
\label{tab:available-undata}
\end{table*}


\paragraph{NLP for Creoles}
Creole languages, though largely absent from the NLP literature, have been investigated directly in a small number of works. Of the few works actively focused on Creoles, two works explore directly Creole genesis in the context of computational linguistics.
First, \newcite{DavalMarkussen2012ExplorationsIC} employ phylogenetic tools to explore whether Creole langauges form a unique typological group. By treating each Creole as a list of binary linguistic features, including data from WALS \cite{wals}, they analyze the output of a phylogenetic network program \cite{huson2006application}, to inform their investigation. The overall conclusion made by \newcite{DavalMarkussen2012ExplorationsIC}, was that Creoles indeed formed their own distinct typological class, distinguishable from non-Creoles.
However, this work was later refuted by \newcite{Murawaki2016StatisticalMO}, who argued that the study by \newcite{DavalMarkussen2012ExplorationsIC} had some methodological shortcomings. 
Notably, \newcite{Murawaki2016StatisticalMO} use APiCS features \cite{apics} to encode Creoles, and utilize different approaches for language evolution modeling, to reach the final conclusion that Creoles are \textit{not} typologically distinct from non-Creole languages. 

Meanwhile, \newcite{lent-etal-2021-language} explored the question of how to effectively build language models for three Creole languages (Haitian Kreyol, Singaporean Colloquial English, and Nigerian Pidgin). Their approach involved experimenting with distributionally robust objectives \cite{oren2019distributionally}, to ascertain whether data from a Creole's ``parent'' languages could help the language model to be more robust. In the end, they found that straightforward training of language models for Creoles, without adding information from their related languages, produced the strongest results, thus highlighting the relative stability of Creoles. 

Finally, there have been a handful of other works aiming to develop NLP algorithms usable for end users, primarily in the area of machine translation, for Creoles like Haitian Kreyol, Mauritian Creole, and Nigeran Pidgin \cite{WMT:2011,dabre-etal-2014-anou,millour-fort-2020-text,Ahia2020TowardsSA}.


\subsection{Notable Features of Creoles}
Many Creole languages are noteworthy for their large capacity for linguistic variation. A speaker's individual style of Creole can vary dramatically depending on social factors, such as their age, ethnicity, geography, and social status. These variations can manifest themselves in different linguistic functions of the Creole, for instance, in the chosen syntax, morphology, or lexical choices \cite{DBLP:journals/corr/BajpaiPHC17}.
Below, we discuss other features of some (not all) Creoles, that are particularly notable in the context for NLP.

\paragraph{Societal Stigma vs Recognized Status}
Creole languages are infamously stigmatised \cite{mervyn1971acculturation,siegel1999stigmatized}. To this day, prejudice against Creole languages has thwarted Creole-based education being made available to Creole speakers, for example. The relative status of a language can change drastically, from Creole to Creole. For instance, use of Singlish has been actively discouraged by government officials, citing the need to ``Speak Good English".\footnote{\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speak_Good_English_Movement}} Meanwhile, a handful of other countries have come to embrace Creole (to varying degrees) in their education system, such as Haitian Kreyol, Papiamento, Seychellois Creole, and Tok Pisin \cite{kouwenberg2009handbook}. 
The relative celebration or suppression a Creole receives will certainly impact who is speaking the Creole language, and how they will use it. 

\paragraph{Spoken Languages} 
Today a large number of Creole languages exist primarily, or almost entirely, as a spoken language only (this can also be a consequence of high stigmatization, as explained in the paragraph above \cite{sebba1997contact}). If Creole speakers are not typically writing in the language, development of text-based NLP methods may be largely superfluous, unless members of that community have expressed a desire to begin writing (more) in Creole. Consequently, speech technologies may be more relevant to a large number of Creole speaking communities. 

\paragraph{Non-standardized Orthography or Grammar} 
Writing conventions for Creoles can vary greatly, from Creole to Creole, and even from speaker to speaker. Given that Creoles arise from a complex process involving several parent languages \cite{Sessarego2020NotAG}, and formal writing education in that Creole is not a guarantee for speakers \cite{siegel1999stigmatized}, there is often no standard way of writing them. On one hand, spellings can depend on an individual and informed by their own oral version of the language \cite{millour-fort-2020-text}.  Moreover, spelling and grammar conventions in Creole can also be affected greatly by a speaker's proficiency in that Creole. For instance, native speakers of Nigerian Pidgin may speak a fluent, fast, and strong variety of the Creole (i.e., less diluted with English), while others speak a weaker 
Creole, learned as a second language, characterized by heavy use of just one ancestral Nigerian language. This kind of variety in many cases, as with Nigerian Pidgin, is considered a very positive aspect of a Creole, as it grants speakers a lot of opportunity for nuanced expression.
Given that contemporary NLP methods are typically not robust to such linguistic variation, it is important not to limit Creole speakers to one register of communication \cite{dogruoz-etal-2021-survey}.  

Meanwhile, some Creole languages are undergoing an ongoing cultural shift, with a push towards standardization, in a manner intended to help cultivate a culture of writing in that Creole. For example, in 2014, a language academy was founded for Haitian Kreyol\footnote{\url{https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akademi_Krey\%C3\%B2l_Ayisyen}},\footnote{\url{http://akademikreyol.net/}}. For those planning to work on text-based Creole applications, it is vital to become attuned to the current writing culture of that Creole's community, and be aware of how speakers are wanting to use their Creole in writing. 


\paragraph{Bugs or Features?} 
In summary, many of the features discussed above may be perceived as introducing ``challenges" or difficult ``problems" for NLP to grapple with, as these features are not shared with high-resource languages, like English or Mandarin. However, these so-called ``problems for NLP" are often considered positive features by Creole language speakers themselves. We challenge readers not to think of how they can make Creoles work for NLP, but how NLP can work for Creoles. 

\section{What's Wanted and What's Needed} 
In this section, we will give an overview of the key takeaways from our conversations with experts, as well as the major findings from surveying speakers belonging to various Creole speaking communities. 

\begin{figure*}[t]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[scale=.43]{Fig1.png}
    \caption{We map a sample of Creole languages to our proposed Creole continuum for language technology. PL here refers to ``Prestige Language". We map Haitian Kreyol (HK), Hawaiian Pidgin (HP), Louisiana Creole (LC), Nigerian Pidgin (NP), Papiamento (PM), Singlish (SI).}
    \label{fig:continuum}
\end{figure*}

\paragraph{Connecting with Experts} As discussed by \newcite{bird-2020-decolonising}, building respectful relationships with the relevant community is absolutely necessary, and reaching out to relevant experts is a great first step towards this direction. For the scope of this work, our definition of an ``expert" is not strict. We consider an expert to be anyone who is engaged in research, education, or other community outreach, somehow involving the Creole. This can include, for example, individuals working at language schools, field linguists doing research in the area, local scientists in any field, or even graduate students who are native speakers of such languages. 
Indeed, there are many reasons to begin by reaching out to experts, before even defining your project. First, despite coming from diverse academic backgrounds, experts across different specialities typically speak the same language of scholarship. Although terminological baggage may still interfere with discussion, generally it is easier for fellow field experts to understand, and empathise with each others' goals, than perhaps others. Moreover, even if the experts are not directly working in your field, they may still be familiar or exposed to it. In establishing this relationship, and learning about each other's research or work, there is also a likelihood that some interests overlap, and the opportunity presents itself that you can also help them, which in turn helps to end the norm of