In contrast to the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction of $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Br}$ with $\mathrm{OH}^{-}$, the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction of $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{CBr}$ with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ has a rate that depends only on the alkyl halide concentration and is independent of the $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ concentration. In other words, the process is a first-order reaction; the concentration of the nucleophile does not appear in the rate equation.


A Summary of $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ Reaction Characteristics - 11.4 The $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ Reaction

$$
\begin{aligned}
\text { Reaction rate } & =\text { Rate of disappearance of alkyl halide } \\
& =k \times[\mathrm{RX}]
\end{aligned}
$$


To explain this result, we need to know more about kinetics measurements. Many organic reactions occur in several steps, one of which usually has a higher-energy transition state than the others and is therefore slower. We call this step with the highest transition-state energy the rate-limiting step, or rate-determining step. No reaction can proceed faster than its rate-limiting step, which acts as a kind of traffic jam, or bottleneck. In the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction of $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{CBr}$ with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$, the fact that the nucleophile concentration does not appear in the firstorder rate equation means that it is not involved in the rate-limiting step and must therefore be involved in some other, non-rate-limiting step. The mechanism shown in FIGURE 11.9 accounts for these observations.


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

The mechanism of the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction of 2-bromo-2-methylpropane with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ involves three steps. Step 1 -the spontaneous, unimolecular dissociation of the alkyl bromide to yield a carbocation-is rate-limiting.
(1) Spontaneous dissociation of the alkyl bromide occurs in a slow, rate-limiting step to generate a carbocation intermediate plus bromide ion.
2) The carbocation intermediate reacts with water as a nucleophile in a fast step to yield protonated alcohol as product.
(3) Loss of a proton from the protonated alcohol intermediate then gives the neutral alcohol product.


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

Unlike what occurs in an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction, where the leaving group is displaced while the incoming nucleophile approaches, an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction takes place by loss of the leaving group before the nucleophile approaches. 2-Bromo-2-methylpropane spontaneously dissociates to the tert-butyl carbocation $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3} \mathrm{C}^{+}$, plus $\mathrm{Br}^{-}$in a slow, rate-limiting step, and the intermediate carbocation is then immediately trapped by the nucleophile water in
a faster second step. Thus, water is not a reactant in the step whose rate is measured. The energy diagram is shown in FIGURE 11.10.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0343.jpg?height=654&width=922&top_left_y=299&top_left_x=599)


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

FIGURE 11.10 An energy diagram for an $\mathbf{S}_{\mathbf{N}} \mathbf{1}$ reaction. The rate-limiting step is the spontaneous dissociation of the alkyl halide to give a carbocation intermediate. Reaction of the carbocation with a nucleophile then occurs in a second, faster step.


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

Because an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction occurs through a carbocation intermediate, its stereochemical outcome is different from that of an $S_{N} 2$ reaction. Carbocations, as we've seen, are planar, $s p^{2}$-hybridized, and achiral. Thus, if we carry out an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction on one enantiomer of a chiral reactant and go through an achiral carbocation intermediate, the product loses its optical activity (Section 8.12). That is, the symmetrical intermediate carbocation can react with a nucleophile equally well from either side, leading to a racemic, 50 : 50 mixture of enantiomers (FIGURE 11.11).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0343.jpg?height=717&width=1370&top_left_y=1319&top_left_x=372)

FIGURE 11.11 Stereochemistry of the $\mathbf{S}_{\mathbf{N}} \mathbf{1}$ reaction. Because the reaction goes through an achiral intermediate, an enantiomerically pure reactant gives an optically inactive racemic product.


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

The conclusion that $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions on enantiomerically pure substrates should give racemic products is nearly, but not exactly, what is found. In fact, few $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ displacements occur with complete racemization. Most give a minor ( $0-20 \%$ ) excess of inversion. The reaction of ( $R$ )-6-chloro-2,6-dimethyloctane with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$, for example, leads to an alcohol product that is approximately $80 \%$ racemized and $20 \%$ inverted $(80 \% R, S+20 \% S$ is equivalent to $40 \% R+60 \% S$ ).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0344.jpg?height=158&width=1332&top_left_y=187&top_left_x=418)
(R)-6-Chloro-2,6-dimethyloctane


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

60\% S (inversion)


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

40\% R (retention)


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

This lack of complete racemization in $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions is due to the fact that ion pairs are involved. According to this explanation, first proposed by Saul Winstein at UCLA, dissociation of the substrate occurs to give a structure in which the two ions are still loosely associated and in which the carbocation is effectively shielded from reaction on one side by the departing anion. If a certain amount of substitution occurs before the two ions fully diffuse apart, then a net inversion of configuration will be observed (FIGURE 11.12).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0344.jpg?height=723&width=1520&top_left_y=660&top_left_x=297)

Inversion
Racemization
FIGURE 11.12 Ion pairs in an $\mathbf{S}_{\mathbf{N}} \mathbf{1}$ reaction. The leaving group shields one side of the carbocation intermediate from reaction with the nucleophile, thereby leading to some inversion of configuration rather than complete racemization.


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

PROBLEM What product(s) would you expect from reaction of (S)-3-chloro-3-methyloctane with acetic acid?
11-8 Show the stereochemistry of both reactant and product.
PROBLEM Among the many examples of $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions that occur with incomplete racemization, the optically 11-9 pure tosylate of 2,2-dimethyl-1-phenyl-1-propanol $\left([\alpha]_{D}=-30.3\right)$ gives the corresponding acetate $\left([\alpha]_{D}=+5.3\right)$ when heated in acetic acid. If complete inversion had occurred, the optically pure acetate would have had $[\alpha]_{D}=+53.6$. What percentage racemization and what percentage inversion occurred in this reaction?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0344.jpg?height=310&width=961&top_left_y=1856&top_left_x=411)


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM -

PROBLEM Assign configuration to the following substrate, and show the stereochemistry and identity of the
11-10 product you would obtain by $S_{N} 1$ reaction with water (reddish brown $=B r$ ):
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0345.jpg?height=392&width=483&top_left_y=189&top_left_x=417)


FIGURE 11.9 MECHANISM - 11.5 Characteristics of the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ Reaction

Just as the $S_{N} 2$ reaction is strongly influenced by the structure of the substrate, the leaving group, the nucleophile, and the solvent, the $S_{N} 1$ reaction is similarly influenced. Factors that lower $\Delta G^{\ddagger}$, either by lowering the energy level of the transition state or by raising the energy level of the ground state, favor faster $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions. Conversely, factors that raise $\Delta G^{\ddagger}$, either by raising the energy level of the transition state or by lowering the energy level of the reactant, slow down the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction.


The Substrate -

According to the Hammond postulate (Section 7.10), any factor that stabilizes a high-energy intermediate also stabilizes the transition state leading to that intermediate. Because the rate-limiting step in an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction is the spontaneous, unimolecular dissociation of the substrate to yield a carbocation, the reaction is favored whenever a stabilized carbocation intermediate is formed. The more stable the carbocation intermediate, the faster the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction.


The Substrate -

We saw in Section 7.9 that the stability order of alkyl carbocations is $3^{\circ}>2^{\circ}>1^{\circ}>$ methyl. To this list we should also add the resonance-stabilized allyl and benzyl cations. Just as allylic radicals are unusually stable because the unpaired electron can be delocalized over an extended $\pi$ orbital system (Section 10.4), so allylic and benzylic carbocations are unusually stable. (The word benzylic means "next to an aromatic ring.") As FIGURE 11.13 indicates, an allylic cation has two resonance forms. In one form, the double bond is on the "left"; in the other form it's on the "right." A benzylic cation has five resonance forms, all of which contribute to the overall resonance hybrid.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0345.jpg?height=858&width=1629&top_left_y=1547&top_left_x=237)

FIGURE 11.13 Resonance forms of allylic and benzylic carbocations. The positive charge is delocalized over the $\pi$ system in both. Electron-poor atoms are indicated by blue arrows.


The Substrate -

Because of resonance stabilization, a primary allylic or benzylic carbocation is about as stable as a secondary
alkyl carbocation, and a secondary allylic or benzylic carbocation is about as stable as a tertiary alkyl carbocation. This stability order of carbocations is the same as the order of $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactivity for alkyl halides and tosylates.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0346.jpg?height=264&width=1262&top_left_y=345&top_left_x=426)


Carbocation stability -

We should also note parenthetically that primary allylic and benzylic substrates are particularly reactive in $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions as well as in $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions. Allylic and benzylic $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bonds are about $50 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ ( $12 \mathrm{kcal} / \mathrm{mol}$ ) weaker than the corresponding saturated bonds and are therefore more easily broken.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0346.jpg?height=188&width=912&top_left_y=871&top_left_x=601)


Carbocation stability -

PROBLEM Rank the following substances in order of their expected $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactivity: 11-11
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0346.jpg?height=112&width=901&top_left_y=1142&top_left_x=417)


Carbocation stability -

PROBLEM 3-Bromo-1-butene and 1-bromo-2-butene undergo $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction at nearly the same rate, even 11-12 though one is a secondary halide and the other is primary. Explain.


The Leaving Group -

We said during the discussion of $S_{N} 2$ reactivity that the best leaving groups are those that are most stable; that is, those that are the conjugate bases of strong acids. An identical reactivity order is found for the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction because the leaving group is directly involved in the rate-limiting step. Thus, the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactivity order is


The Leaving Group -

$$
\mathrm{HO}^{-}<\mathrm{Cl}^{-}<\mathrm{Br}^{-}<\mathrm{I}^{-} \approx \mathrm{TosO}^{-}<\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}
$$


Leaving group reactivity -

Note that in the $S_{N} 1$ reaction, which is often carried out under acidic conditions, neutral water is sometimes the leaving group. This occurs, for example, when an alkyl halide is prepared from a tertiary alcohol by reaction with HBr or HCl (Section 10.5). As shown in FIGURE 11.14, the alcohol is first protonated and then spontaneously loses $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ to generate a carbocation, which reacts with halide ion to give the alkyl halide. Knowing that an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction is involved in the conversion of alcohols to alkyl halides explains why the reaction works well only for tertiary alcohols. Tertiary alcohols react fastest because they give the most stable carbocation intermediates.


FIGURE 11.14 MECHANISM -

The mechanism of the $\mathbf{S}_{\mathbf{N}} 1$ reaction of a tertiary alcohol with HBr to yield an alkyl halide. Neutral water is the leaving group (step 2).
(1) The -OH group is first protonated by HBr .
(2) Spontaneous dissociation of the protonated alcohol occurs in a slow, rate-limiting step to yield a carbocation intermediate plus water.


FIGURE 11.14 MECHANISM -


The Nucleophile -

The nature of the nucleophile plays a major role in the $S_{N} 2$ reaction but does not affect an $S_{N} 1$ reaction. Because the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction occurs through a rate-limiting step in which the added nucleophile has no part, the nucleophile can't affect the reaction rate. The reaction of 2-methyl-2-propanol with HX, for instance, occurs at the same rate regardless of whether X is $\mathrm{Cl}, \mathrm{Br}$, or I. Furthermore, neutral nucleophiles are just as effective as negatively charged ones, so $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions frequently occur under neutral or acidic conditions.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0347.jpg?height=169&width=774&top_left_y=1886&top_left_x=697)


The Nucleophile -

2-Methyl-2-propanol
(Same rate for $\mathrm{X}=\mathrm{Cl}, \mathrm{Br}, \mathrm{I}$ )


The Solvent -

What about the solvent? Do solvents have the same effect in $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions that they have in $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions? The answer is both yes and no. Yes, solvents have a large effect on $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions, but no, the reasons for the effects on $S_{N} 1$ and $S_{N} 2$ reactions are not the same. Solvent effects in the $S_{N} 2$ reaction are due largely to stabilization or destabilization of the nucleophile reactant, while solvent effects in the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction are due largely to stabilization or destabilization of the transition state.


The Solvent -

The Hammond postulate says that any factor stabilizing the intermediate carbocation should increase the rate of an $S_{N} 1$ reaction. Solvation of the carbocation-the interaction of the ion with solvent molecules-has such an
effect. Solvent molecules orient around the carbocation so that the electron-rich ends of the solvent dipoles face the positive charge (FIGURE 11.15), thereby lowering the energy of the ion and favoring its formation.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0348.jpg?height=346&width=345&top_left_y=304&top_left_x=890)


The Solvent -

FIGURE 11.15 Solvation of a carbocation by water. The electron-rich oxygen atoms of solvent molecules orient around the positively charged carbocation and thereby stabilize it.


The Solvent -

The properties of a solvent that contribute to its ability to stabilize ions by solvation are related to the solvent's polarity. $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions take place much more rapidly in strongly polar solvents, such as water and methanol, than in less polar solvents, such as ether and chloroform. In the reaction of 2-chloro-2-methylpropane, for example, a rate increase of 100,000 is observed upon going from ethanol (less polar) to water (more polar). The rate increases when going from a hydrocarbon solvent to water are so large they can't be measured accurately.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0348.jpg?height=416&width=965&top_left_y=974&top_left_x=580)


The Solvent -

It should be emphasized again that both the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ and the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction show solvent effects, but that they do so for different reasons. $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions are disfavored in protic solvents because the ground-state energy of the nucleophile is lowered by solvation. $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions are favored in protic solvents because the transition-state energy leading to carbocation intermediate is lowered by solvation.


A Summary of $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ Reaction Characteristics -

The effects on $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions of the four variables-substrate, leaving group, nucleophile, and solvent-are summarized in the following statements:

| Substrate | The best substrates yield the most stable carbocations. As a result, $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions are best
 for tertiary, allylic, and benzylic halides. |
| :--- | :--- |
| Leaving | Good leaving groups increase the reaction rate by lowering the energy level of the
 group
 transition state for carbocation formation. |
| Nucleophile | The nucleophile must be nonbasic to prevent a competitive elimination of HX (Section
 11.7), but otherwise does not affect the reaction rate. Neutral nucleophiles work well. |
| Solvent | Polar solvents stabilize the carbocation intermediate by solvation, thereby increasing the
 reaction rate. |


WORKED EXAMPLE 11.2 -


Predicting the Mechanism of a Nucleophilic Substitution Reaction -

Predict whether each of the following substitution reactions is likely to be $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ or $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ :
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0349.jpg?height=226&width=850&top_left_y=180&top_left_x=567)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0349.jpg?height=148&width=977&top_left_y=441&top_left_x=571)


Strategy -

Look at the substrate, leaving group, nucleophile, and solvent. Then decide from the summaries at the ends of Section 11.3 and Section 11.5 whether an $S_{N} 1$ or an $S_{N} 2$ reaction is favored. $S_{N} 1$ reactions are favored by tertiary, allylic, or benzylic substrates, by good leaving groups, by nonbasic nucleophiles, and by protic solvents. $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions are favored by primary substrates, by good leaving groups, by good nucleophiles, and by polar aprotic solvents.


Solution -

(a) This is likely to be an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction because the substrate is secondary and benzylic, the nucleophile is weakly basic, and the solvent is protic.
(b) This is likely to be an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction because the substrate is primary, the nucleophile is a good one, and the solvent is polar aprotic.


Solution -

PROBLEM Predict whether each of the following substitution reactions is likely to be $S_{N} 1$ or $S_{N} 2$ :


11-13 (a) -


11-13 (a) - 11.6 Biological Substitution Reactions

Both $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ and $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions are common in biological chemistry, particularly in the pathways for biosynthesis of the many thousands of plant-derived substances called terpenoids, which we saw briefly in the Chapter 8 Chemistry Matters and will discuss in Section 27.5. Unlike what typically happens in the laboratory, however, the substrate in a biological substitution reaction is usually an organodiphosphate rather than an alkyl halide. Thus, the leaving group is the diphosphate ion, abbreviated $\mathrm{PP}_{\mathrm{i}}$, rather than a halide ion. In fact, it's useful to think of the diphosphate group as the "biological equivalent" of a halide. The dissociation of an organodiphosphate in a biological reaction is typically assisted by complexation to a divalent metal cation such as $\mathrm{Mg}^{2+}$ to help neutralize charge and make the diphosphate a better leaving group.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0350.jpg?height=196&width=581&top_left_y=189&top_left_x=805)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0350.jpg?height=226&width=703&top_left_y=413&top_left_x=689)


An organodiphosphate -

Diphosphate ion
As an example, two $S_{N} 1$ reactions occur during the biosynthesis of geraniol, a fragrant alcohol found in roses and used in perfumery. Geraniol biosynthesis begins with dissociation of dimethylallyl diphosphate to give an allylic carbocation, which reacts with isopentenyl diphosphate (FIGURE 11.16). From the viewpoint of isopentenyl diphosphate, the reaction is an electrophilic alkene addition, but from the viewpoint of dimethylallyl diphosphate, the process is an $S_{N} 1$ reaction in which the carbocation intermediate reacts with a double bond as the nucleophile.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0350.jpg?height=1153&width=1332&top_left_y=974&top_left_x=391)

FIGURE 11.16 Biosynthesis of geraniol from dimethylallyl diphosphate. Two $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reactions occur, both with diphosphate ion as the leaving group.

Following this initial $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction, loss of the pro- $R$ hydrogen gives geranyl diphosphate, itself an allylic diphosphate that dissociates a second time. Reaction of the geranyl carbocation with water in a second $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 1$ reaction, followed by loss of a proton, then yields geraniol.


An organodiphosphate -

As another example, $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reactions are involved in almost all biological methylations, which transfer a $-\mathrm{CH}_{3}$ group from an electrophilic donor to a nucleophile. The donor is $S$-adenosylmethionine (abbreviated SAM), which contains a positively charged sulfur (a sulfonium ion, Section 5.12), and the leaving group is the neutral $S$-adenosylhomocysteine molecule. In the biosynthesis of epinephrine (adrenaline) from norepinephrine, for
instance, the nucleophilic nitrogen atom of norepinephrine attacks the electrophilic methyl carbon atom of $S$-adenosylmethionine in an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction, displacing $S$-adenosylhomocysteine (FIGURE 11.17). In effect, $S$-adenosylmethionine is simply a biological equivalent of $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Cl}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0351.jpg?height=711&width=1362&top_left_y=344&top_left_x=379)


An organodiphosphate -

FIGURE 11.17 The biosynthesis of epinephrine from norepinephrine occurs by an $\mathbf{S}_{\mathbf{N}} \mathbf{2}$ reaction with $\boldsymbol{S}$-adenosylmethionine.
PROBLEM Review the mechanism of geraniol biosynthesis shown in Figure 11.16, and propose a mechanism
11-14 for the biosynthesis of limonene from linalyl diphosphate.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0351.jpg?height=194&width=779&top_left_y=1231&top_left_x=407)


An organodiphosphate -

Linalyl diphosphate
Limonene


An organodiphosphate - 11.7 Elimination Reactions: Zaitsev's Rule

We said at the beginning of this chapter that two kinds of reactions can take place when a nucleophile/Lewis base reacts with an alkyl halide. The nucleophile can either substitute for the halide by reaction at carbon or can cause elimination of HX by reaction at a neighboring hydrogen:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0351.jpg?height=345&width=1107&top_left_y=1714&top_left_x=509)


Elimination reactions are more complex than substitution reactions for several reasons. One is the problem of regiochemistry. What product results by loss of HX from an unsymmetrical halide? In fact, elimination reactions almost always give mixtures of alkene products, and the best we can usually do is to predict which will be the major product.


According to Zaitsev's rule, formulated in 1875 by the Russian chemist Alexander Zaitsev, base-induced elimination reactions generally (although not always) give the more stable alkene product-that is, the alkene with more alkyl substituents on the double-bond carbons. In the following two cases, for example, the more highly substituted alkene product predominates.


ZAITSEV'S RULE -

In the elimination of HX from an alkyl halide, the more highly substituted alkene product predominates.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0352.jpg?height=191&width=1055&top_left_y=300&top_left_x=519)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0352.jpg?height=172&width=990&top_left_y=516&top_left_x=600)


2-Bromo-2-methylbutane -

2-Methyl-2-butene
(70\%)

2-Methyl-1-butene
(30\%)


2-Bromo-2-methylbutane -

Another factor that complicates a study of elimination reactions is that they can take place by different mechanisms, just as substitutions can. We'll consider three of the most common mechanisms-the E1, E2, and E1cB reactions-which differ in the timing of $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ and $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bond-breaking.

In the E1 reaction, the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bond breaks first to give a carbocation intermediate, which undergoes subsequent base abstraction of $\mathrm{H}^{+}$to yield the alkene. In the E 2 reaction, base-induced $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ bond cleavage is simultaneous with $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bond cleavage, giving the alkene in a single step. In the E1cB reaction (cB for "conjugate base"), base abstraction of the proton occurs first, giving a carbanion ( $\mathrm{R}:^{-}$) intermediate. This anion, the conjugate base of the reactant "acid," then undergoes loss of $\mathrm{X}^{-}$in a subsequent step to give the alkene. All three mechanisms occur frequently in the laboratory, but the E1cB mechanism predominates in biological pathways.

E1 Reaction: $C-X$ bond breaks first to give a carbocation intermediate, followed by base removal of a proton to yield the alkene.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0352.jpg?height=323&width=917&top_left_y=1340&top_left_x=604)

E2 Reaction: $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ and $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bonds break simultaneously, giving the alkene in a single step without intermediates.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0352.jpg?height=183&width=651&top_left_y=1811&top_left_x=664)

E1cB Reaction: $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ bond breaks first, giving a carbanion intermediate that loses $\mathrm{X}^{-}$to form the alkene.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0352.jpg?height=299&width=849&top_left_y=2130&top_left_x=641)


WORKED EXAMPLE 11.3 -


Predicting the Product of an Elimination Reaction -

What product would you expect from reaction of 1-chloro-1-methylcyclohexane with KOH in ethanol?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0353.jpg?height=169&width=427&top_left_y=428&top_left_x=849)


Strategy -

Treatment of an alkyl halide with a strong base such as KOH yields an alkene. To find the products in a specific case, locate the hydrogen atoms on each carbon next to the leaving group, and then generate the potential alkene products by removing HX in as many ways as possible. The major product will be the one that has the most highly substituted double bond-in this case, 1-methylcyclohexene.


Solution -


Solution -

PROBLEM Ignoring double-bond stereochemistry, what products would you expect from elimination reactions
11-15 of the following alkyl halides? Which product will be the major product in each case?
(a)
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3nixx9g05mefz" 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(b)
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(c)
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PROBLEM What alkyl halides might the following alkenes have been made from?
11-16 (a)
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(b)
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Solution - 11.8 The E2 Reaction and the Deuterium Isotope Effect

The E2 reaction (for elimination, bimolecular) occurs when an alkyl halide is treated with a strong base, such as hydroxide ion or alkoxide ion ( $\mathrm{RO}^{-}$). It is the most commonly occurring pathway for elimination and can be formulated as shown in FIGURE 11.18.


FIGURE 11.18 MECHANISM -

Mechanism of the E2 reaction of an alkyl halide. The reaction takes place in a single step through a transition state in which the double bond begins to form at the same time the H and X groups are leaving.
(1) Base (B:) attacks a neighboring hydrogen and begins to remove the H at the same time as the alkene double bond starts to form and the X group starts to leave.
(2) Neutral alkene is produced when the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ bond is fully broken and the X group has departed with the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bond electron pair.
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FIGURE 11.18 MECHANISM -


FIGURE 11.18 MECHANISM -

Like the $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction, the E2 reaction takes place in one step without intermediates. As the base begins to abstract $\mathrm{H}^{+}$from a carbon next to the leaving group, the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ bond begins to break, a $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}$ bond begins to form, and the leaving group begins to depart, taking with it the electron pair from the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{X}$ bond. Among the pieces of evidence supporting this mechanism is the fact that E2 reactions show second-order kinetics and follow the rate law: rate $=k \times[\mathrm{RX}] \times[\mathrm{Base}]$. That is, both the base and alkyl halide take part in the rate-limiting step.