olesterolemia [51].
Another study investigated the protective effect of the essential oil from C. limon against acute hepatic and renal damage induced by a high dose of aspirin in Wistar albino rats. The data obtained in this study demonstrated that the treatment with C. limon protected the liver and kidney from damages induced by aspirin [52].
Regarding the pharmacological effects on the central nervous system, a recent study conducted by Khan and Riaz evaluated the effects of lemon on the behavior of rats, using three different doses (0.2, 0.4, and 0.6 ml/kg), considered low, moderate, and high doses, respectively. The anxiolytic and antidepressant activities were evaluated twice, for 15 days, using the open field, elevated plus maze, and forced swimming tests. In the open field test, C. limon revealed an increase in the distance traveled, the number of central entries, and the number of rearing at moderate dose, while in the elevated plus maze, the number of open arm entries was found to be increased. Whereas in the forced swimming test, there was a decrease in duration of immobility and an increase in the duration of climbing. Thus, results suggest that C. limon at moderate dose has an anxiolytic effect [53].
It has been noted that disorders such as anxiety and depression can be managed through healthier variations in dietary patterns, since there is evidence that a diet rich in antioxidants and vitamins reduces these symptoms. Accordingly, a study was performed in order to evaluate the behavioral effects of C. limon and Punica granatum in rats. In this study, two combinations of doses were used: 0.4 + 5 ml/kg and 0.2 + 8 ml/kg of C. limon and P. granatum, respectively. As in the previous study, the antidepressant and anxiolytic effects were evaluated twice, for 15 days, using forced swimming, open field, and elevated plus maze tests. In the open field test, the use of C. limon and P. granatum showed an increase in the distance traveled and the number of central entries at the dose combination of 0.4 + 5 ml/kg. In the elevated plus maze test, the number of entries was increased at the highest dose combination (0.2 + 8 ml/kg). In the forced swimming test, there was a decrease in the immobility duration and an increase in the climbing duration at both dose combinations: 0.4 + 5 ml/kg and 0.2 + 8 ml/kg C. limon and P. granatum, respectively. Based on these results, the authors suggested that C. limon and P. granatum, at a combination of 0.4 + 5 ml/kg, show anxiolytic and antidepressant effects [54].
In another study conducted by Riaz et al. in 2014, the effect of C. limon and pomegranate juice on rats’ memory was evaluated. It is known that memory is greatly influenced by factors such as diet, stress, and sleep quality. The results of this study indicated that C. limon contains essential phytochemicals and nutrients that improve the memory, particularly the short‐term memory. They also concluded that flavonoids in these juices could be responsible for this effect [55].
Hesperidin extracted from C. limon was found to play an important vasodilator action. In 2016, Dobias et al. evaluated the effect of hesperidin on vascular responses in normotensive and hypertensive rats. Fifteen‐week‐old healthy Wistar rats and spontaneously hypertensive (SHR) rats were randomly assigned to receive either hesperidin (50 mg/kg/day) or a corresponding volume of water orally for 4 weeks. The vascular responses of isolated femoral arteries were studied using a myograph under control conditions and during the NO‐synthase inhibition. Although hesperidin had no effects on blood pressure, it significantly improved endothelium‐dependent vasodilation in Wistar and SHR rats. The contraction responses were increased in all the groups to a similar extent, but the relaxing responses were significantly attenuated in the SHR group only. The inhibition of the potassium channels (Kv) significantly reduced the endothelium‐dependent vasodilator response only in SHR rats administered hesperidin. This indicates that hesperidin can improve endothelium‐dependent vasodilation during hypertension [56].
Regarding the anti‐inflammatory activities described for C. limon, in 2016, Amorim et al. conducted a study to confirm the hypothesis that essential oil (EO) from C. limon, C. latifolia, C. aurantifolia, and C. limonia have antinociceptive effects. Thus, they were tested each one on the formalin‐induced licking behavior. This model is a widely used pain model in evaluating antinociceptive and anti‐inflammatory drugs. The results of this study suggest that EO from C. limon, C. aurantifolia, and C. limonia have an anti‐inflammatory effect because they reduced the second phase response to formalin. This may occur through a reduction in inflammatory mediator liberation in mice paws or a direct action on one or more mediator receptors [57].
Since C. limon is widely used in traditional medications in India and China, we sought to explore the importance of flavonoids that are abundant in citrus fruits on platelet function. Nobiletin is a highly abundant flavonoid present in these and has been shown to reduce the adhesive properties of platelets. In 2015, Vaiyapuri et al. conducted a study to verify the pharmacological effects of a polymethoxy flavonoid, nobiletin, in the modulation of platelet function. Nobiletin was shown suppress a range of well‐established activatory mechanisms, including platelet aggregation, granule secretion, integrin modulation, calcium mobilization, and thrombus formation. This study provided insight into the underlying molecular mechanisms through which nobiletin modulates hemostasis and thrombus formation. Therefore, nobiletin may represent a potential antithrombotic agent of dietary origins [58].
In conclusion, C. limon presents numerous curative properties, and thus it has been widely used as a traditional medicine for the treatment of various diseases [52]. However, more studies still need to be conducted in order for its application in clinical practice to be established and disseminated [59].
Citrus species are well known and have been commonly used by populations for hundreds of years for various purposes. This knowledge of their therapeutic potential has led to several studies that proved the pharmacological effects of the above‐mentioned species (Table 1). The effect of Citrus species on the central nervous system was highlighted as the study objective in most of the publications. However, research has advanced in seeking other pharmacological actions, especially of isolated constituents of the species.
Citrus aurantium L. Gastrointestinal stimulant and general tonic.
Treatment of central nervous system disorders like insomnia, anxiety, and hysteria.
Relieve stomach cramps and constipation, combat stomach acidity.
Citrus sinensis Sedative action.
Treatment of liver cirrhosis.
Citrus bergamia Antibacterial. Antifungal. Anti‐inflammatory. Analgesic. Antiproliferative and anticancer properties. Neuropsychopharmacological. Neuroprotective.
Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic activities.
Citrus limon Analgesic. Anti‐anemic. Anti‐sclerotic. Antipyretic. Antiseptic.
Emollient and moisturizer properties.
Anti‐diarrheal. Diuretic. Intestinal mucosa protector. Local hemostatic.
Vascular stimulant and protector.
Antioxidant. Antiallergic. Antiviral. Anti‐inflammatory. Antiproliferative, antimutagenic, and anticancer activities.
Pharmacological action of different citrus species (studies in vitro and in vivo).
If punches are thrown and none lands, is it a fight?
i think travis moen forgot how to fight.
Simon ragdolled him. Moen gets in one good shot but then gets dominated.
CLEAR WIN Simon. Domination by him in quick time. Moen might have landed one to the start but then he lost his grip of Simon who unloaded 3-5 big shots.
Domination by Simon.
Does Travis Moen ever win a fight?
Islamabad, Jan 19, IRNA -- As many as 3,251 people were killed or they died from the several incidents of violence in port city of Karachi in 2013 making the year deadliest one so far, a media report said on Sunday.
‘Express Tribune’, quoting a report by the Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), said the city has seen a sharp increase in killings in the past few years with 1,981 people killed in 2010, 2,382 killed in 2011 and 3,105 killed in 2012.
Of the killings and deaths in 2013, nearly 1,000 people who had no affiliation with any political party also lost their lives in targeted attacks. The number of political workers targeted and killed was 268, and 108 people were killed due to their sectarian beliefs.
The law enforcers also surface in the violence data as 189 people in Karachi were killed either during police encounters or due to torture during custody. The police force did, however, lose 169 personnel, apart from 22 Rangers men and other law enforcers. They also managed to gun down 28 members of banned outfits.
Lyari gang war claimed more than 100 lives. Of the entire year, August was the bloodiest month with 334 killings or deaths.
According to HRCP chairperson Zohra Yusuf, sectarian and police killings have increased in 2013 as compared to previous years. Referring to the targeted operation that started in September last year, she said the start of the operation showed some improvements in law and