, V. & Menger, F. M. Domains and rafts in lipid membranes. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 42, 5802–5827 (2003).

20. 20.

Brown, D. A. & London, E. Structure and function of sphingolipid and cholesterol-rich membrane rafts. J. Biol. Chem. 275, 17221–17224 (2000).

21. 21.

Smart, E. J. et al. Caveolins, liquid-ordered domains, and signal transduction. Mol. Cell. Biol. 19, 7289–7304 (1999).

22. 22.

Anderson, R. G. W. & Jacobson, K. A role for lipid shells in targeting proteins to caveolae, rafts, and other lipid domains. Science 296, 1821–1825 (2002).

23. 23.

Mayor, S. & Rao, M. Rafts: scale-dependent, active lipid organization at the cell surface. Traffic 5, 231–240 (2004).

24. 24.

Rayermann, S. P., Rayermann, G. E., Cornell, C. E., Merz, A. J. & Keller, S. L. Hallmarks of reversible separation of living, unperturbed cell membranes into two liquid phases. Biophys. J. 113, 2425–2432 (2017).

25. 25.

Richter, R. P., Bérat, R. & Brisson, A. R. Formation of solid-supported lipid bilayers: an integrated view. Langmuir 22, 3497–3505 (2006).

26. 26.

Dietrich, C. et al. Lipid rafts reconstituted in model membranes. Biophys. J. 80, 1417–1428 (2001).

27. 27.

Shao, C., Kendall, E. L. & DeVoe, D. L. Electro-optical BLM chips enabling dynamic imaging of ordered lipid domains. Lab. Chip. 12, 3142–3149 (2012).

28. 28.

Bagatolli, L. A. Direct observation of lipid domains in free standing bilayers: from simple to complex lipid mixtures. Chem. Phys. Lipids 122, 137–145 (2003).

29. 29.

Karamdad, K. et al. Engineering thermoresponsive phase separated vesicles formed via emulsion phase transfer as a content-release platform. Chem. Sci. 9, 4851–4858 (2018).

30. 30.

Danial, J. S. H., Cronin, B., Mallik, C. & Walllace, M. I. On demand modulation of lipid composition in an individual bilayer. Soft Matter 13, 1788–1793 (2017).

31. 31.

Trantidou, T., Friddin, M., Salehi-Reyhani, A., Ces, O. & Elani, Y. Droplet microfluidics for the construction of compartmentalised model membranes. Lab. Chip. 18, 2488–2509 (2018).

32. 32.

Talbot, E. L., Parolini, L., Kotar, J., Di Michele, L. & Cicuta, P. Thermal-driven domain and cargo transport in lipid membranes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 114, 846–851 (2017).

33. 33.

Talbot, E. L., Kotar, J., Parolini, L., Di Michele, L. & Cicuta, P. Thermophoretic migration of vesicles depends on mean temperature and head group chemistry. Nat. Commun. 8, 15351 (2017).

34. 34.

Staykova, M., Lipowsky, R. & Dimova, R. Membrane flow patterns in multicomponent giant vesicles induced by alternating electric fields. Soft Matter 4, 2168–2171 (2008).

35. 35.

Honerkamp-Smith, A. R., Woodhouse, F. G., Kantsler, V. & Goldstein, R. E. Membrane viscosity determined from shear-driven flow in giant vesicles. Phys. Rev. Lett. 111, 038103 (2013).

36. 36.

Sturzenegger, F., Robinson, T., Hess, D. & Dittrich, P. S. Membranes under shear stress: visualization of non-equilibrium domain patterns and domain fusion in a microfluidic device. Soft Matter 12, 5072–5076 (2016).

37. 37.

Wurlitzer, S., Lautz, C., Liley, M., Duschl, C. & Fischer, T. M. Micromanipulation of Langmuir-monolayers with optical tweezers. J. Phys. Chem. B 105, 182–187 (2001).

38. 38.

Wurlitzer, S., Steffen, P. & Fischer, T. M. Line tension of Langmuir monolayer phase boundaries determined with optical tweezers. J. Chem. Phys. 112, 5915–5918 (2000).

39. 39.

Steffen, P., Heinig, P., Wurlitzer, S., Khattari, Z. & Fischer, T. M. The translational and rotational drag on Langmuir monolayer domains. J. Chem. Phys. 115, 994–997 (2001).

40. 40.

Smalyukh, I. I., Kaputa, D. S., Kachynski, A. V., Kuzmin, A. N. & Prasad, P. N. Optical trapping of director structures and defects in liquid crystals using laser tweezers. Opt. Express 15, 4359–4371 (2007).

41. 41.

Hamai, C., Cremer, P. S. & Musser, S. M. Single giant vesicle rupture events reveal multiple mechanisms of glass-supported bilayer formation. Biophys. J. 92, 1988–1999 (2007).

42. 42.

Wu, H.-L., Chen, P.-Y., Chi, C.-L., Tsao, H.-K. & Sheng, Y.-J. Vesicle deposition on hydrophilic solid surfaces. Soft Matter 9, 1908–1919 (2013).

43. 43.

Stottrup, B. L., Veatch, S. L. & Keller, S. L. Nonequilibrium behavior in supported lipid membranes containing cholesterol. Biophys. J. 86, 2942–2950 (2004).

44. 44.

Seu, K. J. et al. Effect of surface treatment on diffusion and domain formation in supported lipid bilayers. Biophys. J. 92, 2445–2450 (2007).

45. 45.

Lingwood, D. & Simons, K. Lipid rafts as a membrane-organizing principle. Science 327, 46–50 (2009).

46. 46.

Watanabe, K. et al. High resolution imaging of patterned model biological membranes by localized surface plasmon microscopy. Appl. Opt. 49, 887–891 (2010).

47. 47.

García-Sáez, A. J., Chiantia, S. & Schwille, P. Effect of line tension on the lateral organization of lipid membranes. J. Biol. Chem. 282, 33537–33544 (2007).

48. 48.

Rinia, H. A., Snel, M. M., van der Eerden, J. P. & de Kruijff, B. Visualizing detergent resistant domains in model membranes with atomic force microscopy. FEBS Lett. 501, 92–96 (2001).

49. 49.

Jensen, M. H., Morris, E. J. & Simonsen, A. C. Domain shapes, coarsening, and random patterns in ternary membranes. Langmuir 23, 8135–8141 (2007).

50. 50.

Tlusty, T., Meller, A. & Bar-Ziv, R. Optical gradient forces of strongly localized fields. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 1738 (1998).

51. 51.

Saleh, B. E., Teich, M. C. & Saleh, B. E. Fundamentals of photonics. (Wiley, New York, 1991).

52. 52.

Svoboda, K. & Block, S. M. Biological applications of optical forces. Annu. Rev. Biophys. Biomol. Struct. 23, 247–285 (1994).

53. 53.

Ramsden, J. Molecular orientation in lipid bilayers. Philos. Mag. B 79, 381–386 (1999).

54. 54.

Nielsen, M. M. B. & Simonsen, A. C. Imaging ellipsometry of spin-coated membranes: mapping of multilamellar films, hydrated membranes, and fluid domains. Langmuir 29, 1525–1532 (2013).

55. 55.

Stone, H. A. & Ajdari, A. Hydrodynamics of particles embedded