The second part of lanosterol biosynthesis is catalyzed by oxidosqualene-lanosterol cyclase and occurs as shown in FIGURE 27.15. Squalene is folded by the enzyme into a conformation that aligns the various double bonds for a cascade of successive intramolecular electrophilic additions, followed by a series of hydride and methyl migrations. Except for the initial epoxide protonation/cyclization, the process is probably stepwise and appears to involve discrete carbocation intermediates that are stabilized by electrostatic interactions with electron-rich aromatic amino acids in the enzyme.
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Squalene
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(3S)-2,3-0xidosqualene
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0999.jpg?height=565&width=1267&top_left_y=1322&top_left_x=429)
FIGURE 27.14 Proposed mechanism of the oxidation of squalene by flavin hydroperoxide.


Synthetic Steroids - 27.7 Biosynthesis of Steroids

Steps 1, 2 of FIGURE 27.15: Epoxide Opening and Initial Cyclizations
Cyclization begins in step 1 with protonation of the epoxide ring by an aspartic acid residue in the enzyme. Nucleophilic opening of the protonated epoxide by the nearby 5,10 double bond (steroid numbering; Section 27.6) then yields a tertiary carbocation at C10. Further addition of C10 to the 8,9 double bond in step 2 next gives a bicyclic tertiary cation at C8.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1000.jpg?height=359&width=1468&top_left_y=184&top_left_x=323)
(3S)-2,3-Oxidosqualene
Step 3 of FIGURE 27.15: Third Cyclization
The third cationic cyclization is somewhat unusual because it occurs with non-Markovnikov regiochemistry and gives a secondary cation at C13 rather than the alternative tertiary cation at C14. There is growing evidence, however, that the tertiary carbocation may in fact be formed initially and that the secondary cation arises by subsequent rearrangement. The secondary cation is probably stabilized in the enzyme pocket by the proximity of an electron-rich aromatic ring.

Mechanism of the conversion of 2,3-oxidosqualene to lanosterol. Four cationic cyclizations are followed by four rearrangements and a final loss of $\mathrm{H}^{+}$from C9. The steroid numbering system is used for referring to specific positions in the intermediates (Section 27.6). Individual steps are explained in the text.


Protonation on oxygen opens the epoxide ring and gives a tertiary carbocation at C4. Intramolecular electrophilic addition of C4 to the 5,10 double bond then yields a tertiary monocyclic carbocation at C10.


The C10 carbocation adds to the 8,9 double bond, giving a C8 tertiary bicyclic carbocation.

Further intramolecular addition of the C8 carbocation to the 13,14 double bond occurs with non-Markovnikov regiochemistry and gives a tricyclic secondary carbocation at C13.


4 The fourth and final cyclization occurs by addition of the C13 cation to the 17,20 double bond, giving the protosteryl cation with $17 \beta$ stereochemistry.


Hydride migration from C17 to C20 occurs, establishing $R$ stereochemistry at C20.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1001.jpg?height=253&width=850&top_left_y=459&top_left_x=990)
(3S)-2,3-Oxidosqualene
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1001.jpg?height=302&width=781&top_left_y=787&top_left_x=1054)


Protosteryl cation
(5)


FIGURE 27.16


(Continued) -


Protosteryl cation -

©
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1002.jpg?height=314&width=705&top_left_y=534&top_left_x=986)
©
from C13 to C17, establishing the final $17 \beta$ stereochemistry of the side chain.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1002.jpg?height=229&width=828&top_left_y=959&top_left_x=990)


Protosteryl cation -

Methyl migration from C14 to C13 occurs.
(0)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1002.jpg?height=237&width=852&top_left_y=1296&top_left_x=989)

8 A second methyl migration occurs, from C8 to C14.
(8)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1002.jpg?height=256&width=844&top_left_y=1645&top_left_x=993)


Protosteryl cation -

Loss of a proton from C9 forms an 8,9 double bond and gives lanosterol.
©
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1002.jpg?height=298&width=815&top_left_y=2017&top_left_x=983)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1003.jpg?height=903&width=1557&top_left_y=188&top_left_x=281)


Protosteryl cation -

Step 4 of FIGURE 27.15: Final Cyclization
The fourth and last cyclization occurs in step 4 by addition of the cationic center at C13 to the 17,20 double bond, giving what is known as the protosteryl cation. The side-chain alkyl group at C17 has $\beta$ (up) stereochemistry, although this stereochemistry is lost in step 5 and then reset in step 6.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1003.jpg?height=448&width=1432&top_left_y=1294&top_left_x=344)

Steps 5-9 of FIGURE 27.15: Carbocation Rearrangements
Once the tetracyclic carbon skeleton of lanosterol has been formed, a series of carbocation rearrangements occur (Section 7.11). The first rearrangement, hydride migration from C 17 to C 20 , occurs in step 5 and results in establishment of $R$ stereochemistry at C20 in the side chain. In step 6, a second hydride migration occurs from C13 to C17 on the $\alpha$ (bottom) face of the ring and reestablishes the $17 \beta$ orientation of the side chain. Finally, two methyl migrations, the first from C 14 to C 13 on the top $(\beta)$ face and the second from C 8 to C 14 on the bottom $(\alpha)$ face, place the positive charge at C8. A basic histidine residue in the enzyme then removes the neighboring $\beta$ proton from C9 to give lanosterol.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1004.jpg?height=442&width=1521&top_left_y=191&top_left_x=302)


Protosteryl cation -

From lanosterol, the pathway for steroid biosynthesis continues on to yield cholesterol. Cholesterol then becomes a branch point, serving as the common precursor from which all other steroids are derived.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1004.jpg?height=440&width=1397&top_left_y=734&top_left_x=359)


Protosteryl cation -

PROBLEM Compare the structures of lanosterol and cholesterol, and catalog the changes needed for the 27-10 transformation shown.


Saturated Fats, Cholesterol, and Heart Disease -

We hear a lot these days about the relationship between saturated fats, cholesterol, and heart disease. What are the facts? It's well established that a diet rich in saturated animal fats often leads to an increase in blood serum cholesterol, particularly in sedentary, overweight individuals. Conversely, a diet lower in saturated fats and higher in polyunsaturated fats leads to a lower serum cholesterol level. Studies have shown that a serum cholesterol level greater than $240 \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{dL}$ (a desirable value is $<200 \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{dL}$ ) is correlated with an increased incidence of coronary artery disease, in which cholesterol deposits build up on the inner walls of coronary arteries, blocking the flow of blood to the heart muscles.


A better indication of a person's risk of heart disease comes from a measurement of blood lipoprotein levels. Lipoproteins are complex molecules with both lipid and protein components that transport lipids through the body. They can be divided into three types according to density, as shown in TABLE 27.3. Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) act primarily as carriers of triglycerides from the intestines to peripheral tissues, whereas low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) and high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) act as carriers of cholesterol to and from the liver.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1005.jpg?height=671&width=899&top_left_y=1047&top_left_x=613)


FIGURE 27.17 It's hard to resist, but a high intake of saturated animal fat doesn't do much for your cholesterol level. (credit: modification of work "food-chicken-meat-outdoors" by www.pixel.la/Flickr, Public Domain)


Evidence suggests that LDLs transport cholesterol as its fatty-acid ester to peripheral tissues, whereas HDLs remove cholesterol as its stearate ester from dying cells. If LDLs deliver more cholesterol than is needed, and if insufficient HDLs are present to remove it, the excess is deposited in arteries. Thus, a low level of low-density lipoproteins is good because it means that less cholesterol is being transported, and a high level of high-density lipoproteins is good because it means that more cholesterol is being removed. In addition, HDL contains an enzyme that has antioxidant properties, offering further protection against heart disease.


As a rule of thumb, a person's risk drops about $25 \%$ for each increase of $5 \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{dL}$ in HDL concentration. Normal values are $>40 \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{dL}$ for men and $<50 \mathrm{mg} / \mathrm{dL}$ for women, perhaps explaining why premenopausal women appear to be somewhat less susceptible than men to heart disease.


TABLE 27.3 Serum Lipoproteins


| Name | Density (g/mL) | \% Lipid | \% Protein | Optimal (mg/dL) | Poor (mg/dL) |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| VLDL | $0.930-1.006$ | 90 | 10 | - | - |
| LDL | $1.019-1.063$ | 75 | 25 | $<100$ | $>130$ |
| HDL | $1.063-1.210$ | 67 | 33 | $>60$ | $<40$ |


Not surprisingly, the most important factor in gaining high HDL levels is a generally healthful lifestyle. Obesity, smoking, and lack of exercise lead to low HDL levels, whereas regular exercise and a sensible diet lead to high HDL levels. Distance runners and other endurance athletes have HDL levels nearly $50 \%$ higher than the general population. Failing that-some of us, but not everyone, wants to run 30 miles or bike 80 miles per week-diet is also important. Diets high in cold-water fish, like salmon and whitefish, raise HDL and lower blood cholesterol because these fish contain almost entirely polyunsaturated fat, including a large percentage of omega-3 fatty acids. Animal fat from red meat and cooking fats should be minimized because saturated fats and monounsaturated trans fats raise blood cholesterol.


Key Terms -

- anabolic steroid
- androgen
- eicosanoid
- estrogen
- fatty acid
- hormone
- lipid
- lipid bilayer
- lipoprotein
- micelle
- mineralocorticoid
- omega-3 fatty acid
- phospholipid
- polyunsaturated fatty acid
- progestin
- prostaglandin
- saponification
- steroid
- terpenoid
- triacylglycerol
- wax


Key Terms -


Summary -

Lipids are the naturally occurring materials isolated from plants and animals by extraction with a nonpolar organic solvent. Animal fats and vegetable oils are the most widely occurring lipids. Both are triacylglycerols-triesters of glycerol with long-chain fatty acids. Animal fats are usually saturated, whereas vegetable oils usually have unsaturated fatty acid residues.


Summary -

Phospholipids are important constituents of cell membranes and are of two kinds. Glycerophospholipids, such as phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine, are closely related to fats in that they have a glycerol backbone esterified to two fatty acids (one saturated and one unsaturated) and to one phosphate ester. Sphingomyelins have the amino alcohol sphingosine for their backbone.


Summary -

Eicosanoids and terpenoids are still other classes of lipids. Eicosanoids, of which prostaglandins are the most abundant kind, are derived biosynthetically from arachidonic acid, are found in all body tissues, and have a wide range of physiological activity. Terpenoids are often isolated from the essential oils of plants, have an immense diversity of structure, and are produced biosynthetically from the five-carbon precursor isopentenyl diphosphate (IPP). Isopentenyl diphosphate is itself biosynthesized from 3 equivalents of acetate in the mevalonate pathway.


Summary -

Steroids are plant and animal lipids with a characteristic tetracyclic carbon skeleton. Like the eicosanoids, steroids occur widely in body tissues and have a large variety of physiological activities. Steroids are closely related to terpenoids and arise biosynthetically from the triterpenoid lanosterol. Lanosterol, in turn, arises from cationic cyclization of the acyclic hydrocarbon squalene.


Additional Problems -


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following model is that of cholic acid, a constituent of human bile. Locate the three hydroxyl
27-11 groups, and identify each as axial or equatorial. Is cholic acid an A-B trans steroid or an A-B cis steroid?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1007.jpg?height=405&width=738&top_left_y=475&top_left_x=414)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Propose a biosynthetic pathway for the sesquiterpenoid helminthogermacrene from farnesyl 27-12 diphosphate.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1007.jpg?height=446&width=545&top_left_y=1005&top_left_x=416)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Identify the following fatty acid, and tell whether it is more likely to be found in peanut oil or in red
27-13 meat:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1007.jpg?height=373&width=928&top_left_y=1559&top_left_x=411)


Mechanism Problems -


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Suggest a mechanism by which $\psi$-ionone is transformed into $\beta$-ionone on treatment with acid. 27-15
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1008.jpg?height=270&width=790&top_left_y=185&top_left_x=407)


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Isoborneol is converted into camphene on treatment with dilute sulfuric acid. Propose a 27-16 mechanism for the reaction, which involves a carbocation rearrangement.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1008.jpg?height=218&width=404&top_left_y=585&top_left_x=416)


Caryophyllene -


Caryophyllene -

Camphene


Caryophyllene -

Fats, Oils, and Related Lipids
PROBLEM Fatty fish like salmon and albacore are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, which have a double bond three
27-17 carbons in from the noncarboxyl end of the chain and have been shown to lower blood cholesterol levels. Draw the structure of $5,8,11,14,17$-eicosapentaenoic acid, a common example. $($ Eicosane $=$ $\mathrm{C}_{20} \mathrm{H}_{42}$.)


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Fats can be either optically active or optically inactive, depending on their structure. Draw the
27-18 structure of an optically active fat that yields 2 equivalents of stearic acid and 1 equivalent of oleic acid on hydrolysis. Draw the structure of an optically inactive fat that yields the same products.


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Spermaceti, a fragrant substance from sperm whales, was widely used in cosmetics until it was
27-19 banned in 1976 to protect whales from extinction. Chemically, spermaceti is cetyl palmitate, the ester of cetyl alcohol ( $n-\mathrm{C}_{16} \mathrm{H}_{33} \mathrm{OH}$ ) with palmitic acid. Draw its structure.


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Show the products you would expect to obtain from reaction of glyceryl trioleate with the following
27-20 reagents:
(a) Excess $\mathrm{Br}_{2}$ in $\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$
(b) $\mathrm{H}_{2} / \mathrm{Pd}$
(c) $\mathrm{NaOH} / \mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$
(d) $\mathrm{O}_{3}$, then $\mathrm{Zn} / \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$
(e) $\mathrm{LiAlH}_{4}$, then $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}$
$\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{MgBr}$, then $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}$


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM How would you convert oleic acid into the following substances?
27-21 (a) Methyl oleate
(b) Methyl stearate (c) Nonanal
(d) Nonanedioic acid
(e) 9-Octadecynoic acid (stearolic acid) (f) 2-Bromostearic acid
(g) 18-Pentatriacontanone, $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{16} \mathrm{CO}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{16} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$


Caryophyllene -

PROBLEM Plasmalogens are a group of lipids found in nerve and muscle cells. How do plasmalogens differ 27-22 from fats?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1008.jpg?height=289&width=226&top_left_y=2024&top_left_x=413)


A plasmalogen -

PROBLEM What products would you obtain from hydrolysis of a plasmalogen (Problem 27-22) with aqueous 27-23 NaOH ? With $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}$?


A plasmalogen -

PROBLEM Cardiolipins are a group of lipids found in heart muscles. What products would be formed if all ester 27-24
bonds, including phosphates, were saponified by treatment with aqueous NaOH ?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1009.jpg?height=301&width=540&top_left_y=256&top_left_x=413)


A plasmalogen -

A cardiolipin


A plasmalogen -

PROBLEM Stearolic acid, $\mathrm{C}_{18} \mathrm{H}_{32} \mathrm{O}_{2}$, yields stearic acid on catalytic hydrogenation and undergoes oxidative
27-25 cleavage with ozone to yield nonanoic acid and nonanedioic acid. What is the structure of stearolic acid?