Combinatorial Chemistry -

To speed the process of drug discovery, combinatorial chemistry has been developed to prepare what are called combinatorial libraries, in which anywhere from a few dozen to several hundred thousand substances are prepared simultaneously. Among the early successes of combinatorial chemistry is the development of a benzodiazepine library, a class of aromatic compounds commonly used as antianxiety agents.
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Combinatorial Chemistry -

Benzodiazepine library
( $\mathrm{R}_{\mathbf{1}}-\mathrm{R}_{\mathbf{4}}$ are various organic substituents)


Combinatorial Chemistry -

Two main approaches to combinatorial chemistry are used-parallel synthesis and split synthesis. In parallel synthesis, each compound is prepared independently. Typically, a reactant is first linked to the surface of polymer beads, which are then placed into small wells on a 96 -well glass plate. Programmable robotic instruments add different sequences of building blocks to the different wells, thereby making 96 different products. When the reaction sequences are complete, the polymer beads are washed and their products are released.


Combinatorial Chemistry -

In split synthesis, the initial reactant is again linked to the surface of polymer beads, which are then divided into several groups. A different building block is added to each group of beads, the different groups are combined, and the reassembled mix is again split to form new groups. Another building block is added to each group, the groups are again combined and redivided, and the process continues. If, for example, the beads are divided into four groups at each step, the number of compounds increases in the progression $4 \rightarrow 16 \rightarrow 64 \rightarrow 256$. After 10 steps, more than 1 million compounds have been prepared (FIGURE 16.23).


Combinatorial Chemistry -

Of course, with so many different final products mixed together, the problem is to identify them. What structure is linked to what bead? Several approaches to this problem have been developed, all of which involve the attachment of encoding labels to each polymer bead to keep track of the chemistry each has undergone. Encoding labels used thus far have included proteins, nucleic acids, halogenated aromatic compounds, and even computer chips.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0547.jpg?height=508&width=779&top_left_y=1925&top_left_x=668)


Combinatorial Chemistry -

FIGURE 16.22 Organic chemistry by robot means no spilled flasks!
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0548.jpg?height=776&width=1286&top_left_y=195&top_left_x=417)


Combinatorial Chemistry -

FIGURE 16.23 The results of split combinatorial synthesis. Assuming that 4 different building blocks are used at each step, 64 compounds result after 3 steps, and more than one million compounds result after 10 steps.


Key Terms -

- acyl group • electrophilic aromatic substitution
- acylation
- Friedel-Crafts reaction
- alkylation
- inductive effect
- benzyne
- nucleophilic aromatic substitution
- combinatorial chemistry
- resonance effect


Key Terms -


Summary -

We've continued the coverage of aromatic molecules in this chapter, shifting focus to concentrate on reactions. In particular, we've looked at the relationship between aromatic structure and reactivity, a relationship critical to understanding how numerous biological molecules and pharmaceutical agents are synthesized and why they behave as they do.


Summary -

An electrophilic aromatic substitution reaction takes place in two steps-initial reaction of an electrophile, $\mathbf{E}^{+}$, with the aromatic ring, followed by loss of $\mathrm{H}^{+}$from the resonance-stabilized carbocation intermediate to regenerate the aromatic ring.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0548.jpg?height=199&width=971&top_left_y=1822&top_left_x=574)


Summary -

Many variations of the reaction can be carried out, including halogenation, nitration, and sulfonation. Friedel-Crafts alkylation and acylation reactions, which involve reaction of an aromatic ring with carbocation electrophiles, are particularly useful. They are limited, however, by the fact that the aromatic ring must be at least as reactive as a halobenzene. In addition, polyalkylation and carbocation rearrangements often occur in Friedel-Crafts alkylation.


Summary -

Substituents on the benzene ring affect both the reactivity of the ring toward further substitution and the orientation of that substitution. Groups can be classified as ortho- and para-directing activators, ortho- and para-directing deactivators, or meta-directing deactivators. Substituents influence aromatic rings by a combination of resonance and inductive effects. Resonance effects are transmitted through $\pi$ bonds; inductive effects are transmitted through $\sigma$ bonds.


Summary -

Halobenzenes undergo nucleophilic aromatic substitution through either of two mechanisms. If the halobenzene has a strongly electron-withdrawing substituent in the ortho or para position, substitution occurs by addition of a nucleophile to the ring, followed by elimination of halide from the intermediate anion. If the halobenzene is not activated by an electron-withdrawing substituent, substitution can occur by elimination of HX to give a benzyne, followed by addition of a nucleophile.


Summary -

The benzylic position of an alkylbenzene can be brominated by reaction with $N$-bromosuccinimide, and the entire side chain can be degraded to a carboxyl group by oxidation with aqueous $\mathrm{KMnO}_{4}$. Aromatic rings can also be reduced to cyclohexanes by hydrogenation over a platinum or rhodium catalyst, and aryl alkyl ketones are reduced to alkylbenzenes by hydrogenation over a platinum catalyst.


Summary of Reactions -

1. Electrophilic aromatic substitution
a. Fluorination (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=221&width=671&top_left_y=773&top_left_x=776)
b. Bromination (Section 16.1)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=134&width=741&top_left_y=1039&top_left_x=741)
c. Chlorination (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=139&width=636&top_left_y=1215&top_left_x=796)
d. Iodination (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=140&width=687&top_left_y=1399&top_left_x=768)
e. Nitration (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=137&width=811&top_left_y=1577&top_left_x=706)
f. Sulfonation (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=145&width=662&top_left_y=1749&top_left_x=783)
g. Friedel-Crafts alkylation (Section 16.3)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=147&width=795&top_left_y=1932&top_left_x=714)
h. Friedel-Crafts acylation (Section 16.3)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0549.jpg?height=202&width=863&top_left_y=2157&top_left_x=677)
2. Reduction of aromatic nitro groups (Section 16.2)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=147&width=649&top_left_y=187&top_left_x=765)
3. Nucleophilic aromatic substitution
a. By addition to activated aryl halides (Section 16.6)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=283&width=974&top_left_y=409&top_left_x=624)
b. By formation of benzyne intermediate from unactivated aryl halide (Section 16.7)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=148&width=766&top_left_y=731&top_left_x=731)
4. Oxidation of alkylbenzene side chain (Section 16.8)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=148&width=617&top_left_y=929&top_left_x=781)
5. Benzylic bromination of alkylbenzene side chain (Section 16.8)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=278&width=676&top_left_y=1105&top_left_x=752)
6. Catalytic hydrogenation of aromatic ring (Section 16.9)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=134&width=475&top_left_y=1413&top_left_x=852)
7. Reduction of aryl alkyl ketones (Section 16.9)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=207&width=641&top_left_y=1582&top_left_x=769)


Additional Problems -


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Draw the product from reaction of each of the following substances with (1) $\mathrm{Br}_{2}, \mathrm{FeBr}_{3}$ and (2)
16-24 $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{COCl}, \mathrm{AlCl}_{3}$.
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=359&width=440&top_left_y=2027&top_left_x=482)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0550.jpg?height=326&width=478&top_left_y=2054&top_left_x=1002)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following molecular model of a dimethyl-substituted biphenyl represents the lowest-energy
$\mathbf{1 6 - 2 5}$ conformation of the molecule. Why are the two benzene rings tilted at a $63^{\circ}$ angle to each other
rather than being in the same plane so that their $p$ orbitals overlap? Why doesn't complete rotation around the single bond joining the two rings occur?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0551.jpg?height=383&width=592&top_left_y=299&top_left_x=422)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM How would you synthesize the following compound starting from benzene? More than one step is 16-26 needed.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0551.jpg?height=407&width=567&top_left_y=805&top_left_x=416)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following compound can't be synthesized using the methods discussed in this chapter. Why 16-27 not?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0551.jpg?height=364&width=432&top_left_y=1344&top_left_x=418)


Mechanism Problems -


Mechanisms of Electrophilic Substitutions -

PROBLEM Aromatic iodination can be carried out with a number of reagents, including iodine monochloride,
16-28 ICl. What is the direction of polarization of ICl? Propose a mechanism for the iodination of an aromatic ring with ICl.


PROBLEM The sulfonation of an aromatic ring with $\mathrm{SO}_{3}$ and $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ is reversible. That is, heating
16-29 benzenesulfonic acid with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ yields benzene. Show the mechanism of the desulfonation reaction. What is the electrophile?


PROBLEM The carbocation electrophile in a Friedel-Crafts reaction can be generated by an alternate means
16-30 than reaction of an alkyl chloride with $\mathrm{AlCl}_{3}$. For example, reaction of benzene with 2-methylpropene in the presence of $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{PO}_{4}$ yields tert-butylbenzene. Propose a mechanism for this reaction.


PROBLEM The $N, N, N$-trimethylammonium group, $-\stackrel{+}{\mathrm{N}}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{3}$, is one of the few groups that is a meta-directing
16-31 deactivator yet has no electron- withdrawing resonance effect. Explain.


PROBLEM The nitroso group, $-\mathrm{N}=\mathrm{O}$, is one of the few nonhalogens that is an ortho- and para-directing
16-32 deactivator. Explain this behavior by drawing resonance structures of the carbocation intermediates in ortho, meta, and para electrophilic reaction on nitrosobenzene, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{~N}=\mathrm{O}$.


PROBLEM Triphenylmethane can be prepared by reaction of benzene and chloroform in the presence of $\mathrm{AlCl}_{3}$.
16-33 Propose a mechanism for the reaction.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0552.jpg?height=256&width=803&top_left_y=452&top_left_x=409)


Biphenyl


PROBLEM Benzene and alkyl-substituted benzenes can be hydroxylated by reaction with $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{2}$ in the presence
16-35 of an acidic catalyst. What is the structure of the reactive electrophile? Propose a mechanism for the reaction.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0552.jpg?height=134&width=605&top_left_y=1120&top_left_x=413)


Additional Mechanism Practice
PROBLEM Addition of HBr to 1-phenylpropene yields only (1-bromopropyl)benzene. Propose a mechanism for
16-36 the reaction, and explain why none of the other regioisomer is produced.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0552.jpg?height=200&width=807&top_left_y=1448&top_left_x=410)


PROBLEM Hexachlorophene, a substance used in the manufacture of germicidal soaps, is prepared by
16-37 reaction of 2,4,5-trichlorophenol with formaldehyde in the presence of concentrated sulfuric acid. Propose a mechanism for the reaction.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0552.jpg?height=261&width=399&top_left_y=1816&top_left_x=413)
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Hexachlorophene
PROBLEM Benzenediazonium carboxylate decomposes when heated to yield $\mathrm{N}_{2}, \mathrm{CO}_{2}$, and a reactive 16-38 substance that can't be isolated. When benzene-diazonium carboxylate is heated in the presence of furan, the following reaction is observed:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0553.jpg?height=244&width=1080&top_left_y=187&top_left_x=414)


What intermediate is involved in this reaction? Propose a mechanism for its formation.


PROBLEM 4-Chloropyridine undergoes reaction with dimethylamine to yield 4-dimethylaminopyridine.
16-39 Propose a mechanism for the reaction.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0553.jpg?height=218&width=641&top_left_y=617&top_left_x=411)


PROBLEM Propose a mechanism to account for the following reaction:
16-40
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0553.jpg?height=210&width=980&top_left_y=914&top_left_x=410)


PROBLEM In the Gatterman-Koch reaction, a formyl group ( -CHO ) is introduced directly onto a benzene
16-41 ring. For example, reaction of toluene with CO and HCl in the presence of mixed $\mathrm{CuCl} / \mathrm{AlCl}_{3}$ gives $p$-methylbenzaldehyde. Propose a mechanism.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0553.jpg?height=269&width=744&top_left_y=1275&top_left_x=411)


PROBLEM Treatment of p-tert-butylphenol with a strong acid such as $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ yields phenol and
16-42 2-methylpropene. Propose a mechanism.
PROBLEM Benzyl bromide is converted into benzaldehyde by heating in dimethyl sulfoxide. Propose a
16-43 structure for the intermediate, and show the mechanisms of the two steps in the reaction.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0553.jpg?height=194&width=996&top_left_y=1792&top_left_x=410)


PROBLEM Propose a mechanism for the Smiles rearrangement below.