Despite these contributions, during the Ming (1388-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties, Christianity was mostly regarded by Chinese intellectuals as a “foreign religion” harmful to traditional Chinese culture and beliefs, and missionaries as “tools of Western imperialist cultural invasion” with a hidden agenda. During times of political turmoil, rulers might stoke nationalist movements and encourage hostility to Western missionaries. In the 1900 “Boxer Rebellion”, dozens of western Protestant, Catholic, and Orthodox missionaries and thousands of Chinese Christians were massacred throughout northern China.