselves by p roducing their results when it is 
time for them to do so. At that time new karma attach to the soul.  
Unless the attached karma is exhausted before they start producing the 
results, it becomes difficult for the soul to be free. Therefore , it is necessary to  
exhaust all karmas before their maturity. This is done by rigorous austerities 
and penance. This process is called nirjara.  
 
Moksha (Liberation)  
Moksha is the liberation of the soul after complete exhaustion or elimination of 
all karmas. A liberated soul  regains totally its original attributes of perfect 
knowledge, vision, power, and bliss. It climbs to the top of Lokas and remains 
their forever in its blissful and unconditional existence. It never returns again 
into the cycles of birth, life, and death. This state of the soul is the liberated or 
perfect state, and this is called "Nirvana."  
Buddhism  
 
Buddhism is the philosophy of withdrawal from Samsara  which is the source 
of all suffering.  Some say that since Buddha held that all is misery he is a 
pessi mist. It is not so. He, like all those who went before him, found that every 
one seeks to get rid of misery and which is of different degrees. All 
exper iences even the apparent pleasurables turn out to be only momentary 
enjoyments leading to greater unhapp iness.   Practices of penance or tapasya 
or Brahmacharya  or performances of rituals and yajnas are in fact irrational 
since they do not discover the cause of this misery.  Buddha was the first 
thinker to affirm that misery can be got rid by natural means pr ovided we can 
find out the natural cause. This natural cause he found was desire. He 
discovered or analysed the chain of causes and effects issuing from this 
primeval or beginningless desire which leads to misery through avidya. The 
whole body of ours is j ust a conglomerate (skandha) or grouping of desires 
(trishna) and it is perishable.  According to Buddha the soul or ego is 
perishable even as the body. Thus Buddha discounted the existence of a 
permanent soul or ego, though he affirmed the existence of a perpetual

419 
 stream of karma from one individual to another.  The real avidya then is - not 
to know that all is su ffering; not to know the cause of suffering;  not to know 
that this suffering can be got rid of;  and lastly not to know the path which 
leads to t he cessation of suffering.  Thus the central teaching of the Buddha, 
around which all his other teachings revolve, is the Four Noble Truths:  
1. All beings, human and otherwise, are afflicted with all sorts of 
disappointments, sadness, discomfort, anxiety etc. In short they are 
subject to suffering.  
2. The cause of this suffering is craving, born of the illusion of a 'soul'  
3. Suffering has a final end in the experience of Enlightenment (Ni bbana) 
which is the complete letting go of the illusion of 'soul'  and the 
consequent ending of craving and ill will.  
4. This peaceful and blissful Enlightenment is achieved through a 
gradual training, a path called the Middle Way, or the Eightfold Path.  
The way to the end of all suffering is called the Middle Way beca use it avoids 
the two extremes of sensual indulgence and self -mortification. Only when the 
body is in reasonable comfort but not overindulged, does the mind have the 
clarity and strength to meditate deeply and discover the truth. This Middle 
Way consists o f the diligent cultivation of virtue, meditation and wisdom, which 
are explained in more detail as the Eightfold Path:  
1. Right Understanding  
2. Right Thought  
3. Right Speech  
4. Right Action  
5. Right Livelihood  
6. Right Effort  
7. Right Mindfulne ss  
8. Right Concentration  ('Right' in the sense of being conducive to happiness 
and Enlightenment.)  
Right Speech, Action and Livelihood constitute the training in virtue or 
mora lity. For a practising lay Buddhist it consists of maintaining the five 
Buddhist precepts, which are to  refrain from:  
1. Deliberately causing the death of any living being;

420 
 2. Intentionally taking for one's own the property of another;  
3. Sexual misconduct, in particular adultery;  
4. Lying and breaking promises;  
5. Drinkin g alcohol and taking stupefying drugs which lead to a weakening of 
mindfulness and moral judgment.  
Buddha laid emphasis on the Samadhi through Jnana (Dhyana). He 
emph asised the monk -life of homelessness. Buddhist is one who cultivates 
the hig hest states o f consciousness through Samadhi  that leads to Nirvana or 
the di ssolution of the chain of causation,  cycle of births, and the   
extinguishment of the ego (the will to live).  
Buddha negated individual soul’s permanent existence. He did not speculate 
on the  Ultimate Nature of Reality, which he negatively described as the Sunya 
or Nirvana, where there is total extinguishment of all change and process. 
Buddha thus is said to have taught the doctrine of un -atma or non -atman. He 
was also against the sacrificial means for getting out of misery.  He did not 
accept the authoritativeness of the Veda.   He also did not admit of anything 
permanent in this world. He however aimed at arriving at a state of non -
change or nirvana which he saw is possible only through the an nihilation of 
the ego, which he found to be just a conglomerate (skandha) of material 
elements which are bound by karma -avidya or trishna.  
The value of Buddhism lies in the fact that it expresses a new meaning of 
dharma, contrasting it with karma. Dharma  means the essential principle of 
motion or activity which reverses the karma -wheel, till all karma is 
extinguished and this is nirvana. Ethical life is the method of attainment of 
cessation of suffering both individual and collective. Dharma in the new se nse 
comprising the eightfold path without the Vedic dharma  became the most 
exce llent truth of this system.  
Right Understanding and Thought are the manifestations of Buddha -Wisdom 
which ends all suffering, transforms the personality and produces 
unshak eable serenity and tireless compassion. According to the Buddha, 
without pe rfecting the practice of virtue it is impossible to perfect meditation, 
and without perfecting meditation it is impossible to arrive at Enlightenment 
Wisdom.  
Karma 
Kamma means 'acti on'. According to the law of kar ma there are inescapable 
results of our intentional actions. There are deeds of body, speech and mind 
that lead to one's own harm, to others' harm, or to the harm of both. Such

421 
 deeds are called bad or unwholesome kamma. They ar e motivated by 
craving, ill will or delusion, and because they bring painful results they should 
not be done.  There are also deeds of body, speech and mind that lead to 
one's own well -being, to the well -being of others, or to the well -being of both. 
Such d eeds are called good or wholesome kamma. They are motivated by 
genero sity, compassion or wisdom, and because they bring pleasant results 
they should be done as often as possible. The Buddha pointed out that no 
one, d ivine or otherwise, has the power to sto p the consequences of good 
and bad kamma.  
Re-birth  
Karma and rebirth offer a plausible explanation to the obvious inequalities of 
birth - why some are born into great wealth whereas others are born into 
pathetic poverty; why some children enter this world  healthy and full -limbed 
whereas others enter it deformed and diseased.  A creator God is redundant in 
Buddha’s  scheme.  
Soul  
The Buddha taught that there is no 'soul', no essential and permanent core to 
a living being. Instead, that which we call a 'living  being', human or otherwise, 
can be seen to be but a temporary coming -together of many parts and 
activities - when complete it is called a 'living being', but when the parts have 
separated and the activities have ceased it is not called a 'living being' 
anymore.

422 
 Chapter XIII -   Samskaras  
 
The rites that pertain to the various stages of life of a man are called 
Samskaras. They are, in fact, purificatory rites which sanctify the life of the 
Hindu. They give a spiritual touch to the important  events in the life of an 
individual from conception to cremation.  
For the Hindu life is considered a sacred journey in which each milestone, 
marking a major biological and emotional change, is consecrated through a 
sacred ceremony. The word Samskara  mean s a betterment of a thing. The 
cleansing process set in motion by the observance of Samskaras lead to the 
better of life and qualifies a person for spiritual upliftment. It is as if there is a 
deep rooted tendency in the heart the man to bring the chief ev ents of his life 
in contact with a higher power. The variety of rites and rituals related to 
Samskaras help in the formation and development of personality. In the 
Parashara Smruti  it is said, "Just as a picture is painted with various colours, 
so the char acter of a person is formed by undergoing various cascaras." 
Thus, the Hindu sages realised the need for consciously guiding and 
moulding the character of individuals, instead of letting them grow in a 
haphazard manner.   
Origins  
 
Kalpa Sutras  are exegetic al texts of the Vedas. Among these texts are  
Srauta Sutras : Explain the rituals of sacrifices  
Grihya Sutras :Explains rituals in domestic lives  
Dharma Sutras :Deals with ethics, customs and laws  
Grihya sutras  designate the rules and customs for domestic  life, including rites 
of passage and other home ceremonies, which are widely followed to this day.  
Some important  Grihya sutras are (1) Apasthamba  (2) Aswalayan  (3) 
Boudhayana  (4) Bharadwaja  (5) Gobhila  (6) Hiranyakesia  (7) Jaimineeya (8) 
Khadira (9) Manava (10) Paraskara  (11) Sankhayana  (12) Varaha.  
They belong to different Vedas  and Shakas and for this reason differ slightly 
in their contents.

423 
 Forty Samskara s 
Forty Samskaras are prescribed in the scriptures. They are – 
The forty Samskaras  which ar e meant to purify the individual self consist of 
the following:  
a) Garbhadhana, pumsavana, simanta, jatakarma, namakarana,  
annaprasana, chooda karma, upanayana,  
b) The four rites like prajapatya (Vedavratas) performed during 
guruk ulavasa (the years the celibate student spends in the home of his 
guru),  
c) The ritual bath on completion of gurukulavasa,  
d) Marriage,  
e) The five Mahayajnas performed everyday by the householder. (The 
pancha - mahayajnas are: brahmayajna, devayajna, pitrayajna, 
manusyayajna and  bhutayajna. The chanting of the Vedas constitutes 
brahmayajna. Sacrifices and puja are devayajna. Tarpana is pitrayajna. 
Feeding guests is  anusyayajna. And offering of bali to various 
creatures is bhutayajna.)  
f) Seven pakayajnas (astaka (anvastaka ), sthalipaka, parvana, sravani, 
agrahayani, caitri, asvayuji)  
g) Seven haviryajnas (agniyadhana, agnihotra, darsa -purnamasa, 
agrayana, caturmasya, nirudhapasubandha, sautramani.)  
h) Seven somayajnas to be conducted by the householder (agnistoma, 
atyagnistoma, uktya, sodasi, vajapeya, atiratra, aptoryama)   
The ancient seers observed that - If we wish to get released from the cycle of 
birth and death, we will have to contend against various obstacles like our 
attachments, desires, our feelings of hatred and fear. We will have to be 
disciplined and observe the rules related to our daily routine. If we can control 
our mind, subdue our passions and ego, then our feelings of anger, hatred, 
fear and sorrow will gradually wither away. The Samskaras  and Atmagunas  
are interconnected. They will help us reach our goal of release from Samsara.   
Prominent Samskaras  
 
Among the Samskaras listed above some are prominent. They are sixteen in 
number. They are given below.

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 No Stage  Name  Details  
1 Pre-natal  
Garbh adana  Garbhadana sacrifices the creative act. The 
husband repeats Mantras during  
Ritu-Santi  ceremony. The new child is conceived 
amidst the vibrations of Mantras.  
2 Pre-birth 
Pumsavana  Performed in the 3rd month of pregnancy with 
Mantras.  The food sheath  and vital sheath of the 
child is formed.  
3 Pre-birth 
Simantonnayana  Performed on the 6th or 8th month of pregnancy 
with Mantras.  This protects the mother from evil 
influences and bestows health on the child. 
Recitation of Mantras  and performance of the 
ceremony help in shaping the body of the child.  
4 At birth  
Jatakarma  Performed immediately after the birth of the child. 
The father welcomes the new born child. He 
prays for its long life, intelligence and well being.  
5 Naming 
ceremony  Namakarana  Usually performed on the 11th day. There is a 
practice in choosing the name for the child, 
based on the Nakshatra  or asterism under which 
the child is born. One of the many names of Lord 
is commonly chosen . 
6 3rd month  
Nishkrama  In the third month the child is a llowed viewing of 
the fire and moon. In the fourth month he is taken 
out of the house for the first time to a mandir  for a 
viewing of the Lord. The child is also exposed to 
the Sun.  
7 6th month  
Annaprasana  Performed on the 6th month. The child is given 
solid food for the first time. Mantras  are recited 
and oblations offered to various deities.  
8 1st or 3rd 
year Chooda Karma  The tonsure or shaving of the head. During 
ancient times, they used to have “ sikha”  which 
was considered essential while conducting rites. 
It was worn in the ceremony with the chanting of 
Mantras . Vows are made to Parameshvara  
during the ceremony.  
9 1st or 3rd 
year Karnavedha  The Karnavedha or year boring ceremony is also 
performed with Chooda Karma.  
10 5th as per  
Manu  & 8th Upanayanam  The most important ceremony that marks the 
beginning of the next stage in life - youth. It is his

425 
 year as  per 
Yajnavalkya  second or spiritual birth. Upanayana  means 
bringing near – the boy is brought near to his 
spiritual teacher – Guru . The Guru  invest s him 
with the sacred thread , Yagnopavita , and initiates 
him by giving him the Gayatri Mantra . It is the 
start of the Brahmacharya  ashram. This initiation 
makes him, Dwija , the twice born. The boy 
begins the life of study. He studies Veda vidya . It 
would t ake, normally 12 to 16 years to complete 
the learning of one Veda along with its angas . 
Refer below where the significance of the sacred 
thread is explained.  
11 End of 
student 
stage  Samavarthana  Having completed the Vedic  studies and the 
Vratas, the stude nt presents an appropriate gift 
to his Guru . He then seeks a permission to take a 
formal bath signifying the end of studentship. He 
then returns home and performs the 
Samava rthana  or returning ceremony.. He is now 
ready to enter the next stage in life – Marriage  
12 Marriage 
ceremony  Vivaha  This marks the entry into the second ashrama . 
He begins his life as a house holder  
13 Married life  
Grahastya 
ashrama  He pays his spiritual debts by sacrifice, by study. 
He procreates children .  
14 Renouncing 
the house 
holder’s life  Vanaprasta 
ashrama  Man withdraws himself from all worldly activities. 
He prepares himself for taking Sanyasa.   
15 Renouncing 
the world  Sanyasa ashrama  Renounces the world and leads a life of study 
and meditation . 
16 Funeral rites  
Anthyesthi  The man dies. His funeral rites are performed by 
his son and heir . 
 
Notes:  
Significance of sacred thread and other symbols  
The sacred thread or Yagnopavita  consists of three threads knotted together. The 
significance is that he who wears it should have  control over his mind, speech and 
body (thought, word and deed). The holy thread itself signifies various triads, viz, 
Sat, Chit, Ananda; Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva;  etc.

426 
 Pancha Maha Yagnas   
 
Every house holder is expected to perform five great sacrifices ev ery day. They are – 
 
Brahma Yajna: This is a sacrifice to Brahman  or the Vedas  or the sages.  
Deva Yajna: This is a sacrifice to the celestials.  
Pithru Yajna: These are sacrifices to one’s ancestors discharged through the 
offering of Pindas  during oblations  
Manushya Yajna: The Athithi satkaram or feeding one’s guests with respect. 
Signifies one’s debts to the community  
Bhoota Yajna: This Samskara  consists of feeding the living entities (considered 
as extended human family) other than human beings.  
Gunas  
Apart from Samskaras, Atma Gunas help remove the ills caused by the sensory 
attachments. For this, we have to cultivate eight Atma  Gunas. The Samskaras  and 
Atma Gunas  are interconnected. The list of Atma Gunas is given below:  
 
No Atma Guna  Details  
1 Daya  Implies love for all creatures. Such love is the very fulfilment 
of life. There is no greater happiness than that derived by 
loving others. Daya  is the backbone of all qualities.  
2 Ksanti  It means patience. One kind of Ksanti  is to patiently suffer 
disease , poverty, misfortune etc. The second is forgiveness. 
This implies loving a person even when he causes pain and 
suffering to you.  
3 Anasuya  Anasuya  is Sage Atri’s  wife. She was utterly free from any 
kind of jealousy. It is for this reason she is called as  
Anasuya.   
4 Saucha  Saucha  derives its name from Suchi.  And Suchi  means 
cleanliness. Cleanliness here refers to purity to be 
maintained in all matters – personal cleanliness, food, dress 
etc 
5 Anayasa  Anayasa  is the opposite of Ayasa  - which refers to ef fort, 
exertion etc. Anayasa means to have a feeling of lightness, 
to take things easy and never to lose your temper.  
6 Mangala  Indicates the need to keep an air of auspiciousness, dignity 
and purity. This by itself radiates a glow of happiness.  
7 Akarpa nya Miserliness is the quality of a Krpana. Akarpanya  is the

427 
 opposite of miserliness. One must be generous  
8 Asprha  Sprha means desire. Asprha is the opposite of it - that is 
being without desire. Desire has been the root cause for all 
troubles over the a ges. It has, time and again, led to a 
complete destruction of the person. Endless performance of 
rites and continuous meditation eventually will lead a person 
to get over desires.  
 
Ashrama Dharmas  
Human beings have the ability for discrimination and judge ment. And this makes 
them unique among all the created beings. For an orderly development of this ability 
the scriptures have prescribed a number of Samskaras. A careful following of these 
Samskaras  leads one to attain the Purusharthas  – goals in life.  
 Ashrama Dharma divides man’s life into four stages – Brahmacharya, Grhastha, 
Vanaprastha  and Sanyasa.  Among these four  Grhastha ashrama is the most 
impo rtant one. The other three ashrams  depend on it. Under the shelter of a mother 
all creatures grow. Similar ly, Grhasthashrama  provides a shelter for the other three 
ashrams . 
Brahmachari Grhasthascha  
Vaanaprasthastathaa yatiheh  
Yetae grhastha  
Vivaha Samskara  
A man and woman enter the Grhastha Ashrama  through marriage. Together they 
face a number of challenges and perform a number of duties. They raise their 
children, educate them and train them to be model citizens.  When this is done the 
objective of marriage becomes successful.  
On the occasion of a marriage friends and relatives gather for the function. They  
offer prayers for the prosperity of the family. Elders bless the youngsters. This 
procedure offers for the spiritual and social advancement of individuals.  
The bondage of marriage holds the society together. Society cannot be regarded as 
composed of indiv iduals. The true social unit is the family. It is essentially on the plan 
of the family that the society is constructed. In a family the social and personal 
instincts are blended and reconciled. To attack the institution of the family is an 
alarming sympto m of social disorganisation.  
Vivaaha, Parinaya, Kalyana, Panigrhana, Udvahana  are Sanskrit words for marriage.

428 
 All the rituals carried out during the marriage ceremony have some meaning. 
Youngman looking to get married must be careful and alert. The same  caution needs 
to be exercised by the parents of the girl. Marriages between two people having 
similar status in terms of looks, age and education, generally, lead to happy a 
married life. The rituals and procedures followed by people during a marriage var y 
from r egion to region based on family backgrounds.  
Typical traditional steps, followed in the south of India are being described.  
The steps are – (1) Arrival of the bridegroom (2) Honouring the bridegroom (3) Maha 
Sankalpa (4) Kanya dana (5) Madhuparka ( 6) Tieing the Mangal sutra (7) 
Talambralu (8) Kankana Dharana  (9) Brahma mudi (10) Pradhana Homa (11) Pani 
grhana (12) Sapta padi (13) Arundhati Darshana  (14) Pledges between the bride and 
the groom (15) Asheervad  
Arrival of the bridegroom and honouring hi m 
A day before the auspicious time for the marriage the bridegroom arrives along with 
his friends and relatives and reaches the place organised by the Kanya data. The 
bridegroom is honoured. Discussions related to the family connections and Gotra  
take place.  
Maha Sankalpa  
This is an important step. During this time discussions take place mainly as to who is 
doing the Kanya  dana  (giving away in marriage), to whom it is being done and where 
it is being done.  
Kanya dana  
The bridegroom is symbolically viewed as Lord Lakshmi Narayana. The father of the 
bride, Kanya data, then washes the feet of the bridegroom. During this occasion the 
Kanya data says – 
Kanyam kanaka sampannam  
Kanaka abharanairvrtaam  
Daasyaami Vishnave’ tubhyam  
Brahma loka jigeeshay a 
“ With a view to attain Brahma loka, considering you to be equivalent to Lord Vishnu, 
I give the hand of my daughter who is wearing all the precious gold ornaments”. Also 
during the marriage the bride vows “ I will never leave you under any circumst ances 
of Dharma, Artha and Kama”. The bridegroom also pledges that he too will never 
desert her. “ Dharmecha, arthecha, kaamecha naati charaami, naati charitavya”

429 
 Madhuparka  
 
During the marriage the bridegroom is offered “ Madhuparka”.  In a small vessel  
honey and yoghurt are mixed and offered. The vessel is tied with threads. It is 
symbolic of a great honour.  
At an auspicious time, a small screen that separates the bride and the groom will be 
moved away and bridegroom will view the bride. This is called  “Sameekshana ”. The 
bridegroom then places Cumin (Jeera) and Jaggery on the head of the bride. 
Mantras are chanted at the time. The same ritual is performed by the bride as well. It 
is believed that the ritual will assist in increasing the affection be tween the couple 
many folds.  Then the bridegroom ties a rope made out of sacred grass (darbha) 
around the waist of the bride. This ritual is called “Yoktra  Dharana ”. This ritual 
enables the bride to accept the responsibilities for conducting the Yagna call ed life.  
Tying of the Mangala sutra  
 
Tying of the Mangala  sutra  is the most important event in the marriage Samskara. 
Since it is considered as the key to all auspicious events, it is called Mangala  sutra. 
The bridegroom invokes  Goddess Lakshmi during the  event and seeks Her 
blessings. All the elders, witnessing the marriage, touch the Mangala  sutra and bless 
the couple. The bridegroom ties the Mangala  sutra around the neck of the bride with 
three knots. The three knots represent the three deities – the Lo rds Brahma, Vishnu 
and Shiva. The welfare of the couple and the long term union is assured by the 
Mangala  sutra and the three knots on it.  
The tying of the Mangala  sutra is conducted in front of a fire ceremony. Agni, the 
God of fire bears the witness. Th e following Mantra  is uttered by the bridegroom 
Maangalyam tantu naanena  
Mama jeevana hetunaa  
Kante’ bandhaami subhage’  
Twam jeeva sharadaam shatam  
Meaning “ I am tying this Mangala  sutra, the cause for my living, around your neck . 
May you live a complete one hundred years”. The Mangala  sutra is regarded as very 
auspicious.

430 
 Talambraalu  
It is also referred to as “ Akshata aaropanam”.  During this ceremony a number of 
mantras are recited by traditional people. They all wish the cou ple – auspicious 
events to occur, for the progeny to increase, for prosperity and for them  to lead a 
harmonious life.  
Kankana  
This signifies the Rakshabandan . It is tied to the right hand of the bridegroom and to 
the left hand of bride. They are retaine d for three days and removed on the fourth 
day.  
Brahma mudi  
The word Mudi refers to a knot. The end of the bride’s sari is tied to the “ Uttareeya” 
(upper garment) of the bridegroom. This is called the Brahma mudi. This is said to 
signify the closeness an d affection of the couple. During this ceremony, prayers are 
offered to Gods like Varuna  to grant the couple stability and courage.  
Principal Homa ceremony  
The first Homa  (ritual by fire)  that the newlywed couple perform is called “ Pradhaana 
Homa ”. This w ill mark the beginning of the many Homas  they would be performing 
over the coming years. This is called the Pradhaana Homa. The mantras that the 
bridegroom would be uttering are aimed at the growth and well being of their 
children.  
While performing the H oma, the bridegroom will be invoking a number of Gods and 
adding  Dravyas to the fire. It is believed that Lord Agni acts as the face of all Gods.  
Panigrahana  
During the marriage ceremony, the bridegroom will hold the five fingers of bride’s 
right hand. T his is called Panigrahana. The bridegroom also pronounces “ during this 
auspicious occasion I am holding your hand. Due to the grace of the Lord, may we 
lead a long life and have worthy children”. Mantras praying for the health, wealth and 
Jnana are uttere d. Such rituals bring to focus the auspiciousness of the occasion 
and the binding brought about by the marriage. While giving away Sita in marriage to 
Lord Rama, King Janaka says – 
Iyam Sita mama suta  
Saha dharmachari tava  
Prateecha chainam bhadram te’  
Panim grshnishwa paaneena.  
“ Sita is my daughter. She is now your Saha dharma chaarinee . Please accept her. 
May auspiciousness befall on you” – is the meaning for this Shloka . This indicates 
that rituals such as these are being followed in India for thou sands of years.

431 
 Sapta padhi  
 
Couples, who got married taking oaths in front of a Homa, take seven steps around 
the fire. This is called Sapta Padhi. A lot of importance is attached to this ritual. It is 
believed that even acquaintances who take seven ste ps together end up as close 
friends - “Sakyam Saaptapadeenam”.  
The mantras uttered during the ritual reveal that each step that the couple take 
during this ritual has significance.  
Arundhathi Darshana  
After the marriage ceremony has been completed, the couple are taken out and 
asked to view the stars – Dhruva  and Arundhati.  The significance is that the couple 
conduct themselves like the legendary Dhruva  for steadfastness and Arundhati for 
fidelity  
Pledges between the Bride and the Groom  
 
The couple take  a number of vows during the marriage. They are in the form of 
Sanskrit  mantras.  
Examples of vows from the bridegroom would look like this “May God Agni, bless 
you to develop an affection for the house you are entering. It is due to the grace of 
Lord B rahma that we have now become husband and wife. May HE bless us with 
long life. Similarly, the vows taken by the bride would look like this “ You have taken 
my heart and I am married to you. I accept you as a person having a lot of samskara. 
Together we pray for a great progeny. May Lord Brahma bless us that we will always 
live with a great affection for each other. May Goddess Saraswathy bless us that we 
always communicate with each other with a lot of affection.  
Asheervad  
After that all the elders atte nding the marriage bless the couple. The blessings of 
elders do not go a waste.  
Friends and relatives present the couple with items that would be useful in their day 
to day life. However, the Shastras  do not mention or permit for dowries to be given 
on th e occasion  
Miscellaneous  
The tilak that the bride and bridegroom wear during marriage ceremony are signs of 
auspiciousness. Exchange of beetle leaves is done on all auspicious occasions. New 
cloths are worn during the marriage ceremony. The bride is well decorated and looks 
the most important person on the occasion.

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Chapter XIV - Seers of Kaliyuga  
 
As we all know, according to Hindu cosmology there are four Yugas – Krita (Satya), 
Tretaa, Dwaapara and Kali. In the  Krita Yuga, people had lot o f mental strength 
(manobala ) and hence the worship was done mentally. In the Tretaa Yuga , mental 
strength reduced and worship was done through the performance of sacrifices. In the 
Dwaapara Yuga , pujas  etc started and God was worshipped in people’s houses.  In 
the present Kali Yuga , Bhakti is the only means to realize God.  The lives and 
teachings of a number of spiritual leaders and Acharyas  of this age aimed at making 
people understand Bhakti  as the only means to liberation. To name a few well known 
saints  – Alwars  (from South India), Sri Shankaracharya, Sri Ramanujacharya, Sri 
Madhvacharya, Sri Vallabhacharya, Sri Krishna Caitanya, Meera Bai, Sri NamDev, 
Tulasidas, Tukaram, Sri Annamacharya, Sri Tyagaraja, 63 Nayanar  saints from 
south India . It is the supp ort of their  lives that gave them more authority to their 
teachings than the philosophical writings of mere arm -chair philosophers and critics. 
Some of the miracles and extraordinary incidents attributed to them have been 
criticized to be projections of th e pious imaginations of their followers. If nothing else 
it is, perhaps, the way of the Indian mind to convey the idea that these saints are 
endowed with extraordinary divine powers. But for this extraordinary power in them, 
their teachings could not have survived so many centuries influencing the lives and 
thoughts of innumerable generations of people.  
Before we proceed, one has to understand  what  Bhakti is and what it is not. It 
certainly is not a noisy session. It is also not a session where special poo jas are 
promised provided certain desires are fulfilled. It is a firm, ceaseless and unshakable 
love of God, which surpasses every other form of affection and attachment, and 
which is based on and inspired by a full knowledge of His transcendent majesty. T his 
is the only method by which one can attain Moksha  or liberation. Prapatti 
(Sharanagati - absolute surrender to the Supreme Self) is considered to be even 
superior to Bhakti.  It calls for an unshakeable faith in God and His saving grace. All 
actions by way of body, words, mind, senses,  Buddhi , and the self – are all 
dedicated to the Supreme Being - Paramatma . 
The lives and teachings of these saints of Kaliyuga  aimed at the knowledge of God 
as the means to liberation. Such knowledge is called Vidya  and th e others as Avidya 
for it is not liberating knowledge – though not ignorance . Sri Narada  expressed that 
even ekaayana  did not help him to realize Brahman  or the liberating knowledge 
(Chandogya Upanishad ).It just means that a mechanical knowledge, conceding  that

433 
 it is thorough, of the know -how of the Agamas  will not help in realizing God. The key 
is that a deep insight into the love of God alone can lead to liberation.  
The seers of the Kaliyuga were great experimenters in the spiritual life and adopted 
all modes of approach to the Divine Lord. God is, for them, pre -eminently the father, 
the mother, the friend, the husband or the Master. It is one of the greatest 
discove ries of the current seers (as different from the seers of the Vedic age) to 
show that a re lation -less reality is a non -entity and is not an object of experience. It is 
a fully a rticulated relational reality that is the substance of experience.    
The Yoga of Bhakti  or devotion is a lot easier than the Jnana  Yoga or philosophical 
meditations. I n Bhakti Yoga, the devotee develops a very close relationship with the 
Lord. Gradually, he cultivates any one of the six Bhavas according to his nature. The 
six bhavas are – 
 
The bhavas  differ both in type and intensity. In t he figure shown above the bhavas  
are arranged in the order of increasing intensity from left to right.  
Santa bhava : Dhruva  and Prahlada felt that God is their father . This is Santa bhava.  
Daasya bhava : The devotee behaves like a servant. The roles play ed by Sri 
Hanuman and Adi Sesha  towards the Lord are ideal examples.  
Sakya bhava : In this case there is a sense of equality as between two friends. 
Arjuna’s relationship with Sri Krishna is an excellent example.  
Vaatsalya bhava : The devotee treats the  Lord as his / her child. Yashoda  and 
Kaushalya  had this bhava.  
Kanta bhava : This is the love of a wife towards her husband. Sita and Rukmani  
displayed this bhava.  
Madhurya bhava : In this case the lover and beloved become one through the 
intensity of lo ve. This also results in the most intense feeling of God love. Thinking, 
praising and singing the devotees are totally lost to  the world. In the Bhaagavata 
Purana Lord Vishnu  says “I, to whom devotees are dear, am like a slave without any 
freedom. My he art is in the grip of such devotees”.  
 Bhakti  
Santa  
 Daasya   
Bhava  Sakya  
 Bhava   
Vaats alyKanta 
 Bhava   Madhurya  
 Bhava

434 
 Alwars  
 
Among the great seers of the present age we have selected the Alwars of South 
India for discussion. This is because the individual contributions of the great saints 
be it from the north or south of India, ca nnot be really distinguished. The Tevaram  
and the Tiruvaachakam   which are the hymns of the Saiva  saints of south India, the 
Divya Prabandham  of the Alwar  saints of south India, the songs of Kabir  and 
Meer abai, the Abhangas  of Tukaram  and the Ramayana  of Tulsidas  - all of which 
are the outpourings of great realised souls – are wonderful scriptures. They contain 
the e ssence of the Vedas.  
We are in the presence of mystics whose consciousness does not work in 
compar tments. Evidently, deep mystics as all of th em really are, they have revealed 
a new experience to the world consciousness – similar to the Vedic seers who saw 
all de ities in one.  
The Alwars composed approximately 4000 Tamil  verses. In the 9th – 10th century, the 
philosopher saint Nathamuni  took ex traordinary steps to recover these verses. Saint 
Nathamuni  arranged them as the Divya Prabandham  (Divine collection), set many of 
them to music and rejuvenated the tradition of formally reciting them in temples  
All the Alwars  uniformly held that love of G od is an end in itself. For them even 
Moksha is an inferior goal to the love of God. It is not merely the Anubhava  or 
experience of the Divine nature in all its transcendence that was sought but the 
unconditional opportunity of service to the Divine Himsel f was prayed for. The 
knowledge of Him is blissful but the service to Him is even more blissful. This 
absolute and unconditional Bhakti is unattainable except to those who have 
accepted God as the saviour and end. One in a few millions might have reached t his 
stage.  
Alwars are said to have been the translators of the Veda – especially Nammaalvar  
and Alwar Sathakopa. It does not mean that a word to word translation has been 
made. On the contrary, the Tamil hymns breath the same spiritual atmosphere of the 
Vedic literature that sing the glories of one Supreme Being. The Alwars  are 
Vaishnavaite  seers, and are usually counted as twelve. They are mystics par 
exce llence  and their verses are an outpour of their mystic experiences. 4000 of their 
verses are collecti vely called Naalaayira Divya Prabandham. The Alwars belong to 
different periods. They came from a wide cross section of the society – brahmana, 
shudra and panchama. However, it is traditionally regarded that all the Alwars  were 
special amshas of Lord Naray ana. 
Alwar  is a tamil expression meaning - one who rules, who has mastery over others 
and command them. The Alwars  teachings are like commands for the laymen. In a

435 
 way they commanded the Lord also by their devotion. They worshipped Lord Vishnu 
both as imm anent in the universe and as transcendent beyond it. He appeared to 
them both as formless ( Nirguna ) and with form ( Saguna ). They believed that for the 
benefit of mankind the Supreme being, Sriman Narayana , assumed forms – (1) in Sri 
Vaikuntam  with divine a ttributes as Paravasudeva  (2) He appeared in the Vyuha  
form in the milky ocean for the purposes of creation (3) on the earth as Sri Rama and 
Sri Krishna  and other avataras  (4) He dwells permanently in the hearts of yogins  as 
Antaryamin  (5) In the images in  temples erected for the Lord ( archa  form). According 
to them the one God Sriman Narayana  appears in two spheres – one in the 
transcendent, which is called Nitya Vibhuti and the other in the material Universe 
which they called as Lila Vibhuti.  They saw Him  everywhere and in everything. They 
realized the presence of God in idols and sang in their praise with ecstatic joy and 
enthusiasm.  
For the Alwars the knowledge of God was not a mere intellectual perception but one 
of direct Anubhava . Some worshipped Hi m as their father, some as beloved, some 
as their friend and companion and others as their master. For them the Supreme 
Self is not formless and attributes -less. On the contrary, He is full of divine attributes 
and not a Nirguna  Brahma.  
First Three Alwar s (Mudhal Alwars)  
Poigaialwar, Boodatalwar  and Peyaiaalwar  are collectively called as Mudhal Alwars 
or the first Alwars.  They lived during the same period.  
Poigaialwar:  
 
Tradition tells us that the first of them, Poigaialwar, was born at Kanchipuram , under 
the star Sravanam  (thiruvonam ) in the month of October – November ( Aippasi ). The 
period is reported to be the 7th C AD. The Aippasi month is the month of Deepavali.  
The saint who lit the earliest lamps on Vaishnavism was born during the month when 
the festival of lamps is celebrated!  
The city of Kanchipuram  has two sections – Vishnu Kanchi  is full of Sri Vishnu  
temples and Shiva Kanchi  has a number of Sri Shiva  temples. Yadhothakaari  temple 
is located in Vishnu Kanchi. Near to the temple is a poigai  (meaning a small pond in 
Tamil). Tradition tells us that Poigaialwar  was born in this poigai  and hence his 
name. It is, generally regarded, that the saint was born under the amsha  of 
Panch ajanya  - the conch that Lord Vishnu  bears.

436 
 Boodatalwar  
  
The saint  was born at Mahabalipuram , near Chennai. In early times this Kshetram 
was known as Kadal Mallai Kshetram.  The saint was born under the star Dhanishta 
(Avittam)  and in the month of October – November ( Aippasi ). The period once again 
was the 7th C AD. Mahabal ipuram is named after the great Rakshasa  King Maha Bali 
who ruled this region and eventually surrendered his head to Lord Narayana  born in 
the form of Vamana . It is, generally believed; that the saint was born under the 
amsha of Kaumodakee  - the mace that Lord Vishnu  bears.  
Peyaiaalwar  
 
 The saint  was born at Thiru Myilai (it is now called Mylapore), in the city of Chennai. 
The saint was born under the star of Shatabhishak  (Sadayam) and in the month of 
October – November ( Aippasi ). The period once again wa s the 7th C AD. Sri Aadhi 
Kesava Perumal  temple is one of the famous temples found in Mylapore . It has a 
small pond with beautiful water lilies.  Peyaiaalwar  was born in one of the Alli flowers 
in the pond. He is believed to be born under the amsha  of Nand aka, the sword that 
Lord Vishnu  sports.  Among the seers born  in the south of India the Alwars are highly 
venerated. Inevitably, a number of miracles are associated with their lives. As told by 
Lord Vishnu  “I, to whom devotees are dear, am like a slave wit hout any freedom. My 
heart is in the grip of such devotees”. Whatever the devotee desires or even 
commands will be attended to!! No wonder that incidents that we commonly consider 
impossible will occur.  
One stormy night the three saints arrived, one aft er another, to take shelter at a way 
side house in a small village Tirukkovalur.  The owner of the house let them in, saying 
that there is enough room in the dehali – if they do not mind standing. They started 
exchanging the religious experiences gathered b y each of them. Soon they 
exper ienced that the dehali  was getting more and more cramped. One of the saints 
lit a lamp with his yogic powers. They could not see any cause for the feeling. They 
then inferred that the object cramping them may, perhaps, not be  visible for human 
eyes. They decided that a light which could dispel their ignorance or Ajnana  may be 
needed. That was done. They could then see Lord Vishnu. Spontaneously they 
started elaborating the glory of the Lord who revealed Himself to them. By the ir Tamil  
verses they restated the truths of the Upanishads.  The Divya Prabandam  was born.   
Tirukkovalur , the place where the incident took place and the Divya Prabandam  first 
came into being is held in great veneration even out of the 108 Divya  Deshas . The 
great  Vaishnava  Acharya  Vedanta Desika composed a Shloka  titled Dehaleesa  Stuti.

437 
 Thirumazhisai Alwar  
 
This Alwar  was born in a place called Tirumazhisai , a small village to the west of 
Chennai. He was born under the star Makham in the month of Thai. It is also 
believed that he was born under the amsha of Sudharsana  – the discus that Lord 
Vishnu  sports. He was also called by the name Bhaktisara in recognition of the 
intense Bhakti  and devotion he displayed.  
 It is reported that God has reacted to his devotion in a strange manner. While at 
Kumbakonam,  worshipping in the shrine of Lord Sarangapani , he questioned the 
Lord the reason for his resting position and asked Him to get up and answer. In 
response to this, it is said, that the Lord attempted to ris e from His serpent 
(Adisesha ) couch. Bhaktisara, moved by this graciousness on the part of the Lord, 
sang with great ecstasy. The Lord stayed as He was at that moment. To this day, the 
moorthy  of the Lord is seen as Uttanasayee  (one lying down with head ra ised).  
He has sung two poems or Divya Prabhandas – one called Naanmugan Tiruvandadi  
and the other called Tiruchchanda  Viruttam . Naanmugan Tiruvandadi consists of 96  
Pasurams , while  Tiruchchanda Viruttam has 120 Pasurams.  
 The main theme of Naanmugan Tiru vandadi  is the supremacy of Lord Narayana  in 
relation to all other Gods. It is said of him that he has studied each of the other 
schisms or schools of thought and practiced each of them first hand before realizing 
that the highest truth is enshrined in the  Sri Vaishnava Siddhanta . He had the help 
and guidance of Peyaiaalwar  and for that reason said to be his guru.  
His second work, Tiruchchanda Viruttam, is a rhythmical form of verse. It blossoms 
into a superb mystic poetry praising Lord Narayana.   
Nammalv ar 
   
He was born under the same constellation as Buddha – Vaikasi Poornima , full moon 
in the month of Vaikasi (Baisak).   He was born in a clan “ Vellalar tribe” at a place 
called Thiru Kurugoor ; near Tirunelveli (the place is also called Alwar Tirunagari ). 
The period is reported to be 880 - 930 AD. It is believed that he was born under the 
amsh a of Sri Vishwak Sena . He was also known by the names – Maran , Saint  
Satokopa.  He is considered to be pre -eminent among the Alwars. Through his life 
and writings he a ppears to personify Krishna trishna tattva  – the embodiment of the 
feeling of thirst for Sri Krishna . 
As a baby he was extraordinary. He exhibited none of the symptoms of an ordinary 
child. He was born a saint – for, as his name indicates, he had conquere d even at 
birth the sata vayu  which envelops the soul, as it is being ushered into this world, in

438 
 ignorance. It is said that the child did not cry, eat or drink. His food was God, his 
breath was God, his enjoyment was God and his mind was God. Thus he veri fied the 
experience of Taittiriya (III, Bhruguvalli) and showed that it was not a mere inductive 
generalization of the ordinary mind that was being taught therein - but the real truth 
of the higher consciousness of God being the food by which one should at tempt to 
grow into the divine nature and gain the freedom of the highest life.  
 Annam Brahmeti vyajaanaath. Annaddhhyeva khalvimaani bhutaani jaayante.  
Annene jaataani jivanti annam prayamtabhisam vshamteeti. Tadvijnaya.  
punareva pitara mupasasaara. adhi hi bhagavo brahmeti. tagam hovaacha  
tapasaa brahma vijijnasasva. tapo brahmeti. sa tapo tapyata. sa tapastatva.  
 Taittiriya Upanishad (III Bhruguvalli – anuvaka 2)  
Bhrigu  understood that food is Brahman – for all beings in this world are born from 
food; h aving been born, they remain alive by food; and on departing, they enter into 
food. Having thus reflected on the true nature of food he approached his father 
Varuna saying, “Revered Sir, instruct me about Brahman”. The father then said to 
him “Seek to know  Brahman through austerity; austerity is Brahman”  
As in the case of Buddha, the dominant feeling with Saint Satakopa  was one of 
compassion, pity and sympathy towards all men and women driven to sin and 
suffe ring. While Buddha was driven away from Samsara  by his sorrow, the Alwar’s 
sorrow drove him to God. He cries in agony to the Lord to release his fellow beings’ 
false knowledge and impure conduct.  
 It is said that a contemporary Alwar , Madhurakavi , while on a pilgrimage to the north 
observed a glowing l ight as a star on the southern sky. Intrigued by it, he followed it 
all the way from Banaras  to Thiru Kurugoor  (in Tirunelveli district in the south India). 
There he saw Saint Nammalvar  seated blissfully under a tamarind tree. This meeting 
between the two,  resulted in Nammalvar  coming out of Samadhi  which began at the 
time of his birth. Nammalvar then wrote 1,296 Tamil  verses which set the standard in 
devotional lyric poetry. He wrote four Prabandhas – Tiruvirutham, Tiruvasiriyam, 
Peria Tiruvanthadhi and Tiruvaoimozhi. The intensity of God love of the Alwar is 
clearly seen in all his four works. It is not mere emotion divorced from intellect. 
Rather, it is truly emotion born out of Jnana . Mere Jnana  eventually leads to 
disse ction of God and God concepts and will be of little or no help to the pursuer. 
Similarly, mere faith and fervour  border on sensuousness and sentimentalism 
leading the pu rsuer nowhere. A blend of Jnana  and Bhakti  is most beneficial to the 
human soul. While knowledge is apt to divide God, lo ve will unite. The Alwars, 
especially Nammalvar , are said to be the translators of the Vedas  into Tamil . This is 
not to be taken that the Vedic hymns have been translated word for word. On the 
contrary the Tamil  hymns breath the same spiritual atmosphere o f the of the Vedic

439 
 literature and sing the glories of one Supreme Being in His manifold personalities – 
sarvaih vedaih aham eva vedyah.  
Madhurakavi Alwar  
 
Madhurakavi (meaning sweet tongued poet) was born at Tirukkoloor  situated, on the 
banks of river Tamraparni , a couple miles to the east of Alwar Tirunagari . By caste 
he was a Brahmin. He was the disciple of the great Nammalvar.  He was born under 
the star Chitra in the Tamil  month of Chitrai (April – May) . It is significant to note that 
among all the Alwars, Madhurakavi  was the only who has not sung verses in praise 
of the Lord! Instead, he sung in praise of the Lord’s premier devotee Nammalvar . He 
declares that he knows of no God other than his Guru, Nammalvar!  
The catholicity of the outlook of the vai shnavaites in spiritual matters is highlighted 
by the Guru – Shishya bhava  (teacher - student relationship) between Nammalvar 
and Madhurakavi. The Guru and the Shishya  were born in different castes. The 
disciple was much older than the Acharya  who was a tee nager at that time.  
Madhurakavi  was a great scholar having studied the Vedas and Shastras.  He went 
on a pilgrimage to the North India and while there he got the vision of a bright light 
emanating from the south. Intrigued, he followed it for many days. E ventually, the 
bright light disappeared when he reached Alwar Tirunagari.  On enquiry he heard of a 
young saint seated in Samadhi , from the time of his birth, under a tamarind tree. He 
rushed to the spot and found the young saint Satakopa  in deep meditation . He 
prostrated before the great saint and tried to develop a conversation. But the saint 
never replied to him. Madhurakavi then posed a puzzling question hoping the young 
saint might consent to clarify his doubt. He did. It is interesting to note the ques tion 
and the reply . 
 Q:  If a small one is born out of Chit (consciousness) what will it eat and where 
will it stay?  
 A: It will eat it and lie in it.  
The answer could be interpreted in two different ways – depending on the meaning 
given to the word Chit.  
1.If Chit is taken to be referring to Parama Chetana or God, the small one refers 
to the individual soul - then the individual soul will live, move and have its b eing 
in God.  
2.If Chit is taken to be referring to the individual soul and the small one to the  
body to which it is attached, being born in it – then the individual soul will e njoy 
the pleasures and pains of the body and have its existence in the body.

440 
 Madhurakavi  recognized that he is in the presence of a great saint and spent the rest 
of his life  as Nammalvar’s  disciple. When Nammalvar began to pour out his verses, 
Madhurakavi took it down and preserved it for posterity.  
Madhurakavi  wrote eleven verses wherein he highlighted the importance and 
potency of Acharya Bhakti.  
Kulasekhara Alwar  
 
Nidhi chala sukhamaa  
Sannidhi chala sukhama  
Which one would you rather have – the riches of this world or the opportunity to be in 
the presence of the Lord and serve Him? The great saint Thyagaraja posed this 
question. Almost  1000 years earlier another saint h ad his answer ready - Saint 
Kulasekhara Alwar.  He cries out “I do not desire the pleasures or riches of a king, 
seated on the neck of a state elephant. He alone is the king who fervently wears on 
his head the feet of Sri Rama .”  
Kulasekhara Alwar  was a Kshatriya by birth. He was a ruler of the Chera  kingdom, 
part of present Kerala. He was reported to being the ruler in the 9th century. He was 
born under the star, Punarpoosa  in the month of Maasi.  He proved to be a great ruler 
and expanded his empire defeat ing the neighbouring  Chola  and Pandiya  kings. He 
was a mighty warrior.  
At the same time he was a great Bhakta  as well. In addition, he was a Sanskrit  
scholar and well versed in Sanskrit  literature including the Vedas . There are two 
works, one in Sanskrit and the other in Tamil  ascribed to this king. The Sanskrit work 
is the well known Mukunda Mala . The Tamil  work is Perumal Tirumozhi  which 
consists of 105 Pasurams  and forms part of the 4000 Divya Prabandhas.  
It is said that the devotion of this king towa rds God extended to the Lord’s devotees 
also. Sri Rama,  Sri Krishna  and Sri Ranganath a among the archas  (idols in the 
temples) exercised great fascination over the mind of Kulasekhara alwar . 
Vithuvakkodu  is a shrine near Pattamb i in Malabar and is on the r oad from Shoranur  
to Guruvayur . To the Lord at Vithuvakkodu  Kulasekhara alwar  says – 
“ Even if you spurn me, I have no one else to look up to; like a child put aside by its 
mother in anger, like a true wife ill treated by her husband, like a citizen lookin g up to 
king though he is a despot, like a lotus which unfolds itself only to the burning rays of 
the Sun; and like crops that always look up to the clouds that never come, I look up 
to you and rely on you and you alone, even though you do not want me”.

441 
 Periyalwar (Vishnu -Chitta)  
 
Periyalwar  was born at Srivilliputtur , now in Ramanathapuram  district. He was a 
Brahmin . He was born in the month of Aani under the star Swathi.  
When you close your ears lightly you hear a peculiar noise. Periyalwar  says that it is 
due to the sound of waves from the milky ocean in his heart where his Lord 
Narayana  and consort Lakshmi  are reclining. No wonder he was named Vishnu 
Chitta . He cultivated an excellent flower garden at his house. He took a great interest 
in making flo wer garlands and offering them to the presiding deity at Srivilliputtur – 
Lord Vata-patra Sayee. One night he dreamt of Lord Narayana  instructing him to go 
to the court of the king of Madurai  and participate in a debate. Vishnu Chitta  was not 
a scholar or well versed in Vedas . However, he went to the king’s court and 
partic ipated in the debate. The debate was to decide on who was the Supreme 
Being to whom the whole world owes allegiance. When his turn to speak came, even 
to his surprise, he launched into a great discourse on the superiority of Lord 
Narayana, Srivaishnava siddhanta  supporting his statements with quotations from 
the scri ptures! So spontaneously did he see the mantras without being taught or 
having u ndergone the course of recitals ( adhyayana ), it was considered to be an 
evidence of God’s knowledge -granting grace.  
It is told that the king of Madurai honoured  the saint and arranged for a procession 
through the streets seated on an elephant. However, our saint’s mind was fully 
occupied with Lord  Narayana  and the extraordinary grace He has shown. Suddenly 
he could see his Lord and with that the saint bursts out into a song praying for, or 
rather blessing Him with long life and all prosperity!  
“Pallandu Pallandu Pallayirathaandu, Palakoti noorayira m” 
many many years, many many thousand years ..the beauty of your feet 
be protected unhurt . The alwar exhibited parental love towards God - 
Vaatsalya bhava. In Srivaishnava parlance when a superior or older 
person utters words calling for the welfare inf erior or a younger person it 
is called Asheervadam  (blessing). However, when an inferior or younger 
person utters words calling for the welfare of a superior or older person it 
is called Mangalasasasam.  
Two of the alwar’s major works are - Thiru Pallandu  (so called due to its opening 
words), Periya Azhwar thirumozhi . Every recitation of the 4000 Divya  Prabandhas  in 
temples or houses is done only after the recitation of the Thiru Pallandu .

442 
 Goda Devi (Andal)  
 
Goda Devi  (Andal  in Tamil ) is the only female  among the Alwars revered in south 
India. She was born at Srivilliputtur  in the month of Ashada,  under the star Puram.  
The period is reported to be 8th century AD. It is believed that saint Periyalwar found 
her as a baby under a Tulasi plant. He took her h ome and brought her as his 
daughter. It is believed that she is born under the amsha of Bhoo -Devi.   
From early childhood she was in love with Lord Vishnu.  It is said that Goda Devi 
used to wear the garlands and flowers which her father devoutly made for t he Lord of 
Srivilliputtur. The father when he came to know about it was greatly distressed and 
felt that it was a great sin to offer used garlands to God. But God made it known to 
Periyalwar that nothing pleased Him more than wearing garlands first worn by  Goda 
Devi.  Vishnu Chitta then understood the greatness of the child and how fortunate he 
was to have her as a Divine gift.  
As she grew up into a lovely maiden, she resolved to marry none other than Lord Sri 
Ranganatha  of Srirangam . It is believed that L ord Ranganatha  went to Srivilliputtur 
and married Andal  in great pomp. He remained at Srivilliputtur as Ranga Mannar  in 
which form He is still there with Andal.  
Her two compositions have been found to be masterpieces in poetry as well as truth 
consciousn ess. Tiruppavai,  consisting of 30 stanzas, deals with a rite ( vrata ) to be 
observed by young unmarried girls in the month of Margazhi  so that God may grant 
them the best husband. The other composition called, Naachiyar Tirumozhi , consists 
of 143 verses exu des Krishna  love. As a composer of devotional lyrics she is 
regarded as an Alwar . She is also one of the consorts of the Lord, - a Nachiyar.  By 
the garland of flowers she wore before offering them to Him, she is a consort of 
Divinity. By the garland of vers es she composed she has a pride of place among the 
devotees. In essence Poomaalai  (garland of flowers) and Paamaalai (garland of 
verses) are regarded as her two -fold offering.  
Tondaradippodi Alwar  
 
Vipranarayana  was born in Tirumandangudi , in Tanjore district in a Brahmin  family 
under the star Jyeshta.  He moved to Srirangam and started worshipping Lord 
Ranganatha . He reared a flower garden and used to offer flowers and Tulasi to the 
Lord. Very soon he became a victim to the wiles of a Devadasi  (courtesan) by the 
name of Devadevi.  Under her influence he forgot his routines and even the worship 
to Lord Ranganatha . In course of time, through the grace and mercy of the Lord he 
soon weaned from his ignorant ways and infatuation and turned into a great devotee.

443 
 Thus it is a story of a saint turned sinner. This saint wrote  55 Prabandhas in all – 45 
verses from among them are called  Tirumaalai (garland),  the other 10 being called 
Tiruppalli -Ezhuchi (waking song). Tirumaalai touches the heights of religious fervour.  
Tiruppalli -Ezhuchi is a set of poems praying for the lord to get up from His bed.  
The saint Vipranarayana  was later called Tondaradippodi alwar – referring to the 
dust from the feet of true devotees. It appears as if the saint prayed that the Lord 
accept him as a servant of His Bhaktas – such was his humility and such was his 
devotion. 
Tiruppanalwar  
 
Tiruppanalwar  was born in the month of Krithigai under the star Rohini.  Tradition has 
it that as a baby he was found and brought up by a member of the Panar  caste. His 
parents lived in a place called Woraiyur  on the southern banks of the river Cauvery  
facing the famous shrine of Lord Ranganatha . The vocation of members of this caste 
appears to have been that of making veena like musical instruments called Pan. 
However, members of this caste were treated as untouchables.  
The saint spent his life in singing the praises of the God. His heart yearned for a 
Darshana  of Lord Ranganatha . Yet he could not cross the river much less enter the 
temple due to restriction s on his caste!  
One day a priest, by the name of Lokasaranga , from the temple went to Cauvery  to 
fetch water and found the great devotee standing and singing in ecstasy. The priest 
asked him to get out of his way and when the saint failed to respond threw  a stone at 
him. The saint apologized and moved away. The priest when he reached the temple 
found to his horror blood trickling from the forehead of the Lord. That night he dreamt 
of Lord Ranganatha  ordering him to physically carry the great devotee to His  
presence in the temple. The priest carried out the instructions. The great devotee 
had his wish fulfilled in serving the Lord . The erstwhile Panar  became one with the 
Lord he so deeply loved. Panar became Tiruppanalwar  and later Pan Perumal .   
Tiruppanal war composed only 10 Pasurams . It has become part of the Mudalayiram  
(first 1000) and is being recited daily as part of what is called Nitya -anusandhaanam  
(daily recitations). For an appreciative description in the Archa  (idol) form of the Lord 
this Praban dham  finds no equal.  
Tirumangai Alwar  
 
Saint Tirumangai Alwar  was born in a village named Kurayalur  in Tanjore  district. He 
was born in the month of Karthigai  (November - December) under the star Karthigai.

444 
 He was the last of the Alwars.  It is reported th at he lived during the 8th century AD. 
The Alwar  was known as Neelan  before he turned into a saint.  
As a young man he wanted to marry a lady named Kumudavalli. To do so, he took a 
vow that he will feed hundreds of Vishnu Bhaktas  every day.  Soon he lost all his 
wealth. He then turned into a dacoit and started using the money earned thereby to 
feed the Bhaktas . It is said that Lord Vishnu  and His consort Lakshmi  disguised as 
newlyweds  and wearing glittering ornaments passed through the forest covered by 
these dacoits. Neelan  ordered them to surrender all the jewels and ended up in 
personally pulling off the ornaments. As soon as he touched the feet of the Lord he 
was a changed man.  He was not anymore the Neelan  the dacoit. It is a tale of a 
sinner turning into a saint.  
Starting with the famous stanza “ Vaadinen; Vaadi Varundinen; Manathaar 
perunthuyar ” (withered in spirit and pained in mind), the Alwar  has sung 1253 
Pasurams  or verses which go make up six Prabandhas . They are  
(1) Periya Thriumozhi (2) Thi rukkurunthandagam (3) Thirunedunthandagam (4) Thiru 
vezhukootirukkai (5)  Siriya Thrumadal (6) Periya Thirumadal.  
Out of this the first one Periya Thriumozhi consists of 1084 verses and deals 
extensively with the enjoyment of worship of Archa  (idol) forms  of the Lord in several 
sacred places, from Badri  in the north to Tirukkurungudi  in the south. It is commonly 
believed that the worship of the idol at the temple is only a basic step, and helps the 
devotee to concentrate on the divine. One has to rise abov e this level in the process 
of the realization of God. However, Tirumangai Alwar argues that the idol is not just 
the body of God but is, in fact, God Himself. On this basis he argues that it is a waste 
of time to hanker for the bliss of Paramapada  in time  to come. A bird in hand is worth 
two in the bush. He further argues that from among the 4 Purusharthas  (Dharma, 
Artha, Kama  and Moksha ) Kama  as the most desirable Purushaartha ! He urges all 
people to divert the rushing forces of Kama  (desire) towards God.  Fulfil  your love, 
quench your passion by communion with the beautiful and merciful God who resides 
in temples. He calls out to his fellow beings not to starve their senses or go to the 
forest and do rigid Tapas amidst the five fires. He challenges the Lor d “ why do you 
get into my heart and lurk there like a thief? Come out and let me see your beautiful 
body with my eyes which are longing for a vision of you”. This in a nutshell describes 
the outlook of this Alwar.  
He was a very active saint. He visited a lmost all of the 108 Divya Desas  – 86 out of a 
total of 108. He helped in raising the great walls around the Ranganatha  temple at 
Sri Rangam.  He arranged to bring the statue of Nammalvar  from Azhwar Thirunagari  
to Sri Rangam.

445 
  
Divya Deshams  
 
Ritual is a demonstration of the religion in an external form. It provides a scope for us 
to observe religion outwardly. It is akin to the feet of the religion. It may not be the 
essence of the religion, yet it is not a non -essential part of the religion. It is, so to  
say, an outer form of the religion. When its spirit is missed, religion is seen to 
stagnate and not rise to higher levels. Every religion has its own rituals.  
The joys and sorrows of the mind are demonstrated before the deity in an act of 
Puja.  The mind comes out of its limitations and feels an expansion of its content and 
existence during the act of religious ritual.  
Ritual has a social element as well.  It unites the society and the nation into a 
composite whole in which the parts are cemented together  with a bond of affinity of 
feeling and purpose. This introduces strength to the society. The aspect of 
pilgrimage ( Tirtha -Yatra ) brings the advantage of historical renovation and respect 
for ancient traditions of different places. It arouses in the minds of people a special 
relationship to distant places. Without such injunctions people will lose association 
with others and the force binding them into a single character, called culture will be 
missing.  
The word Theertha” refers to sacred water. Theertha s thala or Theertha kshetra” is a 
sacred or a holy spot. It could be a river, a lake or even a mountain that is made 
sacred through association with a deity or a saint. It is said that Theertha possesses 
three elements that make it sacred – suchi  (pure}, it brings punya  and it is shubha 
(auspicious). They are also referred to as Punya Sthalas.  
Alwars of south India are mystics whose consciousness does not work in 
compar tments. Evidently, deep mystics as all of them really are, they have revealed 
a new experi ence to the world consciousness – similar to the Vedic seers who saw 
philosopher saint Nathamuni  took extraordinary steps to recover these verses. Sai nt 
The verses of Alwars  speak of the glory of Sri Maha Vishnu , of instances from 
Puranas and the glory of temples visited by the Alwars. The shrines visited by Alwars 
and sang their verses are hailed as Divya Deshams .

446 
  
Geographic locations  
 
Out of the 108 Divya Deshams, 2 are celestial abodes of Lord Narayana; The rest 
were located as follows - 
40 of the shrines are located in Chola kingdom in Tamilnadu; 22 are located near 
Kanchipuram and Chennai; 2 are located in Nadu Naadu (Tiruvahindrapuram and 
Tiru kkovilur); 18 are located in Pandiya nadu; 11 are in Kerala, 2 near kanyakumari; 
1 at Tirupath i; 1 at Ahobilam;   7 in Uttar Pradesh; 1 in Nepal and 1 in Gujarat  
 
The shrines  
 
Out of the 108 Divya Deshams, 47 have been addressed by Sri Tirumangai alwar; 
18 by  Nammalwar; 2 have been addressed by Tirumazhisai alwar; 1 by Kulasekhara 
alwar; 1 by Perialwar; the remaining 39 are addressed by hymns composed by more 
than one Alwar. 247 verses were addressed to Srirangam; 202 were addressed to 
Tirupathi; 128 were addressed to Azhagar Koil; 7 were addressed Kanchipuram  
 
Nayanmars  
 
Saivism  is one of the very ancient and dominant schools of philosophies in India, 
dating back to a few thousand years. A large majority of Shiva  temples are seen in 
the south of India, some of them dating back a few thousand years.  
The Nayanmars  are the leaders of  Bhakti  movem ent in the south. Sixty two saints 
lived during the period 7th through the 9th century AD. These saints lived expressing 
their devotion to Lord Shiva . A sixty third saint, Sundaramoorthy Nayanar  honoured  
all these saints in his famous Tamil work Tirutondat togai.  At a later date, in the 12th 
century AD, Sekkizhar , researched the lives of all these saints and produced his 
prodigious work known as Periya Puranam .  
It is this group of sixty three saints who are referred to as  Nayanmars . The Tevaram  
hymns of th e Nayanmar  saints speak of the existence of 275 odd shrines during that 
phase of history. The traditions in these shrines survived thousands of years later to 
the period origin of the famous hymns. These 275 shrines are referred to “ Paadal 
Petra Sthalams .” Following is a list of Tirumurais

447 
 Tirumurais  
  
There are twelve “ Tirumurais ”. Tirumurai  means a sacred book. The first three 
Tirumurais were composed by three great Saivite saints. They are considered as the 
musical compositions of their age.  
1.Thevaram by  Tirujnana Sambandhar  
2.Thevaram by Tirujnana Sambandhar  
3.Thevaram by Tirujnana Sambandhar  
4.. Thevaram by Tirunavukkaracar  
5.Thevaram by Tirunavukkaracar  
6.Thevaram by Tirunavukkaracar  
7.Thevaram by Tirunavukkaracar  
8.Tiruvachakam Tirukkovaiyar by Manikkavachakar  
9.Tiruvicaippa Tiruppallandu by Tirumalikaittever, Centanar,  
10.Karuvurttevar, Nampikatava nampi, Kantaratittar, Venattatikal,  
11.Tiruvaliyamutanar, Purutottama nampi, Cetirayar   
 
Tirumantiram by Tirumullar  
 
Forty on works by Karaikkal Ammaiyar, Ceraman Perumal Nayana r, 
Pattinattu -pillaiyar, Nakkiratevar Nayanar, Kapilateva Nayanar,  
Thiruvalavaiyudaiyar, Nampiyantarnampi, IyyadigalkatavarkonNayanar,  
Kalladateva Nayanar, Paranateva Nayanar, Ellamperuman Adigal and Athiravadigal.  
 
Periya Puranam by Sekkizhar  
 
The first seven Tirumuraigal, authored by three of the foremost Nayanmars , are 
called “Thevarams ”. The word Thevaram  means a garland of songs in praise of the 
Divine.

448 
 Padal Petra Sthalam  
 
Out of the 275 Shivasthalams , the one at Tiruvidaivaai  was discover ed in the year 
1917 and it has a “Patikam”, by Sri Sambandar , engraved on its wall. However, this 
Patikam is not considered part of the works of the saint traditionally associated with 
Tamil Tirumurais. The Shivasthalams  that have atleast one Patikam  compo sed in 
their honour are referred to, commonly, as Padal Petra Sthalam . Hence we have 274 
Padal Petra Sthalams . In addition, though there are 249 other Shiva shrines referred 
to in the Tevarams , they do not bear a Patikam . These are referred to as “ Tevara 
Vaippu Sthalams ”. 
These Patikams  have been handed over from generation to generation. Even today, 
we hear these hymns rendered by highly trained people in the art of singing these 
hymns. These people are called “ Oduvars”.  
 
Shiva temples in Kerala created b y Lord Parasurama  
 
According to legend Lord Parasurama created the land between Gokarna  and 
Kanyakumari.  He then donated this land to Brahmins  and got them settled in 64 
villages. Further, he consecrated 216 temples in this region - 108 Shiva temples and 
108 Durga  temples. These are very old temples and the tradition of singing hymns in 
praise of Lord Shiva is being continued.

449 
 Chapter XV -    In Pursuit  of Supreme R eality  
 
Followers of Nyaya  School of philosophical speculation (logic)  believed that 
obtai ning valid knowledge is a way to obtaining release from suffering. They took 
great pains to identify valid sources of knowledge and to distinguish these from false 
opinions.  
The Indian  school of logic is not a recent arrival on the Ind ian scene. Gautama  
(6th Century BCE) founded the anviksiki school of logic. The Indian logic is the oldest 
and it was followed much later by the Greek and Chinese traditions. More about 
these will be discussed under “ Shad -Darsanas ” (Six schools of philoso phies) in this 
publication.  
In Pursuit of Supreme Reality  
In the search of Supreme Reality, one must remember that He cannot  be grasped by 
ordinary perception or inference. That is the challenge.  
Philosophy, like most other systems of thought in India, is based on religious 
exper ience, metaphysics and ethics, rather than on epistemology. That logic should 
legislate for our experience is an important thing and cannot be denied. However, it 
is equally important to see that logic should find its feet on the  ground and not 
allowed to soar in the sky without any let or control of facts. At the end of the day 
Yadaartha Jnana  is the main aim of all philosophizing.  Experience is manifold, and 
the truth about experience must embrace all facts falling within that experience. If 
segments of experience alone are accepted, denying the rest, it will only result in a 
logical co llapse.  
All metaphysical searches are after the Supreme Reality. Knowledge of the Real is 
possible. The question for us is – how do you apprehe nd the Supreme Reality. There 
are several theories of knowledge. Science takes its start from perceptual 
exper ience. - undoubtedly the only type of experience of Reality. Yet, the existence of 
God transcends the conditions of space and time. ( desk  – Kaala ). He cannot be 
known through ordinary perception or inference. The Supreme Being is beyond the 
pale of Pramaanaas  of perception and anumaana  - “Yam evaisa vrnute tena 
labhyah” – Kathopanishad. He who is chosen by Him will perceive Him. “Not by 
austerities n or yet by mere Jnana  nor yet by works. It is only by the grace of Divine 
can the Highest be known, understood and entered. Only then that the Perfect Being 
becomes a Real being for the individual. Till then we should be content to believe in 
it and strive to get to Him. That there is a higher demand on us, the parama -
purushaartha  (which means the demand to conceive, perceive and even experience 
the actual existence of the Supreme Reality), even here and now, has been well

450 
 documented. The moral demand and re ligious imperative compel our cognition to 
struggle forward beyond the immediate sensory towards the vision that can only 
come from the grace of the Supreme Being. The struggle is never finished till this 
ultimate goal is reached.  
Sri Ramanujacharya  accep ts that the essence that supports the whole Reality is 
Spiritual and not material. An inference from the nature of experience to the 
existence of God is said to be sufficient proof for the existence of God.  
Sri Ramanujacharya  differs. He contends that all  arguments based on cosmology 
are based on comparisons and analogies available on fragmentary creative activities 
of finite beings. This cannot lead to the proof of the omnipotent, omni -pervasive 
Being at all. Further, these arguments prove a substance and  not a personality and 
spirit.  
The Nyaya  argument is that God could be inferred from the conception of the most 
perfect intelligence required for the sake of explaining the order, design and the 
intricate motions and arrangements involved. At the back of  all this intelligence, there 
is a super intelligence. Therefore God must be postulated as an existing being and a 
super cause of creation.  
However, Sri Ramanujacharya maintains that these proofs are insufficient to prove 
the Divine. They may prove a capa ble creator but not an all -creator. The 
cosmolog ical argument cannot  prove the existence of God. It may prove that it is 
necessary for the existence of the world as we experience it now. It cannot affirm its 
existence though it may necessitate a presumptio n. And presumption is not proof. 
That is why it is said that the existence of God can only be proved by a vision of Him 
– saaksha tkaara. God cannot be proved by inference.  Inference cannot involve 
existence. E xistence depends on the conditions of space - time – Desa kaala akaara.  
The exi stence of God transcends the conditions of space and time.  
Where does that take us in the pursuit of true knowledge? It is not based on some 
kind of blind belief. Nor is it based on some holy person asserting, “I say so”.  Whilst 
reason or understanding infers correctly about other things, it can never infer 
correctly about the Whole and the Supreme Transcendent.  
Whatever means we adopt to gain valid knowledge, some clear rules must be 
established for analysis and synthes is. Importantly efficient methods of weaning out 
sources of error must also be laid out. For example, metaphysically speaking, almost 
all the theories of Indian Philosophy hold that the sense organs are products of 
karma, action, and as such are imperfect veiling agents. For this reason, the sense 
organs make things appear different from what they truly are. Facts or experiences 
derived from faulty sources vitiate the findings. Provided the instruments of our 
cognition are all in healthy condition, un -disea sed, sane and unemotional the results 
are acceptable.

451 
 In the following pages is given a chart giving a broad classification of the objects of 
valid knowledge and the means pursued to obtain them. Typically, the means for 
valid knowledge fall into three ca tegories – Pratyaksha (direct perception) , 
Anumaana (inference)  and Shabda (sound – rather, based on hearing – Shrutis in 
this case ). Sri Ramanujacharya  holds that God cannot be proved by perception or 
inference. And that brings us to Shabda  to be examined  as a means for valid 
knowledge. Both Sri Shankaracharya  and Sri Ramanujacharya  accept Shabda  as a 
valid test imony.  
Shabda  
 
Why Shabda should  be accepted as an absolute authority  
The Purva  Mimamsa  is a kind of Tarka - reasoning. It assists the Shabda Pramana . 
Its main topic is the discovery of the correct apparatus by which we could arrive at 
the Vedic  Truth. It is more interested in the truth that we have known through Shruti 
than through other channels like Pratyaksha, Anumaana or Upamaana. Yoga and 
Buddhistic schools did not seriously consider the nature of the Shabda Pramana , the 
authoritative utterances received by seers from a transcendent source.  However, it 
was the intention of the Vedanta Sutras to undertake a comprehensive unification of 
the en tire body of the Scriptural teaching so as to enable us know the Divine. 
However, for the diehard rationalists, Vedas  and Upanishads  mean nothing. For 
them, they are more than one of the many interpretations of life’s problems.  
We now run straightaway in to the question - why should we consider that Shabda 
Pramana  is not affected by the same faults inherent in other Pramanaas. In other 
words, an analysis is needed of conditions of error, which vitiate other Pramanaas  
and not this.  Mimaamsakas  are rational ists. It is exactly for this reason; they have 
formulated theories of error. After the study, Shabda  is claimed to have avoided the 
sources of errors that afflicted the others. Both the source and the means are 
considered perfect. Such Shabda  is pure and p erfect . Vedas  stand out to be such a 
source. By the grace of the Divine granted to the Rishis,  their visions are super -
sensory, untainted by the sense organs and karma. According to Sri 
Raman ujacharya , the Shrutis  are not man -made. They are apaurusheya.  Thus the 
objects if the Shabda  are untainted, true and pure. Further to know them it is 
necessary to be in that receptive mood of mind wherein there is no confusion, no 
obsession, no in -attention and no defect. The minds of the great Rishis  were in a 
high st age of Yoga due to Tapas . The truths themselves and the rituals taught were 
not products of i ntensified consciousness. They were seen to be the truths of eternal 
existence and not man -made. They form a perfect document. Such, in brief, is the 
view held by the Mimaamsakas  regarding the validity of the Shabda Pramana .

452 
 Attached is a chart which gives brief details classifying the objects of valid 
know ledge and the means adopted to gain the knowledge. We will examine some of 
the issues involved. The chart is based on the Vishishtadvaita system.  
1. The process of gaining knowledge basically involves  
 
 (a) Prameya : The object regarding which you wish to gain knowledge . 
 (b) Pramana : The means adopted to gain this knowledge.  
2. According to Vishishtadvaita,  Pramaa (valid knowledge) should satisfy two 
conditions.  
(i) Pramaa should  reveal the existence of a real object or agree with external 
reality   :   
(ii) Pramaa should serve some practical need. The distinctive cause for a 
particular Pramaa is Pramana .  
 
Pramey a  
We will first study the categories involved in the objects for valid knowledge –  
objects regarding which we intend to gain knowledge.  These objects are classified 
into two main categories. - Dravya  and Adravya  
 
(1) Dravya : Basically, it is of two kin ds – Jada  and Ajada.   
  
(a) Jada . Refers to those without conscience – insentient.  It is also 
called Achit.  
 
(b) Ajada. Also called Chit. Refers to those with conscience – 
sentient  
Dravya  
 
Jada : Jada  or Achit is further classified into Prakruti  and Kaala (Time).  According to 
Vedanta  cosmology, Achit  differentiates i tself into successive forms of twenty -four 
categories. They are Prakruti, Mahat, Ahankaara, the eleven  Indriyas (Five  Karm - 
endriyas,  Five Jnanendriyas  and Manas ), five Tanmaatras  and five  gross elements .   
Manas  is called Buddhi  when it is engaged in deciding: Ahankaara or Abhimaana   
when it conceives wrongly (Atma  is identified with the body): It is referred to as Chitta  
when it thinks.   Time is classified into three categories – Past, P resent and Future.

453 
 At this stage, it may be appropriate to have a brief discussion on Prakruti.   
The Vishishtadvaita system  recognises Prakruti as one  of the three realities, the 
other two being Jiva and Ishvara. It is referred to as Moolaprakrut i since i t is the 
primordial  cause of the cosmos. During Pralaya,  it is in a latent state without 
distinction of name or form. At the beginning of evolution,  Mahat appears from   
Prakruti with the three states of Satva , Rajas  and Tamas . Mahat evolves into 
Ahankaar a with the same three states called – Saativika Ahamkara ,  
Raajasika Ahankaara  and Taamasika Ahankaara.  From a combination of these 
Ahamkaaras  arise the eleven senses (five Jnanendriyas , five Karmendriyas  and 
Manas).  
 
Similarly, the five gross elements (E ther, air, Fire, water,  Earth) also arise through 
the media of five Tanmaatras  of sound, touch, colour , savour and odour. Hence, the 
evolution  process  is essentially a change of state.  
 
Kaala  or Time :  
This is the other element in the Jada  category. Kaala essentially falls into three 
categories – past, present and future. Time is eternal and all -pervasive. Unlike 
Prakruti, Kaala  is devoid of the three gunas - Satva , Rajas and Tamas.   It is 
changing and non -eternal. Months, years, Yugas and the timing of Pralaya are all 
based on time. Essentially, it serves as an instrument in the cosmic function of  
Ishvara . While it is entirely independent of any thing in the Prakruti (lila -vibhuti  - play 
manifestation) it has no sway in the Nitya -Vibhuti  (eternal manifes tation. Vaikuntha , 
the city of Lord Narayana , is within the realm of Nitya -Vibhuti ) and is solely 
dependent on the will of Ishvara.   
Ajada :  
We will now briefly discuss, Ajada (Chit).  This is classified into two categories. (1) 
Paraak  (the external) (2) Pratyak (internal).  
Paraak :  
This Ajada is further classified into Nitya -Vibhuti  (eternal manifestation) and 
Dharmabhuta -Jnana . Both Dharmabhuta -Jnana  and Nitya -Vibhuti  are self -luminous 
and appear to others only and never to themselves (it is like a physic al light which 
can illuminate and show other objects but it cannot  know itse lf).  For this reason they 
are referred to as Paraak  (external)  
 Nitya -vibhuti  
It is a non -material stuff. It has an infinite domain beyond Prakruti and the associated 
three guna s. It is self -luminous and is characterised by what is known as 
Suddhasattva - which is a kind of spiritual matter in the highest Heaven. Nitya -Vibhuti  
is known by different names – Paramapada, Ananda -loka. Vaikuntha , the abode of 
Sriman Narayana, is wit hin the realm of Nitya -Vibhuti . It is also the stuff out of which

454 
 the bodies of Sriman Narayana, the Nityasuris (Eternally free Garuda, Vishvaksena  
and others) and the liberated Jivas  are made from.  
Dharmabhuta -Jnana :  
Jnana  means consciousness or awar eness . It is neither material nor spiritual. Yet it 
has  an important part to play in perception.  At this stage it is, perhaps, best to clarify 
our thoughts on substance and attribute. As an example - Mango is a substance 
(dravya ); the golden yellow colo ur is one of its attributes ( Guna ); the distinctive smell 
is another attribute. The attributes depend on the substance ( Guna  depends on 
dravya ).  
Dharmabhuta -Jnana  is a special kind of consciousness. It is eternal and all 
pervasive in respect of Ishvar a, Nityasuris and Jiva. In fact, it is an attribute for all of 
them. For this  reason, it is called attributive consciousness. As a special case 
Dharma bhuta-Jnana  is considered both as a dravya  and Guna . Terms such as mati, 
Prajna , and samvit  are all synonyms of Dharmabhuta -Jnana . Since all mental states 
are reduced to consciousness our instincts, desires, passions, arrogance, com - 
passion etc are but various phases of Dharmabhuta -Jnana . It embraces all phases 
of karma, Jnana , and Bhakti  and constitute s the root of religious experience. Finally, 
when rel igious experience develops into firm meditation it becomes the means for 
realizing Lord Narayana  Himself.     Hence, religious consummation is absolutely 
dependent on the perfect manifestation of Dhar mabhuta -Jnana .  
In the act of perception, the consciousness issues out from the Aatman . Then 
through the sense channels it contacts the object, illuminates and reveals it. 
Dhar mabhuta -Jnana  is all pervasive and infinite. However, in mundane life, under 
the load of karma it gets contracted. The obscuring, resulting from contraction, 
endures in all the three  states of – waking, dream and deep sleep. In the highest 
state of God -realisation the consciousness is in its expanded state and if it is then 
directed upon God, the individual self becomes aware of the Supreme Reality. It is to 
be noted that the self does not merge with God but only becomes aware of Him. It is 
due to this process of expansion and contraction that Dharmabhuta -Jnana  exhibits; it 
comes under the category of  substance (dravya ) also.  
Pratyak:   
Having dealt with Paraak , we will examine Pratyak . Jiva & Ishvara   fall into this 
category.  
Jiva  
Like Ishvara, Jiva is of the nature of consciousness and possesses Dharmabhuta -
Jnana  as an i nseparable attribute. Jiva is real, self -luminous, eternal and unborn. It is 
different from the body, sense organs, mind and vital breath. Though the Jiva, as a 
mode of Brahman, is essentially of the same nature, it is distinctly different from Him.

455 
 It is monadic in size and resides in a separate body. It is the embodied Self with 
regard to its physical body. However, it is the body with regard to Ishvara. It is 
sentient and is the essence of Ananda. Due to the load of karma accumulated by the 
Jiva in its previous births, Jnana  and Ananda are obscured. However, they are fully 
manifest in a state of liberation. In spite of its monadic size, the Jiva can contact the 
ends of space through its  attributive knowledge.  The Jivas, which are innumerable, 
fall into three categories.  
Nityas : Refers to those who have never been caught in Samsara . They have been 
serving Lord Narayana  in His supreme abode and enjoying Ananda. Garuda, 
Vishvaksena, Adi Sesha  and others fall into this category.  
Muktas : They are the liberated souls who have attained liberation through Bhakti  
and Prapatti.  
Badhaas : Refers to those who are not yet liberated from the transmigratory 
existence due to pending karma.  The Badhaas, once again are classified into two 
categories – Bubhuk sus and Mumukshu . 
Bubhuksus : They are basically, pleasure seekers. They are intent on three kinds of 
human goals – Dharma, Artha and Kama . Bubhuksus are further classified into two 
categories. Artha -kaamapara and Dharma - Kaamapara.  
 Artha -Kaamapara:  These materialists think that body is the self.  Dharma -
Kaamapara: These are devotees of Dharma. They are intent on sacrifice, charity, 
austerity, pilgrimage etc. They are endowed with the knowledge that there is a future 
existence for the self, differ ent from the body. They are further classified into two 
categories – those that are devotees of other deities and those that are devotees of 
Bhagavan . 
 
Mumuksus :  They are the liberation seekers. Once again they are  classified into two 
categories – (a) staunch devotee of Kaivalya  (b) Staunch devotee of Moksha.   
 
(a)Staunch devotee of Kaivalya : Is of the nature of self -realization.  
 b) Staunch devotee of Moksha.  The devotee is interested in liberation from 
Samsara. These devotees are further classifie d into two categories.  
 
(1) Bhaktas : They are lovers of God. They have a firm knowledge of the scriptures 
and have received appropriate instructions from a competent Guru.  
 
(2) Prapannas:  Those devotees who are helpless and devoid of other refuge. They 
take Sharanagati  (self-surrender) at the lotus feet of Lord Narayana.  Everyone, 
irrespective of caste or profession is qualified for self -surrender. There are two kinds

456 
 of Prapannas – Ekaantin ( single pointed) and Parama -Ekaantin  (extremely one -
pointed).  
Ekaantin  is a firm devotee of Lord Narayana alone and seeks liberation along with 
other (worldly) fruits.  
The Parama -Ekaantin  is he who does not desire any other fruits even from the 
Bhagavan  Himself except devotion and knowledge. Parama -Ekaantin , once a gain is 
classified into two categories as Drpta and Aarta.  
Drpta  is a patient aspirant and desires liberation at the time of casting off of the body.  
However, Aarta  is an impatient aspirant. For him the state of transmigratory 
existence is unbearable. He l ongs for immediate liberation after the act of self -
surrender.  
Ishvara :  He is the Niyanta  (controller), the principal (s’esin)  of all, the worshipped in 
every religious act, the bestower of all fruits, the sustainer of all and the supreme 
cause of all  effects. The making of an object involves three causes. As an example, 
let us take the case of the pottery. Three factors are called for – the clay, the potter’s 
wheel and the potter himself  
i.Upaadaana Kaarana  in this case it is the clay.  
ii.Nimitta Kaarana : In this case, it is the potter.  
iii.Sahakaarana : It is the potter’s wheel in this case  
For the organisation of the Universe, I shvara  Himself constitutes all the three 
causes.  
Vishishtadvaita  while allowing for the ultimate unity of the Absolute, yet allows for the 
differentiation through its modes ( Prakaaraas ). The system accepts as ultimate the 
three entities – matter or Prakruti ( Achit ), Jiva (cit)  and Ishvara.. Prakruti  and Jiva 
while entirely independent of each other, are absolutely dependent on Ishvara  for 
their existence. Prakruti  and Jiva form the body of Ishvara  and are entirely supported 
and controlled by Him. Ishvara  is the substance and Prakruti and Jiva form His 
inseparable attributes. This unique view of relationship by Sri Ramanujacharya  is 
called Aprthaksiddhi (inseparability ). Sri Ramanuja’s  system is called Vishisht - 
advaita , because the attributive elements ( Prakruti and Jiva)  and the substantive 
element ( Ishvara ) form a synthetic unity.  Ishvara abides in five forms (a) Para (b) 
Vyuha  (c) Vi bhava (d) Antaryamin  (e) Archa . 
(a) Para : The self - transcendent absolute is single and complete. He resides at  
Vaikunta . He is Vasudeva . 
(b) Vyuha:  Vyuha forms a part and parcel of the Vishishtadvaita  conception of the 
Deity. Theory of Vyuha  is a fun damental doctrine of the Pancharatra . Sankarshana

457 
 emanates from Vasudeva , Pradyumna  from Sankarshana, and Aniruddha  from 
Pradyumna . In the language of Pancharatra , it is like one flame proceeding from 
another flame. Sankarshana, Pradyumna  and Aniruddha  are ruling over the 
individual selves, internal organs and organs of egoity. For this reason Sankarshana  
is denoted by Jiva, Pradyumna  by Manas and Aniruddha by Ahankaara.  
The Vyuhas  have sub -Vyuhas.  They are called Vyuhantaras . They are given below - 
Vasude va:  Keshava,  Narayana, Madhava, Sankarshana , Govinda, Vishnu, Madhu - 
sudhana, Pradyumna ,Trivikrama, Vamana, Sridhara, Aniruddha Hrishikesa, Pa dma- 
nabha and  Damodara  The twelve Vyuhantaras  are the presiding deities of the Sun in 
the twelve months of th e year.  
( c)  Vibhava : This refers to the incarnations of Lord Narayana.  The  Mukhya  avatars  
(principal ones) are ten in number. Including Aavesha (secondary) avatars, thirty -six 
are reported. The cause of the Avatara  is due to the will of God and not due to karma  
(as is the case with the Jivas ). The reason for an Avatara , is protection of the good 
and destruction of the wicked.  
 (d) Antaryamin : It is that form of Ishvara , which stays with the individual self ( Jiva). 
He abides in the region of the heart. Re fer to Narayana Sookta.  
 (e) Archa : This refers to consecrated images in temples and holy places.  
 
Vibhava  and Antaryamin  aspects of the Lord provide an opportunity for the easy 
access of the Supreme Being – Saulabhya.  
This completes a brief examination  of the Dravya  class of objects.  
Adravya:   
We will now pass on to the Adravya  class of objects regarding which some valid 
means of knowledge will need to be obtained. This refers to a class of objects, which 
are termed “non -substance”. They are attributes to a substance, and not the 
substance itself. They are ten in number.  
1. Sattva : It is that non -substance which is the cause of happiness, lightness 
etc. It is not perceptible by Indriyas.  It is categorised into two kinds - Pure 
Sattva which has no Rajas  or Tamas  in it. The Suddhasattva , which exists in 
Nityavibhuti, is of this variety. The  other kind is the impure one and is mixed 
with Rajas and Tamas. Sattva Guna  is the cause of true knowledge and 
leads to liberation  
2.  Rajas : Is the cause of avarice, ac tivity etc. It is the cause to atta chment work, 
sorrow etc.

458 
 3. Tamas : It is the cause of infatuation, inertia etc. It is the cause of ignorance, 
idleness. It leads to hell.  
4. Shabda  (Sound): It is grasped by our sense of hearing. There are two kinds of 
soun d 
(a) Varna : Among the divine and human beings it manifests through the 
palate etc.  
(b) Avarna : Sound which is produced by a drum etc.  
5.Sparsha (Touch): It is perceived by our tactual sense organ.  
6.Roopa  (Colour): Perceived by the sense organ of vision.  
7.Rasa (Taste): It is sensed by the sense organ of taste.  
8.Gandha  (Smell): It is sensed by the sense organ of smell.   
9.Samyoga  (conjunction)  
10.Shakti  (potency)  
There are a number of sub -classifications for the above objects. But for brevity we 
shall skip them for  the time being.  With this we have covered a majority of objects of 
valid knowledge.  
We will now focus our attention on what are the valid means available for gaining 
knowledge regarding the Prameya.  They are called Pramaanas.  
Pramana :  
 
The Vishishtadva ita system accepts only three Pramanas – Pratyaksha  (perception), 
Anumaana  (inference) and Shabda  (verbal testimony). Other systems accept a few 
other Pramanas . An example is given below.

459 
  
Perception  Inference  Verbal  
Testimony  Comparison  Postulatio n Non- 
cognition  Sambhava  
& Aitthya    
Charvakas                
              
Bauddhas  
&Vaisesikas                
              
Sankyas                
              
Naiyaayikaas                
              
Praabhaakaras                
              
Bhattas  
& Advaitins                
              
Pauraanikaas                
              
Vishishtadvaitins  
                
Systems of Philosophy and the Pramanas they accept  
 
The main fu nction of consciousness is to reveal the reality of an object. Science 
basically accepts perceptual experience.(they are the Charvakas ) - undoubtedly the 
only type of experience of Reality. Yet, the existence of God transcends the 
cond itions of space and t ime. ( Desa  – Kaala ). He cannot be known through ordinary 
perception or inference. What are the other Pramaanas that could give us valid 
know ledge of the Reality?  
Pratyaksha : 
 
The first one is perception. Before we go farther, we have to understand how 
perception happens. The  act of perception involves three distinctly different factors.  
 
 (a) The subject – is he who is trying to perceive the object  
(b) The object – that which is being perceived. Note that the subject and object are 
two distinctly diffe rent entities.  
(c) The consciousness. This issues from the subject and illuminates the object. In the 
act of perception, consciousness issues from the Atman through the mind, the sense Pram
Syst

460 
 channels (eyes, ears etc) then comes in contact with the object and r eveals it. This is 
how one becomes aware of the object.  Perception is of two kinds. Basically, it is 
based on how frequently the object has been viewed –  (a) Nirvikalpaka 
(Indeterm inate): Indeterminate perception does not mean the apprehension of an 
object lac king all distinctions. Vishishtadvaita recognises the need for conceptual 
factors in any experience and defines indeterminate perception as the cognition of 
an object that happens when it is seen for the   first time.  (b) Savikalpaka 
(Determinate) : When the object of the same class is perceived for a second or even 
a third time the perception is called determinate.   
There are other kind of acts that have been examined ( e.g.) Smriti (recollection), 
Pratyabhijna (recognition), Uha (Conjecture), Pra tibha (Mental powers of holy 
personages).  
 
Smriti (recollection):  What has been well experienced before becomes an 
object of recollection. Since perception is the original cause of any 
recolle ction, it ( Smriti ) is brought under the category of Pratyaksha i tself. 
Hence, there is no need to consider it as a separate Pramana . 
Pratyabhijna (recognition):  Just as recollection is included in the category of 
Pratyaksha, the act of recognition is also included under Pratyaksha.  
Uha (Conjecture):  It Is not considere d as a separate category of Pramana . It 
is brought under Pratyaksha..  
Pratibha:  This refers to the special powers of holy personages. It is 
consi dered as a Pratyaksha Pramana .  
The Vishishtadvaita  system thus accepts only three Pramaanas – Pratyaksha, 
Anumaana and Shabda,  
Going back to Indeterminate and indeterminate perceptions, further classifications 
have been made.  
Nirvikalpaka and Savikalpaka perceptions are classified into two kinds. The 
arvaacina refers to a recent perception and anarvaachina refers to an ancient 
perce ption. 
Arvaacina is once again two fold – one dependent on sense and the other 
indepen dent of sense. The independent of sense type is further classified into two 
categories. The first is achieved as a result of self -accomplishment such a s Yoga. 
The second type refers to that achieved due to Divine grace.  
Anarvaachina does not require aid of senses like eyes or ears. It is the knowledge of 
liberated selves, Eternals (Garuda etc) and Ishvara.

461 
 Anumaana:  
While Pratyaksha refers to direct p erception, Anumaana refers to inferential 
cogn ition. This means you arrive at a conclusion based on the evidence of some 
related items. As an example, you observe smoke and conclude that there is fire in 
the vici nity. Shabda  or Shruti Praman a occupies t he highest position in matters 
which cannot be settled by Pratyak ṣa or Anumaana  
Rules of Epistemology  
The following rules of hierarchy apply to issues when there is apparent conflict 
between the 3 modes of acquiring knowledge:  
1. Shabda  or Shruti Pramana  occupies the highest position in matters which 
cannot be settled or  resolved by Pratyaksha  or Anumaana.  
2. Anumaana  occupies the next position. When an issue cannot be settled 
through sensory perception alone, it is settled based on Anumaana  i.e. 
whichever argument is more logical.  
3. When Pratyaksha  yields a definitive posit ion on a particular issue, such a 
perception cannot be ignored to interpret Shabda  in a way which violates that 
perception.

462 
  
C Knowable things  
Pramaana  
(means of valid knowledge)  Prameya  
(object of valid knowledge)  
Dravya  Adravya  
Jada  
(Achit)  Ajada  
(Chit) 
Prakruti  Kaala  
(Time)  
Past 
Present  
Future  
A B Paraak  Pratyak  
Nityavibhuti  
Dharmabhootajnaana  Ishvara  
Jiva 
D P1

463 
  
 B A 
A C D 
Baddha  Mukta  Nitya  
Bubhuksha  Mumuksha  
Arthakaamapara  Dharmakaamapara  Dharmakaamapara  
Votar y of Gods  Dharmakaamapara  Votary of Bhagvan  
Kaivalya  
(Realisation – 
votary of Self)  Moksha  
((Votary of release)  
E Para  
Vyuha  
Vibhava  
Antaryamin  
Archa  
Roopa  
Rasa  
Gandha  
Samyoga  
Shakti  Sattwa  
Rajas  
Tamas  
Shabda  
Sparsha

464 
  
 Arta Jnana Indriyas  
 
1 Organ for hearing  
2 Organ for sight  
3 Organ for smell  
4 Organ for tas te 
5 Organ for touch  
5 Tanmaatras  
1 Sound  
2 Touch  
3 Colour  
4 Savour  
5 Odour  5 Bhutas  
 
1 Ether  
2 Air 
3 Fire  
4 Water  
5 Earth  Manas  E 
Bhakta  
(Lover of 
God)  Prapanna  
(Resigned to 
God 
Parama 
Ekaanti n Ekaantin  
Drpta  Karma Indriyas  
 
1 Organ for speech  
2 Hands  
3 Feet  
4 Organ for excretion  
5 Organ for generation  A 
Mahat  
Ahankaara  
11 Indriyas  
5 Bhutas

465 
  
 P1 
Pramaana  
(means of valid knowledge)  
Anumaana  
(Inference)  Shabda  
(Verbal / Scriptural 
testimony)  Pratyaksha  
(Perception)  
A S Savikalpa  
(Determinate)  
Arvaacina  
(recent)  Nirvikalpa  
(Indeterminate)  Nirvikalpa  
(Indeterminate)  
Anarvaacina  
(ancient)  
Dependent  
On sense  Independent  
On sense  
Self 
acco mplished  Divine grace  Does not require the 
aid of senses.  
It is the knowledge of 
the liberated, Nityas  
and Eshwara  
 Smriti  
(recollection)  Pratyabhijna  
(recognition)  
Uha  
(Conjec ture) Pratibha  
(mental powers of 
holy personages)  
P2

466 
  
 P2 
Analysis of Perception  
involves 3 factors  
Knowing Subject  Object  
Not a creation of the mind  
but independent of it  Consciousness  
(Jnaana)  
1.  In the highest state of God -realization,  
when consciousness in its expanded state is 
directed upon God, the individual is not 
merged with Supreme but becomes aware of 
Him. 
2. In the case of I shvara  and Jiva it is known 
as Dharmabhutajnaana  or attributive 
consciousness. .  
3. The view that what exists is cognized -is the 
epistemological conclusion of 
Vishi shtaa dvaita.  This is known as Satkhyati.  
4. In the mundane life of the Jiva 
Dharmabh utajnaana is contracted. As a result, 
incomplete knowledge results

467 
  
 A 
Anumaana  
(Inference)  
While Pratyaksha  refers to direct 
perception, Anumaana  refers to 
inferential cognition. This means you 
arrive at a conclusion based on the 
evidence of som e related items. As an 
example, you observe smoke and 
conclude that there is fire in the vicinity.

468 
 Shabda  
Verbal testimony  
Recognized as a special source of 
knowledge  S 
A statement is authoritative when it is (a) uttered by a trustworthy person (b) it is free from erro rs (to be discussed at a later part of th is chapter) (c) 
is not contradicted by any other cognition.  
The poorva -Mimaasa is a variety of Tarka, reasoning. It assists the Shabda Pramaana . Its main topic is the discovery of the correct apparatus by 
which we could arrive at the  Vedic  truth. The Mimaa msakas, being rationalists, were at pains to discover the principles of analysis and synthesis 
and in doing so to discover the sources of error. The point to note is that Shabda is claimed to avoid the triple sources of error (Kaarana -dosaah).  
To accept Shabda Pramaana as valid, the source must be pure and perfect; so also the means must be pure and perfect. Such is t he Veda . By the 
grace of the Divine granted to the Rishis,  their visions are super -sensory, untainted by the sense organs and karma . The objec ts of the Shabda  are 
untainted, true and pure. Further to know them, it is necessary to be in that receptive mood of the mind wherein there is no confusion, no obsession, 
no inattention and no defect. The Rishis  mind were in a high stage of Yoga  due to Tapas. The truths themselves and the rituals taught were all not 
creations by an intensified consciousness, but were seen to be truths of eternal existence, and not man made.  
Along with Vedas, Smrtis  are considered valid documents (since Smrtis do not contra dict Vedas ). Itihasas and Puranas,  being supplementary to 
Veda, are considered valid . Pancaraatra Agama  and Vaikhaannasa Agama  are considered authoritative in toto.  
  
Sri Shankaracharya  accepts Shabda as a valid testimony. Sri Ramanujacharya also accepts the supremacy of the Shabda.  
Upanishads  (part of the Vedas), Brahma sutras  and Bhagavad Gita  together are referred to as Prasthana -traya . This forms 
the basis for the Bhashyas  written by all the Acharyas.

469 
  
Bhrama  
(Illusion)  
Aatma -khyaati  
(Self-
apprehension)  
Yogaachaara school 
explains Bhrama  as 
subsisting in the 
Aatman 
(consciou sness) 
which externa lizes in 
the form of silver in 
the silver –nacre 
illusion. 
Vishishtaadvaita 
refutes this, in which 
cogn ition arises 
without any 
corresponding 
object. Like silver 
and makes it as the 
object.  Asat -khyaati   
(Non -being’s 
Sunyavaadins  explain 
Bhrama  as consisting in 
the cognition of Asat 
(non-being). This refers 
to a case of wrong 
cognition of silver in the 
absence of silver. The 
object of cognition is 
Asat. On this basis, even  
Asat becomes competent 
as an object of cognition.  Anyathaa -kyaati  
(Mis-
apprehensi on) 
Nyaaya theory of 
Bhrama  is called 
Anyatha -Khyaati . 
According to this 
when nacre is 
perceived as silver, 
due to some ocular 
defect. Naiyaayikas 
further justify the 
phenomenon by 
introducing a super -
normal type of sense 
relation called 
Alaukika - 
sann ikarsa.  Anirvachaneeya -
Khyaati  
(Indefinable -
The Advaita theory holds 
that the Bhrama is neither 
real nor un -real nor both 
and therefore i nexplicable. 
Avidya plays in important 
part and causes a false 
super imposition. In this 
state of false super 
impos ition the experience 
is real as long as the 
cognition lasts, and 
becomes unreal when true 
knowledge dawns.  
 A-Khyaati   
(Non -
Maadhyamikaas 
state that there is 
nothing save a 
universal void. If 
these nihilists are 
asked whether they 
hold that everything 
is existence or non -
existence or anything 
else- they can not 
establish 
nothin gness on any  
of these views. Ideas 
of exi stence or non -
existence have to be 
referred to states of 
really existing things.  Theory o f Error

470 
 Chapter – XVI -   Branches of Knowledge and Universities  
 
Om Poornamadah Poornamidam Poornat Poornamudachyate   
 
That is whole; this is  whole;  
What remains is a whole.  
 
Brihadaranyaka  and Isavasya Upanishad . 
Whole is infinite. If you remove infinity from infinity what remains is infinity.  
History of the remotest ci vilization is always shrouded in mystery and invariably 
surrounded by controversy. Conclusions of historians can always be challenged on 
grounds of insufficient data and knowledge. One must also recognise that civilization 
is spread over distant lands and languages. No one can give a guarantee that he 
had access to all the literature in the different languages, that he has in fact studied 
all of them, mastered their content before coming to his conclusions. To add to this, 
prejudices and national affections  always tended to interfere with the establishment 
of facts. As a result the final conclusion on ancient civilization will, perhaps, be never 
reached.  
Vedas, Puranas and Itihasas  give us ample indication of ancient Indian civilization. 
How old are these a ncient literature? What information can we get from them?  
According to Hindu scriptures, time is reckoned in terms of four Yugas. We are 
currently in Kali Yuga and its duration is said to be 432,000 human years. This was 
preceded by Dvapara  Yuga and Lord  Krishna lived in that  Yuga . The duration of that 
Yuga was 864,000 human years. Before that we had Treta Yuga which had a 
duration of 1,728,000 human years. Lord Rama  lived in that Yuga . Before Treta 
Yuga , we had Krita Yuga  with a duration of 4,320,000 year s. Vedas  existed and 
were studied during Treta Yuga  also. However, the modern historians indicate the 
age of the Vedas to be much later – may be 6000 – 3000 BC. Interestingly, these 
large numbers and units of time were indicated in the Vedas.  
 In Yajurved a Samhita and Taittiriya Samhita the following list of numeral 
denomin ations are given.

471 
 Eka, Dasa, Shata, Sahasra, Ayuta, Niyuta, Prayuta, Arbuda, Samudra, Madhya, 
Anta, Paraardha. Arbuda indicates ten  crores i.e. 108. The following enumeration is 
availab le in the Itihasas.  
100 lakhs  = 1 Koti (Crore) = 107. 105 = 1 Sankha  and so on.  
In the Ramayana , a spy narrates the strength of Sri Rama’s  army to his king Ravana  
in terms of these numbers. It is quite evident that the decimal system of numeration 
was i n place by the Treta Yuga  itself. In addition, in Ramayana numerous references 
are made to astronomy, public administration, engineering, textiles and music. All 
this reinforces the fact that the nations had by then an advanced civilisation. It is only 
common sense to assume that nations with such an advanced numeral system also 
will have adequate knowledge to handle the mathematics.  
Sulba sutras  
 
Religious practices fuelled development of mathematics and astronomy in India. 
Celebration of marriages, perfo rmance of festivals and certain sacrifices required 
accurate knowledge times, information on Sun rise and settings, occurrence of solar 
and lunar eclipses. These required accurate knowledge of astronomy, arithmetic, 
plane and spherical geometry and trigono metry.  
In ancient times every household had to maintain three types of Agnis  (fires) 
sheltered in specially and accurately constructed alters. These alters had to conform 
to certain specific shapes and areas. Apart from this, where elaborate sacrifices a re 
called for, sacrificial alters with more complicated shapes and sizes (rectangles, 
triangles, trapezia) were required to be constructed. This required a detailed 
know ledge of the properties of geometric shapes. Details on the sacrifices were 
mentioned i n Rig-Veda Samhita. Taittiriya  Brahmana gives more specific details on 
the science of construction. Refer to a figure of a typical altar given below. The 
practice of h ereditary handing down of instructions from father to son and the 
preceptor to the di sciple slowed down the setting down of instructions in written form. 
In this way were written several Sulba sutras . These are treated as appendices to 
the corresponding scriptural texts known as Srauta Sutras . Only seven of the Sulba 
sutras are known at presen t – Bodhayana, Apasthamba, Katyayana, Manava, 
Maitrayana, Varaha and Vadhula.  Their dates have been estimated between 800 
B.C and 500 B.C. Some of the theorems indicated in these Sulvas  are as follows - 
a)The diagonal of a rectangle divides it into two equal parts  
b)The diagonal of a rectangle bisect each other and the opposite areas are equal.  
c)The perpendicular of an isosceles triangle on the base divides the triangle into 
two equal parts.

472 
 d)The rectangle and a parallelogram on the same base and between the same 
parallels are equal in area.  
e)The diagonals of a rhombus bisect each other at right angles.  
f)The famous theorem known after Pythagoras now, is available  
g)Properties of similar rectilinear figures.  
These cover the first two books and the sixth book of Euclid.  Euclid lived around 300 
B.C. And Sulvas  were there, at the latest, from 800 B.C. The proofs given by 
Pythagoras or Euclid may be their own. But it is clear that the theorem was well 
known for hundreds of years before them in India, China and Egypt.  
Anoth er interesting information is available from the Sulvas . The shape of the 
Ahwamedhiki Vedika is an isosceles t rapezium whose head = 24 √2; Foot = 30√2; 
altitude = 36 √2. Its area is stated to be prakarams.  
Area = 36 √2 * (1/2)*  (24√2 + 34√2) = 1944.  
This clearly indicates a knowledge of the method of finding the area of a trapezium 
and simple operation on surds.   
Another remarkable approximation of √2 in the Sulvas . 
√2  =  ! + (1/3) +[(1/ (3x4)] + [1/ (3x4x34)]  
This gives √2 = 1.4142156 whereas the true is equal to 1.414213.  
 
A typical pictu re of a Vedic sacrificial altar  
Another important milestone by the Indi an mathematicians is the use of irrational 
numbers in their work.

473 
 Vedic Mathematics  
   
A few salient points are given below.  
a)The Sutras (aphorisms) apply to and cover nearly every branch of mathematics 
(arithmetic, algebra, geometry, -plane and solid, tri gonometry - plane and 
spherical, conics – geometrical and analytical, astronomy, calculus – 
differe ntial and integral etc)  
b)The Sutras are easy to understand, remember and apply. Swami Bharati Krsna 
Tirthaji (1884 -1960)  has written a magnificent book titled “Vedic  Mathematics”, 
based on his study of the  Vedas . It is published by Motilal Banarsidass.  From 
the book, it emerges that 16 Sutras together with their corollaries are 
adequate to carry out all mathematical calculations.  
c)We will give a few examples to i ndicate how the methods work. For a detailed 
understanding the reader is referred to text books that are available.  
Division operation  
  Example:  1/19. Find the answer in decimal equivalent  
  According to the current method the answer is  
“0.052631578947 368421”. It will be obtained after 18 steps.  
  If we now go to the Vedic mathematics method, it utilises the 
Sutra – “Ekaadika Purva ”. This means – the number which is just one more 
than the penultimate digit  
   
Step-1 The product of the last digit of t he 
denominator and the last digit of 
the decimal equivalent of the 
fraction must invariably end in  9. 
Here the last digit of the 
denominator is 9. Therefore, the 
last digit of the decimal equivalent 
must be 1. So we put down 1 as 
the right hand most numbe r of our 
answer..  
 1 
Step-2 Calculate one more than the 
penultimate digit in the 
denominator. The penultimate 
number in the denominator is 1 in 
this case. Add 1 to this

474 
 penultimate number and we get 2 
(“Ekaadika Purva ”.). . Note that 
from now on -wards thi s 2 will be 
the multiplier for all su bsequent 
calculations  
Step-3 Multiply, the last digit obtained in 
Step-1 (1), by the 2 we got in 
Step-2 and place it to the left of 1  21 
Step-4 Multiply the 2, (second from left) 
we got in Step -3, by 2 again and 
place it to the right of 2 in Step -3 421 
Step-5 Multiply the 4 obtained in Step -4 
by 2 and place the result to the 
left of 4  8421  
Step-6 Multiply the 8 obtained in Step -5 
left of 8. Since we got 16 we put 6 
to the left of 8 and keep 1 as a 
carry over  68421  
100000  
 
Step-7 Multiply 6 by 2 and we get 12. 
Add to this, the 1 we got from the 
previous carry over and we get 
13. Write 3 to the left of 6 and 1 
as carry over  368421  
1100000  
 
Step-8 Multiply 3 by2 and add to it the 
carryover of 1  7368421  
1100000  
 
Step-9 Follow this procedure till we 
reach the 18th digit.  0.052631578947368421  
101001111101100000  
 
Multiplication operation  
We will apply the Sutra “Nikhilam Navatascaramam Dasatah”.  Literally translated it 
means – “all from 9 and the last from 10”  
Example: Multiply 9 by 7  
Step-1 Chose a base – 10,100 or 200 
nearest to the numbers to be 
multiplied. In this case we chose 
10 (10) 
Step-2 Write down the numbers to be 
multiplied one above the other on 
the left hand side. S ubtract each 
one from the base 10 and write 
down the remainders on the right (10) 
9 – 1 
7 - 3

475 
 hand side – with a minus sign 
connecting them (to show that 
both these remainders are less 
the base 10  
Step-3 We are now about to get the final 
answer for the pr oblem. The left 
hand side of the answer could be 
arrived at in a number of ways. 
We will pick one of them.  
Subtract the base (10) from the 
sum of the given numbers ( i.e.) 
(9+7) – 10 = 6. Write this down on 
the left hand side for the answer.   
(10) 
9 – 1 
7 – 3 
-------  
6 |  
Step-4 Vertically multiply the two deficit 
numbers (1 and 3 in this case). 
The product is 3. This the right 
hand portion of the answer  (10) 
9 – 1 
7 – 3 
-------  
6 |3 
 
 The above examples have been given just to illustrate the procedures involved. It 
does not mean that the Sutras  are applicable to solve simple applications only. They 
are suitable for application on a variety of problems – simple as well as very 
complex. In all cases, answers may be written down in a single line – and with a bit 
of practice a mental calculation would be adequate.  Given below are examples of 
some of the problems that have been solved by applying Vedic mathematics.  
1 Solved by the application of “Urdhva – Tiryak” Sutra  
a) (3X2 + 5X + 7) multiply by (4X2 + 7X +6)   =  (12X4 + 41X3 +81X2 + 79X +42)  
b) (X5 + 3X4 + 5X3 + 3X2 +X +1) multiply by (7x5 + 5x4 + 3x3 + x2 + 3x + 5 )  
  = (7X10 +26X9 + 53X8 +56X7 + 43X6 + 40X5 +41X4 + 38X3 +19X2 +8X + 5)  
2 Solved by the application of “Paraavartya Sutra”  
a) Divide  (7X2 + 5X + 3) b y (X-1)  =  (7X + 2) and remainder 15  
3 Integrate ʃ (7X-1)/ (6X2 -5X+1)

476 
   Applying “ Paraavartya Sutra ” we get the answer  [log (2X – 1)5/2] / 
(3x-1)4/3 ] 
 
The reader can visualise the power of these  Sutras. I have just cited a few examples 
with a view to p resent the wide scope of their application. Interested readers may 
read the book written by H.H. Sri Bharati Krsna Tirthaji Maharaj  to get a better 
understanding on the application of Vedic  Mathematics.  
Vedic Numerical Code 
In the mathematical writings, the ancient Sanskrit writers do not use figures (when 
big numbers are involved) in their numerical notations. Instead they preferred to use 
the letters of the Sanskrit (Devnagar i) alphabets to represent various numbers! This 
is done to help the pupil to me morise the material studied. As a rule, even the most 
technical and abstruse text books have been written in Sutras  or in verse with the 
object of making it easy for students to memorise. That is why we find that not only 
theological, philosophical, medica l, astronomical treatises but also very large 
dictio naries have also been written in Sanskrit  verses.   
Now to give some examples on alphabetical codes – 
a)ka, ta, pa  and ya  all denote 1  
b)kha, tha, pha  and ra all denote 2  
c)ga, da, ba  and la all stand for 3  
d)gha, dha, bha  and va all stand for 4  
e)gna, na, ma  and sa all represent 5  
f)ca, ta,  and saa all denote 6  
g)cha, tha , and sa all denote 7  
h)ja, da , and ha all represent 8  
i)jha and dha stand for 9  
j)ksa (or ksudra) means zero  
Thus pa pa is 11; ma ma is 55; ta ta is 11;  ma ra is 52. For example, kappa, tapa, 
papa and yapa all mean 11.  It is left to the author to choose the combination that he 
finds suitable. These methods are all used for writing them in verse form with the 
final object of  (a) teaching purposes (b) mak ing it easier to memorise.

477 
 Western historians referred to the Vedic period as “ Iron Age ”.  But during the Vedic 
period India had a fairly advanced learning in subjects such as mathematics, 
astro nomy, medicine etc.  
DOES IT ALL LOOK AS IRON AGE stuff  -  Some Iron some age!!  
Jaina mathematics:  
 
The Jaina  religion became a prominent religion in the sub -continent between 500 BC 
and 100 BC. They gave raise to Jaina  mathematics. The Jaina mathematics played 
an important role in bridging the gap between ancie nt Indian mathematics and the so 
called classical  period heralded by the work of Aryabhatta -I. 
Among the important developments of the Jainas are 
(a) Theory of numbers (b) Great fascination with large numbers. For example – time 
period mentioned include 756 * 1011 *  8400000028 days, called shirsa prahelika (c) 
Five different types of infinity are recognised – infinite in one and two directions, 
infinite in area, infinite everywhere and infinite perpetually. This was not realised in 
Europe till late 19th century. (d) Knowledge of fundamental laws of indices (e) 
Arithmetical operations (f) Geometry (g) Operations in fractions (h) Simple, cubic and 
quadratic equations (i) Operations in logarithms (j) Sequences and progressions (k) 
Early work on permutations a nd combinations – which resulted of an early Pascal 
triangle which was called by the name Meru Prastara. This happened many 
centuries before Pascal himself “invented” it.  
Golden Period  
 
The years from 320 AD to about 700 AD were critical in the developmen t of Indian 
civilization. In the north, under the Gupta dynasty, Sanskrit culture thrived, great 
universities were founded, and the arts and sciences flourished. During the Gupta 
period, the observatory at Ujjain in central India was the heart of mathemati cal 
schola rship, and many mathematical techniques were developed to meet the needs 
of astronomers. The astronomical text the Surya Siddhanta,  written by an unknown 
author sometime around A.D. 400, contains the first known tabulation of the sine 
function. I ndian mathematicians also developed the concept of zero, the base -10 
decimal n umeration system, and the number symbols, or numerals , we use today.  
The great mathematician Aryabhatta  (476-550) wrote a collection of verses called 
Aryabhattiya in 449 AD. Th e book describes both mathematics and astronomy, 
covering spherical trigonometry, arithmetic, algebra and plane trigonometry. 
Aryabhatta  calcu lated π to four decimal places, computed the length of the year 
almost exactly, and recognized that the Earth was a rotating sphere.

478 
 The famous astronomer Brahmagupta  (598-670) wrote important works on 
math ematics and astronomy, including Brahma -sphuta -siddhanta (The opening of 
the un iverse) and Khandakhadyaka . He studied solar and lunar eclipses, as well as 
the m otions and positions of the planets. Unlike Aryabhatta, Brahmagupta  believed 
that the Earth was stationary, but he, too, calculated the length of  the year with 
remarkable precision.  
Impact  
 
The numeration system developed in India facilitated further advances in 
mathema tics. Earlier ways of writing numbers, such as Roman numerals, used 
symbols to re present individual quantities, and these were add ed to determine the 
value. For e xample, X was the symbol for 10, and XXX was the symbol for 30, and 
50 was L. Numbers expressed this way can be lengthy: 1,988 is MCMLXXXVIII. 
More to the point, there is no convenient way to do computations with them. Peopl e 
who used Roman numerals and other similar systems did their calculations with 
counting aids such as the abacus.  
In contrast, Hindu arithmetic used number symbols that went only from 1 to 9, and 
instead of using more symbols for higher numbers, they intr oduced a place -value 
system for multipliers of 10. Each place had an individual name: dasa  meant the tens 
place, sata meant the hundreds place, and so on. To express the number 235, the 
Hindus would write "2 sata, 3 dasan , 5". Seven hundred and eight would  be "7 sata, 
8". 
Toward the end of the Gupta period, Indian mathematicians found a way to eliminate 
the place names while keeping the advantages of the place -value system. They 
used a symbol called sunya,  or "empty" to designate a place with no value in i t. This 
is equivalent to the symbol we call zero. With this they could write 708 for "7 sata, 8," 
and easily distinguish it from "7 dasan, 8," or 78. The physical alignment of tens, 
hundreds, etc. in columns resulted in the development of new arithmetic te chniques 
for working with numbers.  
About 800 AD, the Hindu mathematician Mahavira demonstrated that zero was not 
simply a placeholder, but had an actual numerical value. His tenth -century successor 
Sridhara  further recognized that the zero was as meaningfu l a number as any of the 
others. Without the zero, modern mathematics, and therefore most of modern 
science, would have been impossible.  
The twelfth century mathematician Bhaskara (often called Bhaskara the Learned) 
was, like many of his predecessors (suc h as Brahmagupta ), head of the Ujjain 
observatory and a gifted astronomer. His two mathematical works, Lilivati (The 
graceful) and Bijaganita  (Seed counting) from the series Siddhantasiromani  were the 
first to expound systematically the use of the decimal system, based on powers of

479 
 10. He compiled many problems with which earlier mathematicians had struggled, 
and pr esented solutions.  
Bhaskara  was starting to understand the special nature of dividing by zero, as he 
specifically noted that 3/0 is infinite. H e was, however, unable to generalize this to 
any number divided by zero. He enumerated the convention of signs in multiplication 
and division: two positives or two negatives divided or multiplied yields a positive 
result and a positive and a negative divid ed or multiplied gives a negative result.  
In algebra, Bhaskara  built on the work of Aryabhatta  and Brahmagupta . He used 
letters to represent unknowns, as we do in algebra today. Bhaskara  developed new 
methods for solving quadratic equations,  that is, equa tions containing at least one 
variable raised to the second power ( x2). He studied regular polygons with up to 384 
sides, in order to calculate increasingly precise approximations of π.  
One of the first Muslim mathematicians to write about Indian techniques was 
Muhammad ibn Musa al -Khwarizmi,  a teacher in the mathematical school at 
Baghdad. His book Al-Khwarizmi “Concerning the Hindu Art of Reckoning”  was 
translated into Latin as Algoritmi, de numero Indorum.  The Latinization of his name 
from "al -Khwarizmi" to "Algoritmi" eventually became our word for a mathematical 
proced ure, algorithm . When his book on elementary mathematics Kitab al -jabr wa al -
muqabalah  (The book of integration and equation) was translated into Latin in the 
twelfth ce ntury, the term al-jabr became algebra . 
 
 Eurocentricism  
 
For many years now, Indian co ntributions to mathematics have not been given due 
acknowledgement in modern history. Many discoveries and inventions by Indian 
mathematicians were known to their western counterparts, copied by them, and 
presented as their own original work; and further, that this mass plagiarism has gone 
on unrecognized. The basic chronology adopted of history of mathematics was very 
simple; it had primarily been the invention of the ancient Greeks – up until the middle 
of first millennium AD. It was later followed up by the European renaissance. 
Occasionally, some marginal concessions have been for contributions from “non -
Europeans”. Some of the historians have gone to the extent suggesting severely 
inaccurate dates for the Indian work with a view to show Greek or Arabic influence. 
This is incredible because several Indian works have, in fact, had significant impact 
on early Arab works – not the other way round.

480 
 According to G. G. Joseph:  
“The contributions from other civilizations - most notably China and India, are 
perceived either as borrowers from Greek sources or having made only minor 
contributions to mainstream mathematical development. Openness to more 
recent research findings, especially in the case of Indian and Chinese 
mathema tics, is sadly missing” 
The hist orian of mathematics, Florian Cajori, suggested that he "suspect[s] that 
Diophantus got his first glimpse of algebraic knowledge from India.  
More recently, the infinite series of calculus, trigonometric functions (rediscovered by 
Gregory, Taylor, and Macl aurin in the late 17th century) were described (with proofs) 
in India, by mathematicians of the Kerala school, remarkably some two centuries 
earlier. Some scholars have recently suggested that knowledge of these results 
might have been transmitted to Europ e through the trade route from Kerala by 
traders and Jesuit missionaries. Kerala was in continuous contact with China and 
Arabia, and, from around 1500, with Europe itself. The existence of communication 
routes and a suitable chronology certainly make such  a transmission a possibility.  
 
Some Prominent Mathematicians  
 
In the following pages I have given a time line of some of the giants in the field of 
mathematics. Unfortunately, in a number of cases specific documentation is not 
available regarding the pla ce of their birth and even the period during which they did 
their work.

481 
  
 800B Baudhayana  
750BC -Manava  
624BC-Thales  
600BC-Apastamba  
580BC Pythagoras  
520BC -
460BC Panini  
428BC -
347BC  Plato  
384BC -
322BC  Aristo tle 
325BC-
265BC Euclid  
287BC-
212BC Archimedes  
200BC -
140BC  Katayana  85AD -
165AD  Ptolemy  70AD -
130AD  Menelaus  
476AD -
550AD  Aryabhatta -1 120AD -
180AD  Yavanesvara  
598AD -
670AD  Brahmagupta  505AD -
587AD  Varahamihira  
85720AD
-790AD  Lalla  600AD -
680AD  Bhaskara -1 
800AD -
870AD  Mahavira  
870AD -
930AD  Sridhara  800AD -
860AD  Govindasvami

482 
  
 920AD  –1000AD  Aryabhatta -2 
940AD  –1010AD  Vijayanandi  
973AD –1048 AD al-Baruni  
1070AD  –1130AD  Brahmadeva  
1114AD –1185AD  Bhaskara -2 
1340AD  –1410AD  Mahendra Suri  
1340AD  –1400AD  Narayana  
1350 AD –1425AD  Madhava  
1444 AD –1544AD Nilakanha  1370AD  –1460AD  Paramesvara  
1500AD  –1575AD  Jyesthadeva

483 
  
Baudhayana (800 BC)  
 
No records are available regarding the work on mathematics that was done in India 
between the early Vedic periods  till about 80 0 BC. Then we hear about Boudhayana  
We know nothing about this great mathematician to indicate where he was born and 
the period during which he lived. The period of 800 BC is a guess. However, some 
sections of the Sulbasutras he has written are available.  
His Sulbasutras  contain some geometric solutions of a linear equation with a single 
unknown. Quadratic equations of the form ax2 + bx = c appear. We also find frequent 
usage of the term that we now know as π.  
Let us now have a look at a couple of his Sulbasutras.  
This example calls for making a square equal in area to given unequal squares. 
Consider the diagram given above  – 
ABCD and PQRS are two given squares. Mark a point 
X on PQ such that PX = AB. Then  the square on  SX 
has an area equal to sum of the areas of the squares 
ABCD  and PQRS.  
This follows from the now known “ Pythagoras  theorem”  
that SX2 = PX2 + PS2. . We have constructed PX=AB  
 
Let us consider another case.  
All the Sutras contain a method  to square a circle. It is an 
approximate method based on constructing a square of side 
13/15 times the diameter of the given circle.  
Let the diameter of the circle be = D. Each side of the square is 
equal to [13/15] x D.  
The area of a square = [13/15] x D  x [13/15] x D.  
The area of the circle = [ π x D2 ] /4 
Equating these two, we get  π = 12 x [13/15]2 = 676/225  = 
3.00444

484 
 This is a rough value suitable for the construction work  
Apasthamba (600BC -540BC)  
A number of Indians would recognise the name. Yet, not much detail regarding the 
place of his birth or his period is known  
He has written a number of Sulbasutras and they are available now.  
His work gives an approximation for √2. The rule is given below.  
Increase a unit length by its third and this thi rd by its own fourth less the thirty -fourth 
part of that fourth  
Now this gives  
√2 = 1 + 1/3 + 1/ (3x4) – 1 / (3x4x34)  =  577/408 = 1.414215686.  
The correct value is 1.414213562. The Apasthamba Sutra is correct to 5 decimal 
places!  
 
Arya Bhatta -1 (476 A D – 550 AD)  
 
He is known as Arya Bhatta -1, to distinguish him from another mathematician of the 
same name who lived about 400 years later.  
Arya Bhatta is the first in the line of great astronomers / mathematicians born during 
the golden age of Indian as tronomy and mathematics. These men were first 
foremost astronomers, but the mathematical requirements of astronomy led them to 
developing many areas of mathematics.  
Aryabhatta born in 476 AD and he was 23 years old by the time he wrote his first 
major wor k “Aryabhattiya”. He wrote this major work of his while living at 
Kusumapura, a place near the Pataliputra ( modern day Patna ). Kusumapura  and 
Ujjain  were the major mathematical centres of India during that period. He lived there 
during the last years of Gu pta empire.  
The mathematical part of Aryabhattiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane trigonometry 
and spherical trigonometry. It also contains – continued fractions, quadratic 
equations, sum of power series and a table of sines. In this work Arya Bhatta ha s 
assigned numerical values to the 33 consonants of the Indian alphabet. The system 
allows numbers up to 1018 to be represented with an alphabetical notation. It was 
clear that Aryabhattiya knew of the numeral symbols and the place value system

485 
 His works  
He was the author of several treatises on mathematics and astronomy some of 
which are lost. Aryabhattiya, a treatise on mathematics and astronomy has survived 
to modern times.  
Arya Siddhanta  
Arya Siddhanta , a work in astronomical computations is lost. It is known through the 
writings of later mathematicians and commentators like Varahamihira and 
Brahm agupta. The book contained descriptions of several astronomical instruments 
of that age like - the gnomon ( shanku -yantra ), a shadow instrument ( chhaayaa -
yantr a), possibly angle -measuring devices, semi -circle and circle shaped ( dhanur -
yantra / chakra -yantra ), a cylindrical stick ( yasti-yantra ), an umbrella -shaped device 
called chhatra -yantra.  
A third text that may have survived in Arabic translation  is the Al  ntf or Al -nanf, which 
claims to be a translation of Aryabhatta, but the Sanskrit name of this work is not 
known.  
Aryabhattiya  
The entire text consists of 108 verses, plus an introductory 13, the whole being 
divided into four Padas  or chapters. They are i ndicated below - 
Gitikaapaada:  (13 verses) deals with large units of time - Kalpa , manvantra, yuga , 
which present a cosmology that differs from earlier texts  
Ganitapaada : (33 verses), covering mensuration ( kshetra vyaavahaara ), arithmetic 
and geometric p rogressions, simple, quadratic, simultaneous, and indeterminate 
equations ( kuttaka ) 
Kaalakriyaapaada  (25 verses): different units of time and method of determination 
of positions of planets for a given day. Calculations concerni ng the intercalary month 
(adhikmas ). Presents a seven -day week, with names for days of week.  
Golapaada : (50 verses): Geometric/trigonometric aspects of celestial spheres, 
features of the ecliptic, celestial equator, node, shape of the earth, cause of day and 
night, rising of zodiac al signs on horizon etc.  
Mathematics  
Place Value system and zero  
 
The number place -value system, first seen in the 3rd century Bakhshali Manuscript 
was clearly in place in his work; he certainly did not use the symbol, but the French 
mathematician Georges  Ifrah argues that knowledge of zero was implicit in

486 
 Aryabhatta's  place -value system as a place holder for the powers of ten with null 
coeff icients  
π as Irrational  
Aryabhatta worked on the approximation fo r Pi (π), and may have realized that π is 
irrational. In the second part of the Aryabhattiya, he writes  
 “chaturadhikam śatam aśaguam dvāśaśistathā sahasrāām 
Ayutadvayaviśkambhasyāsanno vr îttapariaha .” 
"Add four to 100, multiply by eight and then add 62,000. By this rule the 
circumfe rence of a circle of diameter 20,000 can be approached."  In other words, π 
= ~ 62832/20000 = 3.1416, correct to five digits. The commentator Nilakantha 
Somayaji,  (Kerala S chool, 15th c.) interprets the word asana (approaching), 
appearing just b efore the last wo rd, as saying that not only it is an approximation, but 
that the value is incommensurable (or irrational). If this is correct, it is quite a 
sophisticated insight, fo r the irrationality of π was proved in Europe only in 1761 by 
Lambert ). After Aryabha ttiya was translated into Arabic (ca. 820 AD) this 
approximation was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi's  book on algebra.  
Mensuration  
In Ganitapada, Aryabhatta gives the area of  a triangle as  “tribhujasya phalashariram 
samadalakoti bhuj ardhasamvargah”  that translates to: for a triangle, the result of a 
perpendicular with the half -side is the area.  
Indeterminate Equations  
A problem of great interest to Indian mathematicians since ancient times has been to 
find integer solutions to equations that have the form ax + b = cy, a topic that has 
come to be known as “Diophantine” equations. Here is an example from Bhaskara's 
commentary on Aryabhattiya.  
 
Find the number which gives 5 as the  remainder when divided by 8; 4 as the 
remainder when divided by 9; and 1 as the remainder when divided by 7.  
i.e. find N = 8x+5 = 9y+4 = 7z+1. It turns out that the smallest value for N is 85. In 
general, “Diophantine” equations can be notoriously difficu lt. Such equations were 
considered extensively in the ancient Vedic text Sulbasutras , the more ancient parts 
of which may date back to 800 BCE. Aryabhatta's  method of solving such problems, 
is called the “ Kuttaka ” method. Kuttaka  means pulverizing, that is  breaking into small 
pieces, and the method involved a recursive algorithm for writing the original factors 
in terms of smaller numbers. Today this algorithm, as elaborated by Bhaskara  in AD 
621, is the standard method for solving first order Diophantine e quations, and it is 
often referred to as the Aryabhatta  algorithm.

487 
 The Diophantine equations are of interest in cryptology . 
Astronomy    
Aryabhata's system of astronomy was called the “Audaayaka” system (days are 
reckoned from “Udai”, or dawn at Lanka, equ ator). Some of his later writings on 
astronomy, which apparently proposed a second model (“ardha -raatrikaa”, midnight), 
are lost, but can be partly reconstructed from the discussion in Brahmagupta's 
“khandakhaadyaka”. In some texts he seems to ascribe the apparent motions of the 
heavens to the earth's rotation.  
Motions in the Solar system  
 
Aryabhatta appears to have believed that the earth rotates about its axis. This is 
made clear in the statement, referring to Lanka, which describes the movement of 
the st ars as a relative motion caused by the rotation of the earth:  
 
Lanka (Sri Lanka) is here a reference point on the equator, which was taken as the 
equivalent to the reference meridian for astronomical calculations.  
Aryabhatta described a geocentric model o f the solar system, in which the Sun and 
Moon are each carried by epicycles  which in turn revolve around the Earth. In this 
model, which is also found in the Pitāmahasiddhānta (ca. AD 425), the motions of 
the planets are each governed by two epicycles, a smaller manda (slow) epicycle 
and a larger śīghra (fast) epicycle. The order  of the planets in terms of distance from 
earth is taken as: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the 
asterisms.  
 
Eclipses  
 
Aryabhatta  states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. Instead of 
the prevailing cosmogon y where eclipses were caused by Rahu  and Ketu, he 
explains eclipses in terms of shadows cast by and falling on earth. Thus the lunar 
eclipse occurs when the moon enters into the earth -shadow (verse gola.37), and 
discusses at length the size and extent of t his earth -shadow (verses gola.38 -48), and 
then the computation, and the size of the eclipsed part during eclipses. Subsequent 
Indian astronomers improved on these calculations, but his methods provided the 
core. This computational paradigm was so accurate that the 18th century scientist 
Guillaume le Gentil, during a visit to Pondicherry, found the Indian computations of 
the duration of the lunar eclipse of 1765 -08-30 to be short by 41 seconds, whereas 
his charts (by Tobias Mayer, 1752) were long by 68 secon ds. 
 
Aryabhata's computation of Earth's circumference was 24,835 miles, it is only 0.2% 
smaller than the actual value of 24,902 miles. This approximation might have 
improved on the computation by the Greek mathematician Eratosthenes (c.200 BC) . 
 
Sidereal p eriods

488 
  
Referenced to modern English units of time, Aryabhatta  calculated the sidereal 
rotation as 23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds; the modern value is 23:56:4.091. 
Similarly, his value for the length of the sidereal year at 365 days 6 hours 12 minutes  
30 seconds is an error of 3 minutes 20 seconds over the length of a year. The notion 
of sidereal time was known in most other astronomical systems of the time, but this 
computation was likely the most accurate at that  period.  
Trigonometry  
 
 His definiti ons of sine, as well as cosine ( kojya ), versine ( ukramajya ), and inverse 
sine ( otkram jya ), influenced the birth of trigonometry. He was also the first to specify 
sine and versine (1 - cosx) tables, in 3.75° intervals from 0° to 90°, to an accuracy of 
4 decimal places.  
 
 His influence  
Aryabhata's work was of great influence in the Indian astronomical tradition, and 
influenced several neighbouring cultures through translations. The Arabic translation 
during the Islamic Golden Age (ca. 820), was particularly  influential. Some of his 
results are cited by Al-Khwarizmi,  and he is referred to by the 10th century Arabic 
scholar Al-Biruni , who states that Aryabhatta's followers believed the Earth to rotate 
on its axis.  Aryabhata's astronomical calculation methods w ere also very influential. 
Along with the trigonometric tables, they came to be widely used in the Islamic world, 
and were used to compute many Arabic astronomical tables ( zijes) . In particular, the 
astronomical tables in the work of the Arabic Spain scien tist Al-Zarqali  (11th c.), were 
translated into Latin as the Tables of Toledo (12th c.), and remained the most 
accurate Ephemeris used in Europe for centuries.  
Panchanga  
Work done by Aryabhatta  and his followers have been in continuous use in India for 
the practical purposes of fixing the Panchanga, or Hindu calendar.  
These were also transmitted to the Islamic world, and formed the basis for the Jalali 
calendar introduced 1073 by a group of astronomers including Omar Khayyam, 
versions of which (modified i n 1925) are the national calendars in use in Iran and 
Afghanistan today. The Jalali  calendar determines its dates based on actual solar 
transit, as in Aryabhatta  (and earlier Siddhanta calendars).  
Varahamihira (505AD -587AD)  
Once again, no firm details are  available regarding his place of birth. According to 
one of his works, he was educated in Kapitthaka. He worked at Ujjain and his 
presence there increased its importance as a great centre of learning for 
mathematics.

489 
 His works  
a)  He wrote three important  books: Panchasiddhantika, Brihat Samhita, 
and Brihat Jataka. Brihat Samhita  is a compilation of an assortment of 
topics that provides interesting details of prevailing beliefs. Brihat 
Jataka  is a book on astrology. .  
b)  However, the most famous work by Varahamihira  is the treatise on 
mathematical astronomy called the Panchasiddhantika  ("Five 
Astronomical Treatises") and dated 575 AD. It is a summary of five 
earlier astronomical systems, namely the Surya, Romaka, Paulisa, 
Vasistha and Paitamaha  siddhantas.   
 Sūrya -siddhanta , i.e. the Siddhanta  of the Sun, composed by Laaṭa, 
 Romaka -siddhanta , so called from the Rūm , i.e. the subjects of the 
Roman Empire, composed by Śrīshe ṇa.  
 Pulisa -siddhanta , so called from Paulisa,  the Greek, from the city of 
Saintra,  which Is supposed  to be Alexandria, composed by Pulisa.  
 Vasish ṭa-siddhanta , so called from one of the stars of the Great 
Bear, composed by Vishnucandra,   
Brahma -siddhānta , so called from Brahman, composed by 
Brahm agupta, the son of Jish ṇu, from the town of B hillamāla between 
Multān and Anhilwāra, 16 yojanas from the latter place.  
Thus, the Romaka -Siddhanta  was Roman in essence. The Pulisa -
Siddhanta  was, as noted by Al-Beruni  above, of Egyptian origin. The 
Paitamaha Siddhanta  appears to be the ancient Vedanga  Jyotisha  of 
Lagadha. However, the Surya Siddhanta  or Saura -Siddhanta  was the 
most accurate and is the system most widely used today. The modern 
system differs but in minor details from Varahamihira's classical 
system. Of these five siddhantas, only Surya siddhanta has survived 
the onslaught of time.

490 
 Varāhamihira's  knowledge of Western astronomy was thorough. In 
five sections, his monumental work progresses through native Indian 
astronomy and culminates in two treatises on Western astronomy, 
showing calculations based on Greek and Alexandrian reckoning  and 
even giving complete Ptolemaic mathematical charts and tables.  
 
Although Varāhamihira's  writings give a comprehensive picture of 6th -
century India, his real interest lay in astronomy and astrology. He 
repeatedly emphasized the importance of astrology  and wrote many 
treatises on śakuna (augury) as well as the Brihat Jataka  and the 
Laghu -Jataka , two well -known works on the casting of horoscopes."  
c) Horashastra, one of the works of Varahamihira, is an anthology of 
earlier masters such as Vishnugupta, De vaswami, Siddhasena  and 
Jivasharma.  
d)  His other works include – Yogayatra, Vivahapatala, Saama samhita  
and Vaatakanika.  
e)  Varahamihira made some important mathematical discoveries also. 
Some of his formulae in trigonometry, translated to present day 
notations, correspond to –  
 sin x = cos ( π/2 - x);    sin2x + cos2x = 1;      six2x = (1 -cos2x)/2 
 He also computed a Sine tables, improving on the values produced 
by Aryabhatta -1 
Towering like a colossus on the Indian science scene, it is only natural that Indian 
Union should honour both Arya B hatta -1 and Varahamihira  with a mural inside the 
Parliament house at New Delhi.  
Brahmagupta  (598 -670) 
Brahmagupta was born in  Bhinmala  (Rajasthan)  in the year 598 AD. He lived there 
most of his life during the reign of King Vyagramikha. He was the head of  the 
astronomical observatory at Ujjain.

491 
 His works  
He wrote four texts in mathematics and astronomy – Cadamekala in 628, the  
Brahmasphuta -siddhanta  in 628, khandakhadyaka in 665, Durkeamynarda in 672.  
Among these the Brahmasphutasiddhanta  is the most famous one. This book was 
translated in Arabic.  In it he invented many formulas and mathematical properties.  
Algebra  
a) He gave solutions of the general linear equations A common form of a linear 
equation in the two variables x and y is - y = mx +b; where m and b denote 
constants.  
b) He further gave solutions to general quadratic equations of the general form –
ax2 + bx + c  
Arithmetic  
a) He gave details in the operation of fractions  
b) He explains how to find, square, square root, cube and cube root  
c) He identifies five different combinations of fractions. They are – (1) (a/c) +(b/c) (2)  (a/c)x(b/d) (3) 
(a/1) + (b/d) (4) (a/c) + [(b/d)x (a/c)] = [a x (d+b)] / (cxd) and (5) (a/c) –  [(b/d)x(a/c)] = [ax(d -b)] 
/ (cxd). He then goes on to give rules for dealing with the se 5 different types of fractions.  
Series  
He gives sum of squares of the first “n” natural numbers as n(n+1)(2n+1) /6  
He gives sum of cubes of the first “n” natural numbers as  (n(n+1)/2)2 
Zero  
Brahmagupta was probably, the first mathematician to prescri be to treat zero as 
number. He also stated rules of using zero with other numbers. He does this in 
chapter eighteen of his Brahma sputa - siddhanta.  He also describes operations on 
negative numbers.  
Sum  
(a) The sum of two positives is positive :  (b)  The  sum of two negatives is negative   
(c) The sum of a positive and negative is their difference  (d) The difference of two 
equal numbers is zero (e) The sum of a negative and zero is negative. (f) The sum of 
a positive and zero is positive (g) The sum of a zero and zero is zero.

492 
 Minus  
(a) Negative minus zero is zero (b) Positive minus zero is positive (c) Zero minus 
zero is zero (d) when a positive is to be subtracted from a negative, or a negative 
from a positive, then it is to be added.  
Multiplication  
(a) A product of negative and positive is negative (b) Of two negatives is positive (c) 
Of two positives is positive (d) A product of zero with, positive, negative or zero is 
zero 
Division  
(a) A positive divided by a positive or a negative divided by a  negative is positive. (b) 
A positive divided by a negative is negative and a negative divided by a positive is 
negative (c) Zero divided by zero is zero  
Brahmagupta states 0/0 = 0. As far as a/0 where a is not equal to zero, he did not 
commit himself  
Pythagorean triple  
In Brahma sputa - siddhanta he finds Pythagorean triples. To the equation  
xn + yn = zn  find the positive integer solutions for x,y and z. For the special case of  
n=2, it is called Pythagorean Tripl e. 
Pell’s Equation  
Find the integer sol utions (x,y) to -   x2 – Ny2 = 1 where N is an integer ≥ 1 
This is called Pell’s equation.  
Though this goes by the name of Pell’s equation, the problem has, in fact been, 
studied in much greater depth by Brahmagupta  almost a 1000 years before Pell. By 
Brahmagupta’s  method, we can generate, not just one, but a sequence of solutions.  
Geometry  
His most famous work in geometry is related Cyclic quadrilaterals.  
The cyclic quadrilateral has its vertices located on a circle. Given the lengths p, q, r 
and s of a cyclic quadrilateral – 
a)  The approximate area is given as  
[(p+r)/2] x [(q+s)/2]  
b)  The exact area is √[(t-p)(t-q)(t-r)(t-s)] 
Where t = (p+q+r+s)/2

493 
 c) The well -known Heron’s formula is a  special case of the formula in (b)  from 
Brahmagupta when you set one of the sides as equal to zero.  
Interpolation formula  
 
In the year 665, Brahmagupta devised and used a special interpolation formula for 
new values of the sine function from other already tabulated values. This formula 
works out as a special case of Newton -Stirling interpolation formula . 
Astronomy  
 
It was through the Brahmasphutasiddhanta that the Arabs  learnt of Indian 
astro nomy. The famous Abbasid caliph Al -Mansur (712 –775) founded Baghdad  
which is situated on the banks of the River Tigris, and made it a centre of learning. 
The caliph invited a scholar of Ujjain by the name of Kankah  in 770 A.D. Kanka h 
used the Brahmasphutasiddhanta  to explain the Hindu system of arithmetic and 
astronomy. Muhammad al -Fazari  translated Brahmugupta's  work into Arabic upon 
the request of the caliph.  
Brahmagupta argued that moon is closer to earth than the Sun. He did thi s by 
explaining the illumination of the Moon by the Sun . 
Some of the important contributions of Brahmagupta in astronomy are :  
(a)  Methods for calculating the position of heavenly bodies overtime  
(b) their rising and setting  
(c) Calculation of lu nar and solar eclipses  
(d) He argued that earth and heavenly bodies are spherical in shape and that earth 
is moving.  
 
Bhaskaracharya (1114 -1185)  
Bhaskaracharya (also known as Bhaskara II ) is regarded as one of the greatest 
Indian mathematician.  He mad e significant contributions in mathematics and 
astro nomy.  
He was born Bijjada Bida (in present day Bijapur district, Karnataka state).He was 
the head of the prestigious astronomical observatory at Ujjain. His predecessors in 
this post were Brahmagupta  and Varahamihira.  
His works  
He wrote Siddhanta Shiromani  in the year 1150 AD. It contained four sections -

494 
  
(a) Lilavati – dealing with arithmetic  (b) Bijaganita – deals with algebra and    
(c)  Goladhyaya  (Sphere) and (d) Grahaganita  (mathematics of plan ets)  
A number of his contributions were later taken to the middle east and Europe.  
 
a) Interest computation  
b) Arithmetical and geometrical progressions  
c) Plane geometry  
d) Solid Geometry  
e) The shadow of the gnomon (part of the Sun dial that gives the  shadow)  
f) Solutions of Permutations and Combinations  
g) A rough conception of infinity, that any number when divided by zero, gives 
infinity, first occurs in Bhaskaracharya’s  work. He treats zero and infinity in the 
first chapter of Bijaganita. The statement  that ( ∞ ± k) = ∞   is described in 
graphic detail.  
Algebra  
 
a) The recognition of a positive number having two square roots  
b) Surds Operations with products of several unknowns.  
c) The solutions of:  
Quadratic equations.  
Cubic equations.  
Quartic equations.  
Equa tions with more than one unknown.  
Quadratic equations with more than one unknown.  
The general form of Pell’s Equation using the Chakravala  method  
The general indeterminate quadratic equation using the C hakravala  method.  
Indeterminate cubic equati ons.

495 
 Indeterminate quartic equations.  
Indeterminate higher -order polynomial equations.  
Geometry:  
Gave a proof of the Pythagorean  Theorem  
Calculus:  
 
Conceived of differential calculus  
Discovered the derivative  
Discovered the derivative coefficient . 
Developed differentiation  
Stated Rolle’s Theorem - a special case of the mean value theorem - one of the 
most important theorems of calculus and analysis).  
Derive d the differential of the sine function.  
Computed π correct to 5 decimal places.  
Astronomy  
 
Calculated the length of the Earth's revolution around the Sun to 9 decimal places.  
Trigonometry:  
Developments of Spherical Trigonometry  
Developed the trigonometric formulae  
 
Medieval Period and the Kerala School  
 
It appeared, for a time, that original work in mathematics dwindled in much of 
Northern India after the Islamic conquests. Kerala escaped the political upheaval that 
occurred in the north and for this reason scientific development was able t o continue 
uninterrupted. Then an important school of mathematics blossomed in Kerala – the 
famous Kerala school of Astronomy and Mathematics founded by Madhava  of 
Sangamagrama in Malabar.  The school flourished between 14th and 16th century. It

496 
 had some ve ry prominent members in Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji, 
Jyesht adeva, Achyuta Pisharati and Melapathur Narayana Bhattarani.  
 
Several findings have already been made that show that a number of major concepts 
in renaissance of European mathematics were fi rst developed in Kerala. There is 
also interest in the claims that European scholars may have had firsthand  knowledge 
of some Kerala mathematics, as Kerala was a focal point for trading with many parts 
of the world, including Europe. There is also some evi dence of a transfer of 
techno logy between Europe and Kerala.  
Madhava of Sangamagrama (1340 A.D – 1425 A.D)  
 
Little is known about Madhava, who lived in irinjalakuda ( known at that time as 
iringattikudal) in Thrissur  district. Sanskrit scholars called the town as 
Sangamagrama  
He is regarded by many as the greatest mathematician - astronomer of medieval 
India. Sadly, all his mathematical work is lost. All we know about him, to this date, 
comes from works of later scholars. His most important contribution was  in moving 
on from the finite procedures of ancient mathematics to “treat their limit passage to 
infinity” – which is considered to be the essence modern classical analysis.  
His works   
He was the author of the following works  
a) Golavada  
b) Madhyamanayanapr akara  
c) Lagnaprakarana  
d) Venvaroha  
e) Sphutacandrapti  
f) Aganita - grahacara  
g) Candravakyani  
 
a) He discovered infinite series for the trigonometric functions of  sine, cosine, 
tangent and arctangent and many methods for calculating the

497 
 circumference of a  circle.  
θ= tan θ - (tan3 θ)/3 + (tan5θ)/5 - ... This series was traditionally known as 
Gregory series, who re -discovered it after three centuries. The following 
infinite series expansion is now known as Madhava - Leibniz series  
                 
b)  From the above, Madhava discovered a more rapidly converging series of π. 
The value he obtained was correct to 11 decimal places and that was = 3. 
14159265359. He also obtained a more accurate value correct to 13 decimal 
places!! These were the most accurate approximations of π given in the 5th 
century.  
c) One of the Historians J. Joseph states - “...We may consider  Madhava to have 
been the founder of mathematical analysis. Some of his discoveries in this 
field show him to have possessed extraordinary intuition . 
d) Proof for the expansion of the Sine and Cosine functions  
e) The earliest statement of Wallis product and Taylor series.  
f)  Geometric derivation of the series  
g) Tests of convergence (often attributed to Cauchy)  
h) Fundamentals of calculus, differenti ation, term by term integration, iterative 
methods for solutions of non -linear equations.  
i) The theory that the area under the curve is its integral  
Astronomy  
The book Yuktibhasa indicates work done by Madhava  in astronomy, viz. planetary 
object, Celestia l sphere, ascension, declination, directions and shadows, ellipses 
and parallax correction. The planetary theory described in the book is similar to that 
later adopted by Danish astronomer Tycho Brahe.  
The Indian astronomical system proved to be the oldes t, largest, and by far the most 
sophisticated of the great ancient cultures, far ahead in terms of chronological and 
astronomical acumen. It is noted that a special class of professional astronomers, 
called nakshatra -darshaks  or 'star -gazers', meticulously  observed and recorded the 
phases of the moon in reference to fixed stars - called nakshatras, or asterisms.

498 
 These methods of calculation, and its precision, sharply distinguish Indian astronomy 
from the astronomy of all other countries.  
Indian Calender sy stem  
The Indian calendar plays an important role in the lives of people. They have had, 
from very ancient times, the system of lunisolar cycles, made from a combination of 
solar years, regulated by the course of the Sun, and lunar years, regulated by the 
course of Moon. However, it has been treated in such a manner as to keep the lunar 
year near the beginning of the solar year.  
So the Hindu calendar is determined by years of two kinds, solar and lunar. Some 
states use the solar years and the majority of others use the lunar. However, the 
lunar years regulate everywhere the general religious functions, festivals, auspicious 
dates etc.  
References from Vedic literature show that Indian chronology in its primary stages 
existed thousands of years before the C hristian Era. The earliest traces of Indian 
chronology (science of Time) and chronometry (scientific measurement of Time) 
belong to the Vedic period. Knowledge of planetary motions, constellations, eclipses, 
solstices, seasons, etc. has existed since the b eginning of the Vedic age. Sage 
Vashishta’s treatise “ Vashishta Siddhanta” on astronomy is well known.  A method of 
distributing time into various periods such as days, fortnights, months and years was 
adopted for the purposes of civic life, these divisions  being intimately connected with 
the affairs of the people. For this reason the Indian calendar was devised to serve 
the affairs of day -to-day living, as such it was allowed the freedom of being both 
lunar and solar.  
 
In the Hindu calendar, the day starts  with the local sun rise.   The name for the Hindu 
calendar is a Panchanga. Along with other information, the Panchanga essentially 
records the movements of the Sun and the Moon.  Pancha means five and  anga 
means parts. Hence, the Panchanga is made up of fi ve parts –  (a) Tithi (b) Vara (c) 
Nakshatra (d) Yoga (e) Karana.

499 
  
In order to understand these terms, it is important to know how astronomers, in 
ancient days, measured the sky. The apparent distance between the celestial 
objects is measured in degrees.  Keeping in mind that there are 360 degrees in a 
circle, it is easy to measure approximate degrees in the sky. Just raise your hand to 
the sky, and at arm’s length, use the hand to measure the distance.. Refer to the 
illustrations.  
The width of the little  finger is almost 1 degree across. The second picture shows 25 
degrees separation.  
In the Indian calendar system  
a)  Seasons follow the Sun  
The 12 lunar months of a solar year are divided into six “Rutus”  
(seasons), each comprising of approximately two month s. Since the 
seasons are solar based, each of the six seasons are two months 
long - Sharad  (late monsoon), Hemant  (early winter), Shishir  
(winter), Vasant  (spring), Grishma  (summer) and Varsha  (monsoon)  
b)  Months follow the Moon  
Each month is divided into tw o parts, called “pakshas”:  the shukla 
paksha and the  Krishna paksha. They refer to the bright and the dark 
half of one lunation.  
c) Days follow both the Sun and the Moon  
Lunar calendar system  
The lunar day is called Tithi or lunar phase.

500 
 Tithi  
 
The first e lement in the Panchanga is Tithi. It is the building block for the lunar 
month.. Tithi is a measurement 12 degrees of longitudinal separation between the 
Sun and the Moon. For example, on a new moon day (Amaavaasya) the Sun and 
the Moon are separated by ze ro degrees. As they separate, the first Tithi begins 
when the Sun and the Moon have separated by 12 degrees. The second Tithi starts 
when they are separated by 24 degrees. This goes on till they are separated by 180 
degrees. This Tithi is called Full moon – Purnima (Note - there is no 15th Tithi). These 
15 Tithis or phases of the Moon make up the waxing phases of the Moon. It is called 
Shukla -Paksha. After the Full moon, the Tithi begins counting again from one – as 
the separation between Sun and Moon decrea ses back to zero. This is called 
Krishna - Paksha. The cycle goes on repeating. In this way 30 Tithis make up a lunar 
month – Chaandra -masa. This works out as below - 
1 Tithi = Time equivalent to a distance of 12 degrees between  
Surya  (sun) and Chandra  (moon). 
15 Tithis  = 1 Lunar fortnight.  
30 Tithis  = 2 Lunar fortnights = 1 Lunar month  
12 Chaandra  (Lunar) months = One Chaandra Varsha  (lunar year)  
Tithis begin at varying times of day and vary in duration from approximately 19 to 
approximately 26hours. T he tithis in each lunar month are named as follows:  
 
No Krishna Paksha  No Shukla Paksha  
1 Pratipada  16 Pratipada  
2 Dvitiya  17 Dvitiya  
3 Tritiya  18 Tritiya  
4 Chaturthi  19 Chaturthi  
5 Panchami  20 Panchami  
6 Shashti  21 Shashti  
7 Saptami  22 Saptami  
8 Ashtami  23 Ashtami  
9 Navami  24 Navami  
10 Dashami  25 Dashami  
11 Ekadashi  26 Ekadashi  
12 Dvadashi  27 Dvadashi  
13 Trayodashi  28 Trayodashi  
14 Chaturdashi  29 Chaturdashi  
15 Amavasya  
(New Moon)  30 Poornima  
(Full Moon)

501 
  
Vaasara  
 
The second element of the  Hindu Panchanga is the day, Vaasara.  In Sanskrit, days 
of the week are named after the seven major astrological influences used in Hindu 
astrology – the Nava Grahas.  
No Sanskrit  
Name  English  
Name  Celestial 
Object 
1 Ravi Vaasara  Sunday  Sun 
2 Soma Vaasar a Monday  Moon  
3 Mangala Vaasara  Tuesday  Mars  
4 Budha Vaasara  Wednesday  Mercury  
5 Bruhaspathi Vaasara  Thursday  Jupiter  
6 Shukra Vaasara  Friday  Venus  
7 Shani Vaasara  Saturday  Saturn  
 
Nakshatra  
 
The third element in the Hindu Panchanga  is the Nakshatr a. They are also called 
lunar houses or asterisms.  
If you observe the position of the Moon in relation to the background of stars on two 
successive days at the same time, you will notice the moon to have moved 13 
degrees and 20 minutes. The region of sky that has been swept by the moon’s 
eastward movement is the Nakshatra . There are, then, 27 such Nakshatras in the 
360 degrees that the moon travels in one lunar month. (13.3 x 27 = approx 3600). In 
the Panchanga, these Nakshatras  are named after constellati ons on the horizon, 
since those times have remained unchanged. The names are given below.  
 
No Name of Nakshatra  No Name of Nakshatra  
1 Ashwini  15 Swati  
2 Bharani  16 Vishaka  
3 Krittika  17 Anuradha  
4 Rohini  18 Jyeshta

502 
 5 Mrigashira  19 Mula  
6 Aardra  20 Purva Aashaada  
7 Punarvasu  21 Uttara Aashaada  
8 Pushya  22 Shravana  
9 Ashlesha  23 Dhanishta  
10 Magha  24 Shatabhisha  
11 Purva Phalguni  25 Purva Bhaadrapada  
12 Uttara Pahlguni  26 Uttara Bhaadrapada  
13 Hasta  27 Revati  
14 Chitta    
 
Yoga  
 
This refers to  the angular relationship between the Sun and the Moon. One Yoga  is 
equal to 13 degrees and 20 minutes. There are 27 Yogas  in 360 degrees  
Karana  
 
One Karana is half of a Tithi.  One Karana equals 6 degree difference between Moon 
and the Sun. In other words , it is the time required for the angular distance between 
the sun and the moon to increase in steps of 6 degrees starting from zero. Since the 
Tithis are 30 in number, one would expect 60 Karanas.  However, there are only 
eleven. There are four “fixed”  Karanas  and seven “repeating “ Karanas . The  Karana  
active during the Sun rise of the day is the Karana  for the day.  
The Months  
Masa (Lunar Month)  
What is a lunar month? And what is a Synodic  month  
This is the average period of the Moon's revolution with re spect to the sun. The 
synodic month is responsible for the moon's phases, because the Moon's 
appearance depends on the position of the Moon with respect to the Sun as seen 
from the Earth. While the moon is orbiting the earth, the Earth is also progressing in 
its orbit around the Sun. This means that after completing a sidereal month the Moon 
must move a little farther to reach the new position of the Earth with respect to the 
Sun. This longer period is called the synodic  month. Because of perturbations in t he 
orbits of the Earth and Moon, the actual time between lunations may range from 
about 29.27 to about 29.83 days. The long -term average duration is 29.530589 days 
(29 d 12 h 44 min 3 s).

503 
 A lunar month is precisely 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes and 3secs long. Twelve 
such months constitute a lunar year of 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes and 36 
seconds. The lunar month may be regarded as ending with either the new -moon 
(Amavasya ) or with the full -moon. The former is called “amanta” or “shukladi”. The 
later is  called “poornimanta” or “krishnadi”.  The Hindu year contains twelve Lunar 
months. They are named after the Nakshatra in which the Moon is full. Their names 
are given below.  
 
No Month   No Month   
1 Chaitra  Mar-Apr 7 Ashwina  Sept-Oct 
2 Vaishakha  Apr-May 8 Kartika  Oct-Nov 
3 Jyaishta  May-June  9 Margashirsha  Nov-Dec 
4 Aashada  June -July 10 Pausha  Dec-Jan 
5 Shraavana  July-Aug 11 Magha  Jan-Feb 
6 Bhaadrapada  Aug-Sept 12 Phalguna  Feb-Mar 
 
Adhika Masa (Extra month)  
 
From Vedic times, the months were lunar, bu t the years were luni - solar. This 
requires that a constant correlation be established between solar year and the 
monthly lunar divisions.  
The lunar month (or synodic month since it is also relative to the sun) is 29 days, 12 
hours, 44 minutes and 3 secon ds long. Twelve such  months constitute a lunar year 
of 354 days, 8 hours, 48 minutes, 34 seconds. According to Aria Bhatt  the Hindu 
solar year measures 365 days, 6 hours, 12 mins, and 30 secs. Consequently, the 
beginning of the lunar year would be always travelling backwards through the solar 
year – by about 11 days on each occasion. This would in course of time recede 
entirely from the solar year! To help the lunar months coincide with the solar year, 
the practice arose of inserting intercalary (extra) m onths. In general, 60 solar months 
is equal to 62 lunar months. So an extra month, called Adhika masa , is inserted 
approximately once every two and half years. Such adjustments assure that the 
seasons, festivals, etc. retain their general position to the solar year.

504 
  This need was recognised even during the Vedic  times. Vashishta Siddhanta,  a 
treatise by sage Vashishta (he was the guru for Lord  Rama ), says that the Adhika 
masa  occurs after every 32 months, 16 days and 8 ghadis  (a ghadi is 24 mins).  
In the lunar panchangas  we come across not only adhika masa  but also what are 
called and kshaya masa  (the months which are eliminated from the count). The 
kshaya masa  repeats itself in a cycle of every 141 years followed by another kshaya 
masa after 19 years. Thus, generally speaking not every generation of mankind 
witnesses kshaya masa . 
Samvatsara  
 The names of the cycle 60 lunar years are given below . 
1 Prabhava  33 Vikāri  
2 Vibhava  34 Shārvari  
3 Shukla  35 Plava  
4 Pramoda  36 Shubhakruti  
5 Prajāpati  37 Sobhakruthi  
6 Āngirasa  38 Krodhi  
7 Shrīmukha  39 Vishvāvasu  
8 Bhāva  40 Parābhava  
9 Yuva  41 Plavanga  
10 Dhātri  42 Kīlaka  
11 Īshvara  43 Saumya  
12 Bahudhānya  44 Sādhārana  
13 Pramādhi  45 Virodhikruthi  
14 Vikrama  46 Paridhāvi  
15 Vrisha  47 Pramādicha  
16 Chitrabhānu  48 Ānanda  
17 Svabhānu  49 Rākshasa  
18 Tārana  50 Anala  
19 Pārthiva  51 Pingala  
20 Vyaya  52 Kālayukthi  
21 Sarvajeeth  53 Siddhārthi  
22 Sarvadhāri  54 Raudra  
23 Virodhi  55 Durmathi  
24 Vikruti (2010)  56 Dundubhi  
25 Khara  57 Rudhirodgāri  
26 Nandana  58 Raktākshi  
 27 Vijaya  59 Krodhana  
28 Jaya  60 Akshaya  
29 Manmadha    
30 Durmukhi

505 
 Solar Calender system  
Solar year  
 
The calculation of the sidereal s olar year is more complicated. It takes into account 
the total number of years in one Kalpa ( the sum  total of number years in the four 
Yugas) and the number of revolutions of earth etc. According to the ancient Surya 
Siddhanta  the year has been calculated  to be 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, 36.56 
seconds. According to modern science, the true mean sidereal solar year measures 
365 days, 6 hours, 9 mins, 9.6 secs.  
Solar months  
 
The solar year been divided into twelve months. Their names are given below - 
No Lunar month  Solar month  
1 Chitta  Chaitra  
2 Visaka  Vyshaka  
3 Jyeshta  jyeshata  
4 Poorvashada  Ashada  
5 Sravana  Shravana  
6 Poorvabhadra  Bhadrapadha  
7 Aswini  Aswija  
8 Kartika  Kartika  
9 Mrigashira  Margashira  
10 Pushyami  Pushya  
11 Makha  Magha  
12 Uttaraphalgun  Phalguna

506 
 Solstice division of the year  
 
The solar year is divided into two parts called Uttarayana, the period during which 
the sun is moving to the north, and Dakshinayana  the period during which it is 
moving to the south. The Uttarayana  begins at the winter solstice, as marked by 
Makara Samkranti . The Dakshinayana  begins at the summer solstice, as marked by 
Karka Samkranti  
Solar days  
The days of the solar month start at sun rise. The days of the month are numbered 
1,2,3 etc till the end of  the month. They are named – Adivara, Somavara, 
Mangalavara, Budhavara, Brihaspativara, Shukravara, and Shanivara.  
Sub-divisions of the Solar day  
 
The solar days are divided. They are given below.  
60 vipalas = 1 pala = 24 seconds;  
60 palas  = 1 ghatika  = 24 minutes;  
60 ghatikas  = 24 hours  = 1 day.  
There is also the  
Muhurta  = 2 Ghatikas = 48 minutes.  
Year N umbering System  
All other calendar systems in the world use the current ordinal number of the year as 
the year label. However, the Hindu calendar measures the number of years elapsed 
since the birth of the reference point. J ust as a person's true age is measured by the 
number of years that have elapsed starting from the date of the person's birth, the 
year numbering is done on the same manner.  
Vikra ma and the Shalivahana calendars  
Two calendar systems are prominent – The Vikrama  and the Shalivahana. They are 
both lunisolar calendars. The difference is that the zero for the two calendars is 
different. In the Vikrama calendar the zero corresponds to 5 8 BCE, with the New 
year falling on Baishak  (April).. In the Shalivahana, the zero corresponds to 78 BCE, 
with the New year falling on Chaitra (March and Ugadi/ Gudi padwa  festivals marking 
the New Year).  
Western mathematicians and astronomers, in more rec ent years, have started 
recognising work done by Indian astronomers.

507 
 “ The motion of stars calculated by the Hindus before some 4500 years vary by not 
even a single minute from the tables of Cassine and Meyer (used in the 19th century)  
....... The Hindu system of astrology is  by far the oldest and that from which the 
Egyptians, Greeks, Romans and even the Jews derived from the Hindus their 
know ledge.  
Jean Sylvian Bailly; French Astronomer – (1763 – 1793)”  
The Hindus in ancient times developed, perfected different branches of knowledge 
including different branches of science. In healthcare and medicinal systems the 
Hindus developed a holistic approach involving physical, mental and spiritual 
aspects of personality.  
 
 Medical Science and Surgery  
 
Introduc tion 
 
Ayurveda in India —the science of life, the origin of most forms of natural and 
altern ative medicine —has its mention in Rig Veda,  the oldest of the Vedas . 
Ayurveda  is an Upaveda  of Atharva Veda . The Sutrasthana  of Charaka Samhita , a 
much referred Ayurvedic text, says; "The three —body, mind and soul —are like a 
tripod, the world stands by their combination; in them everything abides.  
In its broader scope, Ayurveda in India has always sought to prepare mankind for the 
realization of the full potential o f its self through a psychosomatic integration. This 
science or knowledge of healing, as mentioned in the Rig Veda , was revealed to 
Rishi Bharadvaja . The knowledge consists of three aspects known as the Tri-Sutras  
of Ayurveda,  which are —aetiology  or the sc ience of the causes of disease, 
sympt omatology or the study and interpretation of symptoms and medication and 
herbal remedies.  
Two distinct schools were developed: Atreya —The School of Physicians, and 
Dhanvantari —The School of Surgeons.  This made Ayurveda  a more systematically 
class ified medical science, hereafter. Dhanvantari,  who is considered to be a 
reincarnation of Lord Vishnu , was the guiding sage of Ayurveda . He made this 
science o f health and longevity popular and widely acceptable. In fact, these two 
schools of thought led to the writing of two major books on Ayurveda —Charaka 
Samhita  and Sushruta Samhita . 
The great sage - physician  Charaka  authored Charaka Samhita  revising and 
supplementing the text written by Sage Atreya , which has remained the most 
referred Ayurvedic  text on internal medicine till date.

508 
  Sushruta,  following the Dhanvantari  School of thought, wrote Sushruta Samhita , 
comprising the knowledge about prosthetic surge ry to replace limbs, cosmetic 
surgery, caesarean operations and even brain surgery. He is famed for his 
innovation of cosmetic surgery on nose or rhinoplasty.  Around 500 AD, Vagbhatt  
compiled the third major treatise on Ayurveda,  Ashtanga Hridaya . It cont ained 
knowledge compri sing the two schools of Ayurveda.  
Basics of the knowledge of medicine are traceable from Rig Veda  onwards i.e. 
10,000 years back. However, it is available as an Upa Veda of Atharva Veda . The 
science of medicine is called Ayurveda.  Its approach is unique. The attempt is not 
just to cure the illness! It is more than that. The science requires knowledge of the 
span of living, its good maintenance, all round excellence and possible extension 
beyond the usual limits.  
There are two major traditions in this knowledge  
a) Kaya Chikitsa: Deals with medicinal treatment. Sage Atri is considered as the 
progenitor  
b) Shalya Chikitsa : Deals with Surgery. Dhanvantari, an incarnation of Lord 
Vishnu , is considered as the progenitor  
Ashtanga Ayurveda  
 
In co urse of time, the expanding knowledge got standardised into eight branches 
resulting in an Ashtanga Ayurveda. These branches are given below.  
No Branch  Details  
1 Shalyatantra  Surgery  
2 Shalakya  Ophthalmology and 
Otorhinolaryngology  
3 Kaya Chikitsa  Internal medicine  
4 Bhoota Vidya  Psychology  
5 Kaumarya Bhrtya  Paediatrics  
6 Agada Tantra  Deals with toxins and 
poisons 
7 Rasayana  Science of Rejuvenation  
8 Vajikarana  Science of Aphrodisiacs

509 
  
These eight branches of Ayurveda overlap and are connected in v arious ways. So 
we should not view them as separate but as integral parts of the same approach.  
Shalya tantra  
 
Surgery is not just an invention of modern medicine but was already highly advanced 
in several ancient cultures, including India, Greece and Egy pt. Ayurveda still 
contains some forms of surgery but this component of it has been declini ng. It was 
taken over more by a llopathic  medicine in India.  
Ayurveda  
Ayurveda holds that surgery should be integrated with the other aspects of medicine 
in order to create a truly complete system of medicine. Surgery is not the only 
method of treatment, and not always the best option, but it does have its importance 
and may have no alternative, particularly in dealing with traumatic injuries or large 
tumours  where it  is most appropriate.  
Shalakya  
 
This is the Ayurvedic branch of Ophthalmology, the branch of medicine dealing with 
the diseases of the eyes, head and throat. Sushruta described seventy -two eye 
diseases along with surgical operations for such conditions as  cataract and 
pterygium. Special techniques are described for many diseases of the ear, nose and 
throat that can be treated locally with various instruments and herbal applications.  
Internal medicine is the main branch of Ayurveda that treats our entire n ature. 
Ayurveda considers the human being as a whole, comprising body, mind, and soul. 
Mind and body affect each other and together form the seat of disease. The 
approach of Ayurveda from the very beginning is psychosomatic. Ayurveda groups 
all human being s into seven different types of Kaya Chikitsa psychophysical 
constit utions (Prakriti) according to the predominance of the three biological humors 
(doshas of Vata, Pitta and Kapha). It similarly groups them into seven psychological 
constit utions according  to the predominance of the three mental qualities (gunas of 
Sattva, Rajas and Tamas). All these factors are taken into account during the 
treatment of disease. Diseases are caused by imbalances of the doshas or gunas, 
which in turn damage various tissues  and systems.  
Internal medicine mainly deals with diseases that have an internal or organic cause, 
as apart from injuries or poisons. A number of infectious diseases are described in 
Ayurveda but great importance is not given to pathogens as their cause. Ayurveda 
emphasizes internal factors, the condition of the individual behind all diseases, even 
those appearing to come from the outside. If the soil remains sterile, the seed will not

510 
 grow. In the same way, if the internal energies are balanced, disease has no field in 
which to act.  
Bhoota Vidya  
Ayurveda is equally concerned with mental diseases and their treatment as it is with 
physical disorders. Ayurvedic treatment methods include not only physical methods 
like diet and herbs, but also yogic methods f or improving the condition of the mind 
like Pranayama , mantra and meditation. Generally, Ayurvedic doctors prescribe both 
types of approaches and stress their inter -relationship. Bhuta literally means the 
influence of the past, and shows how previous karma s and mental patterns weigh 
down the mind and heart. So clearing of negative conditioning from the past is part of 
this branch of Ayurveda. There is ample material for further research on this branch 
in the Vedas, Tantras, and the Ayurveda Samhitas.  
Kauma rya Bhrtya  
 
This branch deals with prenatal and postnatal baby care and with the care of the 
mother both before conception and during pregnancy. Ayurveda describes special 
methods for conceiving a child of the desired sex, intelligence, and constitution. 
Various diseases of children and their treatment come under this branch. According 
to Ayurveda, the health of children is the key to the health of society. Right diet and 
exercise for children falls under this branch as preventive methods for diseases like ly 
to occur later on in life.  
Agada Tantra  
 
This branch deals with the toxins and poisons of the vegetable, mineral and animal 
kingdoms and how they can adversely affect our health. Most interesting to note is 
that the concept of the pollution of air and water has been given due consideration. 
Such pollution is said to be the cause of various epidemics and the collapse of 
civilizations. Certain poisons, particularly in small doses, also have benefits as 
medicines.  
Rasayana  
Ayurveda addresses all the needs  of life, which include how to prolong life and how 
to renew our vitality after disease or during the aging process. Rejuvenation therapy 
is used to prevent diseases and for promotion and extension of a healthy life. 
However, proper detoxification is an e ssential prerequisite for rejuvenation. A code of 
right conduct in life also has to be observed as part of the rejuvenation process, 
including meditation. Details of rejuvenation regimen in terms of diet and herbs have 
been described in detail in Ayurvedic  texts.

511 
 Vajikarana  
 
Sexual energy is the root of bodily health and disease. This' branch of Ayurveda 
deals with increasing the sexual vitality and efficiency necessary for a happy sex life, 
health and for procreation. For achieving good progeny, the ther apy of Rasayana 
and Vajikarana are closely interrelated. Vajikarana medicines also act as 
rejuven atives because the sexual energy can function internally to revitalize our 
tissues and organs.  
Sage Charaka and the Maharshi Atreya School  
 
Ayurveda or the sc ience of life, could be regarded as a universal approach to global  
ealth, and is an approach to live in harmony with nature. It is a science of life in 
totality. It guides you to adjust and re -adjust yourself, rationally, to maintain your 
internal harm ony of mind and body in the midst of continuously changing 
environment.  
Diseases are of two categories – mental and somatic.  
Triguna:  
 
The Gunas  are three in number – Sattva, Rajas and Tamas.  They exist in all beings, 
including the human beings – in var ying degrees of concentration and combination. 
Depending upon their relative strengths and combinations, they determine the nature 
of beings, their actions and behaviour. Sattva  is pure, illuminating and free from 
sickness. Rajas  is full of passion . Tamas  is darkness and crudeness. Both Rajas  and 
Tamas  lead to disease.  The best way to promote Sattva  is to follow dharma  and its 
dictates.  
Diseases and their causes:  
Ayurveda refutes the position that diseases are the result of fate. It clearly asserts 
that n othing happens without a cause - because cause and effect are two time -varied 
states of the same thing. Fate today is merely the result of actions performed earlier. 
Ayurveda teaches that suffering is caused, and health can be caused as well. Both 
disease a nd cure are inherent in the embodied self.  
Tridosha  
 
 The body is made up of three doshas (from the root Dush meaning dys -function).  
They are (a) Vata (b) Pita  (c) Kapha.

512 
 The doshas when abnormal destroy the body and they sustain it when normal. A 
dosha is any fault or error. Any transgression by them against the rhythm of life 
promotes chaos. Though three doshas  are indicated above, some commentators 
include a fourth one – Blood. The three doshas are active hard to control 
condens ations of the five great elements – Pancha Mahabhutas  (air, ether (space), 
fire, water, earth) created by nature to satisfy some of the peculiar requirements of a 
living ma tter.  
 
Regions of domination  
 
Though they pervade the body – Vata is concentrated in the brain and nervous 
system, heart, colon, bones, lungs, bl adder, pelvis, thighs, ears and skin.  
Pita is concentrated in the brain, liver, spleen, small intestine, endocrine glands, skin, 
eyes, blood and sweat.  
Kapha is concentrated in the brain, joints, mouth, head, neck, stomach, lymph, 
thorax and fat.  
Life is inconceivable without these three doshas.  The activities of movement (kinetic 
energy – by Vata), metabolism (potential energy - by Pita) and regulatory energy – 
by Kapha are the keys to life itself. No one of these forces can singly sustain life. All 
three  must work together, each in its own way, for health to result. When balanced, 
all the body’s elements work in harmony and a healthy body is the result. However, 
when thrown out of balance they prevent cohesion, disturb functions and create a 
chaos – disea se is inevitable.  No Dosha  Arises from  In charge of  
1 Vata air and space  All motion in the body and mind; 
everything that moves, from a 
molecule to a thought, moves 
because of Vata. Every motion of any 
kind influences every other motion  
2 Pita fire and water  All transformation in the organism; it is 
responsible for digestion; light in the 
eyes and sensory data in t he brain  
3 Kapha  water and earth  Stabilizing influence in the living 
being; it lubricates, maintains and 
contains.

513 
 Individual constitution  
 
Everything that enters a human being must be processed and transformed into a 
form which the human organism can utilise. Those that enter the body from the outer 
world include – food, water, air, sunlight, touch , odours, tastes and sounds. They 
enter the inner world and alter it, forcing it to adapt. How well this is done is a 
measure of its innate equilibrium and its immunity to imbalance. Whenever an 
experience r emains undigested it leads to a disease. If the b alance or the lack of 
balance of doshas  is the cause for health or disease the degree of imbalance is 
indicative of the individual’s digestive ability. Ayurveda calls it the “digestive fire” 
(Agni). 
 
The doshas , like all other substances, possess qualities . These qualities increase or 
decrease depending upon the quality of food being taken. So all substances and all 
activities increase and decrease the three doshas  according to their qualities. As a 
result the individual will experience in body, mind or bot h an increase in qualities that 
characterise the dosha  
 
The land in which a person lives may be arid, humid or balanced. These also have 
an effect on the doshas . For example an arid atmosphere will aggravate the Vata in 
the bodies; humidity will aggravate  the Kapha  in the body; torrid climate will increase 
the Pita. So it is best for a person not to live in a habitat that will increase the primary 
dosha  in his constitution.  
 
Following tables give an indication of health problems that may result due to out  of 
balance doshas.  
 
The three doshas are associated with the three Gunas. Vata, Pita  and Kapha  are 
associated with Rajas, Sattva  and Tamas respectively, when they are in harmony. 
Such a state leads to psycho -somatic equilibrium. Daily practice of Yoga enhances 
Sattva Guna  and corrects psycho -somatic disorders.   Thus Yoga enriches the 
quality of life

514 
  
Imbalanced Pita  
Increased Pita Decreased Pita 
Acidity or burning sensations  Irregular bowel movements  
Insomnia  Indigestion  
Excessive Thirst  Loss of ski n lustre  
Frustration, hate and jealousy  Sore throat  
Pride and anger  Conjunctivitis  
Speech problems   
Imbalanced Kapha  
Increased Kapha  Decreased Kapha  
Obesity  Body aches  
Nausea  Dryness of mouth  
Excessive sleep  Depression  
Greed and unkindness  Digesti on problems  
Lethargy and lack of interest   
Improper digestive function   
Boredom and carelessness   
Lack of Compassion   
Mouth secretions   
 
Imbalanced Vata  
Increased Vata Decreased Vata 
Constipation  Nausea  
Insomnia  Lethargy  
Dry and rough skin  Depres sion 
Nervousness and sadness  Digestion problems  
Fear, anxiety and grief   
Low vitality   
Impairment of sensory functions   
Lack of communication   
 
Body types  
According to Ayurveda’s  basic concept there are seven body types and they are:  
Mono types  
Wind  dominated individuals ( Vata)  
Bile dominated individuals ( Pita) 
Mucus dominated individuals (Kapha )

515 
 Dual types  
Wind and Bile dominated individuals ( Vata and Pita)  
Wind and mucus dominated individuals ( Vata and Kapha)  
Bile and mucus dominated individuals ( Pita and Kapha)  
Equal types  
 
Vata, Pita  and Kapha in equal proportions  
Sapta Dhatus  
According to Ayurveda there are seven bodily tissues known as Sapta Dhatus. 
These seven dhatus form the pillars of the body that are responsible for providing 
nourishment , growth and support to the body and mind. Each dhatu  is governed by 
one of the three doshas. The following table gives a list of these dhatus.  
The following points may be noted:  
Heaviness and density of the dhatus : They are heavier in   progressive ord er from 
Rasa  to Shukra  
Process of nourishment from dhatu  to dhatu : Dhatus  continue their normalcy by 
receiving nutrients from the preceding dhatu . So mamsa  nourished by rakta, meda  
by mamsa  etc 
Process of nourishment from Food to Dhatu : From “Ahaara Ras a” (essence of food) 
are nourished Ras, Rakta, Mamsa, Asthi, Majja, Shukra,  parts like ligaments, 
lubricating substance in joints etc.  
The body is a product of the food – eaten or drunk  
Similarly, diseases are also produced by the food – eaten or drunk  
 
Dhatu  In English  Activity  
Rasa  Rasa dhatu coexists 
with the Rakta dhatu. 
So Rasa dhatu 
includes plasma, 
lymph and white blood 
corpuscles.  It is the preliminary Dhatu. It is derived from food 
digestion. Each and every part of the body is nourished 
by rasa.  This done by circulation of nutrients. Loss of 
appetite and other problems are possible if Ras is not 
on the increase. Deficiency of Rasa leads to loss of 
weight, retarded perception of senses, fatigue etc  
Rakta  Red blood corpuscles. 
Rakta dhatu along wi th 
white blood corpuscles 
and the Ojas 
(immunological factor) 
are present in the A fluid connective tiss ue. It is the basis for life. It 
provides the glow and vigour to the body. It nourishes 
intellect and muscles. Disorder related to Rakta can 
cause tumours , tiredness, boils, high blood pressure 
and anaemia.

516 
  
Mala  
 
This refers to those materials which are to be excreted. They represent a wide 
variety of substances produced by the body during the process of ga strointestinal 
digestion and metabolism. Vitiated doshas  and disrupted Sapta  dhatus  are also 
included in this category.  
Three malas commonly mentioned in Ayurvedic  classics are : - (a) Pureesha 
(faeces) (b) Mootra  (urine) (c) Sweda  (sweat). There are othe rs as well such as – 
gases, bile, Kha - malas (excretions from various openings in the body (from the ear, 
eyes, the skin, nasal discharge etc).  
Malas are essential components and support body functions. Regular and normal 
excretions keep up the health of the body.  
Srotas.  
They are regarded as an integral internal transport system. It facilitates material flow 
through. There is a large variety in the structure of the Srotas . Ayurveda  identifies 
thirteen functions carried out by these Srotas . liquid medium. Liver 
along with spleen, red 
bone marrow and 
stomach are sites for 
Rakta dhatu 
production. The 
complex fluid is 
referred to as 
Rudhiram  
Mamsa  Muscle  Strengthens and supports the fat o r Meda dhatu. It is a 
derivative of blood. It is responsible for providing 
stamina and strength to the body. Disorders in mamsa 
are expressed as tumours around the neck, face, 
thigh, abdomen and genitalia  
Meda  Adipose tissue  It acts as a storehouse of fat . It lubricates the body and 
provides the energy. It insulates the body  
Asthi  Bone  Refers to bone tissues. It forms the skeleton and 
supports the muscular issue. Among the connective 
tissues this is the hardest.  
Majja  Marrow and nerve 
tissue Refers to th e yellow and red bone marrow tissues. It is 
present within the cavities of the bones. It produces 
blood cells. It nourishes semen. Its deficiency may 
result in sunken eyes and osteoporosis  
Shukra  Shukra – male 
reproductive tissue.  
Artava - Female 
reproductive tissue.  Is associated with female and male reproductive 
system. The source for Shukra is Majja.

517 
 No Srota  Func tion 
1 Pranavaha Srota  Carries vital breath  
2 Udakavaha Srota  Carries water  
3 Annavaha Srota  Carries food  
4 Rasavaha Srota  Circulates plasma  
5 Raktavaha Srota  Circulates blood  
6 Mamsavaha Srota  Conveys components for muscle tissues  
7 Medovaha Srota  Conveys components for adipose tissue  
8 Asthivaha Srota  Conveys components for osseous tissue  
9 Majjavaha Srota  Conveys components for bone -marrow  
10 Shukravaha Srota  Conveys components for sperm and ovum  
11 Mootravaha Srota  Carries urine  
12 Pureeshav aha Srota  Conveys faecal matter  
13 Swedavaha Srota  Conveys sweat  
 
Body anatomy  
 
The anatomy as indicated in Ayurveda is given below.  
The body anatomy is the same for all persons – except for those with abnormal 
constitutions .

518 
  
1. Skin There are 6 laye rs of skin  
2. Bones  360 including teeth socket and nails  
3. Sense organs  5 Jnana  Indriyas  
4. Motor organs  5. Karma Indriyas  
5. Seat of consciousness  Heart  
6. Seats of vital breath  10. (head, throat, heart, navel, anus, bladder, 
Ojas, semen, blood, fle sh)  
7 Visceral organs  15. ( navel, heart, kloman [pancreas], liver, spleen, 
kidneys, urinary bladder, ‘caecum’,  stomach, 
jejunum, rectum, antu, small intestines, large 
intestines, omentum . 
8 Sub body parts  56. (such as calves, thighs, buttocks etc)  
9 Major orifices  9. (7 in the head + 2 below)  
10 Ligaments*  900 
11 Veins*  700 
12 Arteries*  200 
13 Muscles*  400 
14 Vital organs*  107 
15 Joints*  200 
16 Capillaries*  29,956  
17 Skin hairs*  29,956  
 Note: *  These are conjectured   
 
Diagnosis Process  
 
The dosha imbalance causing various diseases and the path followed by the doshas 
to cause the disease is known as pathogenesis or Samprapti. The development of 
the diseases takes place in different stages and a thorough knowledge of the stages  
helps in diagnos ing the disease in early stages. Ayurveda recognises six stages of 
diagnosis process. They are given below.  
Stage -1: Sanchaya  (Accumulation)  
Excess dosha and a weak digestive power is often responsible for such a condition. 
Due to improper digestion the toxins get accumulated in the gastro -intestinal track. 
Toxins resulting from a Kapha  imbalance accumulate in the stomach, those 
assoc iated with a Pita imbalance collects in the small intestine, and that related to  
Vata imbalance accumulates in the colon.

519 
 Stage -2: Prokapa  (Aggravation)  
The diet, lifestyle and seasons excite the accumulated and stagnant doshas. The 
toxins get accumulated and provoke the site of production in the gastrointestinal 
tract.  
Stage -3: Prasara (Spread)  
In the third stage the a ccumulated toxins in the gastro intestinal tract starts 
overflo wing. Up to this stage the use of proper measures can help in achieving the 
restor ation of dosha balance. There may be spontaneous remission influenced by 
seasonal changes. Thus there is accumu lation of Pita in rainy season, aggravation in 
fall and spread in early winter.  
Stage -4: Sthana Samshraya  (Augmentation)  
The overflowing toxins from the gastrointestinal tract make their away to the weak and 
defective tissues or dhatus resulting in malfu nctioning and the structural damage. This stage 
leads to specific degenerating disease and susceptibilities to serious infections are more.  
Stage -5: Vyakti  (Symptom manifestation)  
The affected location starts showing different symptoms and these sympt oms are 
used for classification and diagnosis of the various diseases.  
Stage -6: Bheda  (Complications / Differentiation)  
The disease becomes chronic and it takes long time to reach at this final stage. This 
stage provides a complete knowledge of the sym ptoms making the physicians clear 
of the nature of the disease. Besides the stages of disease the physicians should 
also know the complete history of patient. Ayurveda has evolved a unique 
simult aneous approach to diagnosis and pathology. This method is k nown as Rogi-
Roga pariksha.  
Ayurveda is the only medical system that describes an elaborate strategy for assessing both 
the patient (rogi) and the disease ( roga). For the complete interrogation and physical 
exam ination, Ayurveda uses a two -part approach:   
Rogi-pareeksha – diagnosis of the patient  
Roga -pareeksha – diagnosis of the disease

520 
 Charaka Samhita  
 
Charaka Samhita is an early Ayurvedic text on internal medicine. The information we 
have is that it was written about 300 BCE. The treatise was based  on older works of 
Agnivesa,  a shishya  of Maharshi Atreya.  The text has eight sections and 120 
chapters.  
These 8 sections are Sutra sthana , Nidana sthana , Vimana sthana  Sarira sthana,  
Indriya sthana ), Chikitsa sthana,  Kalpa sthana  and Siddhi sthana .  17 chapters of 
Cikitsa sthana  and complete Kalpa sthana  and Siddhi sthana  were added later by 
Dridhabala  (9th century).   The text starts with Sutra sthana  which deals with the 
fundamentals and basic principles of Ayurveda  practice.  
The text includes duties o f nursing.  
People from numerous countries came to Indian Ayurvedic schools to learn about 
this world medicine and the religious scriptures it sprang from. Learned men from 
China, Tibet, the Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Persians, and more travelled to India  
to learn the complete wisdom and take it back to their own countries. Ayurvedic texts 
were translated in Arabic. Avicenna and Razi Sempion  quoted Indian Ayurvedic  texts 
and established Islamic medicine. This style became popular in Europe, and helped 
to form the foundation of the European tradition in medicine. In 16th Century Europe, 
Paracelsus, who is known as the father of modem Western medicine, practiced and 
propagated a system of medicine which borrowed heavily from Ayurveda.  
Sage Sushruta and  Bhag avan  Dhanvantari School  
 
Sushruta is one of the earliest surgeons in recorded history (600 to 1000 BC). He 
lived in Kashi . He is regarded as the greatest surgeon of his times. With his powers 
of observation, attention to detail, thoroughness,  innovation and mastery over his 
subject he commands a great respect even today from all professionals.  
Sushruta regarded as the father in the fields of Plastic and cataract surgery. 
Acke rnecht has aptly observed -”There is little doubt that plastic surg ery in Europe 
which flourished in medieval Italy is a direct descendant of classical Indian surgery”.  
The followers of Sushruta  were called as Saushrutas . The new student was 
expected to study for at least 6 years. He taught the surgical skills to his stu dents on 
various experimental modules, for instance, incision on vegetables (like watermelon, 
gourd, cucumber etc.), probing on worm eaten wood. He stressed the importance of 
observation and practical experience in surgery.

521 
 Sushruta Samhita  
 
Sage Sushru ta authored the world famous Sushruta Samhita.  Earlier on, we have 
spoken about the eight limbs of Ayurveda. Sushruta  Samhita is a complete work on 
medicine with special attention to Shalya and Shalakya Tantras . However, the whole 
Samhita  is one comprehens ive treatise on the entire medical discipline. As a text 
book, it is unrivalled in respect of composite teaching of the subject of surgery with 
reference to all allied branches of medical learning required by a surgeon. The 
treatise contains 184 chapters. It gives descriptions of 1120 diseases, 700 medical 
plants, a detailed study in anatomy, 64 preparations from mineral sources and 57 
preparations based on animal sources. It also describes over 120 surgical 
instruments, 300 surgical procedures and classifi es human surgery into eight 
categories. He prescribed and insisted on a code of ethics for teachers as well as 
students.  
Surgery  
He has introduced for the first time a plan for training the surgeons to achieve 
dexte rity in performing basic surgical proced ures on experimental models named 
Yogya.   
Methods of diagnosis  
He gave explicit instructions regarding history taking and physical examination of 
patients. Physical examination included the use of all five senses. Inspection, 
palpation, auscultation, use  of taste and smell were all included.  
Primary healing of wounds  
Sushruta gave a great importance to management of wounds. Wounds were treated 
by cleansing and closing by suture. He has described 60 procedures for the 
treatment of wounds – from the earli est stage of inflammation to complete cure.  
Surgical procedure  
     There are 3 stages for the surgical procedure. (a) Purva  Karma  (pre-operative 
measures) (b) Pradhana Karma  (operative measures) (c) Paschaat Karma  
(post -operative measures)  
s.No Pre-opera tive Operative  Post -operative  
1 Preparation of patient  Surgery  Bandaging & Redressing  
2 Preparation of theatre  Eight surgical 
procedures  Cleansing procedures  
3 Preparation of 
instruments   Healing procedures  
Cosmetic preparation

522 
 Purva Karma ( Pre-operat ive) Procedures  
 
Pre-operative measures were similar to those employed today. Of the 60 procedures 
mentioned earlier, the first 12 were intended to bring the body to a state ready for 
definitive therapy. Starvation or mild dieting was advised on the day o f the surgery. 
Administration of intoxicating beverages was advised to take off the sensation of 
pain of surgery. List of articles to be collected and kept ready have been given in 
detail along with a suitable day, time, lighting were indicated. He has des cribed 101 
types of blunt instruments and 20 types of sharp instruments.  
Pradhaana Karma ( Operati ve Measures)  
Detailed descriptions have been given of the main surgical procedure. Eight basic 
surgical procedures have been described which covered any type of surgical 
manoeuvres.  
Suturing  
Suturing methods were given in detail. Three types of needles were described used 
for suturing. Suturing materials were also described Examples are – cotton, linen, 
silk, horse hair etc. Types of stitching to be used were  described.  
Paschaat Karma ( Post operative care ) 
Careful, minute and detailed instructions regarding, sleep, diet, redressing are given 
systematically in post -operative care . 
Bandages  
 
Details of 14 different types of bandages to suit the wounds at diffe rent locations of 
the body have been given. 15 different types of materials were used for bandaging.  
Infection  
 
Details on infection and preventive methods have been described. One cannot but 
admire his penetrating observations and the accuracy of conclus ions made centuries 
before Louis Pasteur and Lister in the 19th century established the contagious nature 
of diseases.  
Plastic Surgery  
Sushruta’s  contribution to plastic surgery is nothing short of outstanding. It is well 
known now that Indian plastic sur gery provided the basic platform for western efforts 
in the field.

523 
 A report from India was published in “Gentleman’s magazine” in 1794. It described 
how a new nose was reconstructed on a bullock cart driver by a local surgeon. This 
was quickly followed u p by a noted surgeon from London, Joseph Constantine 
Carpue who published his results in 1816. This was considered as a greatest 
landmark in reconstructive surgery.  
The details of surgical procedure have already been described by Sushruta. 
Sushruta has de scribed how a similar operation for severed lips can be performed. 
He has also described 15 methods for repairing earlobes.  
Haemostatic M ethods  
 Haemorrhage is a primary problem in any surgical procedure. Sushruta described 4 
methods for arresting Haemorr hage.  
Thermal injuries  
His contribution to the concept of thermal injuries is of a hallmark category.  
Only recently, all thermogenic injuries, whether hot or cold, have been included in 
the classification of burns. It has been confirmed now that their pa thology is similar. 
Thousands of years back Sushruta had included lesions caused by excessive cold 
and lighting under burns.

524 
 Chapter XVII - Ancient Learning  
 
According to Hinduism, in the sequence of respecting your elders, mother takes the 
first place, followed by the father then the Guru  and lastly the God. You cannot see 
the God or talk to Him. It is through the mother, father and the teacher that He 
makes your physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual capabilities grow.  
The important relationship between the teacher ( Guru ) and the pupil ( Shishya ) starts 
during the Upanayana  ceremony. It is a spiritual initiation into a new life, for the pupil 
is now twice -born ( dvija), in as much as the teacher impregnates him with his spirit.  
The pupil then leave s his home and starts living at the modest hermitage of the 
teacher. These hermitages were located far away from the cities. We have 
descri ptions of forest hermitage schools such as that of Sage Valmiki’s  at 
Chitrakoota, Bh aradwaja’s  at the confluence of Ganges  and Yamuna  and many 
others. The word Upanishad itself suggests that it is learning got by sitting at the feet 
of the master. The knowledge was to be got by obeisance, by questioning and 
serving the teacher.  
The knowledge of Vedas, their auxiliary br anches and subjects of material interest 
were called Apara -Vidya . The knowledge of supreme Reality, the ultimate quest of 
Upanishads, is called Para -Vidya.  In all the total number of subjects to be studied as 
part of Veda  and its auxiliaries are eighteen.  There are fourteen branches of learning 
or Vidyas  - four Vedas , Six Vedangas, Mimamsa , Nyaya, Puranas and other 
religious scriptures. These fourteen along with Ayurveda, Dhanurveda, 
Gandharvaveda  and Arthashastra  becomes eighteen. All the learning was don e in 
Sanskrit language.  
The education did not remain confined to priestly class only. In view of this secular 
character, education came to be regarded quite early in its history as a source of 
illumination, an agency for improvement and for giving the co rrect lead in life.  
Organised efforts in religious and educational matters were quite well known during 
Vedic  times. The words sangha, parishad and caaraka were frequently used in 
Samhitas, Brahmanas  and Upanishads.  They referred to a body of learned men who 
assembled from time to time for a specific intellectual or religious purpose. They had 
similar assemblies in the time of the Rig Veda  for giving direction to the philosophy 
and the language of Veda.  
The ancient private -teacher system and the Buddhist monastic organisation 
combined to encourage 3 distinct type of educational institutions – (a) Gurukula  
School (b) Temple colleges (c) Agrahara  village colleges.

525 
 Gurukula S ystem  
This took its inspiration from the private -teacher of the ancient times. Howev er, 
unlike the hermitage system, the Gurukula  schools were established in villages and 
cities on its outskirts like Banaras . 
Temple Colleges  
It was very popular in South India . These were supported by land grants and other 
forms of endowments.  
Agrahara I nstitutions  
These were bigger institutes. They had their own sources of revenue, generally from 
land grants and empowered to administer their villages. It is reported that, the 
Agrahara centre for learning at Belgame  owned about 144 villages.

526 
 Chapter X VIII -  Ancient Universities  
University at Takshasila  
 
The University at Takshasila  was the oldest university in the world. It had a great 
reputation as a centre for learning. It is located in the north -west corner of the sub -
continent (now near Rawalpin di, Pakistan). It was a major town in the state of 
Gandhar. According to references in Ramayana,  it was founded by King Bharata  
(brother of Sri Rama ) in the name of his son, Taksha.  Records show that by 800 BC 
the un iversity was functioning well. By the ti me Alexander’s army came to Punjab, 
Taksh asila has already developed a reputation as a great centre of learning. 
Alexander took many scholars with him to Greece.  
Takshasila  was a university in the sense that it provided education in a wide variety 
of subj ects, including arts, literature, music, philosophy, religion (both Hindu and 
Buddhist), law, chemistry, biology, medicine, astronomy, architecture, sculpture, 
history and geography. It provided instruction in vocational subjects like archery, 
elephant rid ing, agriculture, accounting and astrology. There were courses even on 
sorcery and witchcraft, handling snakes and dealing with omens. Because of its 
intern ational reputation, Takshasila  used to host conferences in medicine and other 
fields that attracted scholars from Babylon, Syria, Arabia, Phoenicia, China and 
Persia.  
However, being near the north -west frontier of India, Takshasila had to face the brunt 
of attacks and invasions from the north and the west. Thus the Persians, Greeks, 
Parthians, Shakas an d Kushanas laid their destructive marks on this institution. The 
final blow, however, came from the Huns who, A.D. c.450, razed the institution. 
When the Chinese traveller Huen T'sang (A.D. 603 -64) visited Takshasila , the town 
had lost all its former grand eur and international character.  
Rise of Buddhism and the Universities  
 
Buddhist monks could opt for a life of meditation, or a life of teaching. As a result a 
number of centres of learning arose. These seats of monastic learning (Pirivenas) 
gradually dev eloped and some of them became full fledged learning. As a result 
Buddhist India came to have 5 major Universities which achieved wide fame. They 
were ( 1) Nalanda (2) Vickramasila (3) Odantapuri (4) Jagaddala (5) Somapura.  
Nalanda University  
Nalanda was a  great centre of learning from 427 to 1197 CE. King Kumara Gupta 
established the centre.

527 
 Nalanda is the best known of ancient India Universities. Situated 40 miles south of 
Patna and 7 miles north of Rajgir  in Bihar, Nalanda  was originally a seat of 
Brahmanic learning till the beginning of 5th century AD. Under the patronage of 
Gupta  emperors a number of high rise viharas  changed the skyline of the place, and 
this building activity continued well into the eleventh century. According to 
archaeological excav ations, the University covered of one mile long and half a mile 
broad. The ce ntral college was provided with 7 large halls and 300 rooms. The gates 
were rose to a height of 36 feet. Outside the great hall of the temple there was a 
large stupa.  A water cloc k kept the time.  
In Hieun Tsang’s time the monastery’s population of monks and students stood at 
10,000. According to Hieun Tsang , there were 1000 teachers who could explain 20 
collections of Sutras  and Shastras . The University maintained an excellent lib rary 
located in three buildings called Ratna -sagara, Ratnodadhi  and Ratnaranjaka.  
Although Nalanda specialised in the Mahayana school, it also taught Heenayana 
works and many secular subjects such as Vedas , Hetuvidya, Sabdavidya  and 
Ayurveda . Some scholars  worked in other countries such as Nepal and China.  
Nalanda was graced by the presence of India’s most brilliant luminaries. Some of 
them were Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Dharmapala and Silabhadra  among others.  
As was the case with many other institutions of tha t period, Nalanda was razed to 
the ground by the Muslim invaders. The story goes that the invader Bhaktiar Khilji 
enquired whether they had a copy of Quran in the library. On hearing that they did 
not have one, he ordered his army to set fire to the Univer sity. At that time some of 
the monks were about to have their meal. The Persian historian Minhaj -i-Siraj, in his 
chronicle the Tabaquat -I-Nasiri , reported that thousands of monks were burnt alive 
and thousands beheaded as Khilji tried his best to uproot Bu ddhism and plant Islam 
by the sword; the burning of the library continued for several months and the "smoke 
from the burning manuscripts hung for days like a dark pall over the low hills."  
Vickramasila University  
Vickramasila was located at Antichak  village, Kahalagoan, Bhagalpur  district. It was 
founded by a monk Kamalapala , under the patronage of King Dharmapala (770 -810 
AD). At its peak it rivalled Nalanda. There were 6 entrances and near each entrance 
was a monastery for resident monks. About 150 monks  were accommodated in each 
monastery. 108 Professors were engaged in teaching and administrative duties. The 
curriculum was similar to that at Nalanda.  
In the end it was demolished by the Muslim invaders  
Odantapuri University  
It is considered as the seco nd oldest of Indian Universities. There were about 12,000 
students at this university. It too perished at the hands of the Muslim invaders and 
many of the monks were killed.

528 
 Jagaddala University  
 
King Ramapala (1077 – 1129) was the founder of this univer sity. This was a centre 
for the study and dissemination of Tantric Buddhism . It followed the methods, 
practices, and traditions of Nalanda.  In the year 1027 AD Muslim invaders destroyed 
the university.  
 
Somapura University  
It was situated in what is today  the Bangladesh. King Devapala (810-815) is said to 
have erected the Dharmapala - Vihara  at Somapura.  The ruins of this buildings cover 
an area about 1square mile. The university flourished for about 750 years before it 
was razed by the Muslim invaders.  
Vallabhi University  
As a Buddhist university, Vallabhi , near Wala  in Kathiawar in western India played 
the same important role that Nalanda did in the east.  Its development was due to the 
munificent grant of the Maitraka  Kings. It had about 6000 monks. It sp ecialised in the 
study of the Heenayana school. In flourished from 475 to 1200 AD.  
 
Technical education and Apprentice S ystem  
 
Eighteen Silaps or industrial and technical arts and crafts are mentioned with regard 
to the schools at Takshasila. The followin g 18 are reported to be subjects – (1) Vocal 
music (2) Instrumental music (3) Dancing (4) Painting (5) Mathematics (6) 
Accou ntancy (7) Engineering (8) Sculpture (9) Cattle breeding (10) Commerce (11) 
Medicine (12) Agriculture (13) Conveyancing and law (14)  Administrative training 
(15) Archery and military art (16) Magic (17) Snake charming (18) Art of finding 
hidden treasures.  
For technical education in the above mentioned arts and crafts an apprentice system 
was developed. It is reported that essential de tails are given in the Naradasmrti.

529 
  
References  
 
1. All About Hinduism   Swami Sivananda  
2.  Lessons on the Upanishads  Swami Krishnananda  
3. Principal Upanishads  Swami Sivananda  
4. Kamakoti.Org  
5. Bhagavat Gita  Dr. S. Radhakrishnan  
6.  Ramanuja Bha shya  Svami Adidevananda  
7. Elements of Indian Philosophy  Dr. K.C. Varadachary  
8. Upanishads  IndiaNetzone  
9. Vedic Mathematics  Jagadguru Swami Sri Bharati Krishna 
 Tirthaji Maharaja  
10 Theory of Knowledge  Dr. K.C. Varadachari  
11 Yatindramatadipika  Swami A didevananda  
12 Public talks  Swami Dayananda  
13 Public talks  Swami Paramarthananda  
14 Upanishads  T.N. Sethu Madhavan  
16. Scientific dating of Ramayana  
 & Vedas  Dr. P.V. Vartak  
17. Susruta’s contributions to the  R. L.M. Singh, K.K. Thakral & P.J. 
fundament als of Surgery  Deshpande  
18. Charaka Samhita; Handbook  Edited by Gabriel Van Loon  
on Ayurveda  
19. A short history of Religious &  Swami Krishnananda  
Philosophic thought in India  
20 Rishis of Rigveda & Oral tradition  Sulekha.com  
21 HistoryOfClassicalSanskri tLiterature -MKrishnamachariar  
22  Hinduism   Dr. K.C. Varadachari  
23  Life after death   Swami Sivananda  
24 Gadya Trayam  Dr. V.V. Ramanujan  
25  Vidyas from the Upanishads   Swami Sivan anda.

530 
 26  Chandogya Upanishad with  Gangana th Jha 
Shankara Bhashya  
27  Death of an Aryan Invasion   Stephen Knapp  
 theory  
28  A short history Religious and   Swami Krishnananda  
Philosoph ic thought  
29  Vedas   Sri Aurobindo  
30  Sus’ruta’s Contributions to the  L.M. Singh, K.K. Thakral & P.J. 
fundamentals Surgery  Deshpande  
31 Charaka Samhita   Gabriel Van Loon  
32 Articles by  Dr. K.C. Varadachary  
33  Rig Veda –A historical analysis  Sri Shrikant Talagiri  
34  Prashna Upanishad   Swami Pr ashnanand a 
35  Upanishads   Swami Prabhavananda  
36  Prashna and Mundaka   Swami Nikhilananda  
Upanishad  
37  Discrimination of Five sheaths    Swami Krishnananda  
38  Elements of Indian Philosophy   Dr. K.C. Varadachary  
39  Dharma Shastras   V. Jayaram  
40  Rick on theater  
41 Rishis of Rig Veda   S. Sreenivasa Rao  
42  Addresses at the Parliament  Swami Vivekananada  
religions  
43  “Nature resource conservation  Ashish Ghosh  
and Environm ental management”  
44  “Forestry in Ancient India:  B.M. Kumar  
Some literary evidences on  
Productive and  Protective aspects  
45 Brihadaranyaka Upanishad  Sri Sethumadhav an 
46 A short history of religious and  Swami Krishnananda  
philosophic thought in India  
47  Questions and answers on  Sri V.N. Gopala Desikan  
Sri Vaishnavism

531 
  
About the Author  
 
 Kadambi Srinivasan has an Honours degree in Physics and a Diploma in 
Instrume ntation from the Madras Institute of Technology, Chennai. He worked as a Senior 
Manager in the industry for a number of years. After retirement he got interested in 
philosophy. He published “ A commentary on Sri Vishnu Sahasranama”. He then started 
work on  the pr esent book which has taken almost eight years to complete. He has also 
published a small booklet titled “Hinduism - Frequently asked  questions”. He still writes and 
publishes papers on technical subjects.  
 
 Kadambi Srinivasan

Veda literally means knowledge. Traditionally the following features are attributed to the Veda:

Veda is anantha (infinite). Only an infinitesimal portion of it is revealed to humans. This can be understood in the sense that knowledge is infinite. However, Veda is the knowledge of Brahman, the True, Absolute and the Infinite. And the essence of Veda is said to be understood if one knows the infinite, i.e., opens up to the infinite Self. Realizing the infinite through any single mantra/sukta of the Veda is equivalent to understanding the essence of any other mantra and the entire Veda. Thus it is said know the One (Brahman) by which everything else is known.

Veda is anadi, having no beginning or end. It said to exist eternally; it is called the breath of Paramatma. This is a poetic expression, this does not literally mean paramatma has a breath but just the way breath exists with a person's life similarly veda exists with God/creation. While the modern view is that Rigveda is the oldest, it is only in compilation that it is possibly older. Rigveda itself mentions Yajurveda and Samaveda. For instance Purusha sukta (RV 10.90) says "Tasmaat yagnaat sarva hutaH, RucaH-samaani jagnire, chandaagmsi jagnire tasmaat, yajus tasmaadajaayata".

Veda is apourusheya, not authored by humans. The seers are said to reveal veda mantras to the world, they are called drastas. Rigveda says "catvari vak parimita padani tani vidur brahmana ye minishinah, guha trini nihita neengayanti turiyam vaco manushya vadanti"[2], meaning vak exists in four forms and the learned know of them. Three are hidden and the fourth is what men speak. Vak (literally word, but meaning veda mantra here) is said to exist in four forms - para, pasyanti, madhyama and vaikhari. Para is the eternal form of vak. Pasyanti is when a seer envisions the mantra. Madhyama is when it descends into mind plane. Vaikhari is the expression. Thus the Veda mantras exist eternally, they are only revealed to the world by the seers.

Though there are four Vedas, there are alternate recitations in each Veda. These are called "pathantaram"s. Based on these, various branches exist in each Veda, each of them is called a Veda sakha

Vedas are four - Rig, Yajur, Sama and Atharva. Rigveda contains prayers to Gods (Riks are the mantras). Yajurveda has methods to use Riks for sacrifices (Yajus-Yajna). Sama Veda introduces musical notes. Atharva Veda gives ways to make life successful, and contains methods to fulfill what can be called material aspirations. The Vedas are known by other epithets, each of which only signify their importance - Apta-Vachan ("Divine Revelation)", Nigama ("Revelation"), Samhitas ("Collection"), Savda-Brahm ("Word of Brahm") or just Shabda ("Word"), Shruti ("Revelation" or "Testimony"), and Stotra ("Hymns.")

Each Veda has three sections - Samhita, Brahmana and Aranyaka. Samhita has prayers or Suktas. Brahmana has sacrificial methods. Aranyaka has Mantras and methods that are practiced in the forests (that is, not for grhasthas). Upanishads normally appear in the last part of Aranyaka and deal with spiritual philosophy. Some Upanishads are exceptions and appear in Samhita and Brahmana too. Thus Upanishad, as it appears in the last part of the

Veda, is called Vedanta. There are 108 Upanishads and 10 of them are famous. Since Upanishads mostly philosophical they are found in prose. But there are Upanishads like Taittireeya and Ganapathi Atharva Seersha that have svara.

All the mantras used by the priest hotā[1] to invite the various deities to a sacrifice, were collected together and collectively called the Ṛgveda. Each of its mantras are known as a ‘ṛc’ or ‘ṛk’. Ṛgveda is in the form of Sukta-s, which mean 'beautiful statements'. A collection of beautifully composed ṛk-s itself is a Sukta. Ṛk refers to an mantras that 'praises' and Veda means 'knowledge'. The knowledge of the Suktas itself is the literal meaning of Ṛgveda. The Ṛgveda ṛks mostly praise God -- they are filed with good thoughts and have the ability to inspire. The ultimate aim of all these mantras is to purify the human mind through knowledge. Darkness is symbol of lack of knowledge or illusionary living, which makes us devoid of justness and sagacity.

Only two shakas of the Ṛgveda, Shakala sakha and Baskala shaka, remain alive out of the 21 which existed at one time. Ancient tradition has divided the Ṛgveda samhitā in two different ways. They are: Aṣtaka method - It has been designed to facilitate easy memorization by apportioning more or less equal number of mantras to each section; Mandala method - In this method, the subject is more important. This application displays the Mandala method.

Summary: The Śuklayajurveda Samhitā is also known as the Vājasaneya Samhitā. It is attributed to the great sage Yājñavalkya. It is said to have 15 śākhās or recensions. They actually bear the names of the disciples to whom Yājñavalkya taught. Some of them are:

However, only the first two are extant now, the rest being completely lost. The Kānvaśākhā contains 2086 mantras spread over 40 adhyāyas or chapters. The Mādhyandinaśākhā also has 40 chapters but only 1900 or 1975 according to another version of mantras. The entire work is in verses without prose portions as in the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda.

It has 37 verses. It delineates about the Somayāga and some of its details.

It has 43 verses. It includes the details of the preparation for the Somayāga. They include preparation of soma juice and placing of the appropriate vessels.

It has 48 verses. It describes about the billing the soma juice in various cups meant for the various deities like Indra, Vāyu, Mitra, Varuṇa and others.

It has 40 verses. Vājapeya and Rājasuya, two well- known and popular sacrifices of those days, are described here.

It has 34 verses. Description of the Rājasuyayāga is continued here.

It has 83 verses. A detailed description of Agnicayana[7] is started from this chapter right up to the 18th chapter.

Vaṇīvāhana rite - coming and going of fire kept in a vessel on a cart

It has 153 verses. They describe in detail the building up the altar with 10,008 bricks in four layers in the form of a bird with its wings stretched.

It has 66 verses. The entire chapter contains the famous Rudrādhyāya. It is used in the Satarudrīya homa.[8]

It has 77 verses. This contains the mantras used in vasordhārā,[10] an oblation of ghee poured in a continuous stream into the fire on the altar.

Offering wine, after purifying with mantras, into the dakṣiṇāgni

It has 34 verses. The topic of the Aśvamedha sacrifice is begun here and continues with the details through Chapters 23,[13] 24,[14] and 25,[15] 26,[16] 27,[17] 28[18] and 29.[19] The topics described here are:

It has 22 verses. Chapter 31 has 22 verses. The sacrifice called Puruṣamedha[20] is described here with 184 varieties of living beings as the offering. Scholars however describe it as only symbolical.

It has 16 verses. Chapter 33 has 97 verses. These deal with the sacrifice called Sarvamedha. Along with the praise of the sacrificer there is a prayer for granting knowledge, wisdom and wealth. There are several mantras and yajus[21] in praise of several deities.

It has 58 verses. The first six mantras are known as the Śivasañkalpopaniṣad. This is followed by some details of a few sacrifices and hymns of praise of the deities Bhaga, Puṣan and Brahmaṇaspati.

It has 86 verses. These contain the mantras connected with the Pravargya rite.

It has 18 verses. This is the famous Iśāvāsya Upaniṣad. Some important aspects of the teaching of the Samhitā are:

Meticulous performance of the Vedic sacrifices was considered the highest puruṣārtha.

Mantras are very powerful, if chanted correctly and will harm if chanted wrongly, the power being dependent on the correctness of chanting.

There are two major sakhas in the Yajurveda, Sukla and Krishna. Krishna Yajurveda sakha is also called Taittireeya sakha. Samhita of Sukla Yajurveda is called Vajasaneya samhita and that of Krishna Yajurveda is called Taittireeya Samhita. Taittiriya Samhitā, though has 85 śākhās or recensions of the Kṛṣṇa Yajurveda, only four have survived to this day. Of these the Taittiriya Samhitā is the most important and the most extensive.

This Samhitā is very well-known and studied in South India. It has 7 kāṇḍas, 44 prapāṭhakas and 651 anuvākas. In it, the mantras[4] and prose passages are mixed up. The verses are to be used in Vedic sacrifices. The prose passages explain how to use them. The sacrifices dealt with in this Samhitā are:

The Taittiriya Samhita ('TS') consists of seven kandas (or 'books') of hymns, mantras, prayers, and three Anukramanis(indexes). In translations such as that by A.B. Keith, this Samhita is presented as the Krishna (black) Yajurveda. M. Winternitz adds that the Samhita also includes Brahmana passages (i.e. instructions and explanations of sacrificial ceremonies). The chapters (prapāṭhakas) for each of the books (kandas) of the Taittiriya Samhita are as follows:

Kandah Description 1 Kandah 1 has four important inner Yajnas namely Darshapurnamas, Agnishtoma, Vajapeya and Rajasuya, the royal consecration. There are 8 Prapataka’s that are for new and full moon sacrifices, Soma sacrifice, rekindling of the Fire and the Rajasuya yajna Contents Prapathaka 1. The new and full moon sacrifices Prapathaka 2. The Soma sacrifice Prapathaka 3. The Victim for Agni and Soma Prapathaka 4. The Soma cups Prapathaka 5. The Rekindling of the Fire Prapathaka 6. The sacrificer's part in the new and full moon sacrifices Prapathaka 7. The sacrificer's part in the new and full moon sacrifices Prapathaka 8. The Rajasuya 2 Kandah 2 is mainly Brahmana, dealing with Yajna’s, special sacrifices and some full moon sacrifices. Contents Prapathaka 1. The special animal sacrifices Prapathaka 2. The special sacrifices Prapathaka 3. The special sacrifices (continued) Prapathaka 4. The special sacrifices(continued Prapathaka 5. The now and full moon sacrifices Prapathaka 6. The now and full moon sacrifices 3 Kandah 3 is mainly a Brahmana, dealing with Yajna’s, Supplement to the Soma sacrifice and Optional and Occasional offerings Contents Prapathaka 1. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice Prapathaka 2. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 3. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 4. The optional and occasional offerings Prapathaka 5. Miscellancous supplements 4 Kandah 4 is perhaps the most important one among the 7 Kandah’s. It contains the famous homage to Rudra, the shatarudriya. Its glory is praised in many Upanishads. It is an excellent exposition of the principle and practice of the inner yajna or internal yajna for attaining overall spiritual progress. Contents Prapathaka1 - The placing of the fire in the fire-pan Prapathaka2 - The preparation of the ground for the fire Prapathaka3 – The five layers of bricks Prapathaka4 – The fifth layer of bricks Prapathaka5 – The offerings to Rudra Prapathaka6 – The preparation of the fire Prapathaka7 – The piling of the fire (continued) 5 Kandah 5, preparation of the fire altar, placing of the fire in the fire-pan and some parts deal with Ashvamedha yajna. Contents Prapathaka 1. The placing of the fire in the fire-pan Prapathaka 2. The preparation of the ground for the fire Prapathaka 3. The second and later layers of bricks Prapathaka 4. The piling of the fire altar (continued) Prapathaka 5. The piling of the fire altar (continued) Prapathaka 6. The piling of the flre altar (continued) Prapathaka 7. The piling of the fire altar (continued) 6 Kandah 6 deals with exposition of the Soma sacrifice and exposition of the Dakshina and other offerings. Contents Prapathaka 1. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice. Prapathaka 2. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 3. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 4. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 5. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued) Prapathaka 6. The exposition of the Daksina and other offerings 7 Kandah 7 is mainly Brahmana dealing with yajna’s (e.g., Ashvamedha yagna) or mantras. Contents Prapathaka 1. The Ekaha and Ahina Sacrifices Prapathaka 2. The Ahina sacrifices (continued) Prapathaka 3. The Sattras. Prapathaka 4. The Sattras (continued) Prapathaka 5. The Gavam Ayana

<table>
<thead>
<tr><th>Kandah  </th><th>Description  </th></tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>1       </td><td>Kandah 1 has four important inner Yajnas namely Darshapurnamas, Agnishtoma, Vajapeya and Rajasuya, the royal consecration. There are 8 Prapataka’s that are for new and full moon sacrifices, Soma sacrifice, rekindling of the Fire and the Rajasuya yajna
Contents 
Prapathaka 1. The new and full moon sacrifices
Prapathaka 2. The Soma sacrifice
Prapathaka 3. The Victim for Agni and Soma
Prapathaka 4. The Soma cups
Prapathaka 5. The Rekindling of the Fire
Prapathaka 6. The sacrificer&#x27;s part in the new and full moon sacrifices
Prapathaka 7. The sacrificer&#x27;s part in the new and full moon sacrifices
Prapathaka 8. The Rajasuya              </td></tr>
<tr><td>2       </td><td>Kandah 2 is mainly Brahmana, dealing with Yajna’s, special sacrifices and some full moon sacrifices.
Contents 
Prapathaka 1. The special animal sacrifices
Prapathaka 2. The special sacrifices
Prapathaka 3. The special sacrifices (continued)
Prapathaka 4. The special sacrifices(continued
Prapathaka 5. The now and full moon sacrifices
Prapathaka 6. The now and full moon sacrifices              </td></tr>
<tr><td>3       </td><td>Kandah 3 is mainly a Brahmana, dealing with Yajna’s, Supplement to the Soma sacrifice and Optional and Occasional offerings
Contents 
Prapathaka 1. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice
Prapathaka 2. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 3. The supplement to the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 4. The optional and occasional offerings
Prapathaka 5. Miscellancous supplements              </td></tr>
<tr><td>4       </td><td>Kandah 4 is perhaps the most important one among the 7 Kandah’s. It contains the famous homage to Rudra, the shatarudriya. Its glory is praised in many Upanishads. It is an excellent exposition of the principle and practice of the inner yajna or internal yajna for attaining overall spiritual progress. Contents
Prapathaka1 - The placing of the fire in the fire-pan
Prapathaka2 - The preparation of the ground for the fire
Prapathaka3 – The five layers of bricks
Prapathaka4 – The fifth layer of bricks
Prapathaka5 – The offerings to Rudra
Prapathaka6 – The preparation of the fire
Prapathaka7 – The piling of the fire (continued)              </td></tr>
<tr><td>5       </td><td>Kandah 5, preparation of the fire altar, placing of the fire in the fire-pan and some parts deal with Ashvamedha yajna.
Contents 
Prapathaka 1. The placing of the fire in the fire-pan
Prapathaka 2. The preparation of the ground for the fire
Prapathaka 3. The second and later layers of bricks
Prapathaka 4. The piling of the fire altar (continued)
Prapathaka 5. The piling of the fire altar (continued)
Prapathaka 6. The piling of the flre altar (continued)
Prapathaka 7. The piling of the fire altar (continued)              </td></tr>
<tr><td>6       </td><td>Kandah 6 deals with exposition of the Soma sacrifice and exposition of the Dakshina and other offerings. 
Contents 
Prapathaka 1. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice.
Prapathaka 2. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 3. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 4. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 5. The exposition of the Soma sacrifice (continued)
Prapathaka 6. The exposition of the Daksina and other offerings              </td></tr>
<tr><td>7       </td><td>Kandah 7 is mainly Brahmana dealing with yajna’s (e.g., Ashvamedha yagna) or mantras.
Contents
Prapathaka 1. The Ekaha and Ahina Sacrifices
Prapathaka 2. The Ahina sacrifices (continued)
Prapathaka 3. The Sattras.
Prapathaka 4. The Sattras (continued)
Prapathaka 5. The Gavam Ayana              </td></tr>
<tr><td>        </td><td>             </td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

Prapāṭhakas 6-7: The sacrificer's part in the new and full moon sacrifices

The Sāmaveda or the Sāmaveda samhitā is the third in the traditional list of the four Vedas. It comprises mostly of the Ṛgvedic mantras or ṛks 1504 to be specific set to the saptasvara system,[1] to be sung at appropriate places in a sacrifice. It is the udgātṛ[2] along with his three assistants[3] that does this. The total number of ṛks in this Veda as per one calculation

is 1875. It is noteworthy that this Veda has been eulogized highly in the other Vedas. Kṛṣṇa while describing his special aspects, says in the Bhagavadgītā[10] that he is Sāmaveda among the Vedas.

Like three other Vedas, the Sāmaveda also has several Śākhās.[14] Though some traditional works like the Caraṇa-vyuha[15]mention that there are a thousand śākhās in the Sāmaveda, only thirteen names have been discovered so far. Nevertheless, only three such śākhās are extant now. They are:

The Sāmaveda has two sections called Purvārcikā and Uttrārcikā. The Purvārcikā has several prapāṭhakas or chapters containing few daśatis. The daśatis are comprised of ṛks. The Uttarārcikā has nine prapāṭhakas. These are divided into khaṇḍas, each of which consists of a large number of ṛks. In the Purvārcikā, the mantras taken from the Ṛgveda have been regrouped according to the devatā or the deity praised.

The first prapāṭhaka contains mantras connected with Agni and hence called Āgneyakānda.

Prapāthakas 2 to 4 are known as Aindrakānda since they are devoted to Indra, the king of gods.

The fifth prapāṭhaka contains mantras dedicated to the god Soma-Pavamāna and hence called Pavamānaparva in which most of these mantras have been taken from the ninth maṇdala of the Ṛgveda which is entirely devoted to that deity.

The ṛks of these five prapāṭhakas are known as veyagāna or grāmagāna or grāmegeya, because they are to be sung in grāmas or villages and towns.

The sixth prapāṭhaka is called Araṇyakānda or Āraṇyakaparva. These mantras have to be chanted in an araṇya or forest, since they are conducive to contemplation.

The ten ṛks appearing at the end of this section are known as Mahānāmnī like an appendix to the Purvārcikā. They are known also as Śakvaryah. The ten ṛks appearing at the end of this section are known as Mahānāmnī like an appendix to the Purvārcikā. They are known also as Śakvaryah.

Prapathaka Kaṇda Daśati Rks 1 Agneyakāṇḍa 10 96 2 Aindrakāṇḍa 10 97 3 Aindrakāṇḍa 10 99 4 Aindrakāṇḍa 10 98 5 Pavamānaparva 10 96 6 Araiiyakaparva 9 99 7 Araṇyakāṇḍa 5 55 8 Mahānāmnī - 10 - Total 64 650

<table>
<thead>
<tr><th>Prapathaka  </th><th>Kaṇda         </th><th>Daśati  </th><th style="text-align: right;">  Rks</th></tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>1           </td><td>Agneyakāṇḍa   </td><td>10      </td><td style="text-align: right;">   96</td></tr>
<tr><td>2           </td><td>Aindrakāṇḍa   </td><td>10      </td><td style="text-align: right;">   97</td></tr>
<tr><td>3           </td><td>Aindrakāṇḍa   </td><td>10      </td><td style="text-align: right;">   99</td></tr>
<tr><td>4           </td><td>Aindrakāṇḍa   </td><td>10      </td><td style="text-align: right;">   98</td></tr>
<tr><td>5           </td><td>Pavamānaparva </td><td>10      </td><td style="text-align: right;">   96</td></tr>
<tr><td>6           </td><td>Araiiyakaparva</td><td>9       </td><td style="text-align: right;">   99</td></tr>
<tr><td>7           </td><td>Araṇyakāṇḍa   </td><td>5       </td><td style="text-align: right;">   55</td></tr>
<tr><td>8           </td><td>Mahānāmnī     </td><td>-       </td><td style="text-align: right;">   10</td></tr>
<tr><td>-           </td><td>Total         </td><td>64      </td><td style="text-align: right;">  650</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

In the Uttarārcikā, there are nine prapāṭhakas. Each prapāṭhaka has several khaṇḍas like the daśatis of the Purvārcikā which contain the ṛks. The chanting or singing of these ṛks is divided into two groups:

Uhyagāna or rahasyagāna - The basic model for this is the araṇyagāna.

Prapathaka Kaṇḍa Rks 1 12 124 2 12 111 3 14 145 4 13 144 5 21 172 6 15 182 7 12 128 8 13 144 9 8 111 Total 120 1261

<table>
<thead>
<tr><th>Prapathaka  </th><th style="text-align: right;">  Kaṇḍa</th><th style="text-align: right;">  Rks</th></tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>1           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     12</td><td style="text-align: right;">  124</td></tr>
<tr><td>2           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     12</td><td style="text-align: right;">  111</td></tr>
<tr><td>3           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     14</td><td style="text-align: right;">  145</td></tr>
<tr><td>4           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     13</td><td style="text-align: right;">  144</td></tr>
<tr><td>5           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     21</td><td style="text-align: right;">  172</td></tr>
<tr><td>6           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     15</td><td style="text-align: right;">  182</td></tr>
<tr><td>7           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     12</td><td style="text-align: right;">  128</td></tr>
<tr><td>8           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     13</td><td style="text-align: right;">  144</td></tr>
<tr><td>9           </td><td style="text-align: right;">      8</td><td style="text-align: right;">  111</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total       </td><td style="text-align: right;">    120</td><td style="text-align: right;"> 1261</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

The Samaveda, or Veda of Holy Songs, third in the usual order of enumeration of the three Vedas, ranks next in sanctity and liturgical importance to the Rgveda or Veda of Recited praise. Its Sanhita, or metrical portion, consists chiefly of hymns to be chanted by the Udgatar priests at the performance of those important sacrifices in which the juice of the Soma plant, clarified and mixed with milk and other ingredients, was offered in libation to various deities.

The Collection is made up of hymns, portions of hymns, and detached verses, taken mainly from the Rgveda, transposed and re-arranged, without reference to their original order, to suit the religious ceremonies in which they were to be employed. In these compiled hymns there are frequent variations, of more or less importance, from the text of the Rgveda as we now possess it which variations, although in some cases they are apparently explanatory, seem in others to be older and more original than the readings of the Rgveda.

In singing, the verses are still further altered by prolongation, repetition and insertion of syllables, and various modulations, rests, and other modifications prescribed, for the guidance of the officiating priests, in the Ganas or Song-books. Two of these manuals, the

Gramageyagdna, or Congregational, and the Aranyagana or Forest Song-Book, follow the order of the verses of part I, of the Sanhita, and two others, the Uhagana, the Uhyagana, of Part II. This part is less disjointed than part I, and is generally arranged in triplets whose first verse is often the repetition of a verse that has occurred in part I.

There is no clue to the date of the compilation of the Samaveda Hymns, nor has the compiler's name been handed down to us. Such a manual was unnecessary in the early times when the Aryans first came into India, but was required for guidance and use in the complicated ritual elaborated by the invaders after their expansion and settlement in their new homes.

There are three recensions of the text of the Samaveda Sanhita, the Kauthuma Sakha or recension is current in Guzerat, the Jaiminiya in the Carnatic, and the Ranayaniya in the Mahratta country. A translation, by Dr. Stevenson, of the Ranayaniya recension-or, rather, a free version of Sayana's paraphrase-was edited by Professor Wilson, in 1842; in 1848 Professor Benfey of G ttingen brought out an excellent edition of the same text with a metrical translation, a complete glossary, and explanatory notes; and in 1874-78 Pandit Satyavrata Samasrami of Calcutta published in the Bibliotheca Indicaa. most meritorious edition of the Sanhita according to the same recension, with Sayana's commentary, portions of the Song-books, andi other illustrative matter. I have followed Benfey's text, and have, made much use of his glossary and notes. Pandit Satyavrata Samasrami's edition also has been of the greatest service to me. To Mr. Venis, Principal of the Benares Sanskrit College, I am indebted for, the loan of the College manuscripts of the text and commentary.

I repeat the expression of my obligations to those scholars whose works assisted me in my translation of the Hymns of the Rgveda. For help in translating the non-Rgvedic Hymns of the Samaveda, I am additionally indebted to the late Professor Benfey and to Professor Ludwig whose version will be found in his Der Rgveda, vol. III, pp. 19-25.

For further information regarding the Samaveda Weber's History Of Indian Literature, and Max M ller's History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, or the article on the Veda in Chamber's Encyclopaedia should be consulted.

The Atharvaveda has been called by several other names : Atharvanaveda - The word ‘Atharvan,’ is derived from ‘athar,’ which is an obsolete word for fire. It means ‘the priest of fire.’; Atharvāñgi- rasa - Atharvan is identified with Aṅgiras and also called Atharvāṅgirasa; Āñgirasa - Sage Āñgirasa was one the ‘draṣṭāras’ of this Veda; Bhrgvañgirasa - Sage Bhṛgu also revealed various hymns of this Veda; Bhrgu-vistara - As sage Bhṛgu revealed various hymns it was also named as Bhrguvistara; Brahmaveda - The title ‘Brahmaveda’ is related to the priest brahmā, the fourth of the four priests in the group; Bhaisajyaveda - This name has been derived from the subject matter of the Veda which contains material on bhaiṣajya(medicines and treatment); Ksattraveda - This name originates from the matter

revealed in the Veda which contains information about the ‘kṣattra’ (the warrior-class known as the kṣattriyas);

The Atharvaveda has some special features because of which it stands a little apart from the other three Vedas, especially the Rigveda. Major portion of this Veda is concerned with the following :

From the ancient times, nine śākhās or branches of the Atharvaveda (Samhitā) are known to have existed. However, only two of them are extant :

Of these, only Śaunaka is available in a complete form. This Veda is divided into four ‘prapāthakas,’ comprising 20 ‘kāṇḍas.’ Each kāṇḍa is again sub-divided into ‘suktas’ and these suktas, into ‘mantras.’

Prapathakas Kāndas Suktas Mantras I 1 to 7 433 2030 II 8 to 12 45 1573 III 13 to 18 43 1063 IV 19 & 20 215 1411 Total 763 6077

<table>
<thead>
<tr><th>Prapathakas  </th><th>Kāndas     </th><th style="text-align: right;">  Suktas</th><th style="text-align: right;">  Mantras</th></tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr><td>I            </td><td>1 to 7     </td><td style="text-align: right;">     433</td><td style="text-align: right;">     2030</td></tr>
<tr><td>II           </td><td>8 to 12    </td><td style="text-align: right;">      45</td><td style="text-align: right;">     1573</td></tr>
<tr><td>III          </td><td>13 to 18   </td><td style="text-align: right;">      43</td><td style="text-align: right;">     1063</td></tr>
<tr><td>IV           </td><td>19 &amp; 20</td><td style="text-align: right;">     215</td><td style="text-align: right;">     1411</td></tr>
<tr><td>Total        </td><td>           </td><td style="text-align: right;">     763</td><td style="text-align: right;">     6077</td></tr>
</tbody>
</table>

This gives us 6,077 mantras in 736 suktas spread over 20 kāṇḍas in 4 prapāṭhakas. However, due to the different methods adopted in grouping or classifying, the number of suktas given by various scholars varies from 598 to 759. But there is no difference in the number of the mantras. The last kāṇḍa, i.e., the 20th, has borrowed it thoughts heavily (to the tune of 90%) from the Rigveda Samhitā. It is opined that the kāṇdas 19 and 20, sometimes termed as ‘Khilakāṇḍa,’ are later additions to this Veda.

The subject matter of the Samhitā of this Veda has no systematic division in the first twelve kāṇḍas. The last two again, deal with miscellaneous topics. However, there are eight topics that are covered:

These suktas deal with diseases, their causes and cures, show a remarkable insight into the subject of health sciences. That is why this Veda is considered to be the precursor of Ayurveda or the Science of health and longevity. Sometimes, Ayurveda is listed as an Upaveda or subsidiary of the Atharvaveda. These suktas contain many prayers for health and longevity. The various names of the parts of the body given here bespeak of an intimate knowledge of human anatomy. Several diseases like fever, leucoderma, leprosy, jaundice, diabetes, dropsy, skin disorders, troubles of the ear, nose and throat, fracture of bones, diseases of the heart and tuberculosis, are mentioned with their respective cures. These diseases are caused by germs, violation of the laws of nature, anger of deities, malevolent spirits and sins committed previously. Apart from medicines and physical remedies, use of chants and charms was also in plenty. A deep knowledge of the herbs and their various medicinal properties can be inferred from many of the mantras.

These suktas contain supplications for longevity. They are to be uttered on auspicious occasions like caula (tonsure), upanayana (investiture with the sacred thread), godāna (gifting of cows) and so on. The desire to live the full span of life, viz., 100 years, is often expressed. One of the suktas[4] indicates to wear the ‘rakṣāsutra’ (‘thread of protection’) on the body to attain longevity.

Puṣṭi means worldly progress and welfare. These suktas generally contain prayers for the blessings of deities like the Maruts, Parjanya and others so that there can be good rains. Due to these rains crops and works like house-building, agriculture and trade flourishes well. The auspicious rites described in the Pauṣṭika Suktas are called ‘śuklendrajāla.’

The Ābhicāraka Suktas are aimed to destroy or harm enemies who obstruct our progress or try to destroy us. This is said to be achieved by pleasing or appeasing certain deities or spirits and getting one’s wishes fulfilled through them. This technique is called ‘yātu’ or ‘kṛtyā.’ The number of such suktas is rather large. Destruction of one’s enemies including the lovers of one’s spouse, annihilation of evil spirits, mesmerizing others through whom one can get one’s desires fulfilled are some of the topics dealt with in these suktas. The word ‘kṛṣṇendrajāla’ is sometimes used to indicate the type of black-magic rites depicted here.

These are concerned mainly with expiatory rites to offset the evil effects due to non-performance or wrong performance of religious rites. Omens foreboding evil and the rites necessary to combat them are also described.

Strikarma Suktas : These suktas deal mainly with marriage, love and allied topics. Rites that help in regaining the lost love of one’s spouse are also described.

This section gives an account of the political system during those days. The king was elected by the people. National and social problems were discussed by or decided in a ‘samiti’, a parliament of the people. The Rājapuro- hita (Chief Priest of the State) had an enviable place in the affairs of the State. Prayers for victory in war and hymns expressing devotion to the Motherland given here are highly poetic and moving.

These suktas unfold the nature of Brahman, the Absolute. The philosophical ideas given here form a link ideas of the Rigvedaand the Upaniṣads. Peculiarity of this Veda is the names designated to God - Kāla, Skambha, Ucchiṣṭa and Vrātya. The whole universe is emerges and established by him. He is the lord of the whole creation. He has evolved the universe.[5] The sun is a symbol of his power and is called ‘Rohita,’ the ‘Red-One’. He is identified with God himself. This Absolute is also identified with the Atman. The word ‘Vrātya’ found in this section has nothing to do with the people who had been without Vedic sacraments, the sense in which the word has been used in the dharmaśāstras. Here it represents Brahman, the Absolute.

The present volume of translations comprises about one third of the entire material of the Atharva-veda in the text of the Saunaka-school. But it represents the contents and spirit of the fourth Veda in a far greater measure than is indicated by this numerical statement. The twentieth book of the Samhitâ, with the exception of the so-called kuntâpasûktini (hymns 127-136), seems to be a verbatim repetition of mantras contained in the Rig-veda, being employed in the Vaitâna-sûra at the sastras and stotras of the soma-sacrifice: it is altogether foreign to the spirit of the original Atharvan.

The nineteenth book is a late addendum, in general very corrupt; its omission (with the exception of hymns 26, 34, 35, 38, 39, 53, and 54) does not detract much from the general impression left by the body of the collection. The seventeenth book consists of a single hymn of inferior interest. Again, books XV and XVI, the former entirely Brahmanical prose, the latter almost entirely so, are of doubtful quality and chronology. Finally, books XIV and XVIII contain respectively the wedding and funeral stanzas of the Atharvan, and are largely coincident with corresponding Mantras of the tenth book of the Rig-veda: they are, granted their intrinsic interest, not specifically Atharvanic. Of the rest of the Atharvan (books I-XIII) there is presented here about one half, naturally that half which seemed to the translator the most interesting and characteristic. Since not a little of the collection rises scarcely above the level of mere verbiage, the process of exclusion has not called for any great degree of abstemiousness.

These successive acts of exclusion have made it possible to present a fairly complete history of each of the hymns translated. The employment of the hymns in the Atharvanic practices is in closer touch with the original purpose of the composition or compilation of the hymns than is true in the case of the other collections of Vedic hymns. Many times, though by no means at all times, the practices connected with a given hymn present the key to the correct

interpretation of the hymn itself. In any case it is instructive to see what the Atharvan priests did with the hymns of their own school, even if we must judge their performances to be secondary.

I do not consider any translation of the AV. at this time as final. The most difficult problem, hardly as yet ripe for final solution, is the original function of many mantras, after they have been stripped of certain adaptive modifications, imparted to them to meet the immediate purpose of the Atharvavedin. Not infrequently a stanza has to be rendered in some measure of harmony with its connection, when, in fact, a more original meaning, not at all applicable to its present environment, is but scantily covered up by the secondary modifications of the text. This garbled tradition of the ancient texts partakes of the character of popular etymology in the course of the transmission of wofds. New meaning is read into the mantras, and any little stubbornness on their part is met with modifications of their wording.

The critic encounters here a very difficult situation: searching investigation of the remaining Vedic collections is necessary before a bridge can be built from the more original meaning to the meaning implied and required by the situation in a given Atharvan hymn. Needless to say the only correct and useful way to translate a mantra in the Atharvan, is to reproduce it with the bent which it has received in the Atharvan. The other Vedic collections are by no means free from the same taint. The entire Vedic tradition, the Rig-veda not excepted, presents rather the conclusion than the beginning of a long period of literary activity. Conventionality of subject-matter, style, form (metre), &c., betray themselves at every step: the 'earliest' books of the RV. are not exempt from the same processes of secondary grouping and adaptation of their mantras, though these are less frequent and less obvious than is the case in the Atharva-veda.

Obligations to previous translators: Weber, Muir, Ludwig, Zimmer, Grill', Henry, &c., are acknowledged in the introduction to each hymn. I regret that the work was in the hands of the printer prior to the appearance of Professor Henry's excellent version of books X-XII. The late lamented Professor Whitney kindly furnished me with the advance sheets of the late Shankar Pandurang Pandit's scholarly edition of the AV. with Sâyana's commentary, as also with many of the readings of the Cashmir text (the so-called Paippalâda-sâkhâ) of the AV. Neither the Paippalâda nor Sâyana sensibly relieves the task of its difficulty and responsibility.

Hymn 1: A prayer to Vāchaspati for divine illumination and help.

Hymn 7: To Indra and Agni, for the detection and destruction of evil spirits

Hymn 8: To Indra, Brihaspati, Soma and Agni, for the destruction of sorcerers

Hymn 12: A prayer to Lightning, against fever, headache, and cough

Hymn 15: A prayer for the prosperity of an institutor of sacrifice

Hymn 18: A charm to avert evil spirits of misfortune and to secure prosperity

Hymn 19: A prayer for protection from arrows and for the punishment of enemies

Hymn 20: A prayer to Soma, the Maruts, Mitra, and Varuna, for protection

Hymn 35: A charm to ensure long life and glory to the wearer of an amulet

Hymn 4: A charm to ensure health and prosperity by wearing an amulet

Hymn 11: Counter-charm, with an amulet, against an enemy's spell

Hymn 18: A charm against enemies, goblins, and other evil creatures

Hymn 1: A prayer or charm for the defeat and destruction of enemies in battle

Hymn 5: A King's address to an amulet which is to strengthen his authority

Hymn 6: Address to an amulet which is to secure the defeat of the wearer's enemies

Hymn 7: A charm with an amulet of buck horn to drive away hereditary disease

Hymn 8: A charm to secure the submission, love, and fidelity of kinsmen

Hymn 19: A glorification of the office of a king's household priest

Hymn 21: In honour of fire in all shapes, to appease Agni of the funeral pile and to quench the flames of cremation

Hymn 22: The taming and training of an elephant for a king to ride on

Hymn 23: A charm to remove a woman's sterility, and to assure the birth of boys

Hymn 27: A charm consigning an enemy to the serpents for punishment

Hymn 28: A charm to change the ill-omened birth of twin calves into a blessing

Hymn 29: On the means to obtain immunity from taxation in the next world

Hymn 30: A prayer or charm to secure love and concord in a family

Hymn 1: Cosmogonical and mystico-theological doctrineHymn 2: To the unknown God

Hymn 3: A Charm against tigers, wolves, thieves and other noxious creatures

Hymn 9: A charm addressed to a precious ointment for safety and wealth

Hymn 10: A charm accompanying investiture with an amulet of shell

Hymn 11: A glorification of the sacrificial gharma or milk caldron

Hymn 19: A counter-charm and charm to secure general protection.

Hymn 20: A charm for the acquisition of superhuman powers of sight

Hymn 35: Magnification of the Odana or oblation of milk and rice

Hymn 39: A prayer to various deities for health, wealth, and prosperity

Hymn 3: A prayer to Agni, Indra, and other deities for victory and prosperity

Hymn 8: A charm for the discomfiture and destruction of hostile priests

Hymn 9: A prayer to Heaven and Earth for protection and assistance

Hymn 10: A prayer to the presiding deities of the four quarters for protection

Hymn 3: A prayer to various deities for protection and prosperity

Hymn 5: A prayer to Agni and Indra for the well being of a princely patron

Hymn 6: A prayer to Brāhmanaspati for protection from wicked men

Hymn 25: A charm to remove pustules or scrofulous swellings (apachitas)

Hymn 27: A charm to avert misfortune foreshown by the coming of a dove

Hymn 28: A charm to avert misfortune foreshown by the coming of a dove

Hymn 29: A charm to avert misfortune foreshown by the coming of a dove and an owl

Hymn 41: A prayer for protection, long life, and various blessings

Hymn 45: A prayer for preservation from mental sin and evil promptings

Hymn 53: A prayer for recovery and preservation of health and security

Hymn 84: A charm to accompany the symbolical loosing of sacrificial victims

Hymn 114: A prayer for pardon of faults and errors in sacrificing

Hymn 116: A prayer for pardon of sin against mother, father, son, or brother

Hymn 119: A prayer for release from debts incurred without intention of payment

Hymn 5: A glorification of sacrificeHymn 6: A prayer to Aditi for help and protection

Hymn 9: A prayer to Pūshan for protection and the recovery of lost property

Hymn 12: A prayer for influence at deliberative and religious meetings

Hymn 34: A prayer for freedom from sin and the overthrow of enemies

Hymn 60: A parting traveller's address to the houses of his village

Hymn 74: A charm to cure pustules, sores, or scrofulous swellings (apachitas)

Hymn 9: An enunciation of cosmogonical, ritual, and metrical doctrine

Hymn 1: A glorification of the Asvins' whip and a prayer for blessings

Hymn 2: A glorification of Kāma as God of desire of all that is good

Hymn 8: A charm for the cure of various diseases connected with Consumption

Hymn 9: Enunciation of mystico-theological and cosmological doctrine

Hymn 3: A charm to secure long life, health, prosperity and fame

Hymn 4: A charm to overthrow a rival and gain strength, dignity, long life, children, and general prosperity

Hymn 8: Speculations on the Supreme Being and Cosmogonical and theological subjects

Hymn 10: A glorification of the sacred Cow as representing the radiant heavens

Hymn 1: An accompaniment to the preparation and presentation of a Brahmaudana

Hymn 6: A prayer to all Divinities and Sanctities for deliverance from distress

Hymn 7: A glorification of the Uchchhishta or Residue of Sacrifice

Hymn 1: A hymn of prayer and praise to Prithivī or deified Earth

Hymn 2: A funeral hymn, and deprecation of Agni the Consumer of corpses

Hymn 3: An accompaniment to the preparation and presentation of sacrificial offerings by a householder and his wife, with prayer for prosperity and happiness on earth and in heaven

Hymn 4: On the duty of giving cows to Brāhmans, and the sin and danger of withholding the gift

Hymn 5: On the duty of giving cows to Brāhmans, and the sin and danger of withholding the gift

Hymn 1: The glorification of Rohita, a form of Fire and of the Sun

Hymn 2: The glorification of the Sun as Āditya, Sūrya and Rohita

Hymn 3: A glorification of Rohita. with a malediction on the man who wrongs a Brāhman

Hymn 2: On the Bridal of Sūryā, marriage ceremonies in general, continued

Hymn 1: The hyperbolical glorification of the Vrātya or Aryan Non-conformist

Hymn 1: On the preparation and use of holy water, with, a prayer for purification and freedom from sin

Hymn 6: A charm to avert evil dreams, and to transfer them to an enemy

Hymn 1: A prayer to Indra, Identified with Vishnu and the Sun, for the love of Gods, men, and beasts, general protection and prosperity, and all earthly and heavenly blessings

Hymn 1: An accompaniment to funeral ceremonies and sacrificial offerings to ancestral spirits

Hymn 4: A funeral hymn, composed partly of verses from the Rigveda

Hymn 4: A prayer, accompanying sacrifice, for the attainment of a wish

Hymn 7: A Prayer to the Lunar Mansions and other Powers for protection and prosperity

Hymn 8: A hymn to the Sun and various heavenly bodies for protection and prosperity

Hymn 21: A single line giving the names of the chief Vedic metres

Hymn 22: A prose hymn of homage to various portions of the Atharva-veda, to the Rishis, and to Brahma

Hymn 23: A prose hymn of homage to various portions of the Atharva-vada classed according to the number of verses which their hymns contain

Hymn 29: A charm for the destruction of enemies, continued from 28

Hymn 30: A protective charm accompanying investiture with an amulet of Darbha grass

Hymn 31: A charm to ensure general prosperity, accompanying self-investiture with an amulet of Udumbara

Hymn 32: A charm, with an amulet of Darbha grass, to subdue enemies and win the affection of others

Hymn 34: A protective charm addressed to the panacea called A Jangida

Hymn 40: A prayer for pardon of error in sacrifice, and for wisdom, strength, and life

Hymn 46: A charm accompanying investiture with an amulet that ensures safety and victory

Hymn 47: A hymn to Night for protection from fiends, robbers, snakes and wolves

Hymn 60: A prayer for perfect bodily and mental health and vigour

Hymn 61: A prayer for long life prosperity and final happiness in heaven

Hymn 64: A prayer to Agni for children, long life, and various blessings

Hymn 71: A hymn, accompanying libations, for wealth and prosperity

Hymn 127: A hymn in praise of the good Government of King Kaurama

Hymn 135: Verses called Frustration, Abuse, the Gods' Offering, and Dazzling Power

I. CHARMS TO CURE DISEASES AND POSSESSION BY DEMONS OF DISEASE (BHAISHAGYKNI).

1. May Agni drive the takman away from here, may Soma, the press-stone, and Varuna, of tried skill; may the altar, the straw (upon the altar), and the brightly-flaming fagots (drive him away)! Away to naught shall go the hateful powers!
2. Thou that makest all men sallow, inflarning them like a searing fire, even now, O takman, thou shalt become void of strength: do thou now go away down, aye, into the depths!
The takman that is spotted, covered Nvith spots, like reddish sediment, him thou, (O plant) of unremitting potency, drive away down below!
4. Having made obeisance to the takman, I cast him down below: let him, the champion of Sakambhara, return again to the Mahâvrishas!
5. His home is with the Mûgavants, his home with the Mahâvrishas. From the moment of thy birth thou art indigenous with the Balhikas.
6. O takman, vyâla, vîgada, vyânga, hold off (thy missile) far! Seek the gadabout slave-girl, strike her with thy bolt!
7. O takman, go to the Mûgavants, or to the Balhikas farther away! Seek the lecherous Sûdra female: her, O takman, give a good shaking-up!

8. Go away to the Mahâvrishas and the Mûgavants, thy kinsfolk, and consume them! Those (regions) do we bespeak for the takman, or these regions here other (than ours).
9. (If) in other regions thou dost not abide, mayest thou that art powerful take pity on us! Takman, now, has become eager: he will go to the Balhikas.
10. When thou, being cold, and then again deliriously hot, accompanied by cough, didst cause the (sufferer) to shake, then, O takman, thy missiles were terrible: from these surely exempt us!

11. By no means ally thyself with balâsa, cough and spasm! From there do thou not return hither again: that, O takman, do I ask of thee!
12. O takman, along with thy brother balâsa, along with thy sister cough, along with thy cousin pâman, go to yonder foreign folk!
13. Destroy the takman that returns on (each) third day, the one that intermits (each) third day, the one that continues without intermission, and the autumnal one; destroy the cold takman, the hot, him that comes in summer, and him that arrives in the rainy season!
14. To the Gandhâris, the Mâgavants, the Angas, and the Magadhas, we deliver over the takman, like a servant, like a treasure!

1. As if from this Agni (fire), that burns and flashes, (the takman) comes. Let him then, too, as a babbling drunkard, pass away! Let him, the impious one, search out some other person, not ourselves! Reverence be to the takman with the burning weapon!
2. Reverence be to Rudra, reverence to the takman, reverence to the luminous king Varuna! Reverence to heaven, reverence to earth, reverence to the plants!
3. To thee here, that burnest through, and turnest all bodies yellow, to the red, to the brown, to the takman produced by the forest, do I render obeisance.

1. When Agni, having entered the waters, burned, where the (gods) who uphold the order (of the universe) rendered homage (to Agni), there, they say, is thy origin on high: do thou feel for us, and spare us, O takman!
2. Whether thou art flame, whether thou art heat, or whether from licking chips (of wood) thou bast arisen, Hrûdu by name art thou, O god of the yellow: do thou feel for us, and spare us, O takman!
3. Whether thou art burning, whether thou art scorching, or whether thou art the son of king Varuna, Hrûdu by name art thou, O god of the yellow: do thou feel for us, and spare us, O takman!
4. To the cold takman, and to the deliriously hot, the glowing, do I render homage. To hirn that returns on the morrow, to him that returns for two (successive) days, to the takman that returns on the third day, homage shall be!

1. Homage (be) to the deliriously hot, the shaking, exciting, impetuous (takman)! Homage to the cold (takman), to him that in the past fulfilled desires!
2. May (the takman) that returns on the morrow, he that returns on two (successive) days, the impious one, pass into this frog!

1. Thou that art born upon the mountains, as the most potent of plants, come hither, O kushtha, destroyer of the takman, to drive out from here the takman!

2. To thee (that growest) upon the mountain, the brooding-place of the eagle, (and) art sprung from Himavant, they come with treasures, having heard (thy fame). For they know (thee to be) the destroyer of the takman.
3. The asvattha-tree is the seat of the gods in the third heaven from here. There the gods procured the kushtha, the visible manifestation of amrita (ambrosia).
4. A golden ship with golden tackle moved upon the heavens. There the gods procured the kushtha, the flower of amrita (ambrosia).
5. The paths were golden, and golden were the oars; golden were the ships, upon which they carried forth the kushtha hither (to the mountain).
6. This person here, O kushtha, restore for me, and cure him! Render him free from sickness for me!
7. Thou art born of the gods, thou art Soma's good friend. Be thou propitious to my in-breathing and my out-breathing, and to this eye of mine!
8. Sprung in the north from the Himavant (mountains), thou art brought to the people in the east. There the most stiperior varieties of the kushtha were apportioned.
9. 'Superior,' O kushtha, is thy name; 'superior' is the name of thy father. Do thou drive out all disease, and render the takman devoid of strength!
10. Pain in the head, affliction in the eye, and ailment of the body, all that shall the kushtha heal-a divinely powerful (remedy), forsooth!

XIX, 39. Prayer to the kushtha-plant to destroy takman (fever), and other ailments.

1. May the protecting god kushtha come hither from the Himavant: destroy thou every takman, and all female spooks!
2. Three names hast thou, O kushtha, (namely: kushtha), na-ghâ-mâra ('forsooth-no-death'), and na-ghâ-risha ('forsooth-no-harm'). Verily no harm shall suffer (na ghâ . . . rishat) this person here, for whom I bespeak thee morn and eve, aye the (entire) day!
3. Thy mother's name is gîvalâ ('quickening'), thy father's name is gîvanta ('living'). Verily no harm shall suffer this person here, for whom I bespeak thee morn and eve, aye the entire day!
4. Thou art the most superior of the plants, as a steer among cattle, as the tiger among beasts of prey. Verily no harm shall stiffer this person here, for whom I bespeak thee morn and eve, aye the entire day!
5. Thrice begotten by the Sâmbu Angiras, thrice by the Âdityas, and thrice by all the gods, this kushtha, a universal remedy, stands together with soma. Destroy thou every takman, and all female spooks!
6. The asvattha-tree is the seat of the gods in the third heaven from here. There came to sight the amrita (ambrosia), there the kushtha-plant was born.
7. A golden ship with golden tackle moved upon the heavens. There came to sight the amrita, there the kushtha-plant was born.
8. On the spot where the ship glided down, on the peak of the Himavant, there came to sight the ambrosia, there the kushtha-plant was born. This kushtha, a universal remedy, stands together with soma. Destroy thou every takman, and all female spooks!
9. (We know) thee whom Ikshvâku knew of yore, whom the women, fond of kushtha, knew, whom Vâyasa and Mâtsya knew: therefore art thou a universal remedy.
10. The takman that returns on each third day, the one that cominues without intermission, and the yearly one, ao thou, (O plant) of unremitting strength, drive away down below!

I, 12. Prayer to lightning, conceived as the cause of fever, headache, and cough.

1. The first red bull, born of the (cloud-)womb, born of wind and clouds, comes on thundering with rain. May he, that cleaving moves straight on, spare our bodies; he who, a single force, has passed through threefold!
2. Bowing down to thee that fastenest thyself with heat upon every limb, we would reverence thee with oblations; we would reverence with oblations the crooks and hooks of thee that hast, as a seizer, seized the limbs of this person.
3. Free him from headache and also from cough, (produced by the lightning) that has entered his every joint! May the flashing (lightning), that is born of the cloud, and born of the wind, strike the trees and the mountains!
4. Comfort be to my upper limb, comfort be to my nether; comfort be to my four members, comfort to my entire body!

1. Up to the sun shall go thy heart-ache and thy jaundice: in the colour of the red bull do we eovelop thee!
2. We envelop thee in red tints, unto long life. May this person go unscathed, and be free of vellow colour!
3. The cows whose divinity is Rohini, they who, moreover, axe (themselves) red (róhinin)-(in their) every form and every strength we do envelop thee.
4. Into the parrots, into the ropanâkâs (thrush) do we put thy jaundice, and, furthermore, into the hâridravas (yellow wagtail) do we put thy jaundice.

1. The internal disease that has set in, that crumbles the bones, and crumbles the joints, every balâsa do thou drive out, that which is in the limbs, and in the joints!
2. The balâsa of him that is afflicted with balâsa do I remove, as one gelds a lusty animal. Its connection do I cut off as the root of a pumpkin.
3. Fly forth from here, O balâsa, as a swift foal (after the mare). And even, as the reed in every year, pass away without slaying men!

1. As the-soul with the soul's desires swiftly to a distance flies, thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the soul's course of flight!
2. As a well-sharpened arrow swiftly to a distance flies, thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the expanse of the earth!
3. As the rays of the sun swiftly to a distance fly, thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the flood of the sea!

1. We know the father of the arrow, Parg-anya, who furnishes bountiful fluid, and well do we know his mother, Prithivi (earth), the multiform!
2. O bowstring, turn aside from us, turn my body into stone! Do thou firmly hold very far away the hostile powers and the haters!
3. When the bowstring, embracing the wood (of the bow), greets with a whiz the eaoer arrow, do thou, O Indra, ward off from us the piercing missile!
4. As the point (of the arrow) stands in the way of heaven and earth, thus may the muñga-grass unfailingly stand in the way of sickness and (excessive) discharge!

II, 3. Charm against excessive discharges from the body, undertaken with spring-water.

1. The spring-water yonder which runs down upon the mountain, that do I render healing for thee, in order that thou mayest contain a potent remedy.

2. Then surely, yea quite surely, of the hundred remedies contained in thee, thou art the most superior in checking discharges and removing pain.
3. Deep down do the Asuras bury this great healer of wounds: that is the cure for discharges, and thal hath removed disease.
4. The ants bring the remedy from the sea: that is the cure for discharges, and that hath quieted disease.
5. This great healer of wounds has been gotten out of the earth: that is the cure for discharges, and
that hath removed disease.
6. May the waters afford us welfare, may the herbs be propitious to us I Indra's bolt shall beat off the Rakshas, far (from us) shall fly the arrows cast by the Rakshas!

1. The heavens have stood still, the earth has stood still, all creatures have stood still. The trees that sleep erect have stood still: may this disease of thine stand still!
2. Of the hundred remedies which thou hast, of the thousand that have been collected, this is the most excellent cure for discharges, the best remover of disease.
3. Thou art the urine of Rudra, the navel of amrita (ambrosia). Thy name, forsooth, is vishânakâ, (thou art) arisen from the foundation of the Fathers, a remover of diseases produced by the winds (of the body).

1. We know the father of the arrow, Parganya, of hundredfold power. With this (charm) may I render comfortable thy body: make thy Outpouring upon the earth; out of thee may it come with the sound bâl!
2. We know the father of the arrow, Mitra, &c.
3. We know the father of the arrow, Varuna, &c.
4. We know the father of the arrow, Kandra, &c.
5. We know the father of the arrow, Sûrya, &c.
6. That which has accumulated in thy entralls. thy canals, in thy bladder-thus let thy urine be released, out completely, with the sound bâl!
7, I split open thy penis like the dike of a lake--thus let thy urine be released, out completely, with the sound bâl!
8. Relaxed is the opening of thy bladder like the ocean, the reservoir of water--thus let thy urine be released, out completely, with the sound bâl!
9. As an arrow flies to a distance when hurled from the bow-thus let thy urine be released, out completely, with the sound bâl!

VI, 90. Charm against internal pain (colic), due to the missiles of Rudra.

1. The arrow that Rudra did cast upon thee, into (thy) limbs, and into thy heart, this here do we now draw out away from thee.
2. From the hundred arteries which are distributed along thy limbs, from all of these do we exorcise forth the poisons.
3. Adoration be to thee, O Rudra, as thou casteth (thy arrow); adoration to the (arrow) when it has been placed upon (the bow); adoration to it as it is being hurled; adoration to it when it has fallen down!

1. This Asura rules over the gods; the commands of Varuna, the ruler, surely come true. From this (trouble), from the wrath of the mighty (Varuna), do I, excelling in my incantation, lead out this man.

2. Reverence, O king Varuna, be to thy wrath, for all falsehood, O mighty one, clost thou discover. A thousand others together do I make over to thee: this thy (man) shall live a hundred autumns!
3. From the untruth which thou hast spoken, the abundant wrong, with thy tongue--from king, Varuna I release thee, whose laws do not fail.
4. I release thee from Vaisvânara (Agni), from the great flood. Our rivals, O mighty one, do thou censure here, and give heed to our prayer!

1. Thy golden chamber, king Varuna, is built in the waters! Thence the king that maintains the laws shall loosen all shackles!
2. From every habitation (of thine), O king Varuna, from here do thou free us! In that we have said, 'ye waters, ye cows;' in that we have said, 'O Varuna,' from this (sin), O Varuna, free us!
3. Lift from us, O Varuna, the uppermost fetter, take down the nethermost, loosen the middlemost! Then shall we, O Âditya, in thy law, exempt from guilt, live in freedom!
4. Loosen from us, O Varuna, all fetters, the uppermost, the nethermost, and those imposed by Varuna! Evil dreams, and misfortune drive away from us: then may we go to the world of the pious!

VI, 24. Dropsy, heart-disease, and kindred maladies cured by flowing water.

1. From the Himavant (mountains) they flow forth, in the Sindhu (Indus), forsooth, is their assembling-place: may the waters, indeed, grant me that cure for heart-ache!
2. The pain that hurts me in the eyes, and that which hurts in the heels and the fore-feet, the waters, the most skilled of physicians, shall put all that to rights!
3. Ye rivers all, whose mistress is Sindhu, whose queen is Sindhu, grant us the remedy for that: through this (remedy) may we derive benefit from you!

VI, 80. An oblation to the sun, conceived as one of the two heavenly dogs, as a cure for paralysis.

1. Through the air he flies, looking down upon all beings: with the majesty of the heavenly dog, with that oblation would we pay homage to thee!
2. The three kâlakâñga that are fixed upon the sky like gods, all these I have called for help, to render this person exempt from injury.
3. In the waters is thy origin, upon the heavens thy home, in the middle of the sea, and upon the earth thy greatness. With the majesty of the heavenly dog, with that oblation would we pay homage to thee!

1. Up have risen the majestic twin stars, the vikritau ('the two looseners'); may they loosen the nethermost and the uppermost fetter of the kshetriya (inherited disease)!
2. May this night shine (the kshetriya) away, may she shine away the witches; may the plant, destructive of kshetriya, shine the kshetriya away!
3. With the straw of thy brown barley, endowed with white stalks, with the blossom of the sesame--may the plant, destructive of kshetriya, shine the: kshetriya away!
4. Reverence be to thy ploughs, reverence to thy wagon-poles and yokes! May the plant, destructive of kshetriya, shine the kshetriya away!
5. Reverence be to those with sunken eyes reverence to the indicenous (evils?), reverence to the lord of the field! May the plant, destructive of kshetriya, shine the kshetriya away!

1. From kshetriya (inherited disease), from Nirriti (the goddess of destruction), from the curse of the kinswoman, from Druh (the demon of guile), from the fetter of Varuna do I release thee. Guiltless do I render thee through my charm; may heaven and earth both be propitious to thee!
2. May Agni together with the waters be auspicious to thee, may Soma together with the plants be auspicious. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti, from the curse of the kinswoman, from the Druh, from the fetter of Varuna do I release thee. Guiltless do I render thee through my charm; may heaven and earth both be propitious to thee!
May the wind in the atmosphere auspiciously bestow upon thee strength, may the four quarters of the heaven be auspicious to thee. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.
4. These four goddesses, the directions of space, the consorts of the wind, the sun surveys. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.
5. Within these (directions) I assign thee to old age; forth to a distance shall go Nirriti and disease! Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.
6. Thou hast been released from disease, from mishap, and from blame; out from the fetter of Druh, and from Grâhi (the demon of fits) thou hast been released. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.
7. Thou didst leave behind Arâti (the demon of grudge), didst obtain prosperity, didst enter the happy world of the pious. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.
8. The gods, releasing the sun and the ritam (the divine order of the universe) from darkness and from Grâhi, did take them out of sin. Thus from kshetriya, from Nirriti &c.

1. Upon the head of the nimble antelope a remedy grows! He has driven the kshetriya (inherited disease) in all directions by means of the horn.
2. The antelope has gone after thee with his four feet. O horn, loosen the kshetriya that is knitted into his heart!
3. (The horn) that glistens yonder like a roof with four wings (sides), with that do we drive out every kshetriya from thy limbs.
4. The lovely twin stars, the vikritau ('the two looseners') that are yonder upon the sky, shall loosen the nethermost and the uppermost fetter of the kshetriya!
5. The waters, verily, are healers, the waters are scatterers of disease, the waters cure all disease: may they. relieve thee from the kshetriya!
6. The kshetriya that has entered into thee from the prepared (magic) concoction, for that I know the remedy; I drive the kshetriya out of thee.
7. When the constellations fade away, and when the dawn does fade away, (then) shall he shine away from us every evil and the kshetriya!

1. Born by night art thou, O plant, dark, black, sable. Do thou, that art rich in colour, stain this leprosy, and the gray spots!
2. The leprosy and the gray spots drive away from here--may thy native colour settle upon thee--the white spots cause to fly away!
3. Sable is thy hiding-place, sable thy dwelling-place, sable art thou, O plant: drive away from here the speckled spots!
4. The leprosy which has originated in the bones, and that which has originated in the body and upon the skin, the white mark begotten of corruption, I have destroyed with my charm.

1. The eagle (suparna) that was born at first, his gall thou wast, O plant. The Âsurî having conquered this (gall) gave it to the trees for their colour.
2. The Âsurî was the first to construct this remedy for leprosy, this destroyer of leprosy. She has destroyed the leprosy, has made the skin of even colour.
3. 'Even-colour' is the name of thy mother; 'Even-colour' is the name of thy father; thou, O plant, producest even colour: render this (spot) of even colour!
4. The black (plant) that produces even colour has been fetched out of the earth. Do thou now, pray, perfect this, construct anew the colours!

1. Fly forth, ye apakit (sores), as an eagle from the nest! Sûrya (the sun) shall prepare a remedy, Kandramâs (the moon) shall shine you away!
2. One is variegated, one is white, one is black, and two are red: I have gotten the names of all of them. Go ye away without slaying men!
3. The apakit, the daughter of the black one, without bearing offspring will fly away; the boil will fly away from here, the galunta (swelling) will perish.
4. Consume thy own (proper) oblation with gratification in thy mind, when I here offer svâhâ in my mind!

1. Ye (sores) fall easily from that which falls easily, ye exist less than those that do not exist (at all); ye are drier than the (part of the body called) sehu, more moist than salt.
2. The apakit (sores) that are upon the neck, and those that are upon the shoulders; the apakit that are upon the vigâman (some part of the body) fall off of themselves.

3. The gâyânya that crushes the ribs, that which passes down to the sole of the foot, and whichever is fixed upon the crown of the head, I have driven out every one.
4. The gâyânya, winged, flies; he settles down upon man. Here is the remedy both for sores not caused by cutting as well as for wounds sharply cut!
5. We know, O gâyânya, thy origin, whence thou didst spring. How canst thou slay there, in whose house we offer oblations?

6. Drink stoutly, O Indra, slayer of Vritra, hero, of the soma in the cup, at the battle for riches! Drink thy fill at the mid-day pressure! Living in wealth, do thou bestow wealth upon us!

1. We have heard it said that the mother of the black Apakit (pustules) is red: with the root (found by) the divine sage do I strike all these.
2. I strike the foremost one of them, and I strike also the middlemost of them; this hindmost one I cut off as a flake (of wool).

3. With Tvashtar's charm I have sobered down thy jealousy; also thy anger, O lord, we have quieted.

4. Do thou, O lord of vows, adorned with vows, ever benevolently here shine! May we all, adoring thee, when thou hast been kindled, O Gâtavedas, be rich in offspring!

1. The five and fifty (sores) that gather together upon the nape of the neck, from here they all shall pass away, as the pustules of the (disease called) apakit!

2. The seven and seventy (sores) that gather together upon the neck, from here they all shall pass away, as the pustules of the (disease called) apakit!
3. The nine and ninety (sores) that gather together upon the shoulders, from here they all shall pass away, as the pustules of the (disease called) apakit!

1. This, verily, is a remedy, this is the remedy of Rudra, with which one may charm away the arrow that has one shaft and a hundred points!
2. With gâlâsha (urine) do ye wash (the tumour), with gâlâsha do ye sprinkle it! The gâlâsha is a potent remedy: do thou (Rudra) with it show mercy to us, that we may live!
3. Both well-being and comfort shall be ours, and nothing whatever shall injure us! To the ground the disease (shall fall): may every remedy be ours, may all remedies be ours!

IV, 12. Charm with the plant arundhatî (lâkshâ) for the cure of fractures.

1. Rohan! art thou, causing to heal (rohanî), the broken bone thou causest to heal (rohanî): cause this here to heal (rohaya), O arundhatî!
2. That bone of thine which, injured and burst, exists in thy person, Dhâtar shall kindly knit together again, joint with joint!
3. Thy marrow shall unite with marrow, and thy joint (unite) with joint; the part of thy flesh that has fallen off, and thy bone shall grow together again!
4. Thy marrow shall be joined together with marrow, thy skin grow together with skin! Thy blood, thy bone shall grow, thy flesh grow together with flesh!
5. Fit together hair with hair, and fit together skin with skin! Thy blood, thy bone shall grow: what is cut join thou together, O plant!
6. Do thou here rise up, go forth, run forth, (as) a chariot with sound wheels, firm feloe, and strong nave; stand upright firmly!
7. If he has been injured by falling into a pit, or if a stone was cast and hurt him, may he (Dhâtar, the fashioner) fit him together, joint to joint, as the wagoner (Ribhu) the parts of a chariot!

V, 5. Charm with the plant silâki (lâkshâ, arundhatî) for the cure of wounds.

1. The night is thy mother, the cloud thy father, Aryaman thy grandfather. Silâkî, forsooth, is thy name, thou art the sister of the gods.
2. He that drinks thee lives; (that) person thou dost preserve. For thou art the supporter of all successive (generations), the refuge of men.
3. Every tree thou dost climb, like a wench lusting after a man. 'Victorious,' 'firmly founded,' 'saving,' verily, is thy name.
4. The wound that has been inflicted by the club, by the arrow, or by fire, of that thou art the cure: do thou cure this person here!
5. Upon the noble plaksha-tree (ficus infectoria) thou growest up, upon the asvattha (ficus religiosa), the khadira (acacia catechu), and the dhava (grislea tomentosa); (thou growest up) upon the noble nyagrodha (ficus indica, banyan-tree), and the parna (butea frondosa). Come thou to us, O arundhatî!
6. O gold-coloured, lovely, sun-coloured, most handsome (plant), mayest thou come to the fracture, O cure! 'Cure,' verily, is thy name!
7. O gold-coloured, lovely, fiery (plant), with hairy stem, thou art the sister of the waters, O lâkshâ, the wind became thy very breath.
8. Silâkî is thy name, O thou that art brown as a goat, thy father is the son of a maiden. With the blood of the brown horse of Yama thou hast verily been sprinkled.

9. Having dropped from the blood of the horse she ran upon the trees, turning into a winged brook. Do thou come to us, O arundhatî!

1. The pepper-corn cures the wounds that have been struck by missiles, it also cures the wounds from stabs. Anent it the gods decreed: 'Powerful to secure life this (plant) shall be!'
2. The pepper-corns spake to one another, as they came out, after having been created: 'He whom we shall find (as yet) alive, that man shall not suffer harm!'
3. The Asuras did dig thee into the ground, the gods cast thee up again, as a cure for disease produced by wind (in the body), moreover as a cure for wounds struck by missiles.

1. The maidens that go yonder, the veins, clothed in red garments, like sisters without a brother, bereft of strength, they shall stand still!
2. Stand still, thou lower one, stand still, thou higher one; do thou in the middle also stand still! The most tiny (vein) stands still: may then the great artery also stand still!
Of the hundred arteries, and the thousand veins, those in the middle here have indeed stood still. At the same time the ends have ceased (to flow).
4. Around you has passed a great sandy dike: stand ye still, pray take your case!

1. With Indra's great mill-stone, that crushes all vermin, do I grind to pieces the worms, as lentils with a mill-stone.
2. I have crushed the visible and the invisible worm, and the kurûru, too, I have crushed. All the algandu and the saluna, the worms, we grind to pieces with our charm.
3. The algandu do I smite with a mighty weapon: those that have been burned, and those that have not been burned, have become devoid of strength. Those that are left and those that are not left do I destroy with my song, so that not one of the worms be left.
4. The worm which is in the entrails, and he that is in the head, likewise the one that is in the ribs: avaskava and vyadhvara, the worms, do we crush with (this) charm.
5. The worms that are within the mountains, forests, plants, cattle, and the waters, those that have settled in our bodies, all that brood of the worms do I smite.

1. The rising sun shall slay the worms, the setting sun with his rays shall slay the worms that are within the cattle!
2. The variegated worm, the four-eyed, the speckled, and the white--I crush his ribs, and I tear off his head.
3. Like Atri, like Kanva, and like Gamadagni do I slay you, ye worms! With the incantation of Agastya do I crush the worms to pieces.
4. Slain is the king of the worms, and their viceroy also is slain. Slain is the worm, with him his mother slain, his brother slain, his sister slain.
5. Slain are they who are inmates with him, slain are his neighbours; moreover all the quite tiny worms are slain.
6. I break off thy two horns with which thou deliverest thy thrusts; I cut that bag of thine which is the receptacle for thy poison.

1. I have called upon heaven and earth, I have called upon the goddess Sarasvatî, I have called upon Indra and Agni: 'they shall crush the worm,' (I said).
2. Slay the worms in this boy, O Indra, lord of treasures! Slain are all the evil powers by my fierce imprecation!

3. Him that moves about in the eyes, that moves about in the nose, that gets to the middle of the teeth, that worm do we crush.
4. The two of like colour, the two of different colour; the two black ones, and the two red ones; the brown one, and the brown-eared one; the (one like a) vulture, and the (one like a) cuckoo, are slain.
5. The worms with white shoulders, the black ones with white arms, and all those that are variegated, these worms do we crush.
6. In the east rises the sun, seen by all, slaying that which is not seen; slaying the seen and the unseen (worms), and grinding to pieces all the worms.
7. The yevâsha and the kashkasha, the egatka, and the sipavitnuka--the seen worm shall be slain, moreover the unseen shall be slain!
8. Slain of the worms is the yevâsha, slain further is the nadaniman; all have I crushed down like lentils with a mill-stone.
9. The worm with three heads and the one with three skulls, the speckled, and the white--I crush his ribs and I tear off his head.
10. Like Atri, like Kanva, and like Gamadagni do I slay you, ye worms! With the incantation of Agastya do I crush the worms to pieces.
11. Slain is the king of the worms, and their viceroy also is slain. Slain is the worm, with him his mother slain, his brother slain, his sister slain.
12. Slain are they who are inmates with him, slain are his neighbours; moreover all the quite tiny worms are slain.
13. Of all the male worms, and of all the female worms do I split the heads with the stone, I burn their faces with fire.

1. The Brâhmana was the first to be born, with ten heads and ten mouths. He was the first to drink the soma; that did render poison powerless.
2. As great as heaven and earth are in extent, as far as the seven streams did spread, so far from here have I proclaimed forth this charm that destroys poison.
3. The eagle Garutmant did, O poison, first devour thee. Thou didst not bewilder him, didst not injure him, yea, thou didst turn into food for him.
4. The five-fingered hand that did hurl upon thee (the arrow) even from the curved bow--from the point of the tearing (arrow) have I charmed away the poison.
5. From the point (of the arrow) have I charmed away the poison, from the substance that has been smeared upon it, and from its plume. From its barbed horn, and its neck, I have charmed away the poison.
6. Powerless, O arrow, is thy point, and powerless is thy poison. Moreover of powerless wood is thy powerless bow, O powerless (arrow)!
7. They that ground (the poison), they that daubed it on, they that hurled it, and they that let it go, all these have been rendered impotent. The mountain that grows poisonous plants has been rendered impotent.
8. Impotent are they that dig thee, impotent art thou, O plant! Impotent is that mountain height whence this poison has sprung.

1. This water (vâr) in the (river) Varanâvatî shall ward off (vârayâtai)! Amrita (ambrosia) has been poured into it: with that do I ward off (vâraye) poison from thee.
2. Powerless is the poison from the east, powerless that from the north. Moreover the poison from the south transforms itself into a porridge.

3. Having made thee (the poison) that comes from a horizontal direction into a porridge, rich in fat, and cheering, from sheer hunger he has eaten thee, that hast an evil body: do thou not cause injury!
4. Thy bewildering quality (madam), O (plant?) that art bewildering (madivati), we cause to fall like a reed. As a boiling pot of porridge do we remove thee by (our) charm.
5. (Thee, O poison) that art, as it were, heaped about the village, do we cause to stand still by (our) charm. Stand still as a tree upon its place; do not, thou that hast been dug with the spade, cause injury!
6. With broom-straw (?), garments, and also with skins they purchased thee: a thing for barter art thou, O plant! Do not, thou that hast been dug with the spade, cause injury!
7. Those of you who were of yore unequalled in the deeds which they performed-may the), not injure here our men: for this very purpose do I engage you!

1. The gods have given, the sun has given, the earth has given, the three Sarasvatîs, of one mind, have given this poison-destroying (remedy)!
2. That water, O ants, which the gods poured for you into the dry land, with this (water), sent forth by the gods, do ye destroy this poison!
3. Thou art the daughter of the Asuras, thou art the sister of the gods. Sprung from heaven and earth, thou didst render the poison devoid of strength.

1. Varuna, the sage of heaven, verily lends (power) to rne. With mighty charms do I dissolve thy poison. The (poison) which has been dug, that which has not been dug, and that which is inherent, I have held fast. As a brook in the desert thy poison has dried up.
2. That poison of thine which is not fluid I have confined within these (serpents?). I hold fast the sap that is in thy middle, thy top, and in thy bottom, too. May (the sap) now vanish out of thee from fright!
3. My lusty shout (is) as the thunder with the cloud: then do I smite thy (sap) with my strong charm. With manly strength I have held fast that sap of his. May the sun rise as light from the darkness!
4. With my eye do I slay thy eye, with poison do I slay thy poison. O serpent, die, do not live; back upon thee shall thy poison turn!
5. O kairâta, speckled one, upatrinya (grass-dweller?), brown one, listen to me; ye black repulsive reptiles, (listen to me)! Do not stand upon the ground of my friend; cease with your poison and make it known (to people?)!
6. I release (thee) from the fury of the black serpent, the taimâta, the brown serpent, the poison that is not fluid, the all-conquering, as the bowstring (is loosened) from the bow, as chariots (from horses).
7. Both Âligî and Viligî, both father and mother, we know your kin everywhere. Deprived of your strength what will ye do?
8. The daughter of urugûlâ, the evil one born with the black--of all those who have run to their hiding-place the poison is devoid of force.
9. The prickly porcupine, tripping down from the mountain, did declare this: 'Whatsoever serpents, living in ditches, are here, their poison is most deficient in force.'
10. Tâbuvam (or) not tâbuvam, thou (O serpent) art not tâbuvam. Through tâbuvam thy poison is bereft of force.
11. Tastuvam (or) not tastuvam, thou (O serpent) art not tastuvam. Through tastuvarn thy poison is bereft of force.

1. As the sun (goes around) the heavens I have surrounded the race of the serpents. As night (puts to rest) all animals except the hamsa bird, (thus) do I with this (charm) ward off thy poison.
2. With (the charm) that was found of yore by the Brahmans, found by the Rishis, and found by the gods, with (the charm) that was, will be, and is now present, with this do I ward off thy poison.
3. With honey do I mix the rivers; the mountains and peaks are honey. Honey are the rivers Parushnî and Sîpalâ. Prosperity be to thy mouth, prosperity to thy heart!

VII, 56. Charm against the poison of serpents, scorpions, and insects.

1. The poison infused by the serpent that is striped across, by the black serpent, and by the adder; that poison of the kankaparvan ('with limbs like a comb,' scorpion) this plant has driven out.
2. This herb, born of honey, dripping honey, sweet as honey, honied, is the remedy for injuries; moreover it crushes insects.
3. Wherever thou hast been bitten, wherever thou hast been sucked, from there do we exorcise for thee the poison of the small, greedily biting insect, (so that it be) devoid of strength.
4. Thou (serpent) here, crooked, without joints, and without limbs, that twisteth thy crooked jawsmayest thou, O Brihaspati, straighten them out, as
a (bent) reed!
5. The poison of the sarkota (scorpion) that creeps low upon the ground, (after he) has been deprived of his strength, I have taken away; moreover I have caused him to be crushed.
6. There is no strength in thy arms, in thy head, nor in the middle (of thy body). Then why dost thou so wickedly carry a small (sting) in thy tail?
7. The ants devour thee, pea-hens hack thee to pieces. Yea, every one of you shall declare the poison of the sarkota powerless!
8. Thou (scorpion) that strikest with both, with mouth as well as tail, in thy mouth there is no poison: then what can there be in the receptacle in thy tail?

1. O âbayu, (and even if) thou art not âbayu, strong is thy juice, O âbayu! We eat a gruel, compounded of thee.
2. Vihalha is thy father's name, Madâvatî thy mother's name. Thou art verily not such, as to have consumed thy own self.
3. O Tauvilikâ, do be quiet! This howling one has become quiet. O brown one, and brown-eared one, go away! Go out, O âla!
4. Alasâlâ thou art first, silâñgalâlâ thou art the next, nîlâgalasâlâ (thou art third?)!

1. Of these three earths (our) earth verily is the highest. From the surface of these I have now plucked a remedy.
2. Thou art the most excellent of remedies, the best of plants, as Soma (the moon) is the lord in the watches of the night, as Varuna (is king) among the gods.
3. O ye wealthy, irresistible (plants), ye do generously bestow benefits. And ye strengthen the hair, and, moreover, promote its increase.

VI, 136. Charm with the plant nitatni to promote the growth of hair.

1. As a goddess upon the goddess earth thou wast born, O plant! We dig thee up, O nitatni, that thou mayest strengthen (the growth) of the hair.

2. Strengthen the old (hair), beget the new! That which has come forth render more luxurious!
3. That hair of thine which does drop off, and that which is broken root and all, upon it do I sprinkle here the all-healing herb.

1. The (plant) that Gamadagni dug up to promote the growth of his daughter's hair, Vâtahavya has brought here from the dwelling of Asita.
2. With reins they had to be measured, with outstretched arms they had to be measured out. May thy hairs grow as reeds, may they (cluster), black, about thy head!
3. Make firm their roots, draw out their ends, expand their middle., O herb! May thy hairs grow as reeds, may they (cluster), black, about thy head!

1. Thee, the plant, which the Gandharva dug up for Varuna, when his virility had decayed, thee, that causest strength[1], we dig up.
2. Ushas (Aurora), Sûrya, (the sun), and this charm of mine; the bull Pragâpati (the lord of creatures) shall with his lusty fire arouse him!
3. This herb shall make thee so very full of lusty strength, that thou shalt, when thou art excited, exhale heat as a thing on fire!
4. The fire of the plants, and the essence of the bulls shall arouse him! Do thou, O Indra, controller of bodies, place the lusty force of men into this person!
5. Thou (O herb) art the first-born sap of the waters and also of the plants. Moreover thou art the brother of Soma, and the lusty force of the antelope buck!
6. Now, O Agni, now, O Savitar, now, O goddess Sarasvatî, now, O Brahmanaspati, do thou stiffen the pasas as a bow!
7. I stiffen thy pasas as a bowstring upon the bow. Embrace thou (women) as the antelope buck the gazelle with ever unfailing (strength)!
8. The strength of the horse, the mule, the goat and the ram, moreover the strength of the bull bestow upon him, O controller of bodies (Indra)!

[1. The original, more drastically, sepaharshanîm. By a few changes and omissions in stanzas 3, 6, and 7 the direct simplicity of the original has been similarly veiled.]

1. Release for me, O Agni, this person here, who, bound and well-secured, loudly jabbers! Then shall he have due regard for thy share (of the offering), when he shall be free from madness!
2. Agni shall quiet down thy mind, if it has been disturbed! Cunningly do I prepare a remedy, that thou shalt be freed from madness.
3. (Whose mind) has been maddened by the sin of the gods, or been robbed of sense by the Rakshas, (for him) do I cunningly prepare a remedy, that he shall be free from madness.
4. May the Apsaras restore thee, may Indra, may Bhaga restore thee; may all the gods restore thee, that thou mayest be freed from madness!

IV, 37. Charm with the plant agasringi to drive out Rakshas, Apsaras and Gandharvas.

1. With thee, O herb, the Atharvans first slew the Rakshas, with thee Kasyapa slew (them), with thee Kanva and Agastya (slew them).
2. With thee do we scatter the Apsaras and Gandharvas. O agasringi (odina pinnata), goad (aga) the Rakshas, drive them all away with thy smell!
3. The Apsaras, Guggulil, I'lli, Naladi, Aukshagandhi, and Pramandani (by name), shall go to the river, to the ford of the waters, as if blown away! Thither do ye, O Apsaras, pass away,

(since) ye have been recognised!
4. Where grow the asvattha (ficus religiosa) and the banyan-trees, the great trees with crowns, thither do ye, O Apsaras, pass away, (since) ye have been recognised!
5. Where your gold and silver swings are, where cymbals and lutes chime together, thither do ye, O Apsaras, pass away, (since) ye have been recog~ nised.
6. Hither has come the mightiest of the plants and herbs. May the agasringi arâtaki pierce with her sharp horn (tîkshmasringî)!
7. Of the crested Gandharva, the husband of the Apsaras, who comes dancing hither, I crush the two mushkas and cut off the sepas.
8. Terrible are the missiles of Indra, with a hundred points, brazen; with these he shall pierce the Gandharvas, who devour oblations, and devour the avakâ-reed.
9. Terrible are the missiles of Indra, with a hundred points, golden; with these he shall pierce the Gandharvas, who devour oblations, and devour the avakd-reed.
10. All the Pisâkas that devour the avakâ-reeds, that burn, and spread their little light in the waters, do thou, O herb, crush and overcome!
11. One is like a dog, one like an ape. As a youth, with luxuriant locks, pleasant to look upon, the Gandharva hangs about the woman. Him do we drive out from here with our powerful charm.
12. The Apsaras, you know, are your wives; ye, the Gandharvas, are their husbands. Speed away, ye immortals, do not go after mortals!

II, 9. Possession by demons of disease, cured by an amulet of ten kinds of wood.

1. O (amulet) of ten kinds of wood, release this man from the demon (rakshas) and the fit (grâhi) which has seized upon.(gagrâha) his joints! Do thou, moreover, O plant, lead him forth to the world of the living!
2. He has come, he has gone forth, he has joined the community of the living. And he has become the father of sons, and the most happy of men!
3. This person has come to his senses, he has come to the cities of the living. For he (now) has a hundred physicians, and also a thousand herbs.
4. The gods have found thy arrangement, (O amulet); the Brahmans, moreover, the plants. All the gods have found thy arrangement upon the earth.
5. (The god) that has caused (disease) shall perform the cure; he is himself the best physician.
Let him indeed, the holy one, prepare remedies for thee, together with the (earthly) physician!

IV, 6. Charm against demons (pisâka) conceived as the cause of disease.

1. May Agni Vaisvânara, the bull of unfailing strength, burn up him that is evil-disposed, and desires to harm us, and him that plans hostile deeds against us!
2. Between the two rows of teeth of Agni Vaisvânara do I place him that plans to injure us, when we are not planning to injure him; and him that plans to injure us, when we do plan to injure him.
Those who hound us in our chambers, while shouting goes on in the night of the new moon, and the other flesh-devourers who plan to injure us, all of them do I overcome with might.
4. With might I overcome the Pisâkas, rob them of their property; all evil-disposed (demons) do I slay: may my device succeed!
5. With the gods who vie with, and measure their swiftness with this sun, with those that are in the rivers, and in the mountains, do I, along with my cattle, consort.
6. I plague the Pisâkas as the tiger the cattle-owners. As dogs who have seen a lion, these do

not find a refuge.
7. My strength does not lie with Pisâkas, nor with thieves, nor with prowlers in the forest. From the village which I enter the Pisâkas vanish away.
8. From the village which my fierce power has entered the Pisâkas vanish away; they do not devise evil.
9. They who irritate me with their jabber, as (buzzing) mosquitoes the elephant, them I regard as wretched (creatures), as small vermin upon people.
10. May Nirriti (the goddess of destruction) take hold of this one, as a horse with the halter! The fool who is wroth with me is not freed from (her) snare.

II, 25. Charm with the plant prisniparnî against the demon of disease, called kanva.

1. The goddess Prisniparnî has prepared prosperity for us, mishap for Nirriti (the goddess of destruction). For she is a fierce devourer of the Kanvas: her, the mighty, have I employed.
2. The Prisniparnî was first begotten powerful; with her do I lop off the heads of the evil brood, as (the head) of a bird.
3. The blood-sucking demon, and him that tries to rob (our) health, Kanva, the devourer of our offspring, destroy, O Prisniparnî, and overcome!
4. These Kanvas, the effacers of life, drive into the mountain; go thou burning after them like fire, O goddess Prisniparnî!
5. Drive far away these Kanvas, the effacers of life! Where the dark regions are, there have I made these flesh-eaters go.

1. Do ye well offer within the fire this oblation with ghee, that destroys the spook! Do thou, O Agni, burn from afar against the Rakshas, (but) our houses thou shalt not consume!
2. Rudra has broken your necks, ye Pisâkas: may he also break your ribs, ye spooks! The plant whose power is everywhere has united you with Yama (death).
3. Exempt from danger, O Mitra and Varuna, may we here be; drive back with your flames the devouring demons (Atrin)! Neither aider, nor support do they find; smiting one another they go to death.

II, 4. Charm with an amulet derived from the gangida tree, against diseases and demons.

1. Unto long life and great delights, for ever unharmed and vigorous, do we wear the gangida, as an amulet destructive of the vishkandha.
2. From convulsions, from tearing pain, from vishkandha, and from torturing pain, the gangida shall protect us on all sides--an amulet of a thousand virtues!
3. This gangida conquers the vishkandha, and smites the Atrin (devouring demons); may this all-healing gangida protect us from adversity!
4. By means of the invigorating gangida, bestowed by the gods as an amulet, do we conquer in battle the vishkandha and all the Rakshas.
5. May the hemp and may gangida protect me against vishkandha! The one (gangida) is brought hither from the forest, the other (hemp) from the sap of the furrow.
6. Destruction of witchcraft is this amulet, also destruction of hostile powers: may the powerful gangida therefore extend far our lives!

XIX, 34, Charm with an amulet derived from the gafigpida-tree, aoainst diseases and demons.

1. Thou art an Angiras, O gangida, a protector art thou, O gangida. All two-footed and four-footed creatures that belong to us the gangida shall protect!
2. The sorceries fifty-three in number, and the hundred performers of sorcery, all these

having lost their force, the gangida shall render bereft of strength!
3. Bereft of strength is the gotten-up clamour, bereft of strength are the seven debilitating (charms). Do thou, O gangida, hurl away from here poverty, as an archer an arrow!
4. This gangida is a destroyer of witchcraft, and also a destroyer of hostile powers. May then the powerful gangida extend far our lives!
5. May the greatness of the gangida protect us about on all sides, (the greatness) with which he has overcome the vishkandha (and) the samskandha, (overcoming the powerful (disease) with power!
6. Thrice the gods begot thee that hast grown up upon the earth. The Brahmanas of yore knew thee here by the name of Angiras.
7. Neither the plants of olden times, nor they of recent times, surpass thee; a fierce slayer is the gahaida, and a happy refuge.
8 And when, O gangida of boundless virtue, thou didst spring up in the days of yore, O fierce (plant), Indra at first placed strength in thee.
9. Fierce Indra, verily, put might into thee, O lord of the forest! Dispersing all diseases, slay thou the Rakshas, O plant!
I o. The breaking disease and the tearing disease, the balâsa, and the pain in the limbs, the takman that comes every autumn, may the gangida render devoid of force!

XIX, 35. Charm with an amulet derived from the gangida-tree, against diseases and demons.

1. While uttering Indra's name the seers bestowed (upon men) the gangida, which the gods in the beginning had made into a remedy, destructive of the vishkandha.
2 . May that gangida protect us as a treasurer his treasures, he whom the gods and the Brâhmanas made into a refuge that puts to naught the hostile powers!
3. The evil eye of the hostile-minded, (and) the evil-doer I have approached. Do thou, O thousandeyed one, watchfully destroy these! A refuge art thou, O gangida.
4. May the gangida protect me from heaven, protect me from earth, protect (me) from the atmosphere, protect me from the plants, protect me from the past, as well as the future; may he protect us from every direction of space!
5. The sorceries performed by the gods, and also those performed by men, may the all-healing gangida render them all devoid of strength!

VI, 85. Exorcism of disease by means of an amulet from the varana-tree.

1. This divine tree, the varana, shall shut out (vârayâtai). The gods, too, have shut out (avîvaran) the disease that hath entered into this man!
2. By Indra's command, by Mitra's and by Varuna's, by the command of all the gods do we shut out thy disease.
3. As Vritra did bold fast these ever-flowing waters, thus do I shut out (vâraye) disease from thee with (the help of) Agni Vaisvânara.

1. Of the abscess, of the balâsa, of flow of blood, O plant; of neuralgia, O herb, thou shalt not leave even a speck!
2. Those two boils (testicles) of thine, O balasa, that are fixed upon the arm-pits-I know the remedy for that: the kîpudru-tree takes care of it.
3. The neuralgia that is in the limbs, that is in the ears and in the eyes-we tear them out, the neuralgia, the abscess, and the pain in the heart. That unknown disease do we drive away downward.

1. [Neither diseases, nor yet a curse, enters this person, O arundhatî!] From him that is penetrated by the sweet fragrance of the healing bdellium, diseases flee in every direction, as antelopes and as horses run.
2. Whether, O bdellium, thou comest from the Sindhu (Indus), or whether thou art derived from the sea, I have seized the qualities of both, that this person shall be exempt from harm.

1. This barley they did plough vigorously, with yokes of eight and yokes of six. With it I drive off to a far distance the ailment from thy body.
2. Downward blows the wind, downward burns the sun, downward the cow is milked: downward shall thy ailment pass!
3. The waters verily are healing, the waters chase away disease, the waters cure all (disease): may they prepare a remedy for thee!

VIII, 7. Hymn to all magic and medicinal plants, used as a universal remedy.

1. The plants that are brown, and those that are white; the red ones and the speckled ones; the sable and the black plants, all (these) do we invoke.
2. May they protect this man from the disease sent by the gods, the herbs whose father is the sky, whose mother is the earth, whose root is the ocean.
3. The waters and the heavenly plants are foremost; they have driven out from every limb thy disease, consequent upon sin.
4. The plants that spread forth, those that are busby, those that have a single sheath, those that creep along, do I address; I call in thy behalf the plants that have shoots, those that have stalks, those that divide their branches, those that are derived from all the gods, the strong (plants) that furnish
life to man.
5. With the might that is yours, ye mighty ones, with the power and strength that is yours, with that do ye, O plants, rescue this man from this disease!
I now prepare a remedy.
6. The plants givalâ ('quickening'), na-ghâ-rishâ ('forsooth-no-harm'), gîvanti ('living'), and the arundhatî, which removes (disease), is full of blossoms, and rich in honey, do I call to exempt him from injury.
7. Hither shall come the intelligent (plants) that understand my speech, that we may bring this man into safety out of misery!
8. They that are the food of Agni (the fire), the offspring of the waters, that grow ever renewing themselves, the firm (plants) that bear a thousand names, the healing (plants), shall be brought hither!
9. The plants, whose womb is the avaki (blyxa octandra), whose essence are the waters, shall with their sharp horns thrust aside evil!
10. The plants which release, exempt from Varuna (dropsy), are strong, and destroy poison; those, too, that remove (the disease) baldsa, and ward off witchcraft shall come hither!'
11. The plants that have been bought, that are right potent, and are praised, shall protect in this village cow, horse, man, and cattle!
12. Honied are the roots of these herbs, honied their tops, honied their middles, honied their leaves, honied their blossoms; they share in honey, are the food of immortality. May they yield ghee, and food, and cattle chief of all!
13. As many in number and in kind the plants here are upon the earth, may they, furnished with a thousand leaves, release me from death and misery!
14. Tiger-like is the amulet (made of) herbs, a saviour, a protector against hostile schemes:

may it drive off far away from us all diseases and the Rakshas!
15. As if at the roar of the lion they start with fright, as if (at the roar) of fire they tremble before the (plants) that have been brought hither. The diseases of cattle and men have been driven out by the herbs: let them pass into navigable streams!
16. The plants release us from Agni Vaisvânara. Spreading over the earth, go ye, whose king is the tree!
17. The plants, descended from Angiras, that grow upon the mountains and in the plains, shall be for us rich in milk, auspicious, comforting to the heart!
18. The herbs which I know, and those which I see with my sight; the unknown, those which we know, and those which we perceive to be charged with (power),--
19. All plants collectively shall note my words, that we may bring this man into safety out of misfortune,--
20. The asvattha (ficus religiosa), and the darbha among the plants; king Soma, amrita (ambrosia) and the oblation; rice and barley, the two healing, immortal children of heaven!
21. Ye arise: it is thundering and crashing, ye plants, since Parganya (the god of rain) is favouring you, O children of Prisni (the spotted cloud), with (his) seed (water).
22. The strength of this amrita (ambrosia) do we crive this man to drink. Moreover, I prepare a remedy, that he may live a hundred years!
23. The boar knows, the ichneumon knows the healing plant. Those that the serpents and Gandharvas know, I call hither for help.
24. The plants, derived from the Angiras, which the eagles and the heavenly raghats (falcons) know, which the birds and the flamingos know, which all winged (creatures) know, which all wild animals know, I call hither for help.
25. As many plants as the oxen and kine, as many as the goats and the sheep feed upon, so many plants, when applied, shall furnish protection to thee!
26. As many (plants), as the human physicians know to contain a remedy, so many, endowed with every healing quality, do I apply to thee!
27. Those that have flowers, those that have blossoms, those that bear fruit, and those that are without fruit, as if from the same mother they shall suck sap, to exempt this man from injury!
28. I have saved thee from a depth of five fathoms, and, too, from a depth of ten fathoms; moreover, from the foot-fetter of Yama, and from every sin against the gods.

1. The many plants of hundredfold aspect, whose king is Soma, which have been begotten by Brihaspati, shall free us from calamity!
2. May they free us from (the calamity) consequent upon curses, and also from the (toils) of Varuna; moreover, from the foot-fetter of Yama, and every sin against the gods!
3. What laws we have infringed upon, with the eye, the mind, and speech, either while awake, or asleep-may Soma by his (divine) nature clear these (sins) away from us!

1. From thy eyes, thy nostrils, ears, and chin--the disease which is seated in thy head--from thy brain and tongue I do tear it out.
2. From thy neck, nape of the neck, ribs, and spine--the disease which is seated in thy fore-arm--from thy shoulders and arms I do tear it out.
3. From thy heart, thy lungs, viscera, and sides; from thy kidneys, spleen, and liver we do tear out the disease.
4. From thy entrails, canals, rectum, and abdomen; from thy belly, guts, and navel I do tear

out the disease.
5. From thy thighs, knees, heels, and the tips of thy feet--from thy hips I do tear out the disease seated in thy buttocks, from thy bottom the disease seated in thy buttocks.
6. From thy bones, marrow, sinews and arteries; from thy hands, fingers, and nails I do tear out the disease.
7. The disease that is in thy every limb, thy every hair, thy every joint; that which is seated in thy skin, with Kasyapa's charm, that tears out, to either side we do tear it out.

1. Headache and suffering in the head, pain in the ears and flow of blood, every disease of the head, do we charm forth from thee.
2. From thy ears, from thy kankûshas the earpain, and the neuralgia--every disease of the head do we charm forth from thee.
3. (With the charm) through whose agency disease hastens forth from the ears and the mouth-every disease of the head do we charm forth from thee.
4. (The disease) that renders a man deaf and blind--every disease of the head do we charm forth from thee.
5. Pain in the limbs, fever in the limbs, the neuralgia that affects every limb-every disease of the head do we charm forth from thee.
6. (The disease) whose frightful aspect makes man tremble, the takman (fever) that comes every autumn, do we charm forth from thee.
7. The disease that creeps along the thighs, and then enters the canals, out of thy inner parts do we charm forth.
8. If from the heart, from love, or from disgust, it arises, from thy heart and from thy limbs the balâsa do we charm forth.
9. Jaundice from thy limbs, diarrhoea from within thy bowels, the core of disease from thy inner soul do we charm forth.
10. To ashes (âsa) the balâsa shall turn; what is diseased shall turn to urine! The poison of all diseases I have charmed forth from thee.
11. Outside the opening (of the bladder) it shall run off; the rumbling shall pass from thy belly! The poison of all diseases I have charmed forth from thee.
12. From thy belly, lungs, navel, and heart-the poison of all diseases I have charmed forth from thee.
13. (The pains) that split the crown (of the head), pierce the head, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
14. They that pierce the heart, creep along the ribs, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
15. They that pierce the sides, bore along the ribs, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
16. They that pierce crosswise, burrow in thy abdomen, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
17. They that creep along the rectum, twist the bowels, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
18. They that suck the marrow, and split the joints, without doing injury, without causing disease, they shall run off outside the opening (of the bladder)!
19. The diseases and the injuries that paralyse thy limbs, the poison of all diseases I have charmed forth from thee.
20. Of neuralgia, of abscesses, of inflation, or of inflammation of the eyes, the poison of all

diseases I have driven forth from thee.
21. From thy feet, knees, thighs, and bottom; from thy spine, and thy neck the piercing pains, from thy head the ache I have removed.
22. Firm are the bones of thy skull, and the beat of thy heart. At thy rising, O sun, thou didst remove the pains of the head, quiet the pangs in the limbs.

1. In the essence of earthly bliss, O ye gods, in strength of body (may he live)! May Agni, Sûrya, Brihaspati bestow upon him life's vigour!
2. Give life to him, O Gâtavedas, bestow in addition progeny upon him, O Tvashtar; procure, O Savitar, increase of wealth for him; may this one, who belongs to thee, live a hundred autumns!
3. May our prayer bestow upon us vigour, and possession of sound. progeny; ability and property do ye two, (O heaven and earth), bestow upon us!, May he, conquering lands with might, (live), O Indra, subjecting the others, his enemies!
4. Given by Indra, instructed by Varuna, sent by the Maruts, strong, he has come to us; may he, in the lap of ye two, heaven and earth, not suffer from hunger and not from thirst!
5. Strength may ye two, that are rich in strength, bestow upon him; milk may ye two, that are rich in milk, bestow upon him! Strength heaven and earth did bestow upon him; strength all the gods, the Maruts, and the waters.
6. With the gracious (waters) do I delight thy heart, mayest thou, free from disease, full of force, rejoice! Clothed in the same garment do ye two drink this stirred drink, taking on as a magic form the shape of the two Asvins!
7. Indra, having been wounded, first created this vigour, and this ever fresh divine food: that same belongs to thee. By means of that do thou, full of force, live (a hundred) autumns; may it not flow out of thee: physicians have prepared it for thee!

1. I release thee unto life by means of (my) oblation, from unknown decline, and from consumption. If Grâhi (seizure) has caught hold (gagrâha) of this person here, may Indra and Agni free him from that!
2. If his life has faded, even if he has passed away, if he has been brought to the very vicinity of death, I snatch him from the lap of Nirriti (the goddess of destruction): I have freed him unto a life of a hundred autumns.
3. I have snatched him (from death) by means of an oblation which has a thousand eyes, hundredfold strength, and -ensures a hundredfold life, in order that Indra may conduct him through the years across to the other side of every misfortune.
4. Live thou, thriving a hundred autumns, a hundred winters, and a hundred springs! May Indra, Agni, Savitar, Brihaspati (grant) thee a hundred years! I have snatched him (from death) with an oblation that secures a life,of a hundred years.
5. Enter ye, O in-breathirig and out-breathing, as two bulls a stable! Away shall go the other deaths, of which, it is said, there are a hundred more!
6. Remain ye here, O in-breathing and out-breathing, do not go away from here; do ye car anew to old age his body and his limbs!
7. To old age I make thee over, into old age I urge thee; may a happy old age guide thee! Away shall go the other deaths, of which, it is said, there are a hundred more!
8. Upon thee (life unto) old age has been deposited, as a rope is tied upon a bull. That death

which has fettered thee at thy birth with a firm rope, Brihaspati with the hands of the truth did strip off from thee.

1. For thee alone, O (death from) old age, this (boy) shall grow up: the other hundred kinds of death shall not harm him! Like a provident mother in her lap Mitra shall befriend him, shall save him from misfortune!
2. May Mitra or Varuna, the illustrious, cooperating, grant him death from old age! Then Agni, the priest, who knows the ways, promulgates all the races of the gods.
3. Thou, (O Agni), rulest over all the animals of the earth, those which have been born, and those which are to be born: may not in-breathing leave this one, nor yet out-breathing, may neither friends nor foes slay him!
4. May father Dyaus (sky) and mother Prithivi (earth), co-operating, grant thee death from old age, that thou mayest live in the lap of Aditi a hundred winters, guarded by in-breathing and outbreathing!
5. Lead this dear child to life and vigour, O Agni, Varuna, and king Mitra! As a mother afford him protection, O Aditi, and all ye gods, that he may attain to old age!

1. The gods are free from decrepitude; thou, O Agni, art removed from the demon of hostility. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
2. (Vâyu), the purifying (wind), shall free thee from misfortune, Sakra (Indra) from evil sorcery! I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
3. The tame (village) animals are separate from the wild (forest animals); the water has flowed apart from thirst. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
4. Heaven and earth here go apart; the paths go in every direction. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
5. 'Tvashtar is preparing a wedding for his daughter,' thus (saying) does this whole world pass through. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
6. Agni unites (life's) breaths, the moon is united with (life's) breath. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
7. By means of (life's) breath the gods aroused the everywhere mighty sun. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
8. Live thou by the (life's) breath of them that have life, and that create life; do not die! I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
9. Breathe thou with the (life's) breath of those that breathe; do not die! I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
10. Do thou (rise) up with life, unite thyself with life, (rise) up with the sap of the plants! I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.
11. From the rain of Parganya we have risen up, immortal. I free thee from all evil and disease, (and) unite thee with life.

1. When, O Brihaspati, thou didst liberate (us) from existence in yonder world of Yama, (and) from hostile schemes, then did the Asvins, the physicians of the gods, with might sweep death from us, O Agni!
2. O in-breathing and out-breathing, go along with the body, do not leave it: may they be thy allies here! Live and thrive a hundred autumns; Agni shall be thy most excellent shepherd and overseer!
3. Thy vital force that has been dissipated afar, thy in-breathing and thy out-breathing, shall

come back again! Agni has snatched them from the lap of Nirriti (the goddess of destruction), and I again introduce them into thy person.
4. Let not his in-breathing desert him, nor his out-breathing quit him and depart! I commit him to the Seven Rishis: may they convey him in health to old age!
5. Enter, O in-breathing and out-breathing, like two bulls into a stable: this person shall here flourish, an unmolested repository for old age!
6. Life's breath we do drive into thee, disease we do drive away from thee. May this excellent Agni endow us with life from every source Hymn 11: Counter-charm, with an amulet, against an enemy's spell

7. Ascending from the darkness of death to the highest firmament, to Sûrya (the sun), the god among gods, we have reached the highest light.

1. To the 'Ender,' to Death be reverence! May thy in-breathing and thy out-breathing remain here! United here with (life's) spirit this man shall be, sharing in the sun, in the world of immortality (amrita)!
2. Bhaga has raised him up, Soma with his rays (has raised) him up, the Maruts, the gods, (have raised) him up, Indra and Agni (have raised) him up unto well-being.
3. Here (shall be) thy (life's) spirit, here thy inbreathing, here thy life, here thy mind! We rescue thee from the toils of Nirriti (destruction) by means of our divine utterance.
4. Rise up hence, O man! Casting off the footshackles of death, do not sink down! Be not cut off from this world, from the sight of Agni and the sun!
5. The wind, Mâtarisvan, shall blow for thee, the waters shall shower amrita (ambrosia) upon thee, the sun shall shine kindly for thy body! Death shall pity thee: do not waste away!
6. Thou shalt ascend and not descend, O man! Life and alertness do I prepare for thee. Mount, forsooth, this imperishable, pleasant car; then in old age thou shalt hold converse with thy family!
7. Thy mind shall not go thither, shall not disappear! Do not become heedless of the living, do not follow the Fathers! All the gods shall preserve thee here!
8. Do not long after the departed, who conduct (men) afar! Ascend from the darkness, come to the light! We lay hold of thy hands.
9. The two dogs of Yama, the black and the brindled one, that guard the road (to heaven), that have been despatched, shall not (go after) thee! Come hither, do not long to be away; do not tarry here with thy mind turned to a distance!
10. Do not follow this path: it is terrible! I speak of that by which thou hast not hitherto gone. Darkness is this, O man, do not enter it! Danger is beyond, security here for thee.
11. May the fires that are within the waters gLiard thee, may (the fire) which men kindle guard thee, may Gâtavedas Vaisvânara (the fire common to all men) guard thee! Let not the heavenly (fire) together with the lightning burn, thee!
12. Let not the flesh-devouring (fire) menace thee: move afar from the funeral pyre! Heaven shall guard thee, the earth shall guard thee, the sun and moon shall guard thee, the atmosphere shall guard thee against the divine missile!
13. May the alert and the watchful divinities guard thee, may he that sleeps not and nods

not guard thee, may he that protects and is vigilant guard thee!
14. They shall guard thee, they shall protect thee. Reverence be to them. Hail be to them!
15. Into converse with the living Vâyu, Indra, Dhâtar, and saving Savitar shall put thee; breath and strength shall not leave thee! Thy (life's) spirit do we call back to thee.
16. Convulsions that draw the jaws together, darkness, shall not come upon thee, nor (the demon) that tears out the tongue (?)! How shalt thou then waste away? The Âdityas and Vasus, Indra and Agni shall raise thee up unto well-being!
17. The heavens, the earth, Pragâpati, have rescued thee. The plants with Soma their king have delivered thee from death.
18. Let this man remain right here, ye gods, let him not depart hence to yonder world! We rescue him from death with (a charm) of thousandfold strength.
19. I have delivered thee from death. The (powers) that furnish strength shall breathe upon thee. The (mourning women) with dishevelled hair, they that wail lugubriously, shall not wail over thee!
20. I have snatched thee (from death), I have obtained thee; thou hast returned with renewed youth. O thou, that art (now) sound of limb, for thee sound sight, and sound life have I obtained.
21. It has shone upon thee, light has arisen, darkness has departed from thee. We remove from thee death, destruction, and disease.

1. Take hold of this (charm) that subjects to immortality (life), may thy life unto old age not be cut off! I bring to thee anew breath and life: not to mist and darkness, do not waste away!
2. Come hither to the light of the living; I rescue thee unto a life of a hundred autumns! Loosing the bands of death and imprecation, I bestow upon thee long life extended very far.
3. From the wind thy breath I have obtained, from the sun thine eye; thy soul I hold fast in thee: be together with thy limbs, speak articulating with thy tongue!
4. With the breath of two-footed and four-footed creatures I blow upon thee, as on Agni when he is born (as on fire when kindled). I have paid reverence, O death, to thine eye, reverence to thy breath.
5. This (man) shall live and shall not die: we rouse this man (to life)! I make for him a remedy: O death, do not slay the man!
6. The plant gîvalâ (quickening'), na-ghâ-rishâ ('forsooth-no-harm'), and gîvantî ('living), a victorious, mighty saviour-plant do I invoke, that he may be exempt from injury.
7. Befriend him, do not seize him, let him go, (O death); though he be thy very own, let him abide here with unimpaired strength! O Bhava and Sarva, take pity, grant Protection; misfortune drive away, and life bestow!
8. Befriend him, death, and pity him: may he from here arise! Unharmed, with sound limbs, hearing perfectly, through old age carrying a hundred years, let him get enjoyment by himself (unaided)!
9. The missile of the gods shall pass thee by! I pass thee across the mist (of death); from death I have rescued thee. Removing far the flesh-devouring Agni, a barrier do I set around thee, that thou mayest live.
10. From thy misty road that cannot be withstood, O death, from this path (of thine) we guard this (man), and make our charm a protection for him.
11. In-breathing and out-breathing. do I prepare for thee, death in old age, long life, and prosperity. All the messengers of Yama, that roam about, dispatched by Vivasvant's son, do I

drive away.
12. Arâti (grudge), Nirriti (destruction), Grâhi (seizure), and the flesh-devouring Pisâkas (do we drive) away to a distance, and hurl all wicked Rakshas away into darkness as it were.
13. I crave thy life's breath from the immortal, life-possessing Agni Gâtavedas. That thou shalt not take harm, shalt be immortal in (Agni's) company, that do I procure for thee, and that shall be fulfilled for thee!
14. May heaven and earth, the bestowers of happiness, be auspicious and harmless to thee; may the sun-shine, and the wind blow comfort to thy heart; may the heavenly waters, rich in milk, flow upon thee kindly!
15. May the plants be auspicious to thee! I have raised thee from the lower to the upper earth: there may both the Âdityas, the sun and the moon, . protect thee.
16. Whatever garment for clothing, or whatever girdle thou makest for thyself, agreeable to thy body do we render it; not rough to thy touch shall it be!
17. When thou, the barber, shearest with thy sharp well-whetted razor our hair and beard, do not, while cleansing our face, rob us of our life!
18. Rice and barley shall be auspicious to thee, causing no balâsa, inflicting no injury! They two drive away disease, they two release from calamity.
19. Whatever thou eatest or drinkest, the grain of the plough-land or milk, whatever is or is not to be eaten, all that food do I render for thee free from poison.
20. To day and to night both do we commit thee: from the demons that seek to devour, do ye preserve this (man) for me!
21. A hundred years, ten thousand years, two, three, four ages (yuga) do we allot to thee; Indra and Agni, and all the gods without anger shall favour thee!
22. To autumn thee, to winter, spring and summer, do we commit; the rains in which grow the plants shall be pleasant to thee!
23. Death rules over bipeds, death rules over quadrupeds. From that death, the lord of cattle, do I rescue thee: do not fear!
24. Free from harm thou shalt not die; thou shalt not die: do not fear! Verily, they do not die there, they do not go to the nethermost darkness;--
25. Verily, every creature lives there, the cow, the horse, and man, where this charm is performed, as the (protecting) barrier for life.
26. May it preserve thee from sorcery, from thy equals and thy kin! Undying be, immortal, exceedingly vital; thy spirits shall not abandon thy body!
27. From the one and a hundred deaths, from the dangers that are surmountable, from that Agai Vaisvânara (the funeral pyre?) may the gods deliver thee!
28. Thou, the remedy called p6tudru, art the body of Agni, the deliverer, slayer of Rakshas, slayer of rivals, moreover thou chasest away disease.

1. From near thy vicinity, from near thy distance (do I call): remain here, do not follow; do not follow the Fathers of yore! Firmly do I fasten thy life's breath.
2. Whatever sorcery any kinsman or stranger has practised against thee, both release and deliverance with my voice do I declare for thee.
3. If thou hast deceived or cursed a woman or a man in thy folly, both release and deliverance with my voice do I declare for thee.
4. If thou liest (ill) in consequence of a sin committed by thy mother or thy father, both release and deliverance with my voice do I declare for thee.
5. Fight shy of the medicine which thy mother and thy father, thy sister and thy brother let

out against thee: I shall cause thee to live unto old age!
6. Remain here, O man, with thy entire soul; do not follow the two messengers of Yama: come to the abodes of the living!
7. Return when called, knowing the outlet of the path (death), the ascent, the advance, the road of every living man!
8. Fear not, thou shalt not die: I shall cause thee to live unto old age! I have charmed away from thy limbs the disease that wastes the limbs.
9. The disease that racks and wastes thy limbs, and the sickness in thy heart, has flown as an eagle to a far distance, overcome by my charm.
10. The two sages Alert and Watchful, the sleepless and the vigilant, these two guardians of thy life's breath, are awake both day and night.
11. Agni here is to be revered; the sun shall rise here for thee: rise thou from deep death, yea from black darkness!
12. Reverence be to Yama, reverence to death; reverence to the Fathers and to those that lead (to them) [death's messengers?]! That Agni who knows the way to save do I engage for this man, that he be exempt from harm!
13. His breath shall come, his soul shall come, his sight shall come, and, too, his strength! His body shall collect itself: then shall he stand firm upon his feet!
14. Unite him, Agni, with breath and sight, provide him with a body and with strength! Thou hast a knowledge of immortality: let him not now depart, let him not now become a dweller in a house of clay!
15. Thy in-breathing shall not cease, thy outbreathing shall not vanish; Sûrya (the sun), the supreme lord, shall raise thee from death with his rays!
16. This tongue (of mine), bound (in the mouth, yet) mobile, speaks within: with it I have charmed away disease, and the hundred torments of the takman (fever).
17. This world is most dear to the gods, unconquered. For whatever death thou wast destined when thou wast born, O man, that (death) and we call after thee: do not die before old age!

1. Come hither! Thou art the living, protecting eye-ointment of the mountain, given by all the gods as a safeguard, unto life.
2. Thou art a protection for men, a protection for cattle, thou didst stand for the protection of horses and steeds.
3. Thou art, O salve, both a protection that crushes the sorcerers, and thou hast knowledge of immortality (amrita). Moreover, thou art food for the living, and thou art, too, a remedy aorainst jaundice.
4. From him over whose every limb and every joint thou passest, O salve, thou dost, as a mighty intercepter, drive away disease.
5. Him that bears thee, O salve, neither curse, nor sorcery, nor burning pain does reach; nor does the,vishkandha come upon him.
6. From evil scheme, from troubled dream, from evil deed, and also from foulness.; from the evil eye of the enemy, from this protect us, O salve!
7. Knowing this, O salve, I shall speak the truth, avoid falsehood. May I obtain horses and cattle, and thy person, O serving-man!
8. Three are servants of the salve: the takman (fever), the balâsa, and the serpent. The highest of the mountains, Trikakud ('Three-peaks') by name, is thy father.
9. Since the salve of Trikakud is born upon the Himavant, it shall demolish all the wizards and

all the witches.
10. Whether thou art derived from the (mountain) Trikakud, or art said to come from the (river) Yamunâ, both these names of thine are auspicious: with these, O salve, protect us!

IV, 10. The pearl and its shell as an amulet bestowing long life and prosperity.

1. Born of the wind, the atmosphere, the lightning, and the light, may this pearl shell, born of gold, protect us from straits!
2. With the shell which was born in the sea, at the head of bright substances, we slay the Rakshas and conquer the Atrins (devouring demons).
3. With the shell (we conquer) disease and poverty; with the shell, too, the Saânvâs. The shell is our universal remedy; the pearl shall protect us from straits!
4. Born in the heavens, born in the sea, brought on from the river (Sindhu), this shell, born of gold, is our life-prolonging amulet.
5. The amulet, born from the sea, a sun, born from Vritra (the cloud), shall on all sides protect us from the missiles of the gods and the Asuras!
6. Thou art one of the golden substances, thou art born from Soma (the moon). Thou art sightly on the chariot, thou art brilliant on the quiver. [May it prolong our lives!]
7. The bone of the gods turned into pearl; that, animated, dwells in the waters. That do I fasten upon thee unto life, lustre, strength, longevity, unto a life lasting a hundred autumns, May the (amulet) of pearl protect thee!

1. The gold which is born from fire, the immortal, they bestowed upon the mortals. He who knows this deserves it; of old age dies he who wears it.
2. The gold, (endowed by) the sun with beautiful colour, which the men of yore, rich in descendants, did desire, may it gleaming envelop thee in lustre! Long-lived becomes he who wears it!
3. (May it envelop) thee unto (long) life, unto lustre, unto force, and unto strength, that thou shalt by the brilliancy of the gold shine forth among people!
4. (The gold) which king Varuna knows, which god Brihaspati knows, which Indra, the slayer of Vritra, knows, may that become for thee a source of life, may that become for thee a source of lustre!

IMPRECATIONS AGAINST DEMONS, SORCERERS, AND ENEMIES (ÂBHIKÂRIKÂNI AND KRITYÂPRATIHARANÂNI).

1. The sorcerer (yâtudhâna) that vaunts himsel and the Kimîdin do thou, O Agni, convey hither! For thou, O god, when lauded, becomest the destroyer of the demon.
2. Partake of the ghee, of the sesame-oil, O Agni Gâtavedas, that standest on high, conquerest by thyself! Make the sorcerers howl!
3. The sorcerers and the devouring (atrin) Kimîdin shall howl! Do ye, moreover, O Agni and Indra, receive graciously this our oblation!
4. Agni shall be the first to seize them, Indra with his (strong) arms shall drive them away! Every wizard, as soon as he comes, shall proclaim himself, saying, 'I am he'!
5. We would see thy might, O Gâtavedas; disclose to us the wizards, O thou that beholdest men! May they all, driven forth by thy fire, disclosing themselves, come to this spot!
6. Seize hold, O Gâtavedas: for our good thou wast born! Become our messenger, O Agni, and make the sorcerers howl!
7. Do thou, O Agni, drag hither the sorcerers, bound in shackles; then Indra with his thunderbolt shall cut off their heads!

1. May this oblation carry hither the sorcerers, as a river (carries) foam! The man or the woman who has performed this (sorcery), that person shall here proclaim himself!
2. This vaunting (sorcerer) has come hither: receive him with alacrity! O Brihaspati, put him into subjection; O Agni and Soma, pierce him through!
3. Slay the offspring of the sorcerer, O soma-drinking (Indra), and subject (him)! Make drop out the farther and the nearer eye of the braggart (demon)!
4. Wherever, O Agni Gâtavedas, thou perceivest the brood of these hidden devourers (atrin), do thou, mightily strengthened by our charm, slay them: slay their (brood), O Agni, piercing them a hundredfold!

1. Against the devouring demons who, in the night of the full-moon, have arisen in throngs, may Agni, the strong, the slayer of the sorcerers, give us courage!
2. To the lead Varuna gives blessing, to the lead Agni gives help. Indra gave me the lead: unfailingly it dispels sorcery.
3. This (lead) overcomes the vishkandha, this smites the devouring demons (atrin); with this I have overwhelmed all the brood of the Pisâkas.
4. If thou slayest our cow, if our horse or our domestic, we pierce thee with the lead, so that thou shalt not slay our heroes.

1. Press the soma, ye priests, and rinse it (for renewed pressing), in behalf of Indra who shall listen to the song of the worshipper, and to my call!
2. Do thou, O doughty (Indra), whom the drops of soma enter as birds a tree, beat off the hostile brood of the Rakshas!
3. Press ye the soma for Indra, the soma-drinker, who wields the thunderbolt! A youthful victor and ruler is he, praised by many men.

II, 14. Charm against a variety of female demons, conceived as hostile to men, cattle, and home.

1. Nissâlâ, the bold, the greedy demon (?dhishana), and (the female demon) with long-drawn howl, the bloodthirsty; all the daughters of Kanda, the Sadânvâs do we destroy.
2. We drive you out of the stable, out of the axle (of the wagon), and the body of the wagon; we chase you, O ye daughters of Magundî, from the house.
3. In yonder house below, there the grudging demons (arâyî) shall exist; there ruin shall prevail, and all the witches!
4. May (Rudra), the lord of beings, and Indra. drive forth from here the Sadânvâs; those that am seated on the foundation of the house Indra shall overcome with his thunderbolt!
5. Whether ye belong to (the demons) of inherited disease, whether ye have been dispatched by men, or whether ye have originated from the Dasyus (demon-like aborigines), vanish from here, O ye Sadânvâs!
6. About their dwelling-places I did swiftly course, as if on a race-course. I have won all contests with you: vanish from here, O ye Sadânvâs!

1. Of karsapha and visapha heaven is the father and earth the mother. As, ye gods, ye have brought on (the trouble), thus do ye again remove it!
2. Without fastening the), (the protecting plants?) held fast, thus it has been arranged by Manu. The vishkandha do I render impotent, like one who gelds cattle.
3. A talisman tied to a reddish thread the active (seers) then do fasten on: may the

fastenings render impotent the eager, fiery kâbava!
4. And since, O ye eager (demons), ye walk like gods by the wile of the Asuras, the fastening (of the amulet) is destructive to the kâbava, as the ape to the dog.
5. I revile thee, the kâbava, unto misfortune, (and) shall work harm for thee. Accompanied with curses ye shall go out like swift chariots!
6. A hundred and one vishkandha are spread out along the earth; for these at the beginning they brought out thee, the amulet, that destroys vishkandha.

IV, 20. Charm with a certain plant (sadampushpâ) which exposes demons and enemies.

1. He sees here, he sees yonder, he sees in the distance, he sees--the sky, the atmosphere as well as the earth, all that, O goddess, he sees.
2. The three heavens, the three earths, and these six directions severally; all creatures may I see through thee, O divine plant!
3. Thou art verily the eyeball of the divine eagle; thou didst ascend the earth as a weary woman a palanquin.
4. The thousand-eyed god shall put this plant into my right hand: with that do I see every one, the Sûdra as well as the Ârya.
5. Reveal (all) forms, do not hide thy own self; moreover, do thou, O thousand-eyed (plant), look the Kimîdins in the face!
6. Reveal to me the wizards, and reveal the witches, reveal all the Pisâkas: for this purpose do I take hold of thee, O plant!
7. Thou art the eye of Kasyapa, and the eye of the four-eyed bitch. Like the sun, moving in the bright day, make thou the Pisâka evident to me!
8. I have dragged out from his retreat the sorcerer and the Kimîdin. Through this (charm) do I see every one, the Sûdra as well as the Ârya.
9. Him that flies in the air, him that moves across the sky, him that regards the earth as his resort, that Pisâka do thou reveal (to me)!

IV, 17. Charm with the apâmârga-plant, against sorcery, demons, and enemies.

1. We take hold, O victorious one, of thee, the mistress of remedies. I have made thee a thing of thousandfold strength for ever), one, O plant!
2. Her, the unfailingly victorious one, that wards off curses, that is powerful and defensive; (her and) all the plants have I assembled, intending that she shall save us from this (trouble)!
3. The woman who has cursed us with a curse, who has arranged dire misfortune (for us), who has taken hold of our children, to rob them of their strengthmay she eat (her own) offspring!
4. The magic spell which they have put into the unburned vessel, that which they have put into the blue and red thread, that which they have put into raw flesh, with these slay thou those that have prepared the spell!
5. Evil dreams, troubled life, Rakshas, gruesomeness, and grudging demons (arâyî), all the evil-named, evil-speakinor (powers), these do we drive out from us.
6. Death from hunger, and death from thirst, poverty in cattle, and failure of offspring, all that, O apâmârga, do we wipe out (apa mrigmahe) with thee.
7. Death from thirst, and death from hunger, moreover, ill-luck at dice, all that, O apâmârga, do we wipe out with thee.
8. The apâmârga is sole ruler over all plants, with it do we wipe mishap from thee: do thou then live exempt from disease!

IV, 18. Charm with the apâmârga-plant, against sorcerers and demons.

1. Night is like unto the sun, the (starry) night is similar to day. The truth do I engage for help: the enchantments shall be devoid of force!
2. He, O ye gods, who prepares a spell, and carries it to the house of one that knows not (of it), upon him the spell, returning, shall fasten itself like a suckling calf upon its mother!
3. The person that prepares evil at home, and desires with it to harm another, she is consumed by fire, and many stones fall upon her with a loud crash.
4. Bestow curses, O thou (apâmârga), that hast a thousand homes, upon the (demons) visikha ('crestless'), and vigrîva ('crooked-neck')! Turn back the spell upon him that has performed it, as a beloved maid (is brought) to her lover!
5. With this plant I have put to naught all spells, those that they have put into thy field, thy cattle, and into thy domestics.
6. He that has undertaken them has not been able to accomplish them: he broke his foot, his toe. He performed a lucky act for us, but for himself an injury.
7. The apâmârga-plant shall wipe out (apa mârshtu) 'inherited ills, and curses; yea, it shall wipe out all witches, and all grudging demons (arâyî)!
8. Having wiped out all sorcerers, and all grudging demons, with thee, O apâmârga, we wipe all that (evil) out.

IV, 19. Mystic power of the apâmârga-plant, against demons and sorcerers.

1. On the one hand thou deprivest of kin, on the other thou now procurest kinfolk. Do thou, moreover, cut the offspring of him that practises spells, as a reed that springs up in the rain!
2. By a Brâhmana thou hast been blest, by Kanva, the descendant of Nrishad. Thou goest like a stronor army; where thou hast arrived, O plant, there there is no fear.
3. Thou goest at the head of the plants, spreading lustre, as if with a light. Thou art on the one hand the protector of the weak, on the other the slayer of the Rakshas.
4. When of yore, in the beginning, the gods drove out the Asuras with thee, then, O plant, thou wast begotten as apâmârga ('wiping out').
5. Thou cuttest to pieces (vibhindatî), and hast a hundred branches; vibhindant ('cutting to pieces') is thy father's name. Do thou (turn) against, and cut to pieces (vi bhindhi) him that is hostile towards us!
6. Non-being arose from the earth, that goes to heaven, (as) a great expansion. Thence, verily, that, spreading vapours, shall turn against the performer (of spells)!
7. Thou didst grow backward, thou hast fruit which is turned backward. Ward off from me all curses, ward off very far destructive weapons!
8. Protect me with a hundredfold, guard me with a thousandfold (strength)! Indra, the strong, shall put strength into thee, O prince of plants!

VII, 65. Charm with the apâmârga-plant, against curses, and the consequences of sinful deeds.

1. With fruit turned backward thou verily didst grow, O apâmârga: do thou drive all curses quite far away from here!
2. The evil deeds and foul, or the sinful acts which we have committed, with thee, O apâmârga, whose face is turned to every side, do we wipe them out (apa mrigmahe).
3. If we have sat together with one who has black teeth, or diseased nails, or one who is deformed, with thee, O apâmârga, we wipe all that out (apa mrigmahe).

1. The (spell) which they skilfully prepare, as a bride for the wedding, the multiform (spell), fashioned by hand, shall go to a distance: we drive it away!
2. The (spell) that has been brought forward by the fashioner of the spell, that is endowed

with head, endowed with nose, endowed with ears, and multiform, shall go to a distance: we drive it away!
3. (The spell) that has been prepared by a Sadra, prepared by a Râga, prepared by a woman, prepared by Brahmans, as a wife rejected by her husband, shall recoil upon her fabricator, (and) his kin!
4. With this herb have I destroyed all spells, that which they have put into thy field, into thy cattle, and into thy men.
5. Evil be to him that prepares evil, the curse shall recoil upon him that utters curses: back do we hurl it against him, that it may slay him that fashions the spell.
6. Pratikîna (' Back-hurler'), the descendant of Angiras, is our overseer and officiator (purohita): do thou drive back again (pratîkîh) the spells, and slay yonder fashioners of the spells!
7. He that has said to thee (the spell): 'go on'! upon that enemy, that antagonist do thou turn, O spell: do not seek out us, that are harmless!
8. He that has fitted together thy joints with skill, as the wagoner (Ribhu) the joints of a chariot, to him go, there is thy course: this person here shall remain unknown to thee!
9. They that have prepared thee and taken hold of thee, the cunning wizards-this is what cures it, destroys the spell, drives it back the opposite way - with it do we bathe thee.
10. Since we have come upon the wretched (spell), as upon (a cow) with a dead calf, flooded away (by a river), may all evil go away from me, and mav possessions come to me!
11. If (thy enemies) have made (offerings) to thy Fathers, or have called thy name at the sacrifice, may these herbs free thee from every indigenous evil!
12. From the sin of the gods, and that of the fathers, from mentions of (thy) name, from (evil schemes) concocted at home, may the herbs free thee with might, through (this) charm, (and these) stanzas, (that are) the milk of the Rishis!
13. As the wind stirs up the dust from the earth, and the cloud from the atmosphere, thus may all misfortune, driven by my charm, go away from me!
14. Stride away (O spell), like a loudly braying she-ass, that has been loosened (from the tether); reach those that have fabricated thee, driven from here by (my) forceful charm!
15. 'This is the way, O spell,' with these words do we lead thee. Thee that hast been sent Out against us do we send back again. Go this way like a crushing army, with heavy carts, thou that art multiform, and crowned by a crest(?)!
16. In the distance there is light for thee, hitherward there is no road for thee; away from us take thy course! By another road cross thou ninety navigable streams, hard to cross! Do not injure, go away!
17. As the wind the trees, crush down and fell (the enemy), leave them neither cow, nor horse, nor serving-man! Turn from here upon those that have fabricated thee, O spell, awaken them to childlessness!
18. The spell or the magic which they have buried against thee in the sacrificial straw (barhis), in the field, (or) in the burial-ground, or if with superior skill they have practised sorcery against thee, that art simple and innocent, in thy household fire,--
19. The hostile, insidious instrument which they have brought hither has been discovered; that which has been dug in we have detected. It shall go whence it has been brought hither; there, like a horse, it shall disport itself, and slay the offspring of him that has fashion'ed the spell!
20. Swords of good brass are in our house: we know how many joints thou hast, O spell! Be sure to rise, go away from hence! O stranger, what seekest thou here?

21. I shall hew off, O spell, thy neck, and thy feet: run away! May Indra and Agni, to whom belong the children (of men), protect us!
22. King Soma, who guards and pities us, and the lords of the beings shall take pity on us!
23. May Bhava and Sarva cast the lightning, the divine missile, upon him that performs evil, fashions a spell, and does wrong!
24. If thou art come two-footed, (or) four-footed, prepared by the fashioner of the spell, multiform, do thou, having become eight-footed, again go away from here, O misfortune!
25. Anointed, ornamented, and well equipped, go away, carrying every misfortune! Know, O spell, thy maker, as a daughter her own father!
26. Go away, O spell, do not stand still, track (the enemy) as a wounded (animal)! He is the game, thou the hunter: he is not able to put thee down.
27. Him that first hurls (the arrow), the other, laying on in defence, slays with the arrow, and while the first deals the blow, the other returns the blow.
28. Hear, verily, this speech of mine, and then return whence thou camest, against the one that fashioned thee!
29. Slaughter of an innocent is heinous, O spell: do not slay our cow, horse, or serving-man! Wherever thou hast been put down, thence thee do we remove. Be lighter than a leaf!
30. If ye are enveloped in darkness, covered as if by a net--we tear all spells out from here, send them back again to him that fashioned them.
31. The offspring of them that fashion the spell, practise magic, or plot against us, crush thou, O spell, leave none of them! Slay those that fashion the spell!
32. As the sun is released from darkness, abandons the night, and the streaks of the dawn, thus every misery, (every) device prepared by the fashioner of the spell, (every) misfortune, do I leave behind, as an elephant the dust.

1. The spell which they have put for thee into an unburned vessel, that which they have put into mixed grain, that which they have put into raw meat, that do I hurl back again.
2. The spell which they have put for thee into a cock, or that which (they have put) into a goat, into a crested animal, that which they have put into a sheep, that do I hurl back again.
3. The spell which they have put for thee into solipeds, into animals with teeth on both sides, that which they have put into an ass, that do I hurl back again.
4. The magic which they have put for thee into moveable property, or into personal possession, the spell which they have put into the field, that do I hurl back again.
5. The spell which evil-scheming persons have put for thee into the gârhapatya-fire, or into the housefire, that which they have put -into the house, that do I hurl back again.
6. The spell which they have put for thee into the assembly-hall, that which (they have put) into the gaming-place, that which they have put into the dice, that do I hurl back again.
7. The spell which they have put for thee into the army, that which they have put into the arrow and the weapon, that which they have put into the drum, that do I hurl back again.
8. The spell which they have placed down for thee in the well, or have buried in the burial-ground, that which they have put into (thy) home, that do I hurl back again.
9. That which they have put for thee into human bones, that which (they have put) into the funeral fire, to the consuming, burning, flesh-eating fire do I hurl that back again.
10. By an unbeaten path he has brought it (the spell) hither, by a (beaten) path we drive it out from here. The fool in his folly has prepared (the spell) aorainst those that are surely wise.
11. He that has undertaken it has not been able to accomplish it: he broke his foot, his toe.

He, luckless, performed an auspicious act for us, that are lucky.
12. Him that fashions spells, practises magic, digs after roots, sends out curses, Indra, shall slay with his mighty weapon, Agni shall pierce with his hurled (arrow)!

1. An eagle found thee out, a boar dug thee out with his snout. Seek thou, O plant, to injure him that seeks to injure (us), strike down him that prepares spells (against us'!
2. Strike down the wizards, strike down him that prepares spells (against us); slay thou, moreover, O plant, him that seeks to injure us!
3. Cutting out from the skin (of the enemy) as if (from the skin) of an antelope, do ye, O gods, fasten the spell upon him that prepares it, as (one fastens) an ornament!
4. Take hold by the hand and lead away the spell back to him that prepares it! Place it in his very presence, so that it shall slay him that prepares the spell!
5. The spells shall take effect upon him that prepares the spells, the curse upon him that pronounces the curse! As a chariot with easy-going wheels, the spell shall turn back upon him that prepares the spell!
6. Whether a woman, or whether a man has prepared the spell for evil, we lead that spell to him as a horse with the halter.
7. Whether thou hast been prepared by the gods, or hast been prepared by men, we lead thee back with the help of Indra as an ally.
8. O Agni gainer of battles, do thou gain the battles! With a counter-charm do we hurl back the spell upon him that prepares the spell.
9. Hold ready, (O plant,) thy weapon, and strike him, slay the very one that has prepared (the spell)! We do not whet thee for the destruction of him that has not practised (spells).
10. Go as a son to his father, bite like an adder that has been stepped upon. Return thou, O spell, to him that prepares the spell, as one who overcomes his fetters!
11. As the shy deer, the antelope, goes out to the mating (buck), thus the spell shall reach him that prepares it!
12. Straighter than an arrow may it (the spell) fly against him, O ye heaven and earth; may that spell take hold again of him that prepares it, as (a hunter)
of his game!
13. Like fire (the spell) shall progress in the teeth of obstacles, like water along its course! As a chariot with easy-going wheels the spell shall turn back upon him that prepares the spell!

VIII, 5. Prayer for protection addressed to a talisman made from wood of the sraktya-tree.

VIII, 5. Prayer for protection addressed to a talisman made from wood of the

1. This attacking talisman, (itself) a man, is fastened upon the man: it is full of force, slays enemies, makes heroes of men, furnishes shelter, provides good luck.
2. This talisman slays enemies, makes strong men, is powerful, lusty, victorious, strong; as a man it advances against sorceries and destroys them.
3. With this talisman Indra slew Vritra, with it he, full of device, destroyed the Asuras, with it he conquered both the heaven and earth, with it he conquered the four regions of space.
4. This talisman of sraktya assails and attacks. With might controlling the enemies, it shall protect us on all sides!
5. Agni has said this, and Soma has said this; Brihaspati, Savitar, Indra (have said) this. These divine purohitas, (chaplains) shall turn back for me (upon the sorcerer) the sorceries with aggressive amulets!
6. I have interposed heaven and earth, also the day, and also the sun. These divine purohitas (chaplains) shall turn back for me (upon the sorcerer) the sorceries with aggressive amulets!

7. (For) the folk that make an armour of the talisman of sraktya--like the sun ascending the sky, it subjects and beats off the sorceries.
8. With the amulet of sraktya, as if with a seer of powerful spirit, I have gained all battles, I slay the enemies, the Rakshas.
9. The sorceries that come from the Angiras, the sorceries that come from the Asuras, the sorceries that prepare themselves, and those that are prepared by others, both these shall go away to a distance across ninety navigable streams!
10. As an armour upon him the gods shall tie the amulet, Indra, Vishnu, Savitar, Rudra, Agni, Pragâpati, Parameshthin, Virâg,Vaisvânara, and the seers all.
11. Thou art the most superb of plants, as if a steer among the cattle, as if a tiger among beasts of prey. (The amulet) that we did seek, that have we found, a guardian at our side.
12. He that wears this talisman, verily is a tiger, a lion as well, and, too, a bull; moreover a curtailer of enemies.
13. Him slay not the Apsaras, nor the Gandharvas, nor mortal men; all reoions does he rule, that wears this talisman.
14. Kasyapa has created thee, Kasyapa has produced thee. Indra wore thee in human (battle); wearing thee in the close combat he conquered. The gods did make the talisman an armour of thousandfold strength.
15. He that plans to harm thee with sorceries, with (unholy) consecrations and sacrifices--him beat thou back, O Indra, with thy thunderbolt that hath a hundred joints!
16. This talisman verily does assail, full of might, victorious. Offspring and wealth it shall protect, provide defence, abound in luck!
17. Remove our enemies in the south, remove our enemies in the north; remove, O Indra, our enemies in the west: light, O hero, place in front (east) of us!
18. An armour for me be heaven and earth, an armour day, an armour the sun! An armour for me be Indra and Agni; Dhâtar shall bestow (dadhAtu) an armour upon me!
19. The armour of Indra and Agni, that is thick and strong, all the gods united do not pierce. This great (armour) shall protect my body on all sides, that I may obtain long life, and reach old age!
20. The divine talisman has ascended upon me,unto completc exemption from injury. Assemble about this post that protects the body, furnishes threefold defence, in order to (secure) strength!
21. Into it Indra shall deposit manliness: do ye, O gods, assemble about it for long life, for life lasting a hundred autumns, that he may reach old age.
22. May Indra who bestows welfare, the lord of the people, the slayer of Vritra, the controller of enemies, he that conquereth and is unconquered, the soma-drinking bull that frees from danger, fasten the amulet upon thee: may it protect thee on each and every side, by day and by night!

X, 3. Praise of the virtues of an amulet derived from the varana-tree.

1. Here is my varana-amulet, a bull that destroys the rivals: with it do thou close in upon thy enemies, crush them that desire to injure thee!
2. Break them, crush them, close in upon them: the amulet shall be thy vanguard in front! With the varana the Devas (gods) did ward off (avârayanta) the onslaught of the Asuras (demons) day after day.
3, This thousand-eyed, yellow, golden varanaamulet is a universal cure; it shall lay low thy enemies: be thou the first to injure those that hate thee!
4. This varana will ward off (vârayishyate) the spell that has been spread against thee; this

will protect thee from human danger, this will protect thee from all evil!
5. This divine tree, the varana, shall shut out (vârayâtâi)! The gods, too, have shutout (avivaran) the disease that has entered into this (man).
6. If when asleep thou shalt behold an evil dream; as often as a wild beast shall run an inauspicious course; from (ominous) sneezing, and from the evil shriek of a bird, this varana-amulet will protect thee (vârayishyate).
7. From Arâti (grudge), Nirriti (misfortune), from sorcery, and from danger; from death and overstrong weapons the varana will protect thee.
8. The sin that my mother, that my father, that my brothers and my sister have committed; the sin that we (ourselves) have committed, from that this divine tree will protect us.
9. Through the varana are confused my enemies and my (rival) kin. To untraversed gloom they have gone: they shall go to the nethermost darkness!
10. (May) I (be) unharmed, with cows unharmed, long-lived, with undiminished men! This varana-amulet shall guard me in every region (of space)!
11. This varana upon my breast, the kingly, divine tree, shall smite asunder my enemies, as Indra the Dasyus, the Asuras (demons)!
12. Long-lived, a hundred autumns old, do I wear this varana: kingdom and rule, cattle and strength, this shall bestow upon me!
13. As the wind breaks with might the trees, the lords of the forest, thus do thou break my rivals, those formerly born, and the latter born! The varana shall watch over thee!
14. As the wind and the fire consume the trees, the lords of the forest, thus, do thou consume my rivals, those formerly born, and the latter born! The varana shall watch over thee!
15. As, ruined by the wind, the trees lie prostrate, thus do thou ruin and prostrate my rivals, those formerly born, and the latter born! The varana shall watch over thee!
16. Do thou cut off, O varana, before their appointed time and before old age, those that aim to injure him in his cattle, and threaten his sovereignty!
17. As the sun is resplendent, as in him brilliance has been deposited, thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast for me reputation and prosperity, shall sprinkle me with brilliance, and anoint me with splendour!
18. As splendour is in the moon, and in the sun, the beholder of men, thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
19. As splendour is in the earth, as in this Gâtavedas (the fire), thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
20. As splendour is in the maiden, as in this appointed chariot, thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
21. As splendour is in the soma-draught, as splendour is in the honey-mixture (for guests), thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
22. As splendour is in the agnihotra-oblation, as splendour is in the call vashat, thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
23. As splendour is in the sacrificer, as (splendour) has been deposited in the sacrifice, thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
24. As splendour is in Pragâpati, as in this Parameshthin (the lord on high), thus shall the amulet of varana hold fast, &c.
25. As immortality is in the gods, as truth has been deposited in them, thus shall the amulet of varana hod fast, &c.

X, 6. Praise of the virtues of amulet of khadira-wood in the shape of a ploughshare.

1. The head of the hostile rival, of the enemy that bates me, do I cut off with might.
2. This amulet, produced by the ploughshare, will prepare an armour for me: full of stirred drink it has come to me, together with sap and lustre.
3. If the skilful workman has injured thee with his hand or with his knife, the living bright waters shall purify thee from that, (so that thou shalt be) bright!
4. This amulet has a golden wreath, bestows faith and sacrifice and might; in our house as a guest it shall dwell!
5. Before it (the amulet as a guest) ghee, surâ (liquor), honey, and every kind of food we place. The amulet having gone to the gods shall, as a father for his sons, plan for us growing good, more and more day after day!
6. The amulet which Brihaspati tied, the ploughshare dripping with ghee, the strong khadira, unto strength, that Agni did fasten on; that yields him ghee more and more day after day: with it those that hate me do thou slay!
7. This amulet which Brihaspati tied that Indra did fasten on, for strength and heroism; that yields him might more and more, &c.
8. The amulet which Brihaspati tied . . . that Soma did fasten on unto perfect hearing and seeing; that verily yields him lustre more and more, &c.
9. The amulet which Brihaspat, tied . . . that Sûrya did fasten on, with that he conquered these directions of space; that yields him prosperity moreand more, &c.
10. The amulet which Brihaspati tied wearing that amulet Kandramas (the moon) conquered the golden cities of the Asuras and the Dânavas; that yields him fortune more and more, &c.
11. The amulet which Brihaspat' tied for swift Vâta (wind), that yields him strength more and more, &c.
12, The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, with that amulet, O Asvins, do ye guard this plough-land; that yields the two physicians (the Asvins) might more and more, &c.
13. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, wearing that, Savitar through it conquered this light; that yields him abundance more and more, &c.
14. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, wearing that, the waters ever run undiminished; that verily yields them ambrosia more and more, &c.
15. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, that comforting amulet king Varuna did fasten on; that verily yields him truth more and more, &c.
16. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, wearing that the gods did conquer all the worlds in battle; that verily yields them conquest more and more, &c.
17. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for swift Vâta, that comforting amulet the divinities did fasten on; that verily yields them- all more and more, &c.
18. The seasons did fasten it on; the divisions (of the year) did fasten it on. Since the year did fasten it on, it guards every being.
19. The intermediate directions did fasten it on; the directions did fasten it on. The amulet created by Pragâpati has subjected those that hate me.
20. The Atharvans did tie it on, the descendants of the Atharvans did tie it on; with these allied, the Angiras cleft the castles of the Dasyus. With it those that hate me do thou slay!
21. That Dhâtar did fasten on: (then) he shaped the being. With it those that hate me do thou slay!
22. The amulet which Brihaspati tied for the gods, destructive of the Asuras, that has come to me together with sap and lustre.
23. The amulet . . . has come to me together with cows, goats, and sheep, together with food and offspring.

24. The amulet . . . has come to me together with rice and barley, together with might and prosperity.
25. The amulet has come to me with a stream of honey and ghee together with sweet drink.
26. The amulet has come to me together with nourishment and milk, together with goods and fortune.
27. The amulet . . . has. come to me together with brilliance and strength, together with glory and reputation.
28. The amulet . . . has come to me together with all 'kinds of prosperity.
29, This amulet the gods shall give me unto prosperity, the mighty amulet that strengthens sovereignty and injures the rivals!
30. An (amulet) auspicious for me thou shalt fasten upon (me), together with brahma (spiritual exaltation) and brilliance! Free from rivals, slaying rivals, it has subjected my rivals.
31. This god-born amulet, the sap milked from which these three worlds revere, shall render me superior to him that hates me; it shall ascend upon my head unto excellence!
32. The amulet upon which the gods, the Fathers, and men ever live, shall ascend upon my head unto excellence!
33. As the seed grows in the field, in the furrow drawn by the ploughshare, thus in me offspring, cattle, and every kind of food shall grow up!
34. Upon whom, O thou amulet that prosperest the sacrifice, I have fastened thee (that art) propitious, him, O amulet, that yieldest a hundredfold sacrificial reward, thou shalt inspire unto excellence!
35. This fire-wood that has been laid on together with the oblations do thou, Agni, gladly accept: may we in this kindled Gâtavedas (fire), through (this) charm, find favour, well-being, offspring, sight, and cattle!

IV, 16. Prayer to Varuna for protection against treacherous designs.

1. The great guardian among these (gods) sees as if from anear. He that thinketh he is moving stealthily--all this the gods know.
2. If a man stands, walks, or sneaks about, if he goes slinking away, if he goes into his hiding-place; if two persons sit together and scheme, king Varuna is there as a third, and knows it.
3. Both this earth here belongs to king Varuna, and also yonder broad sky whose boundaries are far away. Moreover these two oceans are the loins of Varuna; yea, he is hidden in this small (drop of) water.
4. He that should flee beyond the heaven far away would not be free from king Varuna. His spies come hither (to the earth) from heaven, with a thousand eyes do they watch over the earth.
5. King Varuna sees through all that is between heaven and earth, and all that is beyond. He has counted the winkings of men's eyes. As a (winning) gamester puts down his dice, thus does he establish these (laws).
6. May all thy fateful toils which, seven by seven, threefold, lie spread out, ensnare him that speaks falsehood: him that speaks the truth they shall let go!
7. With a hundred snares, O Varuna, surround him, let the liar not go free from thee, O thou that observest men! The rogue shall sit, his belly hanging loose, like a cask without hoops, bursting all about!
8. With (the snare of) Varuna which is fastened lengthwise, and that which (is fastened) broadwise, with the indigenous and the foreign, with the divine and the human,--
9. With all these snares do I fetter thee, O N. N., descended from N. N., the son of the woman N. N.: all these do I design for thee.

1. Heaven and earth, the broad atmosphere, the goddess of the field, and the wonderful, far-striding (Vishnu); moreover, the broad atmosphere guarded by Vâta (the wind): may these here be inflamed, when I am inflamed!
2. Hear this, O ye revered gods! Let Bharadvâga recite for me songs of praise! 'May he who injures this our plan be bound in the fetter (of disease) and joined to misfortune!
3. Hear, O soma-drinking Indra, what with burning heart I shout to thee! I cleave, as one cleaves a tree with an axe, him that injures this our plan.
4. With (the aid of) thrice eighty siman-singers, with (the aid of) the Âdityas, Vasus, and Angiras--may our father's sacrifices and gifts to the priests, aid us-do I seize this one with fateful fervour.
5. May heaven and earth look after me, may all the gods support me! O ye Angiras, O ye fathers devoted to Soma, may he who does harm enter into misfortune!
6 . He who perchance despises us, O ye Maruts, he who abuses the holy practice which is beiog performed by us, may his evil deeds be firebrands to him, may the heavens surround with fire the hater of holy practices!
7. Thy seven in-breathings and thy eight marrows, these do I cut for thee by means of my charm. Thou shalt go to the seat of Yama, fitly prepared, with Agni as thy guide!
8. I set thy footstep upon the kindled fire. May Agni surround thy body, may thy voice enter into breath!

1. Whenever yonder person in his thought, and with his speech, offers sacrifice accompanied by oblations and benedictions, may Nirriti (the goddess of destruction), allying herself with death, smite his offering before it takes effect!
2. May sorcerers, Nirriti, as well as Rakshas, mar his true work with error! May the gods, despatched by Indra, scatter (churn) his sacrificial butter; may that which yonder person offers not succeed!
3. The two agile supreme rulers, like two eagle-s pouiicing down, shall strike the sacrificial butter pf the enemy, whosoever plans evil against us!
4. Back do I tie both thy two arms, thy mouth I shut. With the fury of god Agni, have I destroyed thy oblation.
5. I tie thy two arms, I shut thy mouth. With the fury of terrible Agni have I destroyed thy oblation.

II, 7. Charm against curses and hostile plots, undertaken with a certain plant.

1. The god-begotten plant, hated by the wicked, which wipes away the curses (of the enemies), like water a foul spot it has washed away all curses from me.
2. The curse of the rival and the curse of the kinswoman, the curse which the Brahman shall utter in wrath, all that (do thou put) under our feet!
3. From heaven her root is suspended, from the earth it rises up; with her that has a thousand shoots do thou protect us on all sides!
4. Protect me, protect my offspring, protect our goods; let not ill-will overcome us, let not hostile schemes overcome us!
5. The curse shall go to the curser; joint possession shall we have with the friend. Of the enemy who bewitches with (his) eye we hew off the ribs.

1. A male has sprung from a male, the asvattha (ficus religiosa) from the khadira (acacia catechu). May this slay my enemies, those whom I hate and those who hate me!

2. Crush the enemies, as they rush on, O asvattha, 'displacer,' allied with Indra, the slayer of Vritra, (allied) with Mitra and Varuxa!
3. As thou didst break forth, O asvattha, into the great flood (of the air), thus do thou break up all those whom I hate and those who hate me!
4. Thou that goest conquering as a conquering bull, with thee here, O asvattha, may we conquer our rivals!
5. May Nirriti (the goddess of destruction), O asvattha, bind in the toils of death that cannot be loosened those enemies of mine whom I hate and who hate me!
6. As thou climbest up the trees, O asvattha, and renderest them subordinate, thus do thou split in two the head of iny enemy, and overcome him!
7. They (the enemies) shall float down like a ship cut loose from its moorings! There is no returning again for those that have been driven out by the 'displacer.'
8. I drive them out with my mind, drive them out with my thought, and also with my incantation. We drive them out with a branch of the asvattha-tree.

VI, 75. Oblation for the suppression of enemies (nairbâdhyam havih).

1. Forth from his home do I drive that person yonder, who as a rival contends with us: through the oblation devoted to suppression Indra, has broken him to pieces.
2. Indra, the slayer of Vritra, shall drive him to the remotest distance, from which in all successive years he shall not again return!
3. He shall go to the three distances, he shall go beyond the five peoples; he shall go beyond the three ethers, whence he shall not again in all successive years return, while the sun is upon the heavens!

1. The thousand-eyed curse having yoked his chariot has come hither, seeking out him that curses me, as a wolf the house of him that owns sheep.
2. Avoid us, O curse, as a burning fire (avoids) a lake! Strike here him that curses us, as the lightning of heaven the tree!
3. He that shall curse us when we do not curse, and he that shall curse us when we do curse, him do I hurl to death as a bone to a dog upon the ground.

1. As the rising sun takes away the lustre of the stars, thus do I take away the strength of both the women and the men that hate me.
2. As many enemies as ye are, lookina out auainst me, as I come on--of those that hate me do I take away the strenorth, as the sun takes away the strength of persons asleep (while it rises).

1. May, O Agni, a suitor after our own heart come to us, may he come to this maiden with our fortune! May she, agreeable to suitors, charming at festivals, promptly obtain happiness through a husband!
2. Agreeable to Soma, agreeable to Brahma, arranged by Aryaman, with the unfailing certainty of god Dhâtar, do I bestow upon thee good fortune, the acquisition of a husband.
3. This woman shall obtain a hnsband, since king Soma makes her lovely! May she, begetting sons, become a queen; may she, going to her husband, shine in loveliness!
4. As this comfortable cave, O Maghavan (Indra), furnishing a safe abode, hath become pleasing to animals, thus may this woman be a favourite of fortune (Bhaga), beloved, not at odds with her husband!

5. Do thou ascend the full, inexhaustible ship of Bhaga (fortune); upon this bring, hither the suitor who shall be agreeable (to thee)!
6. Bring hither by thy shouts, O lord of wealth, the suitor, bend his mind towards her; turn thou the right side of every agreeable suitor towards (her)!
7. This gold and bdellium, this balsam, and Bhaga (fortune), too; these have prepared thee for husbands, that thou mayest obtain the one that is agreeable.
8. Hither to thee Savitar shall lead the husband that is agreeable! Do thou, O herb, bestow (him) upon her!

1. This Aryaman (wooer) with loosened crest of hair comes hither in front (of the procession), seeking a husband for this spinster, and a wife for this wifeless man.
2. This maid, O Aryaman, has wearied of going to the wedding-feasts of other women. Now shall, without fail, O Aryaman, other women go to her wedding-feast!
3. Dhâtar (the creator) supports (didhhra) this earth, Dhâtar supports the heavens, and the sun. May Dhatar furnish this spinster with a husband after her own heart).

1. I call the name of him that comes here, that hath come here, and is arriving; I crave (the name) of Indra, Vritra's slayer, the Visava, of hundredfold strength.
2. The road by which the Asvins carried away as a bride Sûryâ, Savitar's daughter,'by that road,' Bhaga (fortune) told me, 'thou shalt bring here a wife'!
With thy wealth-procuring, great, golden hook, O Indra, husband of Sakî, procure a wife for me that desireth a wife!

1. Through this oblation, that causes prosperity, may this man flourish anew; may he excel the wife that they have brought to him with his sap!
2. May he excel in strength, excel in royalty! May this couple be inexhaustible in wealth that bestows thousandfold lustre!
3. Tvashtar begot (for thee) a wife, Tvashtar for her begot thee as a husband. May Tvashtar bestow upon you two a thousand lives, may he bestow upon you long life!

1. The eyes of us two shine like honey, our foreheads gleam like ointment. Place me within thy heart; may one mind be in common to us both!

1. I envelope thee in my garment that was produced by Manu (the first man), that thou shalt be mine alone, shalt not even discourse of other women!

1. A holder art thou, holdest both hands, drivest off the Rakshas. An acquirer of offspring and wealth this bracelet hath become!
2. O bracelet, open up the womb, that the embryo be put (into it)! Do thou, O limit (-setting bracelet), furnish a son, bring him here (A gamaya), thou that comest here (Agame)!
3. The bracelet that Aditi wore, when she desired a son.Tvashtar shall fasten upon this woman, intending that she shall beget a son.

1. That which has caused thee to miscarry do we drive away from thee, that very thing do we deposit outside of thee, away in a far place.
2. Into thy womb shall enter a male germ, as an arrow into a quiver! May a man be born there, a son ten months old!

3. A male son do thou produce, and after him a male shall be born! Thou shalt be the mother of sons, of those who are born, and those whom thou shalt bear!
4. By the effective seed which bulls put forth do thou obtain a son; be a fruitful milch-cow!
5. Pragâpati's (the lord of creatures) work do I perform for thee: may the germ enter into thy womb! Obtain thou, woman, a son who shall bring prosperity to thee, and bring thou pi-osperity to him!
6. The plants whose father was the sky, whose mother the earth, Whose root the (heavenly) ocean--may those divine herbs aid thee in obtaining a son!

1. The asvattha (ficus religiosa) has mounted the samî (mimosa suma): then a male child was produced. That, forsooth, is the way to obtain a son; that do we bring to (our) wives.
2. In the male, forsooth, seed doth grow, that is poured into the female. That, forsooth, is the way to obtain a son; that has been told by Pragâpati.
3. Pragâpati, Anumati, and Sinîvâlî have fashioned him. May he (Pragâpati) elsewhere afford the birth of a female, but here he shall bestow a man!

1. The other enemies conquer with might; beat back, O Gâtavedas, those that are not yet born! Enrich this kingdom unto happiness, may all the gods acclaim this man!
2. Of these hundred entrails of thine, as well as of the thousand canals, of all these have I closed the openings with a stone.
3. The upper part of the womb do I place below, there shall come to thee neither offspring nor birth! I render thee sterile and devoid of offspring; a stone do I make into a cover for thee.

1. As this great earth conceives the germs of the beings, thus shalt thy embryo be-beld fast, to produce a child after pregnancy!
2. As this great earth holds these trees, thus shall thy embryo be held fast, to produce a child after pregnancy!
3. As this great earth holds the mountains and the peaks, thus shall thy embryo be held fast, to produce a child after pregnancy!
4. As this great earth holds the animals scattered far, thus shall thy embryo be held fast, to produce a child after pregnancy!

1. Aryaman as active hotar-priest shall utter for thee the vashat-call at this (soma-) pressing, O Pûshan! May (this) woman, (herself) begotten in
the proper way, be delivered, may her joints relax, that she shall bring forth!
2. Four directions has the heaven, and also four the earth: (from these) the gods created the embryo. May they open her, that she shall bring forth!
3. May Sûshan open: her womb do we cause to gape. Do thou, O Sûshan, loosen the womb, do thou, O Bishkalâ, let go (the ernbryo)!
4. Attached not at all to the flesh, nor to the fat, not at all to the marrow, may the splotched, moist, placenta come down to be eaten by a dog! May the placenta fall down!
5. I split open thy vagina, thy womb, thy canals; I separate the mother and the son, the child along with the placenta. May the placenta fall down!
6. As flies the wind, as flies the mind, as fly the winged birds, so do thou, O embryo,. ten months old, fall along with the placenta! May the placenta fall down!

1. This plant is born of honey, with honey do we dig for thee. Of honey thou art begotten, do thou make us full of honey!
2. At the tip of my tongue may I have honey, at my tongue's root the sweetness of honey! In my power alone shalt thou then be, thou shalt come up to my wish!
3. Sweet as honey is my entrance, sweet as honey my departure. With my voice do I speak sweet as honey, may I become like honey!
4. I am sweeter than honey, fuller of sweetness than licorice. Mayest thou, without fail, long for me alone, (as a bee) for a branch full of honey!
5. I have surrounded thee with a clinging sugarcane, to remove aversion, so that thou shalt not be averse to me!

1. As the wind tears this grass from the surface of the earth, thus do I tear thy soul, so that thou, woman, shalt love, shalt not be averse to me!
2. If ye, O two Asvins, shall unite and bring together the loving pair-united are the fortunes of,both of you (lovers), united the thoughts, united the purposes!
3. When birds desire to chirp, lustily desire to chirp, may my call go there, as an arrow-point upon the shaft!
4. What is within shall be without, what is without shall be within! Take captive, O herb, the, soul of the maidens endowed with every chai-m!
5. Longing for a husband this woman hath come, I have come longing for a wife, As a loudly neighing horFe I have attained to my good fortune!

1. As the creeper embraces the tree on all sides, thus do thou embrace me, so that thou, woman, shalt love me, so that thou shalt not be averse to me!
2. As the eagle when he flies forth presses his wings against the earth, thus do I fasten down thy mind, so that thou, woman, shalt love me, so that thou shalt not be averse to me.
3. As the sun day by day goes about this heaven and earth, thus do I go about thy mind, so that thou, woman, shalt love me, so that thou shalt not be: averse to me.

1. Hanker thou after my body, my feet, hanker after my eyes, my thighs! The eyes of thee, as thou lustest after me, and thy hair shall be parched with love?
2. I make thee cling to my arm, cling to my heart, so that thou shalt be in my power, shalt come up to my wish!
3. The cows, the mothers of the ghee, who lick their young, in whose heart love is planted, shall make yonder woman bestow love upon me!

1. As this draught animal, O ye Asvins, comes on, and proceeds, thus may thy soul come on, and proceed to me!
2. I draw to myself thy mind, as the leading stallion the female side-horse. As the stalk of grass torn by the wind, thus shall thy mind fasten itself upon me!
3. A coaxing mixture of salve, of sweet wood, of kushtha, and of spikenard, do I deftly pick out with the hands of Bhaga (good fortune).

1. May (love), the disquieter, disquiet thee; do not hold out upon thy bed! With the terrible arrow of Kâma (love) do I pierce thee in the heart.
2. The arrow, winged with longing, barbed with love, whose shaft is undeviating desire, with that, well-aimed, Kâma shall pierce thee in the heart!

3. With that well-aimed arrow of Kâma which parches the spleen, whose plume flies forward, which burns up, do I pierce thee in the heart.
4. Consumed by burning ardour, with parched mouth, do thou (woman) come to me, pliant, (thy) pride laid aside, mine alone, speaking sweetly and to me devoted!
5. I drive thee with a goad from thy mother and thy father, so that thou shalt be in my power, shalt come up to my wish.
6. All her thoughts do ye, O Mitra and Varuna, drive out of her! Then, having deprived her of her will,.put her into my power alone!

1. Clinging to the ground thou didst grow, (O plant), that producest bliss for me; a hundred branches extend from thee, three and thirty grow down from thee: with this plant of a thousand leaves thy heart do I parch.
2. Thy heart shall parch (with love) for me, and thy mouth shall parch (with love for me)! Languish, moreover, with love for me, with parched mouth pass thy days!
3. Thou that causest affection, kindlest (love), brown, lovely (plant), draw (us) together; draw together yonder woman and myself, our hearts make the same!
4. As the mouth of him that hath not drunk dries tip, thus languish thou with love for me, with parched mouth pass thy days!
5. As the Ichneumon tears the serpent, and joins him together again, thus, O potent (plant), join together what hath been torn by love!

1. This potent herb do I dig out: it draws toward me the eve, causes (love's) tears. It brings back him who has gone to a distance, rejoices him that approaches me.
2. By (the plant) with which the Âsurî allured Indra away from the gods, by that do I subject thee, that I may be well-beloved of thee!
3. Thy face is turned towards Soma (the nioon), thy face is turned towards Sûrya (the sun), thy face is turned towards all the gods: 't is tliee here that we do invoke.
4. My speech, not thine, (in this matter) hath weight: in the assembly, forsooth, do thou speak! To me alone shalt thou belong, shalt not even discourse of other women!
5. Whether thou art beyond the haunts of men, or whether across the river, this very herb, as if a captive bound, shall bring, thee back to me!

1. This yearning love comes from the Apsaras, the victorious, imbued with victory. Ye gods, send forth the yearning love: may yonder man burn after me!
2. My wish is, he shall long for me, devoted he shall long for me! Ye gods, send forth the yearning love: may yonder man burn after me!
3. That yonder man shall long for me, (but) I for him nevermore, ye gods, send forth the yearning love: may yonder man burn after me!
4. Do ye, O Maruts, intoxicate him (With love); do thou, O mid-air, intoxicate him; do thou, O Agni, intoxicate him! May yonder man burn after me!

1. From thy head unto thy feet do I implant (love's) longing into thee. Ye gods, send forth the yearning love: may yonder man burn after me!
2. Favour this (plan), Anumati; fit it tooether, Âkûti! Ye gods, send forth the yearning love may yonder man burn after me!
3. If thou dost run three leagues away, (or even) five leagues, the distance coursed by a horseman, from there thou shalt again return, shalt be the father of our sons!

1. Love's consuming longing, together with yearning, which the gods have poured into the waters, that do I kindle for thee by the law of Varuna!
2. Love's consuming longing, together with yearning, which the all-gods (visve devâh) have poured into the waters, that do I kindle for thee by the law of Varuna!
3. Love's consuming longing, together with yearning, which Indrâni has poured into the waters, that do I kindle for thee by the law of Varuna!
4. Love's consuming longing, together with yearning, which Indra and Agni have poured into the waters, that do I kindle for thee by the law of Varuna!
5. Love's consuming longing, together with yearning, which Mitra and Varuna have poured into the waters, that do I kindle for thee by the law of Varuna!

1. The bull with a thousand horns who rose out of the sea, with the aid of him, the mighty one, do we put the folks to sleep.
2. The wind blows not over the earth. No one looks on. Do thou then, befriended of Indra, put all women and dogs to sleep!
3. The women that lie upon couches and upon beds, and they that rest in litters, the women all that exhale sweet fragrance, do we put to sleep.
4. Every moving thing I have held fast. Eye and breath I have held fast. I have held fast all limbs in the deep gloom of the night.
5. Of him that sits, and him that walks, of him that stands and looks about, of these the eyes we do shut, just as these premises (are shut).
6. The mother shall sleep, the father shall sleep, the dog shall sleep, the lord of the house shall sleep! All her relations shall sleep, and these people round about shall sleep!
7. O sleep, put thou to sleep all people with the magic that induces sleep! Put the others to sleep until the sun rises; may I be awake until the dawn appears, like Indra, unharmed, uninjured!

1. The heavens have stood, the earth has stood, all creatures have stood. The mountains have stood upon their foundation, the horses in the stable I have caused to stand.
2. Him that has control of departure, that has control of coming home, return, and turning in, that shepherd do I also call.
3. O Gâtavedas (Agni), cause thou to turn ill; a hundred way's hither shall be thine, a thousand modes of return shall be thine: with these do thou restore us again!

1. The first impulse of jealousy, moreover the one that comes after the first, the fire, the heart-burning, that do wc waft away from thee.
2. As the earth is dead in spirit, in spirit more dead than the dead, and as the spirit of him that has died, thus shall the spirit of the jealous (man) be dead!
3. Yon fluttering little spirit that has been fixed into thy heart, from it the jealousy do I remove, as air from a water-skin.

1. From folk belonging to all kinds of people, from the Sindhu (Indus) thou hast been brought hither: from a distance, I ween, has been fetched the very remedy for jealousy.
2. As if a fire is burning him, as if the forest-fire burns in various directions, this jealousy of his do thou quench, as a fire (is quenched) with water!

1. I have taken unto myself her fortune and her glory, as a wreath off a tree. Like a mountain with broad foundation may she sit a long time with her parents!
2. This woman shall be subjected to thee as thy wife, O king Yama; (till then) let her be fixed to the house of her mother, or her brother, or her father!
3. This woman shall be the keeper of thy house, O king (Yama), and her do we make over to thee! May she long sit with her relatives, until (her hair) drops from her head!
4. With the incantation of Asita, of Kasyapa, and of Gaya do I cover up thy fortune, as women cover (something) within a chest.

1. I dig up this plant, of herbs the most potent, by whose power rival women are overcome, and husbands are obtained.
2. O thou (plant) with erect leaves, lovely, do thou, urged on by the gods, full of might, drive away my rival, make my h usband mine alone!
3. He did not, forsooth, call thy name, and thou shalt not delight in this' husband! To the very farthest distance do we drive our rival.
4. Superior am I, O superior (plant), superior, truly, to superior (women). Now shall my rival be inferior to those that are inferior!
5. I am overpowering, and thou, (O plant), art completely overpowering. Having both grown full of power, let us overpower my rival!
6. About thee (my husband) I have placed the overpowering (plant), upon thee placed the very overpowering one. May thy mind run after me as a calf after the cow, as water along its course!

1. As the best of the plants thou art reputed, O herb: turn this man for me to-day into a eunuch that wears his hair dressed!
2. Turn him into a eunuch that wears his hair dressed, and into one that wears a hood! Then Indra with a pair of stones shall break his testicles both!
3. O eunuch, into a eunuch thee I have turned;O castrate, into a castrate thee I have turned; O weakling, into a weakling thee I have turned! A hood upon his head, and a hair-net do we place.
4. The two canals, fashioned by the gods, in which man's power rests, in thy testicles . . . . . . . . . . . . I break them with a club.
5. As women break reeds for a mattress with a stone, thus do I break thy member.

I, 18. Charm to remove evil bodily characteristics from a woman.

1. The (foul) mark, the lalâmî (with spot on the forehead), the Arâti (grudging demon), do we drive out. Then the (signs) that are auspicious (shall remain) with us; (yet) to beget offspring do we bring the Arâti!
2. May Savitar drive out uncouthness from her feet, may Varuna, Mitra, and Aryaman (drive it) out from her hands; may Anumati kindly drive it out for us! For happiness the gods have created this woman.
3. The fierceness that is in thyself, in thy body, or in thy look, all that do we strike away with our charm. May god Savitar prosper thee!
4. The goat-footed, the bull-toothed, her who scares the cattle, the snorting one, the vilîdhî (the driveling one), the lalâmî (with spot on the forehead), these do we drive from us.

VI, 110. Expiatory charm for a child born under an unlucky star.

1. Of yore, (O Agni), thou wast worthy of supplication at the sacrifice; thou wast the priest in olden times, and now anew shalt sit (at our sacrifice)! Delight, O Agni, thy own body, and,

sacrificing, bring good fortune here to us!
2. Him that hath been born under the (constellation) gyeshihaghnî ('she that slays the oldest'), or under the vikritâu ('they that uproot'), save thou from being torn up by the root by Yama (death)! May be (Agni) guide him across all misfortunes to long life, to a life of a hundred autumns!
3. On a tiger (-like) day the hero was born; born under a (good) constellation he becometh a mighty hero. Let him not slay, when he grows up, his father, let him not injure the mother that hath begotten him!

VI, 140. Expiation for the irregular appearance of the first pair of teeth.

1. Those two teeth, the tigers, that have broken forth, eager to devour father and mother, do thou, O Brahmanaspati Gâtavedas, render auspicious!
2. Do ye eat rice, eat barley, and eat, too, beans, as well as sesamum! That, O teeth.. is the share deposited for your enrichment. Do not injure father and mother!
3. Since ye have been invoked, O teeth, be ye in unison kind and propitious! Elsewhere, O teeth, shall pass away the fierce (qualities) of your body! Do not injure father and mother!

1. Himself prosperous (bhûto), he does put strength into the beings (bhûteshu); he became the chief lord of the beings (bhûtânâm). To his consecration death does come: may he, the king, favour this kingdom!
2. Come forth hither-do not glance away-as a mighty guardian, slayer of enemies! Step hither, thou who prosperest thy friends: the gods shall bless thee!
3. As he did step hither all (men) did attend him. Clothed in grace, he moves, shining by his own lustre. This is the great name of the manly Asura; endowed with every form (quality) he entered upon immortal (deeds).
4. Thyself a tiger, do thou upon this tiger-skin stride (victorious) through the great regionst All the clans shall wish for thee, and the heavenly waters, rich in sap!
5. The heavenly waters, rich in sap, flow joyously, (and too) those in the sky and upon the earth: with the lustre of all of these do I sprinkle thee.
6. They have sprinkled thee with their lustre., the heavenly waters rich in sap. May Savitar thus fashion thee, that thou shalt prosper thy friends!
7. (The waters) thus embracing him, the tiger, promote him, the lion, to great good fortune. Him, the leopard in the midst of the waters, as though standing in the ocean, the beneficent (floods, or the vigorous priests) cleanse thoroughly!

1. (Agni) has shouted loud: may he here well perform his work! Spread thyself out, O Agni, over the far-reaching hemispheres of the world! The all-possessing Maruts shall engage thee: bring hither that (king) who devoutly spends the offering!
2. However far he be, the red (steeds) shall urge hither Indra, the seer, to friendship, since the gods, (chanting) for him the gâyatri, the brihatî, and the arka (songs), infused courage into him with the sautrâmanî-sacrifice!
3. From the waters king Varuna shall call thee, Soma shall call thee from the mountains, Indra shall cite thee to these clans! Turn into an eagle and fly to these clans!
4. An eagle shall bring hither from a distance him that is fit to be called, (yet) wanders exiled in a strange land! The Asvins shall prepare for thee a path, easy to travel! Do ye, his kinfolk, gather close about him!

5. Thy opponents shall call thee; thy friends have chosen. thee! Indra, Agni, and all the gods have kept prosperity with this people.
6. The kinsman or the stranger that opposes thy call, him, O Indra, drive away; then render this (king) accepted here!

1. (Thy) kingdom hath come to thee: arise, endowed with lustre! Go forth as the lord of the people, rule (shine) thou, a universal ruler! All the regions of the compass shall call thee, O king; attended and revered be thou here!
2. Thee the clans, thee these regions, goddesses five, shall choose for empire! Root thyself upon the height, the pinnacle of royalty: then do thou, mighty, distribute goods among us!
3. Thy kinsmen with calls shall come to thee; agile Agni shall go with them as messenger! Thy wives, thy sons shall be devoted to thee; being a mighty (ruler) thou shalt behold rich tribute!
4. The Asvins first, Mitra and Varuna both, all the gods, and the Maruts, shall call thee! Then fix thy mind upon the bestowal of wealth, then do thou, mighty, distribute wealth among us!
5. Hither hasten forth from the farthest distance heaven and earth, both, shall be propitious to thee! Thus did this king Varuna (as if, 'the chooser') decree that; he himself did call thee: 'come thou hither'!
6. O Indra, Indra, come thou to the tribes of men, for thou hast agreed, concordant with the Varunas (as if,'the electors'), He did call thee to thy own domain (thinking): 'let him revere the gods, and manage, too, the people'!
7. The rich divinities of the roads, of manifold diverse forms, all coming together have given thee a broad domain. They shall all concordantly call thee; rule here, a mighty, benevolent (king), to up the tenth decade (of thy life)!

III, 5. Praise of an amulet derived from the parna-tree, designed to strengthen royal power.

1. Hither hath come this amulet of parna-wood, with its might mightily crushing the enemy. (It is) the strength of the gods, the sap of the waters: may it assiduously enliven me with energy!
2. The power to rule thou shalt hold fast in me, O amulet of parna-wood; wealth (thou shalt hold fast) in me! May I, rooted in the domain of royalty, become the chief!
3. Their very own amulet which the gods deposited secretly in the tree, that the gods shall give us to wear, together with life!
4. The parna has come hither as the mighty strength of the soma, given by Indra, instructed by Varuna. May I, shining brilliantly, wear it, unto long life, during a hundred autumns!
5. The amulet of parna-wood has ascended upon me unto complete exemption from injury, that I may rise superior (even) to friends and alliances!
6. The skilful builders of chariots, and the ingenious workers of metal, the folk about me all, do thou, O parna, make my aids!
7. The kings who (themselves) make kings, the charioteers, and leaders of hosts, the folk about me all, do thou, O parna, make my aids!
8. Thou art the body-protecting parna, a 'liero, brother of me, the hero. Along with the brilliancy of the year do I fasten thee on, O amulet!

1. This warrior, O Indra, do thou strengthen for me, do thou install this one as sole ruler (bull) of the Vis (the people); emasculate all his enemies, subject them to him in (their) contests!

2. To him apportion his share of villages, horses, and cattle; deprive of his share the one that is his enemy! May this king be the pinnacle of royalty; subject to him, O Indra, every enemy!
3. May this one be the treasure-lord of riches, may this king be the tribal lord of the Vis (the people)! Upon this one, O Indra, bestow great lustre, devoid of lustre render his enemy!
4. For him shall ye, O heaven and earth, milk ample good, as two milch-cows yielding warm milk! May this king be favoured of Indra, favoured of cows, of plants, and cattle!
5. I unite with thee Indra who has supremacy, through whom one conquers and is not (himself) conquered, who shall install thee as sole ruler of the people, and as chief of the human kings.
6. Superior art thou, inferior are thy rivals, and whatsoever adversaries are thine, O king! Sole ruler, befriended of Indra, victorious, bring thou hither the supplies of those who act as thy enemies!
7. Presenting the front of a lion do thou devour all (their) people, presenting the front of a tiger do thou strike down the enemies! Sole ruler, befriended of Indra, victorious, seize upon the supplies of those who act as thy enemies!

1. Upon this (person) the Vasus, Indra, Pûshan, Varuna, Mitra, and Agni, shall bestow goods (vasu)! The Âdityas, and, further, all the gods shall hold him in the higher light!
2. Light, ye gods, shall be at his bidding: Sûrya (the sun), Agni (fire), or even gold! Inferior to us shall be our rivals! Cause him to ascend to the highest heaven
3. With that most potent charm with which, O Gâtavedas (Agni), thou didst bring to Indra the (soma-) drink, with that, O Agni, do thou here strengthen this one; grant him supremacy over his kinsmen!
4. Their sacrifice and their glory, their increase of wealth and their thoughtful plans, I have usurped, O Agni. Inferior to us shall be our rivals! Cause him to ascend to the highest heaven!

1. The brilliancy that is in the lion, the tiger, and the serpent; in Agni, the Brâhmana, and Surya (shall be ours)! May the lovely goddess that bore Indra come to us, endowed with lustre!
2. (The brilliancy) that is in the elephant, panther, and in gold; in the waters, cattle, and men (shall be ours)! May the lovely goddess that bore Indra come to us, endowed with lustre!
3. (The brilliancy) that is in the chariot, the dice, in the strenath of the bull; in the wind, Parganya, and in the fire of Varuna (shall be ours)! May the lovely goddess that bore Indra come to us, endowed with lustre!
4. (The brilliancy) that is in the man of royal caste, in the stretched drum, in the strength of the horge, in the shout of men (shall be ours)! May the lovely goddess that bore Indra come to us, endowed with lustre!

1. The oblation that yields glory, sped on by Indra, of thousandfold strength, well offered, prepared with might, shall prosper! Cause me, that offers the oblation, to continue long beholding (light), and to rise to supremacy!
2. (That he may come) to us, let us honour with obeisance glory-owning Indra, the glorious one with glory-yielding (oblations)! Do thou (the oblation) grant us sovereignty sped on by Indra; may we in thy favour be glorious!
3. Glorious was Indra born, glorious Agni, glorious Soma. Glorious, of all beings the most glorious, am I.

1. May Indra churn (the enemy), he, the churner, Sakra (mighty), the hero, that pierces the forts, so that we shall slay the armies of the enemies a thousandfold!
2. May the rotten rope, wafting itself against yonder army, turn it into a stench. When the enemies see from afar our smoke and fire, fear shall they lay into their hearts!
3. Tear asunder those (enemies), O asvattha (ficus religiosa), devour (khâda) them, O! khadira (acacia catechu) in lively style! Like the tâgadbhanga (ricinus communis) they shall be broken (bhagyantâm), may the vadhaka (a certain kind of tree) slay them with his weapons (vadhaih)!
4. May the knotty âhva-plant put knots upon yonder (enemies), may the vadhaka slay them with his weapons! Bound up in (our) great trap-net, they shall quickly be broken as an arrow-reed!
5. The atmosphere was the net, the great regions (of space) the (supporting) poles of the net: with these Sakra (mighty Indra) did surround and scatter the army of the Dasyus.
6. Great, forsooth, is the net of great Sakra, who is rich in steeds: with it infold thou all the enemies, so that not one of them shall be released!
7. Great is the net of thee, great Indra, hero, that art equal to a thousand, and hast hundredfold might. With that (net) Sakra slew a hundred, thousand, ten thousand, a hundred million foes, having surrounded them with (his) army.
8. This great world was the net of great Sakra: with this net of Indra I infold all those (enemies) yonder in darkness,
9. With great dejection, failure, and irrefragable misfortune; with fatigue, lassitude, and confusion, do I surround all those (enemies) yonder.
10. To death do I hand them over, with the fetters of death they have been bound. To the evil messengers of death do I lead them captive.
11. Guide ye those (foes), ye messengers of death; ye messengers of Yama, infold them! Let more than thousands be slain; may the club of Bhava crush them!
12. The Sâdhyas (blessed) go holding up with might one support of the net, the Rudras another, the Vasus another, (Still) another is upheld by the Âdityas.
13. All the gods shall go pressing from above with might; the Angiras shall go on the middle (of the net), slaying the mighty army!
14. The trees, and (growths) that are like trees, the plants and the herbs as well; two-footed and four-footed creatures do I impel, that they shall slay yonder army!
15. The Gandharvas and Apsaras, the serpents and the gods, holy men and (deceased) Fathers, the visible and invisible (beings), do I impel, that they shall slay yonder army!
16. Scattered here are the fetters of death; when thou steppest upon them thou shalt not escape! May this hammer slay (the men) of yonder army by the thousand!
17. The gharma (sacrificial hot drink) that has been heated by the fire, this sacrifice (shall) slay thousands! Do ye, Bhava and Sarva, whose arms are mottled, slay yonder army!
18. Into the (snare of) death they shall fall, into hunger, exhaustion, slaughter, and fear! O Indra and Sarva, do ye with trap and net slay yonder army!
19. Conquered, O foes, do ye flee away; repelled by (our) charm, do ye run! Of yonder host, repulsed by Brihaspati, not one shall be saved!
20. May their weapons fall from their (hands), may they be unable to lay the arrow on (the bow)! And then (our) arrows shall smite them, badly frightened, in their vital members!
21. Heaven and earth shall shriek at them, and the atmosphere, along with the divine powers! Neither aider, nor support did they find; smiting one another they shall go to death!

22. The four regions are the she-mules of the god's chariot, the purodâsas (sacrificial rice-cakes) the hoofs, the atmosphere the seat (of the wagon). Heaven and earth are its two sides, the seasons the reins, the intermediate regions the attendants, Vâk (speech) the road.
23. The year is the chariot, the full year is the body of the chariot, Virâg, the pole, Agni the front part of the chariot. Indra is the (combatant) standing on the left of the chariot, Kandramas (the moon) the charioteer.
24. Do thou win here, do thou conquer here, overcome, win, hail! These here shall conquer, those yonder be conquered! Hail to these here, perdition to those yonder! Those yonder do I envelop in blue and red!

1. The piercing (arrows) shall not hit us, nor shall the striking arrows hit us! Far away fron, us O Indra, to either side, cause the arrow-shower to fall!
2. To either side of us the arrows shall fall, those that have been shot and shall be shot! Ye divine and ye human arrows, pierce ye mine enemies!
3. Be he our own, or be he strange, the kinsman, or the foreianer, who bear enmity towards us, those enemies of mine Rudra shall pierce with a shower of arrows!
4. Him that rivals us, or does not rival us, him that curses us with hate, may all the gods injure my charm protects me from within!

1. Agni shall skilfully march against our opponents, burning against their schemes and hostile plans; Gâtavedas shall confuse the army of our opponents and deprive them (of the use) of their hands!
2. Ye Maruts are mighty in such matters: advance ye, crush ye, conquer ye (the enerny)! These Vasus when implored did crush (them). Agni, vily, as their vanauard shall skilfully attack!
3. O Maghavan, the hostile army which contends against us--do ye, O Indra, Vritra's slayer, and Agni, burn against them!
4. Thy thunderbolt, O Indra, who hast been driven forward swiftly by thy two bay steeds, shall advance, crushing the enemies. Slay them that resist, pursue, or flee, deprive their schemes of fulfilment!
5. O Indra, confuse the army of the enemy; with the impact of the fire and the wind scatter them to either side!
6. Indra shall confuse the army, the Miaruts shall slay it with might! Agni shall rob it of its sight; vanquished it shall turn about!

1. Agni, our skilful vanguard, shall attack, burning, against their schemes and hostile plans! Gâtavedas shall bewilder the plans of the enemy, and deprive them (of the use) of their hands!
2. This fire has confused the schemes that are in your mind; it shall blow you from your home, blow you away from everywhere!
3. O Indra, bewildering their schemes, come hither with thy (own) plan: with the impact of the fire and the wind scatter them to either side!
4. O ye plans of theirs, fly ye away; O ye schemes, be ye confused! Moreover, what now is in their mind, do thou drive that out of them!
5. Do thou, O (goddess) Apvi, confusing their plans, go forth (to them), and seize their limbs! Attack them, burn with flames into their hearts; strike the enemy with fits, (strike our) opponents with darkness!

6. That army yonder o( the enemy, that comes against us fighting with might, do ye, O Maruts, strike with planless darkness, that one of them shall not know the other!

1. Superior is the sacrifice, superior Agni, superior Soma, superior Indra. To the end that I shall be superior to all hostile armies do we thus, offering the agnihotra, reverently present this oblation!
2. Hail be, ye wise Mitra and Varuna: with honey swell ye our kingdom here, (so that it shall) abound in offspring! Drive far to a distance misfortune, strip off from us sin, even after it has been committed!
3. With inspiration follow ye this strong hero; cling close, ye friends, to Indra (the king), who conquers villages, conquers cattle, has the thunderbolt in his arm, overcomes the host arrayed (against him), crushing it with might!

1. I call -upon thee, O Indra, from afar, upon thee for protection against tribulation. I call the strong avenger that has many names, and is of unequalled birth. 
2. Where the hostile weapon now rises against us,threatening to slay, there do we place the two arms of Indra round about.
3. The two arms of Indra, the protector, do we place round about us: let him protect us! O god Savitar, and king Soma, render me of confident mind, that I may prosper!

1. The arms, the arrows, and the might of the bows; the swords, the axes, the weapons, and the artful scheme that is in our mind; all that, O Arbudi, do thou make the enemies see, and spectres also make them see!
2. Arise, and arm yourselves; friends are ye, O divine folk! May our friends be perceived and protected by you, O Arbudi (and Nyarbudi)!
3. Arise (ye two), and take hold! With fetters and shackles surround ye the armies of the enemy, O Arbudi (and Nyarbudi)!
4. The god whose name is Arbudi, and the lord Nyarbudi, by whom the atmosphere and this great earth has been infolded, with these two companions of Indra do I pursue the conquered (king) with my army.
5. Arise, thou divine person, O Arbudi, together with thy army! Crushing the army of tlie enemy, encompass them with thy embraces!
6. Thou, Arbudi, makest appear the sevenfold spectral brood. Do thou, when the oblation has been poured, rise up with all. these, together with the army!
7. (The female mourner), beating herself, with tear-stained face, with short (mutilated?) ears, with dishevelled hair, shall lament, when a man has been slain, pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
8. She curves her spine while longing in her heart for her son, her husband, and her kin, when (a man) has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
9. The aliklavas and the gâshkamadas, the vultures, the strong-winged hawks, the crows, and the birds (of prey) shall obtain their fill! Let them make evident to the enemy, when (a man) has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
10. Then, too, every wild beast, insect, and worm shall obtain his fill on the human carcass, when (a man) has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
11. Seize ye, and tear out in-breathing and outbreathing, O Nyarbudi (and Arbudi): deep-sounding groans shall arise! Let them make it evident to the enemy, when (a man) has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!

12. Scare them forth, let them tremble; bewilder the enemies with fright! With thy broad embrace, with the clasp of thy arms crush the enemies, O Nyarbudi!
13. May their arms, and the artful scheme that is in their mind be confused! Not a thing shall remain of them, pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
14. May (the mourning women) beating them selves, run together, smiting their breasts and their thighs, not anointed, with dishevelled hair, howling, when a man has been slain, has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
15. The dog-like Apsaras, and also the Rûpakâs (phantoms), the plucking sprite, that eacerly licks within the vessel, and her that seeks out what has been carelessly hidden, all those do thou, O Arbudi, make the enemies see, and spectres also make them see!
16. (And also make them see) her that strides upon the mist, the mutilated one, who dwells with the mutilated; the vapoury spooks that are hidden, and the Gandharvas and Apsaras, the serpents, and other brood, and the Rakshas!
17. (And also) the spooks with fourfold teeth, black teeth, testicles like a pot, bloody faces, who are inherently frightful, and terrifying!
18. Frighten thou, O Arbudi, yonder lines of the enemy; the conquering and the victorious (Arbudi and Nyarbudi), the two comrades of Indra, shall conquer the enemies!
19. Dissolved, crushed, slain the enemy shall lie, O Nyarbudi! May victorious sprites, with fiery tongues and smoky crests, go with (our) army!
20. Of the enemies repulsed by this (army), O Arbudi, Indra, the spouse of Saki, shall slay each picked man: not a single one of those yonder shall escape!
21. May their hearts burst, may their life's breath escape upward! May dryness of the mouth overtake (our) enemies, but not (our) allies!
22. Those who are bold and those who are cowardly, those who turn (in flight) and those who are deaf (to danger?), those who are (like) dark goats, and those, too, who bleat like goats, all those, do thou, O Arbudi, make the enemies see, and spectres also make them see!
23. Arbudi and Trishamdhi shall pierce our enemies, so that, O Indra, slayer of Vritra, spouse of Sakî, we may slay the enemy by thousands!
24. The trees, and (growths) that are like trees, the plants and the herbs as well, the Gandharvas and the Apsaras, the serpents, gods, pious men, and (departed) Fathers, all those, O Arbudi, do thou make the enemies see, and spectres also make them see!
25. The Maruts, god Âditya, Brahmanaspati did rule over you; Indra, and Agni, Dhâtar, Mitra, and Pragâpati did rule over you; the seers did rule over you. Let them make evident to the enemies when (a man) has been pierced by thee, O Arbudi!
26. Ruling over all these, rise ye and arm yourselves! Ye divine folk are (our) friends: win ye the battle, and disperse to your various abodes!

1. Arise and arm yourselves, ye nebulous spectres together with fiery portents; ye serpents, other brood, and Rakshas, run ye after the enemy!
2. He knows bow to rule your kingdom together with the red portents (of the heavens). The evil brood that is in the air and the heaven, and the human (powers) upon the earth, shall be obedient to the plans of Trishamdhi!
3. The brazen-beaked (birds of prey), those with beaks pointed as a needle, and those, too, with thorny beaks, flesh-devouring, swift as the wind, shall fasten themselves upon the enemies, together with the Trishamdhi-bolt (the bolt with three joints)!
4. Make away with, O Gâtavedas Âditya, many carcasses! This army of Trishamdhi shall be

devoted to my bidding!
5. Arise thou divine person, O Arbudi, together with thy army! This tribute has been offered to you (Arbudi and Trishamdhi), an offerinor pleasing to Trishamdhi.
6. This white-footed, four-footed arrow shall fetter (?). Do thou, O magic spell, operate, together with the army of Trishamdhi, against the enemies!
7. May (the mourning woman) with suffused eyes hurry on, may she that hath short (mutilated?) ears shout when (a man) has been overcome by the army of Trishamdhi! Red portents shall be (visible)!
8. May the winged birds that move in the air and in the sky descend; beasts of prey and insects shall seize upon them; the vultures that feed upon raw flesh shall hack into (their) carcasses!
9. By virtue of the compact which thou, O Brihaspati, didst close with Indra and Brahman, by virtue of that agreement with Indra, do I call hither all the gods: on this side conquer, not over yonder!
10. Brihaspati, the descendant of Angiras, and the seers, inspired by (our) song, did fix the three-jointed (Trishamdhi) weapon upon the sky for the destruction of the Asuras.
11. Trishamdhi, by whom both yonder Âditya (the sun) and Indra, are protected, the gods did destine for (our) might and strencth.
12. All the worlds the gods did conquer through this oblation, (and) by the bolt which Brihaspati, the descendant of Angiras, did mould into a weapon for the destruction of the Asuras.
13. With the bolt which Brihaspati, the descendant of Angiras, did, mould into a weapon for the destruction of the Asuras do I, O Brihaspati, annihilate yonder army: I smite the enemies with force.
14. All the gods that eat the oblation offered with the call vashat are coming over. Receive this oblation graciously; conquer on this side, not over yonder!
15. May all the gods come over: the oblation is pleasing to Trishamdhi. Adhere to the great compact under which of yore the Asuras were conquered!
16. Vâyu (the wind) shall bend the points of the enemies' bows, Indra shall break their arms, so that they shall be unable to lay on their arrows, Âditya (the sun) shall send their missiles astray, and Kandramas (the moon) shall bar the way of (the enemy) that has not (as yet) started!
17. If they have come on as citadels of the gods, if they have constituted an inspired charm as their armour, if they have gathered courage through the protections for the body and the bulwarks which they have made, render all that devoid of force!
18. Placing (our) purohita (chaplain), together with the flesh-devourer (Agni) and death, in thy train, do thoti, O Trishamdhi, go forth with thy army, conquer the enemies, advance!
19. O Trishamdhi, envelop thou the enemies in darkness; may not a single one of those, driven forth by the speckled ghee, be saved!
20. May the white-footed (arrow?) fly to yonder lines of the enemy, may yonder armies of the enemies be to-day put to confusion, O Nyarbudi!
21. The enemies have been confused, O Nyarbudi: slay each picked man among them, slay them with this army!
22. The enemy with coat-of-mail, he that has no coat-of-mail, and he that stands in the battle-throng, throttled by the strings of their bows, by the fastenings of their coats-of-mail, by the battle-throng, they shall lie!
23. Those w ith armour and those without armour, the enemies that are shielded by armour,

all those, O Arbudi, after they have been slain, dogs shall devour upon the ground!
24. Those that ride on chariots, and those that have no chariots, those that are mounted, and those that are not mounted, all those, after they have been slain, vultures and strong-winged hawks shall devour!
25. Counting its dead by thousands, the hostile army, pierced and shattered in the clash of arms, shall lie!
26. Pierced in a vital spot, shrieking in concert with the birds of prey, wretched, crushed, prostrate, (the birds of prey) shall devour the enemy who attempts to hinder this oblation of ours directed against (him)!
27. With (the oblation) to which the gods flock, which is free from failure,-with it Indra, the slayer of Vritra, shall slay, and with the Trishamdhi-bolt (the bolt with three joints)!

1. High sounds the voice of the drum, that acts the warrior, the wooden (drum), equipped with the skin of the cow. Whetting thy voice, subduing the enemy, like a lion sure of victory, do thou loudly thunder against them!
2. The wooden (instrument) with fastened (covering) has thundered as a lion, as a bull roars to the cow that longs to mate. Thou art a bull, thy enemies are eunuchs; thou ownest Indra's foesubduing fire!
3. Like a bull in the herd, full of might, lusty, do thou, O snatcher of booty, roar against them! Pierce with fire the heart of the enemy; with -broken ranks the foe shall run and scatter!
4. In victorious battles raise thy roar! What may be captured, capture; sound in many places! Favour, O drum, (our deeds) with thy divine voice; bring to (us) with strength the property of the enemy!
5. When the wife of the enemy hears the voice of the drum, that speaks to a far distance, may she, aroused by the sound, distressed, snatch her son to her arms, and run, frightened at the clash of arms!
6. Do thou, O drum, sound the first sound, ring brilliantly over the back of the earth! Open wide thy maw at the enemies host; resound brightly, joyously, O drum!
7. Between this heaven and earth thy noise shall spread, thy sounds shall quickly part to every side! Shout thou and thunder with swelling sound; make music at thy friend's victory, having, (chosen) the good side!
8. Manipulated with care, its voice shall resound! Make bristle forth the weapons of the warriors! Allied to Indra do thou call hither the warriors; with thy friends beat vigorously down the enemies!
9. A shouting herald, followed by a bold army, spreading news in many places, sounding through the village, eager for success, knowing the way, do thou distribute glory to many in the battle!
10. Desiring advantage, gaining booty, full mighty, thou hast been made keen by (my) song, and winnest battles. As the press-stone on the gathering skin dances upon the soma-sboots, thus do thou, O drum, lustily dance upon the booty!
11. A conqueror of enemies, overwhelming, foe-subduing, eager for the fray, victoriously crushing, as a speaker his speech do thou carry forth thy sound; sound forth here strength for victory in battle!
12. Shaking those that are unshaken, hurrying to the strife, a conqueror of enemies, an unconquerable leader, protected by Indra, attending to the hosts, do thou that crusheth the hearts of the enemies, quickly go!

1. Carry with thy voice, O drum, lack of heart, and failure of courage among the enemies! Disagreement, dismay, and fright, do we place into the enemies: beat them down, O drum!
2. Agitated in their minds, their sight, their hearts, the enemies shall run, frightened with terror, when our oblation has been offered!
3. Made of wood, equipped with the skin of the cow, at home with every clan, put thou with thy voice terror into the enemies, when thou hast been anointed with ghee!
4. As the wild animals of the forest start in fear from man, thus do thou, O drum, shout against the enemies, frighten them away, and bewilder their minds!
5. As goats and sheep run from the wolf, badly frightened, thus do thou, O drum, shout against the enemies, frighten them away, and bewilder their minds!
6. As birds start in fear from the eagle, as by day and by night (they start) at the roar of the lion, thus do thou, O drum, shout against the enemies, frighten them away, and bewilder their minds!
7. With the drum and the skin of the antelope all the gods, that sway the battle, have scared away the enemies.
8. At the noise of the beat of the feet when Indra disports himself, and at his shadow, our enemies yonder, that come in successive ranks, shall tremble!
9. The whirring of the bowstring and the drums shall shout at the directions where the conquered armies of the enemies go in successive ranks!
10. O sun, take away their sight; O rays, run after them; clinging to their feet, fasten yourselves upon them, when the strength of their arms is gone!
11. Ye strong Maruts, Prisni's children, with Indra as an ally, crush ye the enemies; Soma the king (shall crush them), Varuna the king, Mahâdeva, and
also Mrityu (death), and Indra!
12. These wise armies of the gods, having the sun as their ensign, shall conquer our enemies! Hail!

CHARMS TO SECURE HARMONY, INFLUENCE IN THE ASSEMBLY, AND THE LIKE (SÂMMANASYÂNI, ETC.).

1. Unity of heart, and unity of mind, freedom from hatred, do I procure for you. Do ye take delight in one another, as a cow in her (new-) born calf!
2. The son shall be devoted to his father, be of the same mind with his mother; the wife shall speak honied, sweet, words to her husband!
3. The brother shall not hate the brother, and the sister not the sister! Harmonious, devoted to the same purpose, speak ye words in kindly spirit!
4. That charm which causes the gods not to disagree, and not to hate one another, that do we prepare in your house, as a means of agreement for your folk.
5. Following your leader, of (the same) mind, do ye not hold yourselves apart! Do ye come here, co-operating, going along the same wagon-pole, speaking agreeably to one another! I render you of the same aim, of the same mind.
6. Identical shall be your drink, in common shall be your share of food! I yoke you together in the same traces: do ye worship Agni, joining together, as spokes around about the hub!
7. I render you of the same aim, of the same mind, all paying deference to one (person) through my harmonising charm. Like the gods that are guarding the ambrosia, may he (the leader) be welldisposed towards you, night and day!

1. Hither shall come Varuna, Soma, Agni; Brihaspati with the Vasus shall come hither! Come together, O ye kinsmen all, of one mind, to the glory of this mighty guardian!
2. The fire that is within your souls, the scheme that hath entered your minds, do I frustrate with my oblation, with my ghee: delight in me shall ye take, O kinsmen!
3. Remain right here, go not away from us; (the roads) at a distance Pûshan shall make impassable for you! Vistoshpati shall urgently call you back: delight in me shall ye take, O kinsmen!

1. May your bodies be united, may your mindg and your purposes (be united)! Brahmanaspati here has brought you together, Bhaga has brought you together.
2. Harmony of mind (I procure) for you, and also harmony of heart. Moreover with the aid of Bhaga's exertions do I cause you to agree.
3. As the Âdityas are united with the Vasus, as the fierce (Rudras), free from grudge, with the Maruts, thus, O three-named (Agni), without grudge, do thou render these people here of the same mind!

1. May we be in harmony with our kinfolk, in harmony with strangers; do ye, O Asvins, establish here agreement among us!
2. May we agree in mind and thought, may we not struggle with one another, in a spirit displeasing to the gods! Ma not the din of frequent battle-carnage arise, may the arrow not fly when the day of Indra has arrived!

1. Do ye agree, unite yourselves, may your minds be in harmony, just as the gods of old in harmony-. sat down to their share!
2. Same be their counsel, same their assembly, same their aim, in common their thought! The 'same' oblation do I sacrifice for you: do ye enter upon the same plan!
Same be your intention, same your hearts! Same be your mind, so that it may be perfectly in common to you!

1. As the bowstring from the bow, thus do I take off thy anger from thy heart, so that, having become of the same mind, we shall associate like friends!
2. Like friends we shall associate-I take off thy anger. Under a stone that is heavy do we cast thy anger.
3. I step upon thy anger with my heel and my fore-foot, so that, bereft of will, thou shalt not speak, shalt come up to my wish!

1. This darbha-grass removes the anger of both kinsman and of stranger. And this remover of wrath, 'appeaser of wrath' it is called.
2. This darbha-grass of many roots, that reaches down into the ocean, having risen from the earth, 'appeaser of wrath' it is called.
3. Away we take the offensiveness that is in thy jaw, away (the offensiveness) in thy mouth, so that, bereft of will, thou shalt not speak, shalt come up to my wish!

II, 27. Charm against opponents in debate, undertaken with the pâtâ-plant.

1. May the enemy not win the debate! Thou art mighty and overpowering. Overcome the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!
2. An eagle found thee out, a boar dug thee out with his snout. Overcome the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!

3. Indra placed thee upon his arm in order to overthrow the Asuras. Overcome the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!
4. Indra did eat the pâtâ-plant, in order to overthrow the Asuras. Overcome the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!
5. By means of thee I shall conquer the enemy, as Indra (conquered) the Sâlâvrikas. Overcome the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!
6. O Rudra, whose remedy is the urine, with black crest of hair, performer of (strong) deeds,overcome thou the debate of those that debate against us, render them devoid of force, O plant!
7. Overcome thou the debate of him that is hostile to us, O Indra! Encourage us with thy might! Render me superior in debate!

1. May assembly and meeting, the two daughters of Pragâpati, concurrently aid me! May he with whom I shall meet co-operate with me, may I, O ye Fathers, speak agreeably to those assembled!
2. We know thy name, O assembly: 'mirth,' verily, is thy name; may all those that sit assembled in thee utter speech in harmony with me!
3. Of them that are sitting together I take to myself the power and the understanding: in this entire vathering render, O Indra, me successful!
4. If your mind has wandered to a distance, or has been enchained here or there, then do we turn it hither: may your mind take delight in me!

1. Your minds, your purposes, your plans, do we cause to bend. Ye persons yonder, that are devoted to other purposes, we cause you to comply!
2. With my mind do I seize your minds: do ye with your thoughts follow my thought! I place your hearts in my control: come ye, directing your way after my course!
3. I have called upon heaven and earth, I have called upon the goddess Sarasvatî, I have called upon both Indra and Agni: may we succeed in this. O Sarasvatî!

CHARMS TO SECURE PROSPERITY IN HOUSE, FIELD, CATTLE, BUSINESS, GAMBLING, AND KINDRED MATTERS.

1. Right here do I erect a firm house: may it stand upon a (good) foundation, dripping with ghee! Thee may we inhabit, O house, with heroes all, with strong heroes, with uninjured heroes!
2. Right here, do thou, O house, stand firmly, full of horses, full of cattle, full of abundance! Full of sap, ful.] of ghee, full of milk, elevate thyself unto great happiness!
3. A supporter art thou, O house, with broad roof, containing purified grain! To thee may the calf come, to thee the child, to thee the milch-cows, when they return in the evening!
4. May Savitar, Vâyu, Indra, Brihaspati cunningly erect this house! Alay the Alaruts sprinkle it with moisture and with ghee; may king Bhaga let our ploughing take root!
5. O mistress of dwelling, as a sheltering and kindly goddess thou wast erected by the gods in the bealrinina; clothed in grass, be thou kindly disposed; give us, moreover, wealth along with heroes!
6. Do thou, O cross-beam, according to regulation ascend the post, do thou, mightily ruling, hold off the enemies! May they that approach thee reverently, O house, not suffer injury, may we with all our heroes live a hundred autumns!
7. Hither to this (house) hath come the tender child, hither the calf along with (the other)

domestic animals; hither the vessel (full) of liquor, together with bowls of sour milk!
8. Carry forth, O woman, this full jar, a stream of ghee mixed with ambrosia! Do thou these drinkers supply with ambrosia; the sacrifice and the gifts (to the Brahmans) shall it (the house) protect!
9. These waters, free from disease, destructive of disease, do I carry forth. The chambers do I enter in upon together with the immortal Agni (fire).

1. Raise thyself up, grow thick by thy own might, O grain! Burst every vessel! The lightning in the heavens shall not destroy thee!
2. When we invoke thee, god grain, and thou dost listen, then do thou raise thyself up like the sky, be inexhaustible as the sea!
3. Inexhaustible shall be those that attend to thee, inexhaustible thy heaps! Theywhogivethee as a present shall be inexhaustible, they who eat thee shall be inexhaustible!

1. May this bounteous Nabhasaspati (the lord of the cloud) preserve for us (possessions) without measure in our house!
2. Do thou, O Nabhasaspati, keep strengthening food in our house, may prosperity and goods come hither!
3. O bounteous god, thou dost command thousandfold prosperity: of that do thou bestow upon iis, of that do thou give us, in that may we share with thee!

1. Slay ye the tarda ('borer'), the samanka ('hook'), and the mole, O Asvins; cut off their heads, and crush their ribs! Shut their mouths, that they shall not eat the barley; free ye, moreover, the grain from danger!
2. Ho tarda ('borer'), ho locust, ho gabhya ('snapper'), upakvasa! As a Brahman (eats not) an uncompleted sacrifice, do ye, not eating this barley, without working injury, get out!
3. O husband of the tardâ (-female), O husband Of the vaghâ (-female), ye of the sharp teeth, listen to me! The vyadvaras ('rodents') of the forest, and whatever other vyadvaras (there are), all these we do crush.

1. With thy broad thunder,with the beacon, elevated by the gods that pervade this all, with the lightning do thou not destroy our grain, O god; nor do thou destroy it with the rays of the sun!

1. Hither shall come the cattle which have strayed to a distance, whose companionship Vâyu (the wind) enjoys! (The cattle) whose structure of form Tvashtar knows, Savitar shall hold in place in this stable!
2. To this stable the cattle shall flow together, Brihaspati skilfully shall conduct them hither! Sînîvâlî shall conduct hither their van: do thou, O Anumati, hold them in place after they have arrived!
3. May the cattle, may the horses, and may the domestics flow together; may the increase of the grain flow together! I sacrifice with an oblation that causeth to flow together!
4. I pour together the milk of the cows, I pour together strength and sap with the ghee. Poured together shall be our heroes, constant shall be the cows with me the owner of the cows!

5. I bring hither the milk of the cows, I have brought hither the sap of the grain. Brought hither are our heroes, brought hither to this house are our wives.

1. With a firmly founded stable, with wealth, with well-being, with the name of that which is born on a lucky day do we unite you (O cattle)!
2. May Aryaman unite you, may Pûshan, Brihaspati, and Indra, the conqueror of booty, unite you! Do ye prosper my possessions!
Flocking together without fear, making ordure in this stable, holding honey fit for soma, free from disease, ye shall come hither!
4. Right here come, ye cows, and prosper here like the sakâ-bird! And right here do ye beget (your youn(y)! May ye be in accord with me!
5. May your stable be auspicious to you, prosper ye like the sâri-birds and parrots! And right here do ye beget (your young)! With us do we unite you.
6. Attach yourselves, O cows, to me as your possessor; may this stable here cause you to prosper! Upon you, growing numerous, and living, may we, increasing in wealth, alive, attend!

1. Thy foremost protection, O Arundhatî, do thou bestow upon steer and milch-kine, upon (cattle of) the age when weaned from their mother, upon (all) four-footed creatures!
2. May Arundhatî, the herb, bestow protection along with the gods, render full of sap the stable, free from disease our men!
3. The variegated, lovely, life-giving (plant) do I invoke. May she carry away for us, far from the cattle, the missile hurled by Rudra!

1. As meat, and liquor, and dice (abound) at the gambling-place, as the heart of thf. lusty male hankers after the woman, thus shall thy heart, O cow, hanker after the calf!
2. As the elephant directs his steps after the steps of the female, as the heart of the lusty male hankers after the woman, thus shall thy heart, O cow, hanker after the calf!
3. As the felloe, and as the spokes, and as the nave (of the wheel is joined) to the felloe, as the heart of the lusty male hankers after the woman, thus shall thy heart, O cow, hanker after the calf!

1. Through one creation at a time this (cow) was born, when the fashioners of the beings did create the cows of many colours. (Therefore), when a cow doth beget twins portentously, growling and cross she injureth the cattle.
2. This (cow) doth injure our cattle: a flesh-eater, devourer, she hath become. Hence to a Brahman he shall give her; in this way she may be kindly and auspicious!
3. Auspicious be to (our) men, auspicious to (our) cows and horses, auspicious to this entire field, auspicious be to us right here!
4. Here be prosperity, licre be sap! Be thou here one that especially gives a thousandfold! Make the cattle prosper, thou mother of twins!
5. Where our pious friends live joyously, having left behind the ailments of their bodies, to that world the mother of twins did attain: may she not injure our men and our cattle!
6. Where is the world of our pious friends, where the world of thern that sacrifice with the agnihotra, to that world the mother of twins did attain: may she not injure our imen and our cattle!

1. Swift as the wind be thou, O steed, when joined (to the chariot); at Indra's urging go, fleet as the mind! The Maruts, the all-possessing, shall harness thee,Tvashtar shall put fleetness into thy feet!
2. With the fleetness, O runner, that has been deposited in thee in a secret place, (with the fleetness) that has been made over to the eagle, the wind, and moves in them, with that, O steed, strong with strength, do thou win the. race, reaching the goal in the contest!
3. Thy body, O steed, leading (our) body, shall run, a pleasure to ourselves, delight to thyself! A god, not stumbling, for the support of the great, he shall, as if upon the heaven, found his own light!

1. Because of yore, when the (cloud-) serpent was slain (by Indra), ye did rush forth and shout (anadatâ), therefore is your name 'shouters' (nadyah rivers'): that is your designation, ye streams!
2. Because, when sent forth by Varuna, ye then quickly did bubble up; then Indra met (âpnot) you, as ye went, therefore anon are ye 'meeters' (âpah waters')!
3. When reluctantly ye flowed, Indra, forsooth, did with might choose (avîvarata) you as his own, ye goddesses! Therefore 'choice' (vâr 'water') has been given you as your name!
4. One god stood upon you, as ye flowed according to will. Up breathed (ud ânishuh) they who are known as 'the great' (mahîh). Therefore 'upbreather' (udakam 'water') are they called!
5. The waters are kindly, the waters in truth were ghee. These waters, truly, do support Agni and Soma. May the readily flowing, strong sap of the honey-dripping (waters) come to me, together with life's breath and lustre!
6. Then do I see them and also do I hear them; their sound, their voice doth come to me. When, ye golden-coloured, I have refreshed myself with you, then I ween, ambrosia (amrita) am I tasting!
7. Here, ye waters, is your heart, here is your calf, ye righteous ones! Come ye, mighty ones, by this way here, by which I am conducting you here!

1. Where thou comest, (O fire), and where thou goest away, the blooming dûrvâ-plant shall grow: a well-spring there shall rise up, or a lotus-laden pool!
2. Here (shall be) the gathering place of the waters, here the dwelling-place of the sea! In the midst of a pond our house shall be: turn, (O fire), away thy jaws!
With a covering of coolness do we envelop thee, O house; cool as a pond be thou for us! Agni shall furnish the remedy!

1. Three have gone away from here, the tiger, man, and wolf. Out of sight, forsooth, cm the rivers, out of siaht (grows the divine tree (the banyan-tree?): out of sight the enemies shall retreat!
2. The wolf shall tlead a distant path, and the robber one still more distant! On a distant path shall move the biting rope (the serpent), on a distant path the plotter of evil!
3. Thy eyes and thy jaw we crush, O tiger, and also all thy twenty claws.
4. We crush the tiger, the foremost of animals, armed with teeth. Next, too, the thief, and then the serpent, the wizard, and also the wolf.
5. The thief that approacheth to-day, crushed to pieces he goeth away. Where the paths are precipitate he shall go, Indra shall slay him with his bolt!
6. The teeth of the wild beast are dulled, and broken are his ribs. Out of thy sight the dragon

shall go, down shall tumble the hare-hunting beast!
7. The (jaw, O beast,) that thou shuttest together, thou shalt not open up; that which thou openest up, thou shalt not shut together!--Born of Indra, born of Soma, thou, (my charm), art Atharvan's crusher of tigers.

1. Indra, the merchant, do I summon: may he come to us, may he be our van; driving away the demon of grudge, the waylayers, and wild beasts, may he, the possessor, bestow wealth upon me!
2. May the many paths, the roads of the gods, which come together between heaven and earth, c,ladden me with milk and ghee, so that I may gather in wealth from my purchases!
3. Desirous do I, O Agni, with firewood and ghee offer oblations (to thee), for success and strength; according to ability praising (thee) with my prayer, do I sing this divine song, that I may gain a hundredfold!
4. (Pardon, O Agni, this sin of ours [incurred upon] the far road which we have travelled!) May our purchases and our sales be successful for us; may what I get in barter render me a gainer! May ye two (Indra and Agni) in accord take pleasure in this oblation! May our transactions and the accruing gain be auspicious to us!
5. The wealth with which I go to purchase, desiring, ye gods, to gain wealth through wealth, may that grow more, not less! Drive away, O Agni, in return for the oblation, the gods who shut off gain!
6. The wealth with which I go to purchase, desiring, ye gods, to gain wealth through wealth, may Indra, Pragâpati, Savitar, Soma, Agni, place lustre into it for me!
7. We praise with reverence thee, O priest (Agni) Vaisvdnara. Do thou over our children, selves, cattle, and life's breath watch!
8. Daily, never failing, shall we bring (oblations to thee), O Gâtavedas, (as if fodder) to a horse standing (in the stable). In growth of wealth and nutriment rejoicing, may we, O Agni, thy neighbours, not take harm!

1. The successful, victorious, skilfully gaming Apsarâ, that Apsarâ who makes the winnings in the game of dice, do I call hither.
2. The skilfully gaming Apsarâ who sweeps and heaps up (the stakes), that Apsarâ who takes the winnings in the game of dice, do I call hither.
May she, who dances about with the dice, when she takes the stakes from the game of dice, when she desires to win for us, obtain the advantage by (her) magic! May she come to us full of abundance! Let them not win this wealth of ours!
4. The (Apsarâs) who rejoice in dice, who carry grief and wrath-tbat joyful and exulting Apsarâ, do I call hither.

B. Prayer to secure the return of calves that have strayed to a distance.

5. They (the cattle) who wander along the rays of the sun, or they who wander along the flood of light) they whose bull (the. sun), full of strength, from afar protecting, with the day wanders about all the worlds-may he (the bull), full of strength, delighting in this offering, come to us touether with the atmosphere!
6. Together with the atmosphere, O thou who art full of strength, protect the white (karkî) calf, O thou swift steed (the sun)! Here are many drops (of ghee) for thee; come hither! May this white calf (karkî) of thine, may thy mind, be here!
7. Together with the atmosphere, O thou who art full of strength, protect the white (karkî)

calf, O thou swift steed (the sun)! Here is the fodder, here the stall, here do we tie down the calf. Whatever (are your) names, we own you. Hail!

1. As the lightning at all times smites irresistibly the tree, thus would I to-day irresistibly beat the gamesters with my dice!
2. Whether they be alert, or not alert, the fortune of (these) folks, unresisting, shall assemble from all sides, the gain (collect) within my hands!
3. I invoke with reverence Agni, who has his own riches; here attached he shall beap up gain for us! I procure (wealth) for myself, as if with chariots that win the race. May I accomplish auspiciously the song of praise to the Maruts!
4. May we by thy aid conquer the (adversary s) troop; help us (to obtain) our share in every contest! Make for us, O Indra, a good and ample road; crush, O Maghavan, the lusty power of our enemies!
5. I have conquered and cleaned thee out (?); I have also gained thy reserve. As the wolf plucks to pieces the sheep, thus do I pluck thy winnings.
6. Even the strong hand the bold player conquers, as the skilled gambler heaps up his winnings at the proper time. Upon him that loves the game (the god), and does not spare his money, (the game, the god) verily bestows the delights of wealth.
7. Through (the possession of) cattle we all would suppress (our) wretched poverty, or with grain our hunger, O thou oft implored (god)! May we foremost among rulers, unharmed, gain wealth by our cunning devices!
8. Gain is deposited in my right hand, victory in my left. Let me become a conqueror of cattle, horses, wealth, and gold!
9. O dice, yield play, profitable as a cow that is rich in milk! Bind me to a streak of gain, as the bow (is bound) with the string!

1. May the serpent, ye gods, not slay us along with our children and our men! The closed (jaw) shall not snap open, the open one not close! Reverence (be) to the divine folk!
2. Reverence be to the black serpent, reverence to the one that is striped across! To the brown svaga reverence; reverence to the divine folk!
3. I clap thy teeth upon thy teeth, and also thy jaw upon thy jaw; I press thy tongue against thy tongue, and close up, O serpent, thy mouth.

X, 4. Charm against serpents, invoking the horse of Pedu that slays serpents.

1. To Indra belongs the first chariot, to the gods the second chariot, to Varuna, forsooth, the third. The serpents' chariot is the last: it shall hit a post, and come to grief!
2. The young darbha-grass burns (the serpents?), the tail of the horse, the tail of the shaggy one, the seat of the wagon (burns the serpents?).
3. Strike down, O white (horse), with thy forefoot and thy hind-foot! As timber floating in water, the poison of the serpents, the fierce fluid, is devoid of strength.
4. Neighing loudly he dived down, and, again diving up, said: 'As timber floating in water, the poison of the serpents, the fierce fluid, is devoid of strength.'
5. The horse of Pedu slays the kasarnîla, the horse of Pedu slays the white (serpent), and also the black. The horse of Pedu cleaves the head of the ratharvî, the adder.
6. O horse of Pedu, go thou first: we come after thee! Thou shalt cast out the serpents from the road upon which we come!
7. Here the horse of Pedu was born; from here is his departure. Here are the tracks of the serpent-killing, powerful steed!

8. May the closed (serpent's jaw) not snap open, may the open one not close! The two serpents in this field, man and wife, they are both bereft of strength.
9. Without strength here are the serpents, those that are near, and those that are far. With a club do I slay the vriskika (scorpion), with a staff the serpent that has approached.
10. Here is the remedy for both the aghâsva and the svaga! Indra (and) Pedu's horse have put to naught the evil-planning (aghâyantam) serpent.
11. The horse of Pedu do we remember, the strong, with strong footing: behind he, staring forth, these adders.
12. Deprived are they of life's spirit, deprived of poison, slain by Indra with his bolt. Indra hath slain them: we have slain them.
13. Slain are they that are striped across, crushed are the adders! Slay thou the one that produces a hood, (slay) the white and the black in the darbha-grass!
14. The maiden of the Kirâta-tribe, the little one digs up the remedy, with golden spades, on the mountain's back.
15. Hither has come a youthful physician: he slays the speckled (serpent), is irresistible. He, forsooth, crushes the svaga and the vriskika both.
16. Indra did set at naught for me the serpent, (and so did) Mitra and Varuna, Vâta and Parganya both.
17. Indra did set at naught for me the serpent, the adder, male and female, the svaga, (the serpent) that is striped across, the kasarnîla, and the dasonasi.
18. Indra slew thy first ancestor, O serpent, and since they are crushed, what strength, forsooth, can be theirs?
19. I have gathered up their heads, as the fisherman the karvara (fish). I have gone off into the river's midst, and washed out the serpent's poison.
20. The poison of all serpents the rivers shall carry off! Slain are they that are striped across, crushed are the adders!
21. As skilfully I cull the fibre of the plants, as I guide the mares, (thus), O serpent, shall thy poison go away!
22. The poison that is in the fire, in the sun, in the earth, and in the plants, the kândâ-poison, the kanaknaka, thy poison shall go forth, and come!
23. The serpents that are sprung from the fire, that are sprung from the plants, that are sprung from the water, and originate from the lightning; they from whom great brood has sprung in many ways, those serpents do we revere with obeisance.
24. Thou art, (O plant), a maiden, Taudî by name.; Ghritâkî, forsooth, is thy name. Underfoot is thy place: I take in hand what destroys the poison.
25. From every limb make the poison start; shut it out from the heart! Now the force that is in thy poison shall go down below!
26. The poison has gone to a distance: he has shut it out; he has fused the poison with poison. Agni has put away the poison of the serpent, Soma has led it out. The poison has gone back to the biter. The serpent is dead!

1. O Bhava and Sarva, be merciful, do not attack (us); ye lords of beings, lords of cattle, reverence be to you twain! Discharge not your arrow even after it has been laid on (the bow), and has been drawn! Destroy not our bipeds and our quadrupeds!
2. Prepare not our bodies for the dog, or the jackal; for the aliklavas, the vultures, and the black birds! Thy greedy insects, O lord of cattle (pasupate), and thy birds shall not get us to devour!

3. Reverence we offer, O Bhava, to thy roaring, to thy breath, and to thy injurious qualities; reverence to thee, O Rudra, thousand-eyed, immortal!
4. We offer reverence to thee from the east, from the north, and from the -south; from (every) domain, and from heaven. Reverence be to thy atmosphere!
5. To thy face, O lord of cattle, to thy eyes, O Bhava, to thy skin, to thy form, thy appearance, (and to thy aspect) from behind, reverence be!
6. To thy limbs, to thy belly, to thy tongue, to thy mouth, to thy teeth, to thy smell (nose), reverence be!
7. May we not conflict with Rudra, the archer with the dark crest, the thousand-eyed, powerful one, the slayer of Ardhaka!
8. Bhava shall steer clear from us on all sides, Bhava shall steer clear from us, as fire from water! May he not bear malice towards us: reverence be to him!
9. Four times, eight times, be reverence to Bhava, ten times be reverence to thee, O lord of cattle! To thy (charge) have been assigned these five (kinds of) cattle: cows, horses, men, goats and sheep.
10. Thine, O strong god (ugra), are the four regions, thine the sky, thine the earth, and thine this broad atmosphere; thine is this all that has a spirit and has breath upon the earth.
11. Thine is this broad, treasure-holding receptacle within which all worlds are contained. Do thou spare us, O lord of cattle: reverence be to thee! Far from us shall go the jackals, evil omens, dogs; far shall go (the mourning women) who bewail rnisfortune with dishevelled hair!
12. Thou, O crested (god), carriest in (thy hand), that smites thousands, a yellow, golden bow that slays hundreds; Rudra's arrow, the missile of the gods, flies abroad: reverence be to it, in whatever direction from here (it flies)!
13. The adversary who lurks and seeks to overcome thee, O Rudra, upon him thou dost fasten thyself from behind, as (the hunter) that follows the trail of a wounded (animal).
14. Bhava and Rudra, united and concordant, both strong (ugrau), ye advance to deeds of heroism: reverence be to both of them, in whatever direction (they are) from here!
15. Reverence be to thee coming, reverence to thee going; reverence, O Rudra, be to thee standing, and reverence, also, to thee sitting!
16. Reverence in the evening, reverence in the morning, reverence by night,reverence byday! I have offered reverence to Bhava and to Sarva, both.
17. Let us not with our tongue offend Rudra, who rushes on, thousand-eyed, overseeing all, who hurls (his shafts) forward, who is manifoldly wise!
18. We approach first the (god) that has dark horses, is black, sable, destructive, terrible, who casts down the car of Kesin: reverence be to him!
19. Do not hurl at us thy club, thy divine bolt; be not incensed at us, O lord of cattle! Shake over some other than us the celestial branch!
20. Injure us not, interpose for us, spare us, be not angry with us! Let us not contend with thee!
21. Do not covet our cattle, our men, our goats and sheep! Bend thy course elsewhere, O strong god (ugra), slay the offspring of the blasphemers!
22. He whose missile, fever and cough, assails the single (victim), as the snorting of a stallion, who snatches away (his victims) one by one, to him be reverence!
23. He who dwells fixed in the atmosphere, smiting the blasphemers of the god that do not sacrifice, to him be reverence with ten sakvarî-stanzas!
24. For thee the wild beasts of the forest have been placed in the forest: flamingoes, eagles,

birds of prey, and fowls. Thy spirit, O lord of cattle, is within the waters, to strengthen thee the heavenly waters flow.
25. The dolphins, great serpents (boas), purîkayas (water-animals), sea-monsters, fishes, ragasas at which thou shootest-there exists for thee, O Bhava, no distance, and no barrier. At a glance thou lookest around the entire earth; from the eastern thou slayest in the northern ocean.
26. Do not, O Rudra, contaminate us with fever, or with poison, or with heavenly fire: cause this lightning to descend elsewhere than upon us!
27. Bhava rules the sky, Bhava rules the earth; Bhava has filled the broad: atmosphere. Reverence be to him in whatever direction from here (he abides)!
28. O king Bhava, be merciful to thy worshipper, for thou art the lord of living beasts! He who believes the gods exist, to his quadruped and biped be merciful!
29. Slay neither our great nor our small; neither those of us that are riding, nor those that shall ride; neither our father, nor our mother. Cause no injury, O Rudra, to our own persons!
30. To Rudra's howling dogs, who swallow their food without blessing, who have wide jaws, I have made this obeisance.
31. Reverence, O god, be to thy shouting hosts, reverence to thy long-haired, reverence to thy reverenced, reverence to thy devouring hosts! May well-being and security be to us!

IV, 28. Prayer to Bhava and Sarva for protection from calamities.

1. O Bhava and Sarva, I am devoted to you. Take note of that, ye under whose control, is all this which shines (the visible universe)! Ye who rule all these two-footed and four-footed creatures, deliver us from calamity!
2. Ye to whom belongs all that is near by, yea, all that is far; ye who are known as the most skilful archers among bowmen; ye who rule all these two-footed and four-footed creatures, deliver us from calamity!
3. The thousand-eyed slayers of Vritra both do I invoke. I go praising the two strong gods (ugrau) whose pastures extend far. Ye who rule all these two-footed and four-footed creatures, deliver us from calamity!
4. Ye who, united, did undertake many (deeds) of old, and, moreover, did visit portents upon the. people; ye who rule all these two-footed and fourfooted creatures, deliver us from calamity!
5. Ye from whose blows no one either among gods or men escapes; ye who rule all these twofooted and four-footed creatures, deliver us from calamity!
6. The sorcerer who prepares a spell, or manipulates the roots (of plants) against us, against him, ye strong gods, launch your thunderbolt! Ye who rule all these two-footed and four-footed creatures, deliver us from calamity.
7. Ye strong gods, favour us in battles, bring into contact with your thunderbolt the Kimîdin! I praise you, O Bhava and Sarva, call fervently upon you in distress: deliver us from calamity!

1. On the distant path of the paths Pûshan was born, on the distant path of heaven, on the distant path of the earth. Upon the two most lovely places both he walks hither and away, knowing (the way).
2. Pûshan knows these regions all; he shall lead us by the most dangerless (way). Bestowing well-being, of radiant glow, keeping our heroes undiminished, he shall, alert and skilful, go before us!
3. O Pûshan, under thy law may we never suffer harm: as praisers of thee are we here!

4. Pûshan shall from the east place his right hand about us, shall bring again to us what has been lost: we shall come upon what has been lost!

1. When the stars made Sakadhûma their king they bestowed good weather upon him: 'This shall be his dominion,' they said.
2. Let us have good weather at noon, good weather at eve, good weather in the early morning, good weather in the niyht
3. For day and night, for the stars, for sun and moon, and for us prepare good weather, O king Sakadhûma!
4. To thee, O Sakadhûma, ruler of the stars, that gavest us good weather in the evening in the night, and by day, let there ever be obeisance!

XI, 6. Prayer for deliverance from calamity, addressed to the entire pantheon.

1. To Agni we speak and to the trees, to the plants and to the herbs; to Indra, Brihaspati, and Sûya: they shall deliver us from calamity!
2. We speak to king Varuna, to Mitra, Vishnu and Bhaga. To Amsa and Vivasvant do we speak: they shall deliver us from calamity!
3. We speak to Savitar, the god, to Dhâtar, and to Pûshan; to first-born Tvashtar do we speak: they shall deliver us from calamity!
4. We speak to the Gandharvas and the Apsaras, to the Asvins and to Brahmanaspati, to the god whose name is Aryaman: they shall deliver us from calamity!
5. Now do we speak to day and night, to Sûrya (sun) and to Kandramas (moon), the twain; to all the Âdityas we speak: they shall deliver us from calamity!
6. We speak to Vâta (wind) and Parganya, to the atmosphere and the directions of space. And to all the regions do we speak: they shall deliver us from calamity!
7. Day and night, and Ushas (dawn), too, shall deliver thee from curses! Soma the god, whom they call Kandramas (moon), shall deliver me!
8. To the animals of the earth and those of heaven, to the wild beasts of the forest, to the winged birds, do we speak: they shall deliver us from calamity!
9. Now do we speak to Bhava and Sarva, to Rudra and Pasupati; their arrows do we know well: these (arrows) shall be ever propitious to us!
10. We speak to the heavens, and the stars, to earth, the Yakshas, and the mountains; to the seas.. the rivers, and the lakes: they shall deliver us from calamity!
11. To the seven Rishis now do we speak, to the divine waters and Pragâpati. To the Fathers with Yama at their head: they shall deliver us from calamity!
12. The gods that dwell in heaven, and those that dwell in the atmosphere; the mighty (gods) that are fixed upon the earth, they shall deliver us from
calamity!
13. The Âdityas, Rudras, Vasus, the divine Atharvans in heaven, and the wise Angiras: they shall deliver us from calamity!
14. We speak to the sacrifice and the sacrificer, to the riks, the sâmans, and the healing (Atharvan) charms; we speak to the yagus-formulas and the invocations (to the gods): they shall deliver us from calamity!
15. We speak to the five kingdoms of the plants with soma the most excellent among them. The darbha-grass, hemp, and mighty barley: they shall deliver us from calamity!
16. We speak to the Arâyas (demons of grudge), Rakshas, serpents, pious men, and Fathers; to the one and a hundred deaths: they shall deliver us from calamity!
17. To the seasons we speak, to the lords of the seasons, and to the sections of the year; to

the halfyears, years, and months: they shall deliver us from calamity!
18. Come, ye gods, from the south and the west; ye gods in the east come forth! From the east, from the north the mighty gods, all the gods assembled: they shall deliver us from calamity!
19, 20. We speak here to all the gods that hold to their agreements, promote the order (of the universe), together with all their wives: they shall deliver us from calamity!
21. We speak to being, to the lord of being, and also to him that controls the beings; to the beings all assembled: they shall deliver us from calamity!
22. The five divine regions, the twelve divine seasons, the teeth of the year, they shall ever be propitious, to us!
23. The amrita (ambrosia), bought for the price of a chariot, which Mâtalî knows as a remedy, that Indra stored away in the waters: that, O ye waters, furnish ye as a remedy!

1. Pass far away, O sin of the mind! Why dost thou utter things not to be uttered? Pass away, I love thee not! To the trees, the forests go on! With the house, the cattle, is my mind.
2. What wrongs we have committed through imprecation, calumny, and false speech, either awake, or asleep--Agni shall put far away from us all offensive evil deeds!
3. What, O Indra Brahmanaspati, we do falselymay Praketas ('care-taker') Ângirasa protect us from misfortune, and from evil!

1. Let me go, O evil; being powerful, take thou pity on us! Set me, O evil, unharmed, into the world of happiness!
2. If, O evil, thou dost not abandon us, then do we abandon thee at the fork of the road. May evil follow after another (man)!
3. Away from us may thousand-eyed, immortal (evil) dwell! Him whom we hate may it strike, and him whom we hate do thou surely smite!

1. The god-angering (deed), O ye gods, that we, the (Brahman) gods, have committed, from that do ye, O Âdityas, release us, by virtue of the order of the universe!
2. By virtue of the order of the universe do ye, O reverend Âdityas, release us here, if, O ye carriers of the sacrifice, though desirous of accomplishing (the sacrifice), we did not accomplish (it)!--
3. (If), when sacrificing with the fat (animal), when offering oblations of ghee with the spoon, when desiring to benefit you, O all ye gods, we have contrary to desire, not succeeded!

1. From the sins which knowingly or unknowingly we have committed, do ye, all gods, of one accord, release us!
2. If awake, or if asleep, to sin inclined, I have committed a sin, may what has been, and what shall be, as if from a wooden post, release me!
3. As one released from a wooden post, as one in a sweat by bathing (is cleansed) of filth, as ghee is clarified by the sieve, may all (the gods) clear me from sin!

VI, 112. Expiation for the precedence of a younger brother over an older.

1. May this (younger brother) not slay the oldest one of them, O Agni; protect him that he be not torn out by the root! Do thou here cunningly loosen the fetter of Grâhi (attack of

disease); may all the gods give thee leave!
2. Free these three, O Agni, from the three fetters with which they have been shackled! Do thou cunningly loosen the fetters of Grâhi; release them all, father, sons, and mother!
3. The fetters with which the older brother, whose younger brother has married before him, has been bound, with which he has been encumbered and shackled limb by limb, may they be loosened; since fit for loosening they are! Wipe off, O Pûshan, the misdeeds upon him that practiseth abortion!

1. On Trita the gods wiped off this sin, Trita wiped it off on human beings; hence if Grâhi (attack of disease) has seized thee, may these gods remove her by means of their charm!
2. Enter into the rays, into smoke, O sin; go into the vapours, and into the fog! Lose thyself on the foam of the river! 'Wipet off, O Pûshan, the misdeeds upon him that practiseth abortion!
3. Deposited in twelve places is that which has been wiped off Trita, the sins belonging to humanity. Hence if Grâhi has seized thee, may these gods remove her by means of their charm!

1. If air, or earth and heaven, if mother or father, we have injured, may this Agni Gârhapatya (household fire) without fail lead us out from this (crime)
to the world of well-doing!
2. The earth is our mother, Aditi (the universe) our kin, the air our protector from hostile schemes. May father sky bring prosperity to us from the world of the Fathers; may I come to my (departed) kin, and not lose heaven!
3. In that bright world where our pious friends live in joy, having cast aside the ailments of their own bodies, free from lameness, not deformed in limb, there may we behold our parents and our children!

1. O ye gods, if the pigeon, despatched as the messenger of Nirriti (the goddess of destruction), hath come here seeking (us out), we shall sing his praises, and prepare (our) ransom. May our two-footed and four-footed creatures be prosperous!
2. Auspicious to us shall be the pigeon that has been despatched; harmless, ye gods, the bird shall be to our house! The sage Agni shall verily take pleasure in our oblation; the winged missile shall avoid us!
3. The winged missile shall not do us injury: upon our hearth, our fireplace he (the pigeon) takes his steps! Propitious he shall be to our cattle and
our domestics; may not, ye gods, the pigeon here do harm to us!

1. Upon those persons yonder the winged missile shall fall! If the owl shrieks, futile shall this be, or if the pigeon takes his steps upon the fire!
2. To thy two messengers, O Nirriti, who come here, despatched or not despatched, to our house, to the pigeon and to the owl, this shall be no place to step upon!
3. He shall not fly hither to slaughter (our) men; to keep (our) men sound he shall settle here! Charm .him very far away unto a distant region, that (people) shall behold you (i.e. him) in Yama's house devoid of strength, that they shall behold you bereft of power!

1. What this black bird flying forth towards (me) has dropped here--may the waters protect me from all that misfortune and evil!

2. What this black bird has brushed here with thy mouth, O Nirtiti (goddess of misfortune)-may Agni Gârhapatya (the god of the household fire) free me from this sin!

1. Thou who art neither alive nor dead, the immortal child of the gods art thou, O Sleep! Varunânî is thy mother, Yama (death) thy father, Araru is thy name.
2. We know, O Sleep, thy birth, thou art the son of the divine women-folk, the instrument of Yama (death)! Thou art the ender, thou art death! Thus do we know thee, O Sleep: do thou, O Sleep, protect us from evil dreams!
3. As one pays off a sixteenth, an eighth, or an (entire) debt, thus do we transfer every evil dream upon our enemy.

VII, 115. Charm for the removal of evil characteristics, and the acquisition of auspicious ones.

1. Fly forth from here, O evil mark, vanish from here, fly forth to yonder place! Upon him that hates us do we fasten thee with a brazen hook.
2. The unsavoury mark which flying has alighted upon me, as a creeper upon a tree, that mayest thou put away from us, away from here, O golden-handed
(golden-rayed) Savitar (the sun), bestowing goods upon us!
3. Together with the body of the mortal, from his birth, one and a hundred marks are born. Those that are most foul do we drive away from here; the auspicious ones, O Gâtavedas (Agni), do thou hold fast for us!
4. These (marks) here I have separated, as cows scattered upon the heather. The pure marks shall remain, the foul ones I have made to disappear!

1. The gods, O king, did not give to thee this (Cow) to eat. Do not, O prince, seek to devour the cow of the Brâhmana, which is unfit to be eaten!
2. The prince, beguiled by dice, the wretched one who has lost as a stake his own person, he may, perchance, eat the cow of the Brâhmana, (thinking), 'let me live to-day (if) not to-morrow'!
3. Enveloped (is she) in her skin, as an adder with evil poison; do not, O prince, (eat the cow) of the Brâhmana: sapless, unfit to be eaten, is that cow!
4. Away does (the Brâhmana) take regal power, destroys vigour; like fire which has caught does he burn away everything. He that regards the Brâhmana as fit food drinks of the poison of the taimâta-serpent.
5. He who thinks him (the Brahman) mild, and slays him, he who reviles the gods, lusts after wealth, without thought, in his heart Indra kindles a fire; him both heaven and earth hate while he lives.
6. The Brâhmana must not be encroached upon, any more than fire, by him that regards his own body! For Soma is his (the Brâhmana's) heir, Indra protects him from hostile plots.
7. He swallows her (the cow), bristling with a hundred hooks, (but) is unable to digest her, he, the fool who, devouring the food of the Brahmans, thinks, 'I am eating a luscious (morsel).'
8. (The Brahman's) tongue turns into a bow. string, his voice into the neck of an arrow; his windpipe, his teeth are bedaubed with holy fire: with these the Brahman strikes those who revile the gods, by means of bows that have the strength to reach the heart, discharged by the gods.

9. The Brâhmanas have sharp arrows, are armed with missiles, the arrow whi ch they hurl goes not in vain; pursuing him with their holy fire and their wrath, even from afar, do they pierce him.
10. They who ruled over a thousand, and were themselves ten hundred, the Vaitahavya, when they devoured the cow of the Brâhmana, perished.
11. The cow herself, when slaughtered, came down upon the Vaitahavyas. who had roasted for themselves the last she-goat of Kesaraprâbandhâ.
12. The one hundred and one persons whom the earth did cast off, because they had injured the offspring of a Brâhmana, were ruined irretrievably.
13. As a reviler of the gods does he live among mortals, having swallowed poison, he becomes more bone (than flesh). He that injureth a Brâhmana, whose kin are the gods, does not reach heaven by the road of the Fathers.
14. Agni is called our guide, Soma our heir, Indra slays those who curse (us): that the strong (sages) know.
15. Like a poisoned arrow, O king, like -an adder, O lord of cattle, is the terrible arrow of the Brâhmana: with that he smites those who revile (the gods).

1. Beyond measure they waxed strong, just fell short of touching the heavens. When they infringed upon Bhrigu they perished, the Sriñgaya Vaitahavyas.
2. The persons who pierced Brihatsâman, the descendant of Angiras, the Brâhmana--a ram with two rows of teeth, a sheep devoured their offspring.
3. They who spat upon the Brâhmana, who desired tribute from him, they sit in the middle of a pool of blood, chewing hair.
4. The cow of the Brahman, when roasted, as far as she reaches does she destroy the lustre of the kingdom; no lusty hero is born (there).
5. A cruel (sacrilegious) deed is her slaughter, her meat, when eaten, is sapless; when her milk is drunk, that surely is accounted a crime against the Fathers.
6. When the king, weening himself mighty, desires to destroy the Brâhmana, then royal power is dissipated, where the Brâhmana is oppressed.
7. Becoming eight-footed, four-eyed, four-eared, four-jawed, two-mouthed, two-tongued, she dispels the rule of the oppressor of the Brahman.
8. That (kingdom) surely she swamps, as water a leaking ship; misfortune strikes that kingdom, in which they injure a Brâhmana.
9. The trees chase away with the words: 'do not come within our shade,' him who covets the wealth that belongs to a Brâhmana, O Nârada!
10. King Varuna pronounced this (to be) poison, prepared by the gods: no one who has devoured the cow of a Brâhmana retains the charge of a kingdom.
11. Those full nine and ninety whom the earth did cast off, because they had injured the offspring of a Brâhmana, were ruined irretrievably.
12. The kûdî-plant (Christ's thorn) that wipes away the track (of death), which they fasten to the dead, that very one, O oppressor of Brahmans, the gods did declare (to be) thy couch.
13. The tears which have rolled from (the eyes of) the oppressed (Brahman), as he laments, these very ones, O oppressor of Brahmans, the gods did assign to thee as thy share of water.
14. The water with which they bathe the dead, with which they moisten his beard, that very one, O oppressor of Brahmans, the gods did assign to thee as thy share of water.
15. The rain of Mitra and Varuna does not moisten the oppressor of Brahmans; the assembly is not complacent for him, he does not guide his friend according to his will.

1. Bring (wealth) to us, do not stand in our way, O Arâti; do not keep from us the sacrificial reward as it is being taken (to us)! Adoration be to the power of grudge, the power of failure, adoration to Arâti!
2. To thy advising minister, whom thou, Arâti, didst make thy agent, do we make obeisance. Do not bring failure to my wish!
3. May our wish, instilled by the gods, be fulfilled by day and night! We go in quest of Arâti. Adoration be to Arâti!
4. Sarasvatî (speech), Anumati (favour), and Bhaga (fortune) we go to invoke. Pleasant, honied, words I have spoken on the occasions when the gods were invoked.
5. Him whom I implore with Vâk Sarasvatî (the goddess-of speech), the yoke-fellow of thought, faith shall find to-day, bestowed by the brown soma!
6. Neither our wish nor our speech do thou frustrate! May Indra and Agni both bring us wealth! Do ye all who to-day desire to make gifts to us gain favour with Arâti!
7. Go far away, failure! Thy missile do we avert. I know thee (to be) oppressive and piercing, O Arâti!
8. Thou dost even transform thyself into a naked woman, and attach thyself to people in their sleep, frustrating, O Arâti, the thought, and intention of man.
9. To her who, great, and of great dimension, did penetrate all the regions, to this golden-locked Nirriti (goddess of misfortune), I have rendered obeisance.
10. To the gold-complexioned, lovely one, who rests upon golden cushions, to the great one, to that Arâti who wears golden robes, I have rendered obeisance.

XII, 4. The necessity of giving away sterile cows to the Brahmans.

1. 'I give,' he shall surely say,'the sterile cow to the begging Brahmans'--and they have noted her--that brings progeny and offspring!
2. With his offspring does he trade, of his cattle is he deprived, that refuses to give the cow of the gods to the begging descendants of the Rishis.
3. Through (the gift of) a cow with broken horns his (cattle) breaks down, through a lame one he tumbles into a pit, through a mutilated one his house is burned, through a one-eyed one his property is given away.
4. Flow of blood attacks the cattle-owner from the spot where her dung is deposited: this understanding there is about the vasâ (the sterile cow); for thou (sterile cow) art said to be very difficult to deceive!
5. From the resting-place of her feet the (disease) called viklindu overtakes (the owner, or the cattle). Without sickness breaks down (the cattle) which she sniffs upon with her nose.
6. He that pierces her ears is estranged from the gods. He thinks: 'I am making a mark (upon her),' (but) he diminishes his own property.
7. If any one for whatsoever purpose cuts her tail then do his colts die, and the wolf tears his calves.
8. If a crow has injured her hair, as long as she is with her owner then do his children die: decline overtakes them without (noticeable) sickness.
9. If the serving-maid sweeps together her dung, that bites as lye, there arises from this sin disfigurement that passeth not away.
10. The sterile cow in her very birth is born for the gods and Brâhmanas. Hence to the Brahmans she is to be given: that, they say, guarantees the security of one's own property.
11. For those that come requesting her the cow has been created by the gods. Oppression of Brahmans it is called, if he keeps her for himself.

12. He that refuses to give the cow of the gods to the descendants of the Rishis who ask for it, infringes upon the gods, and the wrath of the Brâhmanas.
13. Though he derives benefit from this sterile cow, another (cow) then shall he seek! When kept she injures (his) folk, if he refuses to give her after she has been asked for!
14. The sterile cow is as a treasure deposited for die Brâhmanas: they come here for her, with whomsoever she is born.
15. The Brâhmanas come here for their own, when they come for the sterile cow. The refusal of her is, as though he were oppressing them in other concerns.
I& If she herds up to her third year, and no disease is discovered in her, and he finds her to be a sterile cow, O Nârada, then must he look for the Brâhmanas.
17. If he denies that she is sterile, a treasure deposited for the gods, then Bhava and Sarva, both, come upon him, and hurl their arrow upon him.
18. Though he does not perceive upon her either udder, or tits, yet both yield him milk, if he has prevailed upon himself to give away the sterile cow.
19. Hard to cheat, she oppresses him, if, when asked for, he refuses to give her. His desires are not fulfilled, if he aims to accomplish them without giving her away.
20. The gods did ask for the sterile cow, making the Brâhmana their mouthpiece. The man that does not give (her) enters into the wrath of all of these.
21. Into the wrath of the cattle enters he that gives not the sterile cow to the Brâhmanas; if he, the mortal, appropriates the share deposited for the gods.
22. Even if a hundred other Brâhmanas beg the owner for the sterile cow, yet the gods did say anent her: 'The cow belongs to him that knoweth thus.'
23. He that refuses the sterile cow to him that knoweth thus, and gives her to others, difficult to dwell upon is for him the earth with her divinities.
24. The gods did beg the sterile cow of him wilh whom she was born at first. That very one Nârada recognised and drove forth in company with the gods.
25. The sterile cow renders childless, and poor in cattle, him that yet appropriates her, when she has been begged for by the Brâhmanas.
26. For Agni and Soma, for Kâma, for Mitra, and for Varuna, for these do the Brâhmanas beg her: upon these he infringes, if he gl ves her not.
27. As long as the owner does not himself hear the stanzas referring to (the giving away of) her, she may herd among his cattle; (only) if he has not heard (them) may she pass the night in his house.
28. He that has listened to the stanzas, yet has permitted her to herd among the cattle, his life and prosperity the angry gods destroy.
29. The sterile cow, even when she rambles freely, is a treasure deposited for the gods. Make evident thy true nature when thou desirest to go to thy (proper) stable!
30. She makes evident her nature when she desires to go to her (proper) stable. Then indeed the sterile cow puts it into the minds of the Brahmans to beg (for her).
31. She evolves it in her mind, that (thought) reaches the gods. Then do the Brahmans come to beg for the sterile cow.
32. The call svadhâ befriends him with the Fathers, the sacrifice with the gods. Through the gift of the sterile cow the man of royal caste incurs not the anger of (her), his mother.
33. The sterile cow is the mother of the man of royal caste: thus was it from the beginning. It is said to be no (real) deprivation if she is given to the Brahmans.
34. As if he were to rob the ghee ladled up for Agni (the fire) from the (very) spoon, thus, if he gives not the sterile cow to the Brahmans, does he infringe upon Agni.

35. The sterile cow has the purodasa (sacrificial cake) for her calf, she yields plentiful milk, helps in this world, and fulfils all wishes for him that gives her (to the Brahmans).
36. The sterile cow fulfils all wishes in the kingdom of Yama for him that gives her. But they say that hell falls to the lot of him that withholds her, when she has been begged for.
37. The sterile cow, even if she should become fruitful, lives in anger at her owner: 'since he did regard me as sterile (without giving me to the Brahmans), he shall be bound in the fetters of death!'
38, He who thinks that the cow is sterile, and (yet) roasts her at home, even his children qnd grandchildren Brihaspati causes to be importuned (for her).
39. Fiercely does the (supposed) sterile cow burn when she herds with the cattle, though she be a (fruitful) cow. She verily, too, milks poison for the owner that does not present her.
40. It pleases the cattle when she is given to the Brahmans; moreover, the sterile cow is pleased, when she is made an offering to the gods (Brahmans).
41. From the sterile cows which the gods, returning from the sacrifice, created, Nârada picked out as (most) terrible the viliptî.
42. In reference to her the gods reflected: 'Is she a sterile cow, or not?' And Nârada in reference to her said: 'Of sterile cows she is the most sterile!'
43. 'How many sterile cows (are there), O Nârada, which thou knowest to be born among men?' About these do I ask thee, that knowest: 'Of which may the non-Brâhmana not eat?'
44. Of the viliptî, of her that has born a sterile cow, and of the sterile cow (herself), the non-Brâhmana, that hopes for prosperity, shall not eat!
45. Reverence be to thee, O Nârada, that knowest thoroughly which sterile cow is the most terrible, by withholding which (from the Brahmans) destruction is.incurred.
46. The viliptî, O Brihaspati, her that has, begotten a sterile cow, and the sterile cow (herself), the non-Brâhmana, that hopes for prosperity, shall not eat!
47. Three kinds, forsooth, of sterile cows are there: the viliptî, she that has begotten a sterile cow, and the sterile cow (herself). These he shall give to the Brahmans; (then) does he not estrange himself from Pragâpati.
48. 'This is your oblation, O Brâhmanas,' thus shall he reflect, if he is supplicated, if they ask him for the sterile cow, terrible in the house of him that refuses to give her.
49. The gods animadverted in reference to Bheda and the sterile cow, angry because he had not given her, in these verses-and therefore he (Bheda) perished.
50. Bheda did not present the sterile cow, though requested by Indra: for this sin the gods crushed him in battle.
51. The counsellors that advise the withholding (of the sterile cow), they, the rogues, in their folly, conflict with the wrath of Indra.
52. They who lead the owner of cattle aside, then say to him: 'do not give,' in their folly they run into the missile hurled by Rudra.
53. And if he roasts the sterile cow at home, whether he makes a sacrifice of her, or not, he sins against the gods and Brâhmanas, and as a cheat falls from heaven.

XI, 1. The preparation of the brahmaudana, the porridge given as a fee to the Brahmans.

1. O Agni, come into being! Aditi here in her throes, longing for sons, is cooking the porridge for the Brahmans, The seven Rishis, that did create the beings, shall here churn thee, along with progeny!
2. Produce the smoke, ye lusty friends; unharmed by wiles go ye into the contest! Here is the Agni (fire) who gains battles, and commands powerful warriors, with whom the gods did

conquer the demons.
3. O Agni, to a great heroic deed thou wast aroused, to cook the Brahman's porridge, O Gâtavedas! The seven Rishis, that did create the beings, have produced thee. Grant her (the wife) wealth together with undiminished heroes!
4. Burn, O Agni, after having been kindled by the firewood, bring skilfully hither the gods that are to be revered! Causing the oblation to cook for these (Brahmans), do thou raise this (sacrificer) to the highest firmament!
5. The, threefold share which was of yore assigned to you (belongs) to the gods, the (departed) Fathers, and to the mortals (the priests). Know your shares! I divide them for you: the (share) of the gods shall protect this (woman)!
6. O Agni, possessed of might, superior, thou dost without fail prevail! Bend down to the ground our hateful rivals!--This measure, that is being measured, and has been measured, may constitute thy kin into (people) that render thee tribute!
7. Mayest thou together with thy kin be endowed with sap! Elevate her (the wife) to great heroism! Ascend on high to the base of the firmament, which they call 'the world of brightness'!
8. This great goddess earth, kindly disposed, shall receive the (sacrificial) skin! Then may we go to the world of well-doing (heaven)!
9. Lay these two press-stones, well coupled, upon the skin; crush skilfully the (soma-) shoots for the sacrificer! Crush down, (O earth), and beat down, those who are hostile to her (the wife); lift up high, and elevate her offspring!
10. Take into thy hands, O man, the press-stones that work together: the gods that are to be revered have come to thy sacrifice! Whatever three wishes thou dost choose, I shall here procure for thee unto fulfilment.
11. This, (O winnowing-basket), is thy purpose, and this thy nature: may Aditi, mother of heroes, take hold of thee! Winnow out those who are hostile to this (woman); afford her wealth and undiminished heroes!
12. Do ye, (O grains), remain in the (winnowing-) basket, while (the wind) blows over you; be separated, ye who are fit for the sacrifice, from the chaff! May we in happiness be superior to all our equals! I bend down under our feet those that hate us.
13. Retire, O woman, and return promptly! The stable of the waters (water-vessel) has settled upon thee, that thou mayest carry it: of these (the waters) thou shalt take such as are fit for sacrifice; having intelligently divided them off, thou shalt leave the rest behind!
14. These bright women, (the waters), have come hither. Arise, thou woman, and gather strength! To thee, that art rendered by thy husband a true wife, (and) by thy children rich in offspring, the sacrifice has come: receive the (water-) vessel!
15. The share of food that belongs to you of yore has been set aside for you. Instructed by the Rishis bring thou (woman) hither this water! May this sacrifice win advancement for you, win prAection, win offspring for you; may it be mighty, win cattle, and heroes for you!
16. O Agni, the sacrificial pot has settled upon thee: do thou shining, brightly glowing, heat it with thy glow! May the divine descendants of the Rishis, assembled about their share (of the porridge), full of fervour, heat this (pot) at the proper time!
17. Pure and clear may these sacrificial women, the waters bright, flow into the pot! The), have given us abundant offspring and cattle. May he that cooks the porridge go to the world of the pious (heaven)!
18. Purified by (our) prayer, and clarified by the ghee are the soma-shoots, (and) these sacrificial grains. Enter the water; may the pot receive you! When ye have cookect this

(porridge) go ye to the world of the pious (heaven)!
19. Spread out far unto great extent, with a thousand surfaces, in the world of the pious! Grandfathers, fathers, children, grandchildren--I am the fifteenth one that did cook thee.
20. The porridge has a thousand surfaces, a hundred streams, and is indestructible; it is the road of the gods, leads to heaven. Yonder (enemies) do I place upon thee: injure them and their offspring; (but) to me that brings gifts thou shalt be merciful!
21. Step upon the altar (vedi); make this woman thrive in her progeny; repel the demons.; advance her! May we in happiness be superior to all our equals! I bend down under our feet all those that hate us.
22. Turn towards her with cattle, (thou pot), face towards her, together with the divine powers! Neither curses nor hostile magic shall reach thee; rule in thy dwelling free from disease!
23. Properly built, placed with care, this altar (vedi) has been arranged of yore for the Brahmans porridge. Put it, O woman, upon the purified amsadhrl; place there the porridge for the divine (Brâhmanas)!
24. May this sacrificial ladle (sruk), the second hand of Aditi, which the seven Rishis, the creators of the beings, did fashion, may this spoon, knowing the limbs of the porridge, heap it upon the altar!
25. The divine (Brâhmanas) shall sit down to thee, the cooked saerfice: do thou again descending from the fire, approach them! Clarified by soma settle in the belly of the Brâhmanas; the descendants of the Rishis who eat thee shall not take harm!
26. O king Soma, infuse harmony into the good Brâhmanas who shall sit about thee! Eagerly do I invite to the porridge the Rishis, descended from Rishis, that are born of religious fervour, and gladly obey the call.
27. These pure and clear sacrificial women (the waters) I put into the hands of the Brâhmanas severally. With whatever wish I pour this upon you, may Indra. accompanied by the Maruts grant this to me!
28. This gold is my immortal light, this ripe fruit of the field is my wish-granting cow. This treasure I present to the Brâhmanas: I prepare for myself a road that leads. to the Fathers in the heavens.
29. Scatter the spelt into Agni Gâtavedas (the fire), sweep away to a far distance the chaff! This (chaff) we have heard, is the share of the ruler of the house (Agni), and we know, too, what belonos to Nirriti (destruction) as her share.
30. Note, (O porridge), him that takes pains, and cooks and presses the soma; lift him up to the heavenly road, upon which, after he has reached the fullest age, he shall ascend to the highest firmament, the supreme heavens!
31. Anoint (with ghee), O adhvaryu (priest), the surface of this sustaining (porridge), make skilfully a place for the melted butter; with ghee do thou anoint all its limbs! I prepare for myself a road that leads to the Fathers in the heavens.
32. O sustaining (porridge), cast destruction and strife among such as are sitting about thee, and are not Brâhmanas! (But) the descendants of the -Rishis, that eat thee, being full of substance, spreading forth, shall not take harm!
33. To the descendants of the Rishis I make thee over, O porridge; those who are not descended from Rishis have no share in it! May Agni as my guardian, may all the Maruts, and all the gods watch over the cooked food!
34. Thee (the porridge) that milkest the sacrifice, art evermore abundant, the male milch-cow, the seat of wealth, we beseech for immortality of off-spring and long life with

abundance of wealth.
35. Thou art a lusty male, penetratest heaven: go thou to the Rishis, descended from Rishis! Dwell in the world of the pious: there is a well-prepared (place) for us two!
36. Pack thyself up, go forth! O Agni, prepare the roads, that lead to the gods! By these: well-prepared (roads) may we reach the sacrifice, standing upon the firmament (that shines) with seven rays!
37. With the light with which the gods, having cooked the porridge for the Brâmanas, ascended to heaven, to the world of the pious, with that would we go to the world of the pious, ascending to the light, to the highest firmament!

XII, 3. The preparation of the brahmaudana, the porridge given as a fee to the Brahmans.

1. (Thyself) a male, step thou upon the hide of the male (steer): go, call thither all that is dear to thee! At whatever age ye two formerly did first unite (in marriage), may that age be your common lot in Yama's kingdom!
2. Your sight shall be as clear (as formerly), your strength as abundant, your lustre as great, your vitality as manifold! When Agni, the (funeral-) pyre, fastens himself upon the corpse, then as a pair ye.shall rise from the (cooked) porridge!
3. Come ye together in this world, upon the road to the gods, and in Yama's realms! By purifications purified call ye together the offspring that has sprung from you!
4. Around the water united, sit ye down, O children; around this living (father) and the waters that refresh the living! Partake of these (waters), and of that porridge which the mother of you two cooks, and which is called amrita (ambrosia)!
5. The porridge which the father of you two, and which the mother cooks, unto freedom from defilement and foulness of speech, that porridge with a hundred streams (of ghee), leading to heaven, has penetrated with might both the hemispheres of the world.
6. In that one of the two hemispheres and the two heavenly worlds, conquered by the pious, which especially abounds in light, and is rich in honey, in that do ye in the fulness of time come together with your children!
7. Keep ever on in an easterly direction: this is the region that the faithful cling to! When your cooked porridge has been prepared on the fire, hold together, O man and wife, that ye may guard it!
8. When ye shall have reached the southerly direction, turn ye to this vessel! In that Yama, associated with the fathers, shall give abundant protection to your cooked porridge!
9. This westerly direction is especially favoured: in it Soma is ruler and consoler. To this hold, attach yourselves to the pious: then as a pair ye shall rise from the cooked porridge!
10. The northerly direction shall make our realm the very uppermost, in offspring, uppermost! The purusha is the metre pahkti: with all (our kin), endowed with all their limbs, may we be united!
11. This 'firm' direction (nadir) is Virâg (brilliancy): reverence be to her; may she be kind to my children and to me! Mayest thou, O goddess Aditi, who boldest all treasures, as an alert guardian guard the cooked porridge!
12. As a father his children do thou, (O earth), embrace us; may gentle winds blow upon us here on earth! Then the porridge which the two divinities (the sacrificer and his wife) are here preparing for us shall take note of our religious fer~our and our truth!
13. Whatever the black bird, that has come hither stealthily, has touched of that ahich has stuck to the rim, or whatever the wet-banded slavegirl does pollute-may ye, O waters, purify (that) mortar and pestle!

14. May this sturdy press-stone, with broad bottom, purified by the purifiers, beat away the Rakshas! Settle upon the skin, afford firm protection; may man and wife not come to grief in their children!
15. The (pestle of) wood has come to us together with the gods: it drives away the Rakshas and Pisâkas. Up it shall rise, shall let its voice resound
through it let us conquer all the worlds!
16. The cattle clothed itself in sevenfold strength, those among them that are sleek and those that are poor. The thirty-three gods attend them mayest thou, (O cattle), guide us to the heavenly world!
17. To the bright world of heaven thou shalt lead us; (there) let us be united with wife and children! I take her hand, may she follow me there; neither Nirriti (destruction), nor Arâti (grudge), shall gain mastery over us!
18. May we get past the evil Grâhi (seizure)! Casting aside darkness do thou, (O pestle), let thy lovely voice resound; do not, O wooden tool, when raised, do injury; do not mutilate the grain devoted to the gods!
19. All-embracing, about to be covered with ghee, enter, (O pot), as a co-dweller this space!--Take hold of the winnowing-basket, that has been grown by the rain: the spelt and the chaff it shall sift out!
20. Three regions are constructed after the pattern of the Brâhmana: yonder heaven, the earth, and the atmosphere.--Take the (soma-) shoots, and hold one another, (O man and wife)! They (the shoots) shall swell (with moisture), and again go back into the winnowing-basket!
21. Of manifold variegated colours are the animals, one colour hast thou, (O porridge), when successfully prepared.--Push these (soma-) Shoots upon this red skin; the press-stone shall purify them as the washer-man his clothes!
22. Thee, the (pot of) earth, I place upon the earth: your substance is the same, though thine, (O pot), is modified. Even though a blow has cracked or scratched thee, do not therefore burst: with this verse do I cover that up!
23. Gently as a mother embrace the son: I unite thee, (pot of) earth, with the earth! Mayest thou, the hollow pot, not totter upon the altar, when thou art pressed by the tools of sacrifice and the ghee!
24. May Agni who cooks thee protect thee on the east, Indra with the Maruts protect thee on the south! May Varuna on the west support thee upon thy foundation, may Soma on the north hold thee together!
25. Purified by the purifiers, the (waters) flow pure from the clouds, they reach to the spaces of heaven, and of the earth. They are alive, refresh the livino, and are firmly rooted: may Agni heat them, after they have been poured into the vessel!
26. From heaven they come, into the earth they penetrate; from the earth they penetrate into the atmosphere. May they, now pure, yet purify themselves further; may they conduct us to the heavenly world!
27. Whether ye are over-abundant or just sufficient, ye are surely clear, pure, and immortal: cook, ye waters, instructed by the husband and wife, obliging and helpful, the porridge!
28. Counted drops penetrate into the earth, commensurate with the breaths of life and the plants. The uncounted golden (drops), that are poured into (the porridge), have, (themselves) pure, established complete purity.
29. The boiling waters rise and sputter, cast up foam and many bubbles. Unite, ye waters, with this grain, as a woman who beholds her husband in the proper season!

30. Stir up (the grains) as they settle at the bottom: let them mingle their inmost parts with the waters! The water here I have measured with cups; measured was the grain, so as to be according to these regulations.
31. Hand over the sickle, with haste bring promptly (the grass for the barhis); without giving pain let them cut the plants at the joints! They whose kingdom Soma rules, the plants, shall not harbour anger against us!
32. Strew a new barhis for the porridge: pleasing to its heart, and lovely to its sight it shall be! Upon it the gods together with the goddesses shall enter; settle down to this (porridge) in proper order, and eat it!
33. O (instrument of) wood, settle down upon the strewn barhis, in keeping with the divinities and the agnishloma rites! Well shaped, as if by a carpenter (Tvashtar) with his axe, is thy form. Longing for this (porridge) the (gods) shall be seen about the vessel!
34. In sixty autumns the treasurer (of the porridge) shall fetch it, by the cooked grain he shall obtain heaven; the parents and the children shall live upon it. Bring thou this (man) to heaven, into the presence of Agni!
35. (Thyself) a holder, (O pot), hold on to the foundation of the earth: thee, that art immoveable the gods (alone) shall move! Man and wife, alive, with living children, shall remove thee from the hearth of the fire!
36. Thou hast conquered and reached all worlds; as many as are our wishes, thou hast satisfied them. Dip ye in, stirring stick and spoon! Place it (the por idge) upon a single dish!
37. Lay (ghee) upon it, let it spread forth, anoint this dish with ghee! As the lowing cow her young that craves the breast, ye gods shall greet with sounds of satisfaction this (porridge)!
38. With ghee thou hast covered it, hast made this place (for the porridge): may it, peerless, spread afar to heaven! Upon it shall rest the mighty eagle; gods shall offer it to the divinities!
39. Whatever the wife cooks aside from thee, (O husband), or the husband (cooks) unbeknown of thee, O wife, mix that together: to both of you it shall belong; bring it together into a single place!
40. As many of her children as dwell upon the earth, and the sons that have been begotten by him, all those ye shall call up to the dish: on shall come the young knowing their nest!
41. The goodly streams, swelling with honey, mixed with ghee, the seats of ambrosia, all these does he obtain, ascends to heaven. In sixty autumns the treasurer (of the porridge) shall fetch it!
42. The treasurer shall fetch this treasure: all outsiders round about shall not control it! The heaven-directed porridge, that has been presented and deposited by us, in three divisions has reached the thrte heavens.
43. May Agni burn the ungodly Rakshas; the flesh-devouring Pisâka shall have nothing here to partake of! We drive him away, hold him afar from us: the Âdityas and Angiras shall stay near it!
44. To the Âdityas and the Angiras do I offer this (food of) honey, mixed with ghee. Do ye two, (man and wife), with clean hands, without having injured a Brâhmana, performing pious deeds, go to that heavenly world!
45. I would obtain this highest part of it (the porridge), the place from which the highest lord permeates (the all). Pour butter upon it, anoint it witb plentiful ghee: this here is our share, fit for the Angiras!
46. For the sake of truth and holy strength do we make over this porridge as a hoarded treasure to the gods: it shall not be lost to us in gaming or in the assembly; do not let it go to any other person before me!

47. I cook, and I give (to the Brahmans), and so, too, my wife, at my religious rite and practice.--With the birth of a son the world of children has arisen (for you): do ye two hold on to a life that extends beyond (your years)!
48. In that place exists no guilt, and no duplicity, not even if he goes conspiring with his friends. This full dish of ours has here been deposited: the cooked (porridge) shall come back again to him that cooks it!
49. kind deeds we shall perform for our friends: all that hate us shall go to darkness (hell)!--As (fruitful) cow, and (strong) steer, they (man and wife) shall during, every successive period of their lives drive away man-besetting death!
50. The fires (all) know one another, that which lives in plants, and lives in the waters, and all the (light-) gods that glow upon the heaven. The gold (here) becomes the light of him that cooks (the porridge).
51. This (naked skin) among the hides is born upon man (alone), all other animals are riot naked. Clothe yourselves, (ye Brahmans), in sheltering garments: (even) the face of the porridge is a homespun garment!
52. What falsehood thou shalt speak at play and in the assembly, or the falsehood that thou shalt speak through lust for gain--put on together, (O man and wife), this same garment, deposit upon it every blemish!
53. Produce rain, go to the gods, let smoke arise from (thy) surface; all-embracing, about to be covered with ghee, enter as a co-dweller this place!
54. In many ways heaven assumes within itself a different form, according to circumstances. It (the heaven) has laid aside its black form, purifying itself to a bright (form); the red form do I sacrifice fot thee into the fire.
55. Thee here we hand over to the eastern direction, to Agni as sovereign lord, to the black serpent as guardian, to Âditya as bowman: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive! To the goal here he shall lead us, to old age; old age shall hand us over to death: then shall we be united with the cooked (porridge)!
56. Thee here we hand over to the southern direction, to Indra as sovereign lord, to the serpent that is striped across as guardian, to Yama as bowman: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive! To the goal here, &c.
57. Thee here we hand over to the western direction, to Varuna as sovereign lord, to the pridâku-serpent as guardian, to food as bowman: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive. To the goal here, &c.
58. Thee here we hand over to the northern direction, to Soma as sovereign lord, to the svaga-serpent as guardian, to the lightning as bowman: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive. To the goal here, &c.
59. Thee here we hand over to the direction of the nadir, to Vishnu as sovereign lord, to the serpent with black-spotted neck as guardian, to the plants as bowmen: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive. To the goal here, &c.
60. Thee here we hand over to the direction of the zenith, to Brihaspati as sovereign lord, to the light-coloured serpent as guardian, to the rain as bowman: do ye guard it for us, until we arrive. To the goal here, &c.

IX, 3. Removal of a house that has been presented to a priest as sacrificial reward.

1. The fastenings of the buttresses, the supports, and also of the connectinc, beams of the house, that abounds in treasures, do we loosen.
2. O (house) rich in all treasures! the fetter which has been bound about thee, and the knot

which has been fastened upon thee, that with my charm do I undo, as Brihaspati (undid) Vala.
3. (The builder) has drawn thee to,,ether, pressed thee together, placed firm knots upon thee. Skilfully, as the priest who butchers (the sacrificial animal), do we with Indra's aid disjoint thy limbs.
4. From thy beams, thy bolts, thy frame, and thy thatch; from thy sides, (O house) abounding in treasures, do we loosen the fastenings.
5. The fastenings of the dove-tailed (joints), of the reed (-covering), of the frame-work, do we loosen here from the 'mistress of dwelling.'
6. The ropes which they have tied within thee for comfort, these do we loosen from thee; be thou propitious to our persons, O mistress of dwelling, after thou hast (again) been erected!
7. A receptacle for Soma, a house for Agni, a seat for the mistresses (of the house), a seat (for the priests), a seat for the gods art thou, O goddess house!
8. Thy covering of wicker-work, with thousand eyes, stretched out upon thy crown, fastened down and laid on, do we loosen with (this) charm.
9. He who receives thee as a gift, O house, and he by whom thou hast been built, both these, O mistress of dwelling, shall live attaining old age!
10. Return to him in the other world, firmly bound, ornamented, (thou house), which we loosen limb by limb, and joint by joint!
11. He who built thee, O house, brought together (thy) timbers, he, a Pragâpati on high, did construct thee, O house, for his progeny (pragâyai).
12. We render obeisance to him (the builder); obeisance to the giver, the lord of the house; obeisance to Agni who serves (the sacrifice); and obeisance to thy (attendant) man!
13. Reverence to the cattle and the horses, and to that which is born in the house! Thou that hast produced, art rich in offspring, thy fetters do we loosen.
14. Thou dost shelter Agni within, (and) the domestics together with the cattle. Thou that hast produced, art rich in offspring, thy fetters do we loosen.
15. The expanse which is between heaven and earth, with that do I receive as a gift this house of thine; the middle region which is stretched out from the sky, that do I make into a receptacle for treasures; with that do I receive the house for this one.
16. Full of nurture, full of milk, fixed upon the earth, erected, holding food for all, O house, do thou not injure them that receive thee as a gift!
17. Enveloped in grass, clothed in reeds, like night does the house lodge the cattle; erected thou dost stand upon the earth, like a she-elephant, firm of foot.
18. The part of thee that was covered with mats unfolding do I loosen. Thee that hast been enfolded by Varuna may Mitra uncover in the morning!
19. The house built with pious word, built by seers, erected--may Indra and Agni, the two immortals, protect the house, the seat of Soma!
20. Chest is crowded upon chest, basket upon basket; there mortal man is begotten from whom all things spring.
21. In the house which is built with two facades, four facades, six facades; in the house with eight facades, with ten facades, in the 'mistress of dwelling.' Agni rests as if in the womb.
Tuirning towards thee that art turned towards me, O house, I come to thee that injurest me not. For Agni and the waters, the first door to divine order, are within.
23. These waters, free from disease, destructive of disease, do I bring here. The chambers do I enter in upon in company with the immortal Agni (fire).
24. Do thou not fasten a fetter upon us; though a heavy load, become thou light! As a bride

do we carry thee, O house, wherever we please.
25. From the easterly direction of the house reverence (be) to greatness, hail to the gods who are to be addressed with hail!
26. From the southerly direction of the house, &c.!
27. From the westerly direction of the house, &c.!
28. From the northerly direction of the house, &c.!
29. From the firm direction (nadir) of the house, &c.!
30. From the upright direction (zenith) of the house, &c.!
3 1. From every direction of the house reverence (be) to greatness, hail to the gods who are to be addressed with hail!

1. The varied food which I consume in many places, my gold, my horses, and, too, my cows, goats, and sheep: everything whatsoever that I have received as a gift--may Agni, the priest, render that an auspicious offering!
2. The gift that has come to me by sacrifice, or without sacrifice, bestowed by the Fathers, granted by men, through which my heart, as it were, lights up with joy--may Agni, the priest, render that an auspicious offering!
3. The food that I, O gods, improperly consume, (the food) I promise, intending to give of it (to the Brahmans), or not to give of it, by the might of mighty Vaisvânara (Agni) may (that) food be for me auspicious and full of honey!

1. Listen, ye folks, to this: (a song) in praise of a hero shall be sung! Six thousand and ninety (cows) did we get (when we were) with Kaurama among the Rusamas,--
2. Whose twice ten buffaloes move right along, touether with their cows; the height of his chariot just misses the heaven which recedes from its touch.
3. This one (Kaurama) presented the seer with a hundred jewels, ten chaplets, three hundred steeds, and ten thousand cattle.

4. Disport thyself, O chanter, disport thyself as a bird upon a flowering tree; thy tongue glides quickly over the lips as a razor over the strop.
5. The chanters with their pious song hurry on blithely as cows; at home are their children, and at home the cows do they attend.
6. Bring hither, O chanter, thy poem, that which earns cattle and earns good things! Among the gods (kings) place thy voice as a manly archer his arrow!

7. Listen ye to the high praise of the king who rules over all peoples, the god who is above mortals, of Vaisvânara Parikshit!
8. 'Parikshit has procured for us a secure dwelling when he, the most excellent one, weat to his seat.' (Thus) the husband in Kuru-land, when he founds his household, converses with his wife.
9. 'What may I bring to thee, curds, stirred drink, or liquor?' (Thus) I the wife asks her husband in the kingdom of king Parikshit.
10. Like light the ripe barley runs over beyond the mouth (of the vessels). The people thrive merrily in the kingdom of king Parikshit.

11. Indra has awakened the poet, saying: 'Arise, move about, and sing; of me, the strong, verily, sing the praises; full every pious one shall offer thee (sacrificial reward)!'
12. Here, O cattle, ye shall be born, here, ye horses, here, ye domestics! And Pûshan also, who bestows a thousand (cows) as sacrificial reward, settles down here.
13. May these cattle, O Indra, not suffer harm, and may their owner not suffer harm; may the hostile folk, O Indra, may the thief not gain possession of them!
14. We shout to the hero with hymn and song we (shout) with a pleasing song. Take delight in our songs; may we not ever suffer harm!

1. Truth, greatness, universal order (rita), strength. consecration, creative fervour (tapas), spiritual exaltation (brahma), the sacrifice, support the earth. May this earth, the mistress of that which was and shall be, prepare for us a broad domain!
2. The earth that has heights, and slopes, and great plains, that supports the plants of manifold virtue, free from the pressure that comes from the midst of men, she shall spread out for us, and fit. herself for us!
3. The earth upon which the sea, and the rivers and the waters, upon which food and the tribes of men have arisen, upon which this breathing, moving life exists, shall afford us precedence in drinking!
4. The earth whose are the four regions of space, upon which food and the tribes of men have arisen, which supports the manifold breathing, moving thinas, shall afford us cattle and other possessions also!
5. The earth upon which of old the first men unfolded themselves, upon which the gods overcame the Asuras, shall procure for us (all) kinds of cattle, horses, and fowls, good fortune, and glory!
6. The earth that supports all, furnishes wealth, the foundation, the golden-breasted resting-place of all living creatures, she that supports Agni Vaisvânara (the fire), and mates with Indra, the bull, shall furnish us with property!
7. The broad earth, which the sleepless gods ever attentively guard, shall milk for us precious honey, and, moreover, besprinkle us with glory!
8. That earth which formerly was water upon the ocean (of space), which the wise (seers) found out by their skilful devices; whose heart is in the highest heaven, immortal, surrounded by truth, shall bestow upon us brilliancy and strength, (and place us) in supreme sovereignty!
9. That earth upon which the attendant waters jointly flow by day and night unceasingly, shall pour out milk for us in rich streams, and, moreover, besprinkle us with glory!
10. The earth which the Asvins have measured, upon which Vishnu has stepped out, which Indra, the lord of might, has made friendly to himself; she, the mother, shall pour forth milk for me, the son!
11. Thy snowy mountain heights, and thy forests, O earth, shall be kind to us! The brown, the black, the red, the multi-coloured, the firm earth, that is protected by Indra, I have settled upon, not suppressed, not slain, not wounded.
12. Into thy rniddle set us, O earth, and into thy navel, into the nourishing strength that has grown tip from thy body; purify thyself for us! The earth is the mother, and I the son of the earth; Paro-anya is the father; he, too, shall save us!
13. The earth upon which they (the priests) inclose the altar (vedi), upon which they,

devoted to all (holy) works, unfold the sacrifice, upon which are set up, in front of the sacrifice, the sacrificial posts, erect and brilliant, that earth shall prosper us, herself prospering!
14. Him that hates us, O earth, him that battles against us, him that is hostile towards us with his mind and his weapons, do thou subject to us, anticipating (our wish) by deed!
15. The mortals born of thee live on thee, thou supportest both bipeds and quadrupeds. Thine, O earth, are these five races of men, the mortals, upon whom the rising sun sheds undying light with his rays.
16. These creatures all together shall yield milk for us; do thou, O earth, give us the honey of speech!
17. Upon the firm, broad earth, the all-begetting mother of the plants, that is supported by (divine) law, upon her, propitious and kind, may we ever pass-our lives!
18. A great gathering-place thou, great (earth), hast become; great haste, commotion, and agitation are upon thee. Great Indra protects thee unceasingly. Do thou, O earth, cause us to brighten as if at the sight of gold: not any one shall hate us!
19. Agni (fire) is in the earth, in the plants, the waters hold Agni, Agni is in the stones; Agni is within men, Agnis (fires) are within cattle, within horses.
20. Agni glows from the sky, to Agni, the god, belongs the broad air. The mortals kindle Agni, the bearer of oblations, that loveth ghee.
21. The earth, clothed in Agni, with dark knees, shall make me brilliant and alert!
22. Upon the earth men give to the gods the sacrifice, the prepared oblation; upon the earth mortal men live pleasantly by food. May this earth give us breath and life, may she cause me to reach old age!
23. The fragrance, O earth, that has arisen upon thee, which the plants and the waters hold, which the Gandharvas and the Apsaras have partaken of, with that make me fragrant: not any one shall hate us!
24. That fragrance of thine which has entered into the lotus, that fragrance, O earth, which the immortals of yore gathered up at the marriage of Sûryâ, with that make me fragrant: not any one shall hate us!
25. That fragrance of thine which is in men, the loveliness and charm that is in male and female, that which is in steeds and heroes, that which is in the wild animals with trunks (elephants), the lustre that is in the maiden, O earth, with that do thou blend us: not any one shall hate us!
26. Rock, stone, dust is this earth; this earth is supported, held together. To this golden-breasted earth I have rendered obeisance.
27. The earth, upon whom the forest-sprung trees ever stand firm, the all-nourishing, compact earth, do we invoke.
28. Rising or sitting, standing or walking, may we not stumble with our right or left foot upon the earth!
29. To the pure earth I speak, to the ground, the soil that has grown through the brahma (spiritual exaltation). Upon thee, that holdest nourishment, prosperity, food, and ghee, we would settle down, O earth!
30. Purified the waters shall flow for our bodies; what flows off from us that do we deposit upon him we dislike: with a purifier, O earth, do I purify myself!
31. Thy easterly regions, and thy northern, thy southerly (regions), O earth, and thy western, shall be kind to me as I walk (upon thee)! May I that have been placed into the world not fall down!

32. Do not drive us from the west, nor from the east; not from the north, and not from the south! Security be thou for us, O earth: waylayers shall not find us, hold far away (their) murderous weapon!
33. As long as I look out upon thee, O earth, with Sûrya (the sun) as my companion, so long shall my sight not fall, as year followeth upon year!
34. When, as I lie, I turn upon my right or left side, O earth; when stretched out we lie with our ribs upon thee pressing against (us), do not, O earth, that liest close to everything, there injure us!
35. What, O earth, I dig out of thee, quickly shall that grow again: may I not, O pure one, pierce thy vital spot, (and) not thy heart!
36. Thy summer, O earth, thy rainy season, thy autumn, winter, early spring, and spring; thy decreed yearly seasons, thy days and nights shall yield us milk
37. The pure earth that starts in fright away from the serpent, upon whom were the fires that are within the waters, she that delivers (to destruction) the blasphemous Dasyus, she that takes the side of Indra, not of Vritra, (that earth) adheres to Sakra (mighty Indra), the lusty bull.
38. Upon whom rests the sacrificial hut (sadas) and the (two) vehicles that hold the soma (havirdhâne), in whom the sacrificial post is fixed, upon whom the Brâhmanas praise (the gods) with riks and sâmans, knowing (also) the yagur-formulas; upon whom the serving-priests (ritvig) are employed so that Indra shall drink the soma;--
39. Upon whom the seers of yore, that created the beings, brought forth with their songs the cows, they the seven active (priests), by means of the satra-offerings, the sacrifices, and (their) creative fervour (tapas);--
40. May this earth point out to us the wealth that we-crave; may Bhaga (fortune) add his help, may Indra come here as (our) champion!
41. The earth upon whom the noisy mortals sing and dance, upon whom they fight, upon whom resounds the roaring drum, shall drive forth our enemies, shall make us free from rivals!
42. To the earth upon whom are food, and rice and barley, upon whom live these five races of men, to the earth, the wife of Parganya, that is fattened by rain, be reverence!
43. The earth upon whose ground the citadels constructed by the gods unfold themselves, every region of her that is the womb of all, Pragâpati shall make pleasant for us!
44. The earth that holds treasures manifold in secret places, wealth, jewels, and gold shall she give to me; she that bestows wealth liberally, the kindly goddess, wealth shall she bestow upon us!
45. The earth that holds people of manifold varied speech, of different customs, according to their habitations, as a reliable milch-cow that does not kick, shall she milk for me a thousand streams of wealth!
46. The serpent, the scorpion with thirsty fangs, that hibernating torpidly lies upon thee; the worm, and whatever living thing, O earth, moves in the rainy season, shall, when it creeps, not creep upon us: with what is auspicious (on thee) be gracious to us!
47. Thy many paths upon which people go, thy tracks for chariots and wagons to advance, upon which both good and evil men proceed, this road, free from enemies, and free from thieves, may we gain: with what is auspicious (on thee) be gracious to us!
48. The earth holds the fool and holds the wise, endures that good and bad dwell (upon her); she keeps company with the boar, gives herself up to the wild hog.
49. Thy forest animals, the wild animals homed in the woods, the man-eating lions, and

tigers that roam; the ula, the wolf, mishap, injury (rikshikâ), and demons (rakshas), O earth, drive away from us!
50. The Gandharvas, the Apsaras, the Arâyas and Kimîdins; the Pisâkas and all demons (rakshas), these, O earth, hold from us!
51. The earth upon whom the biped birds fly together, the flamingoes, eagles, birds of prey, and fowls; upon whom Mâtarisvan, the wind, hastens, raising the dust, and tossing the trees-as the wind blows forth and back the flame bursts after;--
52. The earth upon whom day and night jointly, black and bright, have been decreed, the broad earth covered and enveloped with rain, shall kindly place us into every pleasant abode!
53. Heaven, and earth, and air have here given me expanse; Agni, Sûrya, the waters, and all the gods together have given me wisdom.
54. Mighty am I, 'Superior' (uttara) by name, upon the earth, conquering am I, all-conquering, completely conquering every region.
55. At that time, O goddess, when, spreading., (prathamânâ) forth, named (prithivî 'broad') by the gods, thou didst extend to greatness, then prosperity did enter thee, (and) thou didst fashion the four regions.
56. In the villages and in the wilderness, in the assembly-halls that are upon the earth; in the gatherings, and in the meetings, may we hold forth agreeably to thee!
57. As dust a steed did she, as soon as she was born, scatter these people, that dwelt upon the earth, she the lovely one, the leader, the guardian of the world, that holds the trees and plants.
58. The words I speak, honied do I speak them: the things I see they furnish me with. Brilliant I am and alert: the others that rush (against me) do I beat down.
59. Gentle, fragrant, kindly, with the sweet drink (kîlâla) in her udder, rich in milk, the broad earth together with (her) milk shall give us courage!
60. She whom Visvakarman (the creator of all) did search out by means of oblations, when she had entered the surging (flood of the) atmosphere, she, the vessel destined to nourish, deposited in a secret place, became visible (to the gods) and the (heavenly) mothers.
61. Thou art the scatterer of men, the broadly expanding Aditi that yields milk according to wish. What is wanting in thee Pragâpati, first-born of the divine order (rita), shall supply for thee
62. Thy laps, O earth, free from ailment! Free from disease, shall be produced for us! May we attentively, throuoh our long lives, be bearers of bali-offerings to thee!
63. O mother earth, kindly set me down upon a well-founded place! With (father) heaven cooperating, O thou wise one, do thou place me into happiness and prosperity!

XIII, 1. Prayer for sovereign power addressed to the god Rohita and his female Rohinî.

1. Rise up, O steed, that art within the waters, enter this kingdom, rich in liberal gifts! Rohita (the red sun) who has begotten this all, shall keep thee well-supported for sovereignty!
2. The steed that is within the waters has risen up: ascend upon the clans that are sprung from thee! Furnishing soma, the waters, plants, and cows, cause thou four-footed and two-footed creatures to enter here!
3. Do ye, strong Maruts, children of Prisni (the cloud), allied with Indra, crush the enemies! Rohita shall hear you, that give abundant gifts, the thrice seven Maruts, who take delight in sweet (nourishment)!
4. Rohita has climbed the heights, he has ascended them, he, the embryo of women, (has

ascended) the womb of births. Closely united with these women they found out the six broad (directions); spying out a road he has brought hither sovereignty.
5. Hither to thee Rohita has brought sovereignty; he has dispersed the enemies: freedom from danger has resulted for thee. To thee heaven and earth together with the revatî and sakvarî-stanzas shall yield gifts at will!
6. Rohita produced heaven and earth; there Parameshthin (the lord on high) extended the thread (of the sacrifice). There Aga Ekapâda (the one-footed goat, the sun) did fix himself; he made firm the heavens and earth with his strength.
7. Rohita made firm heaven and earth, by him the (heavenly) light was established, by him the firmament. By him the atmosphere and the spaces were measured out, through him the gods obtained immortality.
8. Rohita did ponder the multiform (universe) while preparing (his) climbings and advances. Having ascended the heaven with great might, he shall anoint thy royalty with milk and ghee!
9. All thy climbings, advances, and all thy ascents with which thou, (Rohita, the sun), fillest the heavens and the atmosphere, having strengthened thyself with their brahma and payas (spiritual and physical essence) do thou keep awake (do thou watch over) among the people in the kingdom of the (earthly) Rohita (the king)!
10. The peoples that have originated from thy tapas (heat, or creative fervour), have followed here the calf, the gâyatri. They shall enter thee with kindly spirit; the calf Rohita with its mother shall come on!
11. High on the firmament Rohita has stood, a youth, a sage, begettinu all forms. As Agni he shines with piercing light, in the third space he did assume lovely (forms).
12. A bull with a thousand horns, Gâtavedas (fire), endowed with sacrifices of ghee, carrying soma upon his back, rich in heroes, he shall, when implored, not abandon me, nor may I abandon thee: abundance in cattle and abundance in heroes procure for me!
14. Rohita is the generator of the sacrifice, and its mouth; to Rohita I offer oblations with voice, ear, and mind. To Rohita the gods resort with glad mind: he shall cause me to rise through elevation derived from the assembly!
14. Rohita arranged a sacrifice for Visvakarman; from it these brilliant, qualities have come to me. Let me announce thy origin over the extent of the world!
15, Upon thee have ascended the brihatî and the pankti (metres), upon thee the kakubh with splendour, O Gâtavedas. Upon thee the vashat-call, whose syllables make an ushnihâ, has ascended, upon thee Rohita with his seed has ascended.
16. This one clothes himself in the womb of the earth, this one clothes himself in heaven, and in the atmosphere. This one at the station of the brown (sun) did attain unto the worlds of light.
17. O Vâkaspati (lord of speech), the earth shall be pleasant to us, pleasant our dwelling, agrecable our couches! Right here life's breath shall be to our friend; thee, O Parameshthin, Agni shall envelop in life and lustre!
18. O Vâkaspati, the five seasons that we have, which have come about as the creation of Visvakarman, rialit here (they and) life's breath shall be to our friend; thee, O Parameshthin, Rohita shall envelop in life and lustre!
19. O Vâkaspati, good cheer and spirit, cattle in our stable, children in our wombs beget thou! Right here life's breath shall be to our friend; thee, O Parameshthin, I envelop in life and lustre.
20. God Savitar and Agni shall envelop thee, Mitra and Varuna surround thee with lustre!

Treading down all powers of grudge come thou hither: thou hast made this kingdom rich in liberal gifts.
21. Thou, O Rohita, whom the brindled cow, harnessed at the side, carries, goest with brilliance, causing the waters to flow.
22. Devoted to Rohita is Rohinî his mistress, with beautiful colour (complexion), great, and lustrous: through her may we conquer booty of every description, through her win every battle!
23. This seat, Rohinî, belongs to Rohita; yonder is the path on which the brindled (female) goes! Her the Gandharvas and the Kasyapas lead forth, her the sages guard with diligence.
24. The radiant bay steeds of the sun, the immortal, ever draw the delightful chariot. Rohita, the drinker of ghee, the shining god, did enter the variegated heavens.
25. Rohita, the sharp-horned bull, who surpasses Agni and surpasses Sûrya, who props up the earth and the sky, out of him the gods frame the creations.
26. Rohita ascended the heaven from the great flood; Rohita has climbed all heights.
27. Create (the cow) that is rich in milk, drips with ghee: she is the milch-cowof the gods that does not refuse! Indra shall drink the Soma, there shall be secure possession; Agni shall sing praises: the enemies do thou drive out!
28. Agni kindled, spreads his flames, fortified by ghee, sprinkled with ghee. Victorious, all-conquering Agni shall slay them that are my rivals!
29. He shall slay them, shall burn the enemy that battles against us! With the flesh-devouring Agni do we burn our rivals.
30. Smite them down, O Indra, with the thunderbolt, with thy (strong) arm! Then have I overpowered my rivals with Agni's brilliant strengths.
31. O Agni, subject our rivals to us; confuse, O Brihaspati, the kinsman that is puffed up! O Indra and Agni, O Mitra and Varuna, subjected they shall be, unable to vent their wrath against us!
32. Do thou, god Sûrya (the sun), when thou risest, beat down my rivals, beat them down with a stone: they shall go to the nethermost darkness!
33. The calf of Virâg, the bull of prayers, carrying the bright (soma) upon his back, has ascended the atmosphere. A song accompanied by ghee they sing to the calf; himself brahma (spiritual exaltation) they swell him with their brahma (prayer).
34. Ascend the heavens, ascend the earth sovereignty ascend thou, and possessions ascend thou! Offspring ascend thou, and immortality ascend thou, unite thy body with Rohita!
35. The gods that hold sovereignty, who go about the sun, with these allied, Rohita, kindly disposed, shall bestow sovereignty upon thee!
36. The sacrifices purified by prayer lead thee forth; the bay steeds that travel upon the road carry thee: thou shinest across the swelling ocean.
37. In Rohita who conquers wealth, conquers cattle, and conquers booty, heaven and earth are fixed. Of thee that hast a thousand and seven births, let me announce the origin over the extent of the world!
38. Glorious thou goest to the intermediate directions and the directions (of space), glorious (in the sight) of animals and the tribes of men, glorious in the lap of the earth, of Aditi: may I like Savitar be lovely!
39. Being yonder thou knowest (what takes place) here; being here thou beholdest these things. Here (men) behold the inspired sun that shines upon the sky.
40. A god thou praisest the gods, thou movest within the flood. They kindle (him), a universal fire; him the highest sages know.

41. Below the superior (region), above the inferior (region) here, the cow has arisen supporting (her) calf by the foot. Whither is she turned; to which half (of the universe), forsooth, has she aone away; where, forsooth, does she beget? Verily not in this herd!
42. One-footed, two-footed, four-footed is she; eight-footed, nine-footed became she, the thousand-syllabled (consisting of thousand elements) pankti (quinary stanza) of the universe: the oceans from her flow forth upon (the world).
43. Ascending the heaven, immortal, receive kindly my song! The sacrifices purified by prayer lead thee forth; the bay steeds that travel upon the road carry thee.
44. That do I know of thee, O immortal, where thy march is upon the sky, where thy habitation is in the highest heaven.
45. Sûrya (the sun) surveys the sky, Sûrya the earth, Sûrya the waters. Sûrya is the single eye of being: he has ascended the great heavens.
46. The broad (directions) where the fagots that fence in (the fire), the earth turned itself into a fire-altar. There Rohita laid on for himself these two fires, cold and heat.
47. Laying on cold and heat, using the mountains as sacrificial posts, the two fires of Rohita who knows the (heavenly) light, into which (the fires) rain (flowed) as ghee, carried out the sacrifice.
48. The fire of Rohita who knows the (heavenly) light is kindled by prayer. From it heat, from it cold, from it the sacrifice was produced.
49. The two fires swelling through prayer, increased through prayer, sacrificed into with prayer; the two fires of Rohita who knows the (heavenly) light, kindled through prayer, carried out the sacrifice.
50. One is deposited in truth, the other is kindled in the waters. The two fires of Rohita who knows the (heavenly) light, kindled through prayer, carried out the sacrifice.
51. The fire which the wind brightens up, and that which Indra and Brahmanaspati (brighten up), the two fires of Rohita who knows the (heavenly) light, kindled through prayer, carried out the sacrifice.
52. Having fashioned the earth into an altar, having made the heavens (his) sacrificial reward, then having made heat into fire, Rohita created all that has breath through rain (serving) as ghee.
53. Rain fashioned itself into ghee, heat into fire, the earth into an altar. Then Agni by (his) songs fashioned the high mountains.
54. Having fashioned by means of songs the high (mountains), Rohita spake to the earth: In thee all shall be born, what is and what shall be.
55. The sacrifice first, (and then) what is and what shall be was born. From that this all was born, and whatever here appears, brought hither by the sage Rohita.
56. He who kicks a cow with his foot, and he who micturates towards the sun--of thee do I tear out the root; thou shalt henceforth not cast a shadow!
57. Thou that passest across me, casting thy shadow against me, between me and the fire--of thee do I tear out the root; thou shalt henceforth not cast a shadow!
58. He, O god Sûrya, that to-day passes between thee and me, upon him our evil dream, our foulness, and our misfortunes do we wipe off.
59. May we not miss our way, may we not, O Indra, miss the sacrifice of him that presses the soma; may.not the powers of grudge intercept us!
60. The (guiding) thread stretched out among the gods, that accomplishes the sacrifice, that, by pouring oblations, may we attain!

XI, 5. Glorification of the sun, or the primeval principle, as a Brahman disciple.

1. The Brahmakârin (Brahmanical disciple) moves inciting both hemispheres of the world; in him the gods are harmonised. He holds the heavens and the earth, he fills the teacher with creative fervour (tapas).
2. The fathers, the divine folk, and all the gods severally follow the Brahmakârin; the Gandharvas did go after him, six thousand three hundred and thirty-three. He fills all the gods with creative fervour.
3. When the teacher receives the Brahmakârin as a disciple, he places him as a foetus inside (of his body). He carries him for three nights in his belly: when he is born the gods gather about to see him.
4. This earth is (his first) piece of firewood, the heaven the second, and the atmosphere also he fills with (the third) piece of firewood. The Brahmakârin. fills the worlds with his firewood, his girdle, his asceticism, and his creative fervour.
5. Prior to the brahma (spiritual exaltation) the Brahmakârin was born; clothed in heat, by creative fervour he arose. From him sprung the brâhmanam (Brahmanic life) and the highest brahma, and all the gods together with immortality (amrita).
6. The Brahmakârin advances, kindled by the firewood, clothed in the skin of the black antelope, consecrated, with long beard. Within the day he passes from the eastern to the northern sea; gathering together the worlds he repeatedly shapes them.
7. The Brahmakârin, begetting the brahma, the waters, the world, Pragâpati Parameshthin (he that stands in the hiahest place), and Virâg, having become an embryo in the womb of immortality, having forsooth, become Indra, pierced the Asuras.
8. The teacher fashioned these two hern spheres of the world, the broad and the deep, earth and heaven. These the Brahmakârin guards with his creative fervour (tapas): in him the gods are harmonised.
9. This broad earth and the heaven the Brahmakârin first brought hither as alms. Having made these into two sticks of firewood he reveres them upon them all beings have been founded.
10. One is on the hither side, the other on the farther side of the back of the heavens; secretly are deposited the two receptacles of the brâhmanam (Brahmanic life). These the Brahmakârin protects by his tapas (creative fervour); understandingly he performs that brahma (spiritual exaltation) solely.
11. One on the hither side, the other away from the earth, do the two Agnis come together between these two hemispheres (of the world). To them adhere the rays firmly; the Brahmakârin by his tapas (creative fervour) enters into the (rays).
12. Shouting forth, thundering, red, white he carries a great penis along the earth. The Brahmakârin sprinkles seed upon the back of the earth; through it the four directions live.
13. Into fire, the sun, the moon, Mâtarisvan (wind), and the waters, the Brahmakârin places the firewood; the lights from these severally go into the clouds, from them come sacrificial butter, the purusha (primeval man), rain, and water.
14. Death is the teacher, (and) Varuna, Soma, the plants, milk; the clouds were the warriors: by these this light has been brought hither.
15. Varuna, having become the teacher, at home prepares the ghee solely. Whatever he desired from Pragâpati, that the Brahmakârin furnished, as Mitra (a friend) from his own Atman (spirit, or person).
16. The Brahmakârin is the teacher, the Brahmakârin Pragâpati. Pragâpati rules (shines forth,

vi râgati); Virâg (heavenly power, or light) became Indra, the ruler.
17. Through holy disciplehood. (brahmakâryam), through tapas (creative fervour), the king protects his kingdom. The teacher by (his own) brahmakâryam (holy life) seeks (finds) the Brahmakârin.
18. Through holy disciplehood the maiden obtains a young husband, through holy disciplehood the steer, the horse seeks to obtain fodder.
19. Through holy disciplehood, through creative fervour, the gods drove away death. Indrajorsooth, by his holy disciplehood brought the light to the gods.
20. The plants, that which was and shall be, day and night, the tree, the year along with the seasons, have sprung from the Brahmakârin.
21. The earthly and the heavenly animals, the wild and the domestic, the wingless and the winged (animals), have sprung from the Brahmakârin.
22. All the creatures of Pragâpati (the creator) severally carry breath in their souls. All these the brahma, which has been brought hither in the Brahmakârin, protects.
23. This, that was set into motion by the gods, that is insurmountable, that moves shining, from it has sprung the brâhmanam (Brahmanical life), the highest brahma, and all the gods, together with immortality (amrita).
24, 25. The Brahmakârin carries the shining brahma: into this all the gods are woven. Producing in-breathing and out-breathing, as well as through-breathing; speech, mind, heart, brahma, and wisdom, do thou furnish us with sight, hearing, glory, food, semen, blood, and belly!
26. These things the Brahmakârin fashioned upon the back of the (heavenly) water. He stood in the sea kindled with tapas (creative fervour). He, when he has bathed, shines vigorously upon the earth, brown and ruddy.

XI, 4. Prâna, life or breath, personified as the supreme spirit.

1. Reverence to Prâna, to whom all this (universe) is subject, who has become the lord of the all, on whom the all is supported!
2. Reverence, O Prâna, to thy roaring (wind), reverence, O Prâna, to thy thunder, reverence, O Prâna, to thy lightning, reverence, O Prâna, to thy rain!
When Prâna calls aloud to the plants with his thunder, they are fecundated, they conceive, and then are produced abundant (plants).
4. When the season has arrived, and Prâna calls aloud to the plants, then everything rejoices, whatsoever is upon the earth.
5. When Prâna has watered the great earth with rain, then the beasts rejoice; (they think): 'strength, forsooth, we shall now obtain.'
6. When they had been watered by Prâna, the plants spake in concert: 'thou hast, forsooth, prolonged our life, thou hast made us all fragrant.'
7. Reverence be, O Prâna, to thee coming, reverence to thee going; 'reverence to thee standing, and reverence, too, to thee sitting!
8. Reverence be to thee, O Prâna, when thou breatbest in (primate), reverence when thou breathest out! Reverence be to thee when thou art turned away, reverence to thee when thou art turned hither: to thee, entire, reverence be here!
9. Of thy dear form, O Prâna, of thy very dear form, of the healing power that is thine, give unto us, that we may live!
10. Prâna clothes the creatures, as a father his dear son. Prâna, truly, is the lord of all, of all that breathes, and does not breathe.
11. Prâna is death, Prâna is fever. The gods worship Prana. Prâna shall place the truth-

speaker in the highest world
12. Prâna is Virâg (power, lustre), Prâna is Deshtrî (the divinity that guides): all worship Prâna. Prâna verily is sun and moon. They call Prâna Pragâpati.
13. Rice and barley are in-breathing and outbreathing. Prâna is called a steer. In-breathing forsooth, is founded upon barley; rice is called out-breathing.
14. Man breathes out and breathes in when within the womb. When thou, O Prâna, quickenest him, then is he born again.
15. They call Prâna Mâtarisvan (the wind); Prâna, forsooth, is called Vâta (the wind). The past and the future, the all, verily is supported upon Prâna.
16. The holy (âtharvana) plants, the magic (ângirasa) plants, the divine plants, and those produced by men, spring forth, when thou, O Prâna, quickenest them.
17, When Prâna has watered the great earth with rain, then the plants spring forth, and also every sort of herb.
18. Whoever, O Prâna, knows this regarding thee, and (knows) on what thou art supported, to him all shall offer tribute in yonder highest world.
19. As all these creatures, O Prâna, offer thee tribute, so they shall offer tribute (in yonder world) to him who hears thee, O far-famed one!
20. He moves as an embryo within the gods; having arrived, and being in existence, he is born again. Having arisen he enters with his mights the present and the future, as a father (goes to) his son.
21. When as a swan he rises from the water he does not withdraw his one foot. If in truth he were to withdraw it, there would be neither to-day, nor to-morrow, no night and no day, never would the dawn appear.
22. With eight wheels, and one felloe he moves, containing a thousand sounds (elements), upward in the east, downward in the west. With (his) half he produced the whole world: what is the visible sign of his (other) half?
23. He who rules over this (all) derived from every source, and over everything that movesreverence be to thee, O Prâna, that wieldest a swift bow against others (the enemies)!
24. May Prâna, who rules over this (all) derived from every source, and over everything that moves, (may he) unwearied, strong through the brahma, adhere to me!
25. Erect he watches in those that sleep, nor does lie lie down across. No one has heard of his sleeping in those that sleep.
26. O Prâna, be not turned away from me, thou shalt not be other than myself! As the embryo of the waters (fire), thee, O Prâna, do bind to me, that I may live.

IX, 2. Prayer to Kâma (love), personified as a primordial power.

1. To the bull that slays the enemy, to Kâma, do I render tribute with ghee, oblation, and (sacrificial) melted butter. Do thou, since thou hast been extolled, hurl down my enemies by thy great might!
2. The evil dream which is offensive to my mind and eye, which harasses and does not please me, that (dream) do I let loose upon my enemy. Having praised Kâma may I prevail!
3,. Evil dreams, O Kâma, and misfortune, O Kâma, childlessness, ill-health, and trouble, do thou, a strong lord, let loose upon him that designs evil against us!
4. Drive them away, O Kâma, thrust them away, O Kâma; may they that are my enemies fall into trouble! When they have been driven into the nethermost darkness, do thou, O Agni, burn up their d welling- places!
5. That milch-cow, O Kâma, whom the sages call Vâk Virâg (ruling, or resplendent speech), is said to be thy daughter; by her drive away my enemies; breath, cattle, and life shall give

them a wide birth!
6. With the strength of Kâma, Indra, king Varuna, and Vishnu, with the impelling force (savena) of Savitar, with the priestly power of Agni, do I drive forth the enemies, as a skilled steersman a boat.
7. My sturdy guardian, strong Kâma, shall procure for me full freedom from enmity! May the gods collectively be my refuge, may all the gods respond to this, my invocation!
8. Taking pleasure in this (sacrificial) melted butter, and ghee do ye, (O gods), of whom Kâma is the highest, be joyful in this place, procuring for me full freedom from enmity!
9. O Indra and Agni, and Kâma, having formed an alliance, do ye hurl down my enemies; when they have fallen into the nethermost darkness, do thou, O Agni, burn up after them their dwelling places!
10. Slay thou, O Kâma, those that are my enemies, hurl them down into blind darkness. Devoid of vigour, Without sap let them all be; they shall not live a single day!
11. Kâma has slain those that are my enemies, a broad space has he furnished me to thrive in. May the four directions of space bow down to me, and the six broad (regions) carry ghee to me!
12. They (the enemies) shall float down like a boat cut loose from its moorings! There is no returning again for those who have been struck by our missiles.
13. Agni is a defence, Indra a defence, Soma a defence. May the gods, who by their defence ward off (the enemy), ward him off!
14. With his men reduced, driven out, the hated (enemy) shall go, shunned by his own friends! And down upon the earth do the lightnings alight; may the strong god crush your enemies!
15. This mighty lightning supports both moveable and immoveable things, as well as all thunders. May the rising sun by his resources and his majesty hurl down my enemies, lie the mighty one!
16. With that triple-armoured powerful covering of thine, O Kâma, with the charm that has been made into an Invulnerate armour spread (over thee), with that do thou drive away those who are my enemies; may breath, cattle, and life give them a wide berth!
17. With the weapon with which the god drove forth the Asuras, with which Indra led the Dasyus to the nethermost darkness, with that do thou, O Kâma, drive forth far away from this world those who are my enemies!
18. As the gods drove forth the Asuras, as Indra. forced the demons into the nethermost darkness, thus do thou, O Kâma, drive forth far away from this world those who are my enemies!
19. Kâma was born at first; him neither the gods, nor the Fathers, nor men have equalled. To these art thou superior, and ever great; to thee, O Kâma, do I verily offer reverence.
20. As great as are the heavens and earth in extent, as far as the waters have swept, as far as fire; to these art thou superior, &c.
21. Great as are the directions (of space) and the intermediate direction on either side, great as are the regions and the vistas of the sky; to these art thou superior, &c.
22. As many bees, bats, kurûru-worms, as many vaghas and tree-serpents as there are; to these art thou superior, &c.
23. Superior art thou to all that winks (lives), superior to all that stands still (is not alive), superior to the ocean art thou, O Kâma, Manyu! To these art thou superior, &c.
24. Not, surely, does the wind equal Kâma, not the fire, not the sun, and not the moon. To these art thou superior, &c.

25. With those auspicious and gracious forms of thine, O Kâma, through which what thou wilst becometh reaL with these do thou enter into us, and elsewhere send the evil thoughts!

XIX, 53. Prayer to Kâla (time), personified as a primordial power.

1. Time, the steed, runs with seven reins (rays), thousand-eyed, ageless, rich in seed. The seers, thinking holy thoughts, mount him, all the beings (worlds) are his wheels.
2. With seven wheels does this Time ride, seven naves has he, immortality is his axle. He carries hither all these beings (worlds). Time, the first god, now hastens onward.
3. A full jar has been placed upon Time; him, verily, we see existing in many forms. He carries away all these beings (worlds); they call him Time in the highest heaven.
4. He surely did bring hither all the beings (worlds), he surely did encompass all the beings (worlds). Being their father, he became their son; there is, verily, no other force, higher than he.
5. Time begot yonder heaven, Time also (begot) these earths. That which was, and that which shall be, urged forth by Time, spreads out.
6. Time created the earth, in Time the sun burns. In Time are all beings, in Time the eye looks abroad.
7. In Time mind is fixed, in Time breath (is fixed), in Time names (are fixed); when Time has arrived all these creatures rejoice.
8. In Time tapas (creative fervour) is fixed; in Time the highest (being is fixed); in Time brahma (spiritual exaltation) is fixed; Time is the lord of everything, he was the father of Pragâpati.
9. By him this (universe) was urged forth, by him it was begotten, and upon him this (universe) was founded. Time, truly, having become the brahma (spiritual exaltation), supports Parameshthin (the highest lord).
10. Time created the creatures (pragâh), and Time in the beginning (created) the lord of creatures (Prâgapati); the self-existing Kasyapa and the tapas (creative fervour) from Time were born.

XIX, 54. Prayer to Kâla (time), personified as a primordial power.

1. From Time the waters did arise, from Time the brahma (spiritual exaltation), the tapas (creative fervour), the regions (of space did arise). Through Time the sun rises, in Time he goes down again.
2. Through Time the wind blows, through Time (exists) the great earth; the great sky is fixed in Time. In Time the son (Pragâpati) begot of yore that which was, and that which shall be.
3. From Time the Riks arose, the Yagus was born from Time; Time put forth the sacrifice, the imperishable share of the gods.
4. Upon Time the Gandharvas and Apsarases are founded, upon Time the worlds (are founded), in Time this Angiras and Atharvan rule over the heavens.
5. Having conquered this world and the highest world, and the holy (pure) worlds (and) their holy divisions; having by means of the brahma (spiritual exaltation) conquered all the worlds, Time, the highest God, forsooth, hastens onward.

XI, 7. Apotheosis of the ukkhishta, the leavings of the sacrifice.

1. In the ukkhishta are deposited name (quality) and form, in the ukkhishta the world is deposited. Within the ukkhishta Indra and Agni, and the all are deposited.
2. In the ukkhishta heaven and earth, and all beings, are deposited; in the ukkhishta are deposited the waters, the ocean, the moon, and the wind.
3. In the ukkhishta are both being and non-being, death, strength (food), and Pragâpati. The (creatures) of the world are founded upon the ukkhishta; (also) that which is confined and

that which is free, and the grace in me.
4. He who fastens what is firm, the strong, the leader, the brahma, the ten creators of the all, the divinities, are fixed on all sides to the ukkhishta as the (spokes of the) wheel to the nave.
5. Rik, Sâman, and Yagus, the singing of the sâmans, their introductions, and the stotras are in the ukkhishta. The sound 'him' is in the ukkhishta, and the modulations and the music of the sâman. That is in me.
6. The prayer to Indra and Agni (aindrâgnam), the call to the soma, as it is being purified (pâvamâmam), the mahânâmnî-verses, the singing of the mahâvrata, (these) divisions of the service are in the ukkhishta, as the embryo in the mother.
7. The ceremony of the consecration of the king (râgasûya), the vâgapeya, the agnishtoma, and the cattle-sacrifice belonging to it, the arka and the horse-sacrifice, and the most delightful (sacrifice) for which fresh barhis is strewn, are in the ukkhishta.
8. The preparation of the sacred fire (agnyâdheyam), the consecration for the soma-sacrifice (dikshâ), the sacrifice by which (special) wishes are fulfilled, together with the metres, the sacrifices that have passed out, and the extended sacrifices (satra), are lounded upon the ukkhishta.
9. The agnihotra, faith, the call vashat, vows and asceticism, sacrificial rewards, what is sacrificed (to the gods) and given (to the priests) are contained in the ukkhishta.
10. The (soma-sacrifice) that lasts one night (ekarâtra), and that which lasts two nights (dvirâtra), the (condensed soma-sacrifice called) sadyahkrî, and
(that which is called) prakrî, the (Songs called) ukthya, are woven and deposited in the ukkhishta; (also the parts) of the sacrifice subtle through (higher) knowledge.
11. The soma-sacrifice that lasts four nights (katûrâtra), five nights (pañkarâtra), six nights (shadrâtra), and along (with them) those that last double the time; the sixteenfold stotra (shodasin), and the soma-sacrifice that lasts seven nights (saptarâtra), all the sacrifices which were founded upon immortality (amrita), were begotten of the ukkhishta.
12. The pratihâra-passages (in the sâman-songs), and their final syllables, the (soma-sacrifices called) visvagit and abhgit, the soma-sacrifice that ends
with the day (sâhna), and that which lasts into the next day (atirâtra), are in the ukkhishta--the soma-sacrifice also that lasts twelve days. That is in me.
13. Liberality, accomplishment, possession, the call svadhâ, nurture, immortality (amrita), and might, all inner desires are satisfied according to wish in the ukkhishta.
14. The nine earths, oceans, heavens, are founded upon the ukkhishta. The sun shines in the ukkhishta, and day and night also. That is in me.
15. The (soma-sacrifice called) upahavya, the offering on the middle day of a sacrifice lasting a year (vishûvant), and the sacrifices that are secretly presented, Ukkhishta, the sustainer of the universe, the father of the generator (Pragâpati), supports.
16. Ukkhishta, the father of the generator, the grandson of the spirit (asu), the primal ancestor (grandfather), the ruler of the universe, the lusty bull dwells upon the earth.
17. Order (rita), truth (satya), creative fervour (tapas), sovereignty, asceticism, law and works; past, future, strength, and prosperity, are in the ukkhishta-force in force.
18. Success, might, plans, dominion, sovereignty, the six broad (regions), the year, libation (idâ), the orders to the priests (praisha), the draughts of soma (graha), oblations (are founded) upon the ukkhishta.
19. The (liturgies called) katurhotârah, the âpri-hymns, the triennial sacrifices, the (formulas called) nîvid, the sacrifices, the priestly functions, the cattle-sacrifice and the soma-oblations connected with it, are in the ukkhishta.

20. The half-months and months, the divisions of the year together with the seasons, the resounding waters, thunder, the great Vedic canon (sruti) are in the ukkhishta.
21. Pebbles, sand, stones, herbs, plants, grass, clouds, lightning, rain, are attached to, and are founded upon the ukkhishta.
22. Success, attainment, accomplishment, control, greatness, prosperity, supreme attainment, and wellbeing rest upon, rest in, have been deposited in the ukkhishta.
23. Whatever breathes with breath, and sees with sight, all gods in the heavens, founded upon heaven, were born of the ukkhishta.
24. The riks and the sâmans, the metres, the ancient legends (purânam) together with the yagus, all gods in the heavens, founded upon heaven, were born of the ukkhishta.
25. In-breathing and out-breathing, sight, hearing, imperishableness and perishableness, all gods in the heavens, founded upon heaven, were born of the ukkhishta.
26. Joys, pleasures, delights, jubilation and merriment, all gods in the heavens, founded upon heaven, were born of the ukkhishta.
27. The gods, the (deceased) Fathers, men, Gandharvas and Apsaras, all gods in the heavens, founded upon heaven, were born of the ukkhishta.

1. From heaven, from earth, from the atmosphere, from the sea, from the fire, and from the wind, the honey-lash hath verily sprung. This, clothed in amrita (ambrosia), all the creatures revering, acclaim in their hearts.
2. Great sap of all forms (colours) it hath-they call thee moreover the seed of the ocean. Where the honey-lash comes bestowing gifts, there life's breath, and there immortality has settled down.
3. Men severally, contemplating it profoundly, behold its action upon the earth: from the fire and from the wind the honey-lash hath verily sprung, the strong child of the Maruts.
4. Mother of the Âdityas, daughter of the Vasus, breath of life of created beings, nave of immortality, the honey-lash, golden-coloured, dripping ghee, as a great embryo, moves among mortals.
5. The god's begot the lash of honey, from it came an embryo having all forms (colours). This, as soon as born, (while yet) young its mother nourishes; this, as soon as born, surveys all the worlds.
6. Who knows it and who perceives it, the inexhaustible, soma-holding cup that has come from the heart of it (the honey-lash)? 'Tis the wise priest: he shall derive inspiration from it!
7. He knows them, and he perceives them, the inexhaustible breasts of it (the honey-lash), that yield a thousand streams. Nourishment they pour out -without recalcitration.
8. The great (cow) that loudly gives forth the sound 'him,' that bestows strength, and goes with loud shouts to the holy act, bellowing with lust for the three (male) gharmas (fires), she lows, and drips with (streams) of milk.
9. When the waters, the mighty bulls, self-sovereign, wait upon (the cow), swollen with milk, (then) they, the waters, pour nourishment (upon her), and cause her to pour nourishment at will for him that knoweth this.
10. The thunder is thy voice, O Pragâpati; as a bull thou hurlest thy fire upon the earth. From the fire, and from the wind the honey-lash hath verily sprung, the strong child of the Maruts.
11. As the soma at the morn ing-pressure is dear to the Asvins, thus in my own person, O Asvins, lustre shall be sustained!
12. As the soma at the second (mid-day) pressure is dear to Indra and Agni, thus in my own person, O Indra, and Agni, lustre shall be sustained!

13. As the soma at the third pressure (evening) is dear to the Ribhus, thus in my own person, O Ribhus, lustre shall be sustained!
14. May I beget honey for myself; may I obtain honey for myself! Bringing milk, O Agni, I have come:. endow me with lustre!
15. Endow me, O Agni, with lustre, endow me with offspring and with life! May the gods take note of this (prayer) of mine; may Indra together with the Rishis (take note of it)!
16. As bees carry together honey upon honey, thus in my own person, O Asvins, lustre shall be sustained!
17. As the bees pile this honey upon honey, thus in my own person, O Asvins, lustre, brilliance, strength, and force shall be sustained!
18. The honey that is in the mountains, in the heights; in the cows, and in the horses; the honey which is in the surâ (brandy) as it is being poured out, that shall be in me!
19. O Asvins, lords of brightness, anoint me with the honey of the bee, that I may speak forceful speech among men!
20. The thunder is thy speech, O Pragâpati; as a bull thou hurlest thy fire upon earth and heaven. All animals live upon it (the earth), and she with it (Pragâpati's fire) fills nourishment and food.
21. The earth is the staff, the atmosphere the embryo, the heaven the whip (itself?), the lightning the whip-cord; of gold is the tip (of the whip?).
22. He that knoweth the seven honies of the whip becomes rich in honey; (to wit), the Brâhmana, the king, the cow, the ox, rice, barley, and honey as the seventh.
23. Rich in honey becomes he, rich in honey become his appurtenances, worlds rich in honey does he win, he that knoweth thus.
24. When in a bright sky it thunders, then Pragâpati manifests himself to (his) creatures (pragâh). Therefore do I stand with the sacred cord suspended from the right shoulder (prâkinopavita), saying, 'O Pragâpati, watch over me!' The creatures (pragâh) watch over him, Pragâpati watches over him, that knoweth thus.

- 1 -  
Vedic Religion  
Prof. Shashi Tiwari ( Retd.) , Sanskrit Dept. Delhi  University  
 
               Vedic Dharma contains a treasury of spiritual laws that were 
discovered and realized by unknown number of sages and saints over many 
millennia and were compiled in to the Vedas and Upanishads and later in 
many additional books in the form of explanations and stories as the 
situation and time demanded.  So the Vedic Dharma or religion or culture is 
not started by a person.  The thing to understand is that the Vedas were  not 
originated or composed by anyone. They are revelations that were recorded. 
The spiritual knowledge that became the Vedas and Vedic literature are part 
of the Shabda Brahman , or the spiritual vibration that exists eternally, within 
and without the mate rial energy and manifestation, and before, during, and 
after the creation and annihilation of the cosmic manifestation. Sages who 
were and are capable of entering that spiritual dimension, or have glimpses 
into that strata, can easily realize and imbibe th e knowledge that exists in 
that realm and then prescribe or compose them for the benefit of all of 
humanity.  
          Vedic Religion includes ritualistic, philosophical and cultural views of 
Vedic seers. It can be studies by understanding the deep meaning  of mantras. 
Here we are trying to give some specific principles of Vedic religion so that 
it can be identified in its general nature.  
1. Aims of a Human Life  
According to the doctrines of the Vedas, life of a human being should 
be happy and satisfied physic ally, mentally and spiritually. In Vedic Mantras

- 2 - we find many prayers for prosperity, long life , wealth, intelligence, family, 
children and food. All this is desirable for a good and high - quality life and 
Vedic Seers have underlined this fact.  
 Moksha  or liberation is recommended as the highest goal of human life 
by Upanishads. According to Upanishads for a human being, the highest aim 
to be expected is union with the Brahman. This union or ultimate liberation 
can be attained only by giving up non -knowled ge (Ajnana ) and by achieving 
knowledge ( Jnana ). Only he who has recognized the oneness of the Atman 
with the Brahman will obtain complete union with the Brahman. 'Brahmavid 
Brahmaiva bhavati ' is the famous sentence from Mundaka Upanishad which 
means 'he, who knows Brahman, becomes Brahman'. According to 
Upanishads, in order to attain this highest aim it is necessary to give up all 
works, good as well as bad. For sacrifices and pious works only lead to 
Svarga,  this is not the highest goal, because after enj oying Svarga  the soul 
comes back for rebirth. Knowledge alone, knowledge of Self or Brahman, 
knowledge of oneness, leads to the One and Eternally True Brahman. In the 
Katha Upanishad, Naciketa   through his third boon wants to know Brahman 
alone for obtaini ng the highest goal of Absolute Immortality. So according 
to the Upanishads knowledge of Reality leads to salvation.   
 
2. Belief in One Supreme Entity   
        The two conceptions, Atman and Brahman are commonly treated as 
synonymous in the Upanishads. Often they are interchanged with one 
another. But, strictly speaking, Brahman represents the supreme power or 
principle which pervades the universe and Atman,  and its part  is manifested 
in a being . The great fundamental doctrine of the Upanis hads is identity of

- 3 - the individual Atman with the world -Atman (Brahman). It is most forcibly 
expressed in a frequently repeated sentence of the Ch andogya Upanishad 
(6.8-16)- 
 "This whole world consists of it: that is the Real, which  is the Soul, that art 
thou, O Shvetaketu."  
         In that famous formula "That ar e you" (tat tvam asi ), all the teachings 
of the Upani shads are summed up. The B rihadara nyaka Upanishad (1.4.6) 
expresses the same doctrine - 
 "Whoever knows this 'I am Brahma' (  aham Brahma asmi ), becomes the 
All. Eve n the gods are not able to prevent him from becoming it  because  he 
becomes  their Self (Atman) ." 
  First mantra of Ishavasyopanishad says that the Supreme Brahman is 
pervaded every where - 
Isha vasyamidam sarvam yat kinca jadatyam jaga t  | 
Tena tyaktena bhun jiìtha ma g ridhah kasya sviddhanam  || 
Trans lation - All this whatever there is changeful in this changing universe 
should be enveloped by the Lord.  Protect the Self by this renunciation.  Do 
not covet the wealth of anyone. (Do not covet, for whose is this  wealth?)  
         Purusha Sukta of the Rigveda (10.  90) describes Supreme Bra hman or 
Purusha as Universa l soul. The first Mantra of the  Purusha - Sukta 
establishes the same fact saying - 
Sahasrashirshah  purushah  sahasraksha sahasrapat  |  
Sah bhumim vishv ato vrittva atyatishthat dashangulam  || 
Translation: The Perfect Being has thousands of heads, thousands of eyes 
and thousands of feet. Having pervaded the whole earth on all sides, He 
remains ten fingers in surplus (as He is endless) .

- 4 - The Hira nya-garbha Sukta is regarded important for the description of 
creation in the Rigveda . According to traditional view Hira nya-garbha is the 
first aspect created from Brahman and later it causes the creation and all 
beings . One Mantra says - 
Hiranyagarbha samavartatagre  bhutasya jatah patireka asita |  
Sa dadhara prithivim dyamutemam kasmai devaya havisha vidhema  || 
Translation : Hiranya-garbha was produced in the beginning of creation. He 
was the born sole Lord of all beings. He upheld the earth, the sky and all 
these. Wh at god (except Him) should we worship with oblation?  
 
3. Importance of Action and Knowledge  
          According to the  Vedic Religion actions are important in life. If a man 
wants to lead a peaceful and long life he should perform actions most of the 
time.  In this reference second mantra of Ishavashvopanishad is noteworthy -  
Kurvanneveha karmani   jijivishetacchatam samah  |  
Evam tvayi nanyatheto’ sti na karma lipyate nare ||  
Translation :  Only by performing actions, one should desire to live a 
hundred ye ars in this earth.   For such a man like you there is no way other 
than this (by which) actions do not cling to.   
              In Later Vedic Literature, specially in the Brahmanas and 
Aranyakas texts, various rituals are prescribed which are indeed diffe rent 
forms of actions to get definite fruits related to worldly or divine pleasures. 
When we study Upanishads, we find that the importance of knowledge of 
Atman  ( Atma -jnana)  is described everywhere. In this regard, a simple story 
of Katha Upanishad is to be mentioned.

- 5 -   A poor and pious Rishi Vajashrava performed an elaborate sacrifice that 
required, among other things, the giving away of all his wealth and 
possessions. He had a son named Naciket a who though young had a higher 
spiritual consciousness. He w atched the proceedings and saw the gifts being 
given. After performance, Rishi  gave away a few old and feeble cows to the 
priests as Dakshina . Naciket a found them absolutely useless for any 
purpose. Such an unworthy gift would only bring misery to his fath er after 
death, the boy realized. He thought that instead of getting the fruit of the 
great sacrifice, his father would go to the regions of misery and therefore, it 
was the duty of the son to save his father even at the cost of his own life. He 
asked to h is father that a son was also property and should be included 
among the things for distribution. He wished to know, therefore, to whom he 
was going to be given. He asked the question, “ Father ! To whom are you 
going to give me?” His father did not pay any a ttention  to the question, but 
went on with the routine of the great sacrifice. Naciket a repeated the 
question three times till V ajashrava losing patience exclaimed without 
meaning anything like what he said, “I shall give you to  Death, to  Yama”. 
Father was  only annoyed and so answered angrily that he would give him to 
Yama, the King of Death. Later he was shocked at his own exclamation. 
Naciket a asked his father to follow the path of truth and send him to the 
Abode of Death. The father did accordingly. Naci keta then went to the 
abode of Yama. The latter held a high position among the gods. He was 
reputed to be a teacher of the Knowledge of Brahman. As Yama had gone 
out, Naciket a stayed at his doors for three days and nights without food and 
water. On returni ng home, Yama felt sorry for what had happened in his 
absence, but then apologizing worshipped him as his guest. Yama then gave 
him three boons, one for each night. Naciket a used his first boon in

- 6 - obtaining the pleasure  and peace of mind for  his father. By  the second boon 
he got the knowledge of the Divine Fire for sacrificial rituals  which could 
be used for obtaining a place in the heaven . This boon shows the importance 
of actions and rituals for heavenly pleasure.  Then in exchange of the third 
boon, he r equested Yama to instruct him with the knowledge of Atman.  
Upon this, Yama insist ed upon  him in several ways not to be adamant upon 
having the Atma -jnana in as much as even gods were unable to understand 
the nature of it. But Naciket a said, “If even the go ds had doubts in this 
matter and you say that it is not easily to be comprehended, who then could 
expound it  to me as you can, O Death and what other boon can be equal to 
this?” At last Yama granted him his desired boon through the teaching of the 
Katha Up anishad, which includes various aspects of complete spiritual 
knowledge.   
            Thus the story states that actions are essential for worldly and 
heavenly pleasures, but for obtaining final aim of life i.e. liberation or 
Moksha, attainment of real kn owledge is necessary.  
 
4. Purification of the Mind  
 
         Vedic Religion emphasizes on the purity of mind. Shivasankalpa -Sukta 
of Yajurveda indicates  significance of good  will and purification of mind  for 
human beings . The mantra points out that everyt hing in the world is the 
outcome of the mind. The mind has tremendous power. It is the actual 
illuminator of all the perceptive senses of men. If human mind has good 
thoughts all will be good. Our senses are instruments of knowledge so they 
are just like  lights ( Jyoti).  But mind is even their light because they  can work 
when mind activates them. Therefore good motivation of mind is most

- 7 - important. When the mind is evil it can bring destruction, when it is noble 
and pure it can bring peace. In the end of all  the mantras  of this sukta a 
common phrase is given that 'may that mind of mine be of auspicious 
(Shiva ) resolution ( sankalpa). ' 
                            - Tanme manah shivasankalpamastu  . 
 
5. Nature Worship , Vedic  Deities and Vedic Symbolism  
           The Vedic Aryans were children of nature. They studied nature's 
drama very minutely. Sand -storm and cyclone, intense lightening, terrific 
thunder -claps, the heavy rush of rain in monsoon, the swift flood in the 
stream that comes down from the hills, the s corching heat of the sun, the 
cracking red flames of the fire, all witness to power beyond man's power. 
The Vedic sages felt the greatness of these forces. They adored these 
activities. They appreciated these forces. They worshiped and prayed them 
due to r egard, surprise and fear. They realized instinctively that action, 
movement, creation, change and destruction in nature are the results of 
forces beyond men's control. And thus they attributed divinity to nature.  
             The main part of Rigveda belon gs to Natural hymns, the hymns 
related with natural forces. Yet Vedic gods are explained in different ways 
by the scholars of India and West, but speaking generally, the hymns 
addressed to deities ( Devata ) are under the influence of the most impressive 
phenomenon of nature and its aspects. The word Devata means divine, 
divinity which is bright, strong, donor, and powerful. In these hymns we find 
prayers for certain natural elements such as air, water, earth, sun, rain, dawn 
etc. The glorious brightness of t he sun, the blaze of the sacrificial fire, the 
sweep of the rain -storm across the skies, the recurrence of the dawn, the

- 8 - steady currents of the winds, the violence of the tropical storm and other 
such natural energies, fundamental activities or aspects are  glorified and 
personified as divinities ( Devata ). The interaction with nature resulted in 
appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. 
Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as S oma 
is green, fi re is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. 
The characteristics of these forces described in the verses prove that Vedic 
seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities  of 
nature are generally  regarded as dei ties because  they are  helpful, beneficial  
and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains , earth, air, water, plants, trees, 
forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc , all are deities in Vedic mythology. In 
Rigveda the names of major deities are , such  as Agni , Indra, Vayu, Earth, 
Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc.   
           Through Vedic symbolism we can understand the formation of Vedic 
deities.  
1. They are helpful and essential in our life so they should to worshiped 
or respected.  
2.  Worshiping gives the sense of their importance in environment and 
life. This also develops the ecological consciousness of the worshiper.  
3. The attributes assigned to deities are their characteristics in general 
and according to that generally prayers are perf ormed and objects are 
desired. It means that to get that thing from a particular deity , in fact 
we should develop those divine qualities in ourselves.   
For example Gayatri Mantra  is taken here:  
Tatsaviturvarenyam bhargo devasya dhimahi /

- 9 -                   dhiyo yo nah prachdayat // 
          This mantra is of Deva Savita. Here worship is saying that he is 
concentrating on the Varenya Bharga  (Brilliance) of Savita and he is 
desirous to get Intelligence. By chanting this Mantra worshiper requests 
Savita, the  Sun to give him intelligence because he is meditating on its 
luminous  and glowing form. Sun’s brilliance symbolizes knowledge and 
wisdom. If we will be away from the darkness of ignorance, light of 
knowledge will come to us automatically .This is the hid den meaning of this 
Vedic prayer.  
 
6. Purpose  and Scientific Basis o f Vedic Rituals  
           According to Vedic views traditional rites and rituals have a definite 
influence upon individuals. The activities involved while performing rites 
and rituals may  include a yajna , chanting mantras, and special offerings, 
which are based upon scientific principles. Scientists acknowledge the 
influence of sound and music, color, magnetic vibrations, and knowledge on 
which we concentrate. There is no doubt about the u plifting effect of rites 
and rituals. Good actions promote good habits and positive impressions that 
are absorbed by the mind and consciousness. Even psychologists admit that 
a person picks up good habits quickly when directed by good people in the 
correct  environment.  The conscious mind controls the bulk of everyday 
activities. The unconscious mind looks after the more subtle and finer 
activities. The conscious mind collects impressions and influences from the 
outside world. The Vedic rituals provide a mea ns for this to happen. 
However, the unconscious mind sorts the information and builds memories. 
Depending upon the kind of impressions and influences one gathers from the

- 10 - environment, the subconscious mind gradually transforms itself accordingly. 
A skillfu l and efficient mind renders the best support and service to the soul. 
It is not possible to awaken the perception of one’s soul without a controlled 
and pure mind.  
            During rites and rituals a priest invokes the blessings of the deities. 
When in dividuals experience the kindness of gods and are emotionally 
touched during the yajna  and other activities, the mind gets charged with 
religious feelings. The importance of the occasion, the enthusiasm, the purity 
of the place, an emotional oath by the in dividual, the presence of the family, 
relatives and friends together add up to create a special kind of mental state. 
Activities during rituals leave an indelible impression upon the individual. 
This impression specially influences and educates the mind.  The effect of 
the ceremonies depends upon the atmosphere on the occasion and the way it 
is conducted.  
           Hindus observe a variety of rites and rituals. The  Gautam Smriti  
mentions that there are 40 basic rituals. Some religious texts place this figu re 
at 48. According to Maharishi Angira, there are 25 basic forms of rituals.  
Agnihotra   is a simple rite. It also  means a sacrificial fire . This is the ritual in 
which ghee and sesame seeds, and on some occasions other items, are 
offered into a small fir e, usually in a pot or special container, while the priest 
chants various mantras for petitioning the presence and mercy of God. The 
fire, Agn i Devata, the fire god, becomes the mouth of God, through which 
He accepts our offerings. These are also distribut ed to the other gods . Thus, 
prayers for many divinities are chanted during the  ceremony . The ritual 
invokes auspiciousness, peace, goodwill, and changes the vibrations and 
atmosphere wherever it is held. Sometimes people who are confused or 
misinformed thi nk that Hindus or followers of Vedic culture practice the

- 11 - sacrifice of animals to the deities or in rituals. However, this is completely 
wrong .  
 
7. Chant ing of Vedic Mantra and Om  
             According to  Vedic views Mantras are powerful and effective if 
chanted with full consciousness  and attention,  and with  an understanding of 
their meanings.  A mantra is a sacred verbal formula repeated in prayer or 
meditation. The chanting of mantras helps to open the heart and mind to 
clear consciousness, which is the re ality of our true identity as a spiritual 
being. Mantras also create an uplifting and meditative atmosphere for inner 
communion and one -pointed ness of our concentration.  
               The Pranava  or Om is the universally accepted symbol of 
Hinduism,  and Vedic culture. Literally the word Pranava means  "That by 
which God is effectively praised." It also means, "That which is ever new.  
Om is the sacred sound of Brahman . Of all the Vedic verses , the most 
powerful and significant word  is the single -syllable i ncantation called 
Pranava  or OM .  Om has been extolled highly in the Vedas , the Upanishads 
and the Bhagavad -gita as also in other scriptures. It is believed one's own 
beastly nature may be conquered by repeatedly chanting OM.   Generally 
before chanting a m antra Om   should be    pronounced. Om is the  Akshar a, 
or imperishable syllable. Om is the  Universe . It is the  best name of God.  The 
past, the present and the future, all that was, all that is, all that will be, is  
Om. Likewise, all else that may exist bey ond the bounds of time, that too is 
Om. This all is said in Mundaka Upanish ad.  
The Yajur veda exhorts us to try to realize Brahman through, chanting , 
repeating or remembering OM. The Kathopanishad  declares that Om is 
Parabrahma (the Absolute Self) Itself. The Mandukyopanish ad advises the

- 12 - spiritual aspirants to meditate on the unity of the Atman ( Self) with 
Brahman (God) using OM for Japa  (repeated chanting). Shri Krishna states 
in the G ita that He  himself  is OM among  all words . All religious rites are 
started with the chanting of OM. Not only that, if anyone succeeds in 
chanting OM at the time of his death, simultaneously thinking of God, he  
attain s the highest Truth  according to ancient belief.  The Yoga Sutras of  
Patanjali declare that Pranava  is the symb ol of God and that one can attain 
Samadhi  by its repetition, and meditation on Him.  
  The symbol Om is used for invocation, benediction, ritual worship, 
festivals, and religious ceremonies. It represents three  separate sounds: 'A' 
'U' 'M' plus the nasaliza tion and resonance of the sound. It is said that within 
the 'AUM', Vishnu is 'A’, Brahma is 'U' and Shiva is 'M'; bindu  (dot) is the 
trinity in unity while the nada  (crescent) symbolizes transcendence. In the 
Upanishads,  however, AUM is the symbol of the nirguna  (formless) 
Brahman, without attributes, beyond human consciousness and duality . 
 
8. Concept of Social Unity and Welfare of All  
 
      In the Rigveda -Samhita we find a unique prayer for social unity.  It is 
called Samjnana sukta. The term ' Samjnana ' gives the sense of unity in 
thoughts. The unanimity and harmony on mental and intellectual level 
among the people gathered is its purpose. The devotee invokes the Lord of 
creation to inspire mankind with the feeling of love, and the Lord commands 
that all should be bound together with a common aim, common thought and 
common will. The verse says - 
Sam gacchadhvam sam vadadhvam sam vo manamsi janatam |  
Deva  bhagam yatha purve samjanana upasate ||

- 13 - Translation: You should move together, speak together and think  together. 
As the ancient gods with one accord accept their sacrificial share, so your 
minds should be of one accord.  
          Here ' Deva ' may also mean elders of divine qualities. Just as they with 
full consciousness, played their part in life, so you sh ould follow them.  
Another prayer from Yajurveda is worth mentioning here. It is for the 
feeling of Goodness among all beings.  Here the term ‘ Bhadra ’ is used which 
means “goodness’ -  
Bhadram karnebhih s'unuyama devah  
Bhadram pas'yemakshabhir yajatrah |  
Sthirairangaistushtuvansas tanubhir  
Vyas'emahi devahitam yad ayuh ||  
                                                                                              -VA.S. 25.21  
Translation: O Gods  ! may we listen with our ears to what is good 
(Bhadram) , may we see with our eyes what is good, O Gods  ! Worthy of 
worship ! may we, with firm limbs and bodies, offering praise -songs to you, 
enjoy the divinely ordained term of life ( Ayu).  
             The full span of life is important but more important is that it sho uld 
be good and auspicious. Our life should be devoted to welfare and noble 
qualities.  Thus Vedic religion believes in the welfare of all beings for global 
harmony and peace.  
 
9. Wish for Swasti  and Swastika  
            In Vedic religion importance is give n to the desire of  Swasti ,  to be 
auspicious and favorable . The term swasti  emanates from the Sanskrit word 
swasti = su  (good) + asti (being ).

- 14 - Om Swasti na indro vradhashravaha,  
Swasti nah pusha vishvavedaha  /  
Swasti nastarkshyo~aristanemih  
                                   Swasti no brihaspatirdadhatu  // 
This sacred mantra of the Yajurveda is a swastivachana - a prayer, an ardent 
aspiration, for the highest good and well -being of all beings, of everything, 
of the whole universe. Heart -felt chanting of this hymn is an    integral part of 
initiating every relig ious sacrament or important family ceremony in the 
Vedic cultural rituals. It conveys the core and central meaning hidden in the 
symbol of swastika, used later in Hindu religion . 
 
10. Vedic morals  
    Vedic religion is based  on ethics and morality. What sh ould be done and 
what should not  be done  – is the foundation of moral  instruction. Here 
cosmic order is called Ritam which is controlled by Varuna Deva. Even gods 
follow it.  All universal activities follow certain discipline, so why not men?  
Satyam  is anot her moral value for de ities and for men. Earth    is     sustained  
by Ritam  and  Satyam .- ‘ Satyen Adhrita Prithivi. ’ 
         Diksha (action), and Tapas  (austerity ) are other values. Always untruth 
is condemned - 
                               ‘ Satyam eva jayate nanritam ’ 
-Always truth is victorious, not untruth.  
Another famous saying from Upanishad points out to ‘study’  as a virtue - 
‘Satyam vada  dharmam cara swadhyayat ma pramada.’  
- Always speak truth, do right deeds and don’t leave study.   
 Indian moral values have their root in Vedas. They are in deed the  source of 
Dharmashashtras and epics.

- 15 -                      Finally, we can say that Vedic religion is an eternal and 
universal religion. It talks about welfare of all beings.  It recommends rituals 
for wo rldly pleasures and achievements. It aims for the purity of mind. It 
shows the path of knowledge and salvation. The views of Vedic seers on 
philosophy, ritual, society and culture constitute an idea about ‘Vedic 
Religion.’ Here an attempt has been made to discuss in brief some of the 
major aspects of Vedic religion  .   
 
By: Dr.  Shashi Tiwari,  
 Former  Professor in Sanskrit,  
Maitreyi College ,  
University of Delhi, New Delhi  
 
                                                                   Res. Add.   - 54,Sakshara Aptts,  
A-3,Pashchim Vihar,  
New Delhi - 110063  
(Ph 011 -25265237)