Lipids are classified into two broad types: those like fats and waxes, which contain ester linkages and can be hydrolyzed, and those like cholesterol and other steroids, which don't have ester linkages and can't be hydrolyzed.
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Animal fat-a triester ( $\mathrm{R}, \mathrm{R}^{\prime}, \mathrm{R}^{\prime \prime}=\mathrm{C}_{11}-\mathrm{C}_{19}$ chains)
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CHAPTER CONTENTS - 27.1 Waxes, Fats, and Oils

Cholesterol


Waxes are mixtures of esters of long-chain carboxylic acids with long-chain alcohols. The carboxylic acid usually has an even number of carbons from 16 to 36 , while the alcohol has an even number of carbons from 24 to 36 . One of the major components of beeswax, for instance, is triacontyl hexadecanoate, the ester of the $\mathrm{C}_{30}$ alcohol (1-triacontanol) and the $\mathrm{C}_{16}$ acid (hexadecanoic acid). The waxy protective coatings on most fruits, berries, leaves, and animal furs have similar structures.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0978.jpg?height=272&width=1779&top_left_y=937&top_left_x=241)


Triacontyl hexadecanoate (from beeswax) -

Animal fats and vegetable oils are the most widely occurring lipids. Although they appear different-animal fats like butter and lard are solids, whereas vegetable oils like corn and peanut oil are liquid-their structures are closely related. Chemically, fats and oils are triglycerides, or triacylglycerols-triesters of glycerol with three long-chain carboxylic acids called fatty acids. Animals use fats for long-term energy storage because they are far less highly oxidized than carbohydrates and provide about six times as much energy as an equal weight of stored, hydrated glycogen.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0978.jpg?height=372&width=1297&top_left_y=1538&top_left_x=414)


A triacylglycerol -

Hydrolysis of a fat or oil with aqueous NaOH yields glycerol and three fatty acids. The fatty acids are generally unbranched and contain an even number of carbon atoms between 12 and 20 . If double bonds are present, they have mostly, although not entirely, $Z$, or cis, geometry. The three fatty acids of a specific triacylglycerol molecule need not be the same, and the fat or oil from a given source is likely to be a complex mixture of many different triacylglycerols. TABLE 27.1 lists some of the commonly occurring fatty acids, and TABLE 27.2 lists the approximate composition of fats and oils from different sources.


A triacylglycerol -

TABLE 27.1 Structures of Some Common Fatty Acids


A triacylglycerol -

| Name | No. of carbons | Melting point $\left({ }^{\circ} \mathrm{C}\right)$ | Structure |
| :--- | :---: | :--- | :--- |
| Saturated |  |  |  |
| Lauric | 12 | 43.2 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{10} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Myristic | 14 | 53.9 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{12} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Palmitic | 16 | 63.1 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{14} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Stearic | 18 | 68.8 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{16} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Arachidic | 20 | 76.5 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{18} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |


A triacylglycerol -

Unsaturated


A triacylglycerol -

| Palmitoleic | 16 | -0.1 | $(Z)-\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{5} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{7} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| :--- | :---: | :---: | :--- |
| Oleic | 18 | 13.4 | $(Z)-\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{7} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{7} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Linoleic | 18 | -12 | $(Z, Z)-\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{4}\left(\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCH}_{2}\right)_{2}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{6} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Linolenic | 18 | -11 | $($ all $Z)-\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2}\left(\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCH}_{2}\right)_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{6} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |
| Arachidonic | 20 | -49.5 | $($ all $Z)-\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{4}\left(\mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCH}_{2}\right)_{4} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ |


A triacylglycerol -

TABLE 27.2 Composition of Some Fats and Oils


A triacylglycerol -

|  | Saturated fatty acids (\%) |  |  | Unsaturated fatty acids (\%) |  |  |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Source | $\mathrm{C}_{12}$ lauric | $\mathrm{C}_{14}$ myristic | $\mathrm{C}_{16}$ palmitic | $\mathrm{C}_{18}$ stearic | $\mathrm{C}_{18}$ oleic | $\mathrm{C}_{18}$ linoleic |


A triacylglycerol -

Animal fat


A triacylglycerol -

| Lard | - | 1 | 25 | 15 | 50 | 6 |
| :--- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Butter | 2 | 10 | 25 | 10 | 25 | 5 |
| Human fat | 1 | 3 | 25 | 8 | 46 | 10 |
| Whale blubber | - | 8 | 12 | 3 | 35 | 10 |


A triacylglycerol -

| Vegetable oil |  |  |  |  |  |  |
| :--- | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: | ---: |
| Coconut | 50 | 18 | 8 | 2 | 6 | 1 |
| Corn | - | 1 | 10 | 4 | 35 | 45 |
| Olive | - | 1 | 5 | 5 | 80 | 7 |
| Peanut | - | - | 7 | 5 | 60 | 20 |


A triacylglycerol -

More than 100 different fatty acids are known and about 40 occur widely. Palmitic acid ( $\mathrm{C}_{16}$ ) and stearic acid $\left(\mathrm{C}_{18}\right)$ are the most abundant saturated fatty acids; oleic and linoleic acids (both $\mathrm{C}_{18}$ ) are the most abundant unsaturated ones. Oleic acid is monounsaturated because it has only one double bond, whereas linoleic, linolenic, and arachidonic acids are polyunsaturated fatty acids because they have more than one double bond. Linoleic and linolenic acids occur in cream and are essential in the human diet; infants grow poorly and develop skin lesions if fed a diet of nonfat milk for prolonged periods. Linolenic acid, in particular, is an example of an omega- $\mathbf{3}$ fatty acid, which has been found to lower blood triglyceride levels and reduce the risk of heart attack. The name omega-3 means that there is a double bond three carbons in from the noncarboxyl end of the chain.
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Stearic acid
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0980.jpg?height=461&width=1003&top_left_y=992&top_left_x=561)


A triacylglycerol -

Linolenic acid, an omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid
The data in TABLE 27.1 show that unsaturated fatty acids generally have lower melting points than their saturated counterparts, a trend that is also true for triacylglycerols. Since vegetable oils generally have a higher proportion of unsaturated to saturated fatty acids than animal fats (TABLE 27.2), they have lower melting points. The difference is a consequence of structure. Saturated fats have a uniform shape that allows them to pack together efficiently in a crystal lattice. In unsaturated vegetable oils, however, the $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}$ bonds introduce bends and kinks into the hydrocarbon chains, making crystal formation more difficult. The more double bonds there are, the harder it is for the molecules to crystallize and the lower the melting point of the oil.


A triacylglycerol -

The $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}$ bonds in vegetable oils can be reduced by catalytic hydrogenation, typically carried out at high temperature using a nickel catalyst, to produce saturated solid or semisolid fats. Prior to 2015 , industrially produced margarine and shortening were produced by hydrogenating soybean, peanut, or cottonseed oil until the proper consistency is obtained. As of 2015, trans fats are no longer considered safe by the FDA and have since been phased out of industrially produced foods. Unfortunately, the hydrogenation reaction is accompanied by some cis-trans isomerization of the remaining double bonds, producing fats with about 10\% to $15 \%$ trans unsaturated fatty acids. Dietary intake of trans fatty acids increases cholesterol levels in the blood, thereby increasing the risk of heart problems. The conversion of linoleic acid into elaidic acid is an example.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0981.jpg?height=611&width=904&top_left_y=188&top_left_x=605)


A triacylglycerol -

PROBLEM Carnauba wax, used in floor and furniture polishes, contains an ester of a $\mathrm{C}_{32}$ straight-chain alcohol
27-1 with a $\mathrm{C}_{20}$ straight-chain carboxylic acid. Draw its structure.
PROBLEM Draw structures of glyceryl tripalmitate and glyceryl trioleate. Which would you expect to have a
27-2 higher melting point?


A triacylglycerol - 27.2 Soap

Soap has been in use for nearly 5000 years. As early as 2800 BC, the Babylonians boiled fats with ashes to create a soap-like substance. Ancient Egyptian medical papyri dating from 1550 BC reveals that Egyptians bathed regularly with soap made from a mixture of animal fats, vegetable oils, and alkaline salts. Chemically, soap is a mixture of the sodium or potassium salts of the long-chain fatty acids produced by hydrolysis (saponification) of animal fat with alkali. Wood ash was used as a source of alkali until the early 1800s, when the LeBlanc process for making $\mathrm{Na}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{3}$ by heating sodium sulfate with limestone became available.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0981.jpg?height=340&width=679&top_left_y=1364&top_left_x=780)


A fat ( $\mathrm{R}=\mathrm{C}_{11}-\mathrm{C}_{19}$ Aliphatic chains) -

Glycerol


Crude soap curds contain glycerol and excess alkali as well as soap but can be purified by boiling with water and adding NaCl or KCl to precipitate the pure carboxylate salts. The smooth soap that precipitates is dried, perfumed, and pressed into bars for household use. Dyes are added to make colored soaps, antiseptics are added for medicated soaps, pumice is added for scouring soaps, and air is blown in for soaps that float. Regardless of these extra treatments and regardless of price, though, all soaps are basically the same.


Soaps act as cleansers because the two ends of a soap molecule are so different. The carboxylate end of the longchain molecule is ionic and therefore hydrophilic (Section 2.12), or attracted to water. The long hydrocarbon portion of the molecule, however, is nonpolar and hydrophobic, avoiding water and therefore more soluble in oils. The net effect of these two opposing tendencies is that soaps are attracted to both oils and water and are therefore useful as cleansers.


When soaps are dispersed in water, the long hydrocarbon tails cluster together on the inside of a tangled, hydrophobic ball, while the ionic heads on the surface of the cluster protrude into the water layer. These spherical clusters, called micelles, are shown schematically in FIGURE 27.2. Grease and oil droplets are solubilized in water when they are coated by the nonpolar, hydrophobic tails of soap molecules in the center of micelles. Once solubilized, the grease and dirt can be rinsed away.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0982.jpg?height=714&width=1272&top_left_y=226&top_left_x=402)

FIGURE 27.2 A soap micelle solubilizing a grease particle in water. An electrostatic potential map of a fatty acid carboxylate shows how the negative charge is located in the head group.