Diazonium Coupling Reactions - 24.9 Heterocyclic Amines

As noted in Section 15.5 in connection with a discussion of aromaticity, a cyclic organic compound that contains atoms of two or more elements in its ring is a called a heterocycle. Heterocyclic amines are particularly common, and many have important biological properties. Pyridoxal phosphate, a coenzyme; sildenafil (Viagra), a well-known pharmaceutical; and heme, the oxygen carrier in blood, are a few examples.
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Pyridoxal phosphate (a coenzyme)
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Sildenafil
(Viagra)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0875.jpg?height=470&width=554&top_left_y=974&top_left_x=1263)


Heme


Most heterocycles have the same chemistry as their open-chain counterparts. Lactones and acyclic esters behave similarly, lactams and acyclic amides behave similarly, and cyclic and acyclic ethers behave similarly. In certain cases, however, particularly when the ring is unsaturated, heterocycles have unique and interesting properties.


Pyrrole and Imidazole -

Pyrrole, the simplest five-membered unsaturated heterocyclic amine, is obtained commercially by treatment of furan with ammonia over an alumina catalyst at $400^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. Furan, the oxygen-containing analog of pyrrole, is obtained by acid-catalyzed dehydration of the five-carbon sugars found in oat hulls and corncobs.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0875.jpg?height=250&width=516&top_left_y=1962&top_left_x=802)


Pyrrole and Imidazole -

Although pyrrole appears to be both an amine and a conjugated diene, its chemical properties are not consistent with either of these structural features. Unlike most other amines, pyrrole is not basic-the $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of the pyrrolinium ion is 0.4 ; unlike most other conjugated dienes, pyrrole undergoes electrophilic substitution reactions rather than additions. The reason for both of these properties, as noted in Section 15.5, is that pyrrole has six $\pi$ electrons and is aromatic. Each of the four carbons contributes one $\pi$ electron, and the $s p^{2}$-hybridized nitrogen contributes two more from its lone pair.


Pyrrole and Imidazole -

Pyrrole
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0876.jpg?height=324&width=946&top_left_y=196&top_left_x=689)


Six $\pi$ electrons -

Because the nitrogen lone pair is a part of the aromatic sextet, protonation on nitrogen would destroy the aromaticity of the ring. The nitrogen atom in pyrrole is therefore less electron-rich, less basic, and less nucleophilic than the nitrogen in an aliphatic amine. By the same token, the carbon atoms of pyrrole are more electron-rich and more nucleophilic than typical double-bond carbons. The pyrrole ring is therefore reactive toward electrophiles in the same way as enamines (Section 23.11). Electrostatic potential maps show how the pyrrole nitrogen is electron-poor (less red) compared with the nitrogen in its saturated counterpart pyrrolidine, while the pyrrole carbon atoms are electron-rich (more red) compared with the carbons in 1,3-cyclopentadiene.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0876.jpg?height=467&width=1302&top_left_y=943&top_left_x=417)


Six $\pi$ electrons -

The chemistry of pyrrole is similar to that of activated benzene rings. In general, however, the heterocycles are more reactive toward electrophiles than benzene rings, and low temperatures are often necessary to control the reactions. Halogenation, nitration, sulfonation, and Friedel-Crafts acylation can all be accomplished. For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0876.jpg?height=269&width=570&top_left_y=1592&top_left_x=775)


Six $\pi$ electrons -

Electrophilic substitutions normally occur at C2, the position next to the nitrogen, because reaction at this position leads to a more stable intermediate cation having three resonance forms, whereas reaction at C3 gives a less stable cation with only two resonance forms (FIGURE 24.8).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0877.jpg?height=502&width=1509&top_left_y=188&top_left_x=308)


Six $\pi$ electrons -

3-Nitropyrrole
(Not formed)
FIGURE 24.8 Electrophilic nitration of pyrrole. The intermediate produced by reaction at C 2 is more stable than that produced by reaction at C3.


Six $\pi$ electrons -

Other common five-membered heterocyclic amines include imidazole and thiazole. Imidazole, a constituent of the amino acid histidine, has two nitrogens, only one of which is basic. Thiazole, the five-membered ring system on which the structure of thiamin (vitamin $B_{1}$ ) is based, also contains a basic nitrogen that is alkylated in thiamin to form a quaternary ammonium ion.
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Six $\pi$ electrons -

Imidazole
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0877.jpg?height=202&width=318&top_left_y=1436&top_left_x=584)


Six $\pi$ electrons -


Six $\pi$ electrons -

Thiamin (vitamin $\mathrm{B}_{1}$ )


Six $\pi$ electrons -

PROBLEM Draw an orbital picture of thiazole. Assume that both the nitrogen and sulfur atoms are 24-20 $s p^{2}$-hybridized, and show the orbitals that the lone pairs occupy.


Six $\pi$ electrons -

PROBLEM What is the percent protonation of the imidazole nitrogen atom in histidine at a physiological pH of 24-21 7.3 (Section 24.5)?


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

Pyridine is the nitrogen-containing heterocyclic analog of benzene. Like benzene, pyridine is a flat, aromatic molecule, with bond angles of $120^{\circ}$ and $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ bond lengths of 139 pm , intermediate between typical single and double bonds. The five carbon atoms and the $s p^{2}$-hybridized nitrogen atom each contribute one $\pi$ electron to the aromatic sextet, and the lone-pair electrons occupy an $s p^{2}$ orbital in the plane of the ring (Section 15.5).


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

As shown previously in TABLE 24.1, pyridine ( $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=5.25$ ) is a stronger base than pyrrole but a weaker base than the alkylamines. The diminished basicity of pyridine compared with that of alkylamines is due to the fact that the lone-pair electrons on the pyridine nitrogen are in an $s p^{2}$ orbital, while those on an alkylamine nitrogen are in an $s p^{3}$ orbital. Because $s$ orbitals have their maximum electron density at the nucleus but $p$ orbitals have a node at the nucleus, electrons in an orbital with more $s$ character are held more closely to the positively charged nucleus and are less available for bonding. As a result, the $s p^{2}$-hybridized nitrogen atom ( $33 \% s$ character) in
pyridine is less basic than the $s p^{3}$-hybridized nitrogen in an alkylamine ( $25 \% s$ character).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0878.jpg?height=294&width=1110&top_left_y=257&top_left_x=510)


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

Pyridine
Unlike benzene, pyridine undergoes electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions with difficulty. Halogenation can be carried out under drastic conditions, but nitration occurs in very low yield, and Friedel-Crafts reactions are not successful. Reactions usually give the 3 -substituted product.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0878.jpg?height=310&width=524&top_left_y=769&top_left_x=795)


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

The low reactivity of pyridine toward electrophilic aromatic substitution is caused by a combination of factors. One is that acid-base complexation between the basic ring's nitrogen atom and the incoming electrophile places a positive charge on the ring, thereby deactivating it. Equally important is that the electron density of the ring is decreased by the electron-withdrawing inductive effect of the electronegative nitrogen atom. Thus, pyridine has a substantial dipole moment ( $\mu=2.26 \mathrm{D}$ ), with the ring carbons acting as the positive end of the dipole. Reaction of an electrophile with the positively polarized carbon atoms is therefore difficult.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0878.jpg?height=204&width=213&top_left_y=1356&top_left_x=956)


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

In addition to pyridine, the six-membered diamine pyrimidine is also found commonly in biological molecules, particularly as a constituent of nucleic acids. With a $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of 1.3 , pyrimidine is substantially less basic than pyridine because of the inductive effect of the second nitrogen.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0878.jpg?height=190&width=378&top_left_y=1713&top_left_x=871)


Pyridine and Pyrimidine -

PROBLEM Electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions of pyridine normally occur at C3. Draw the 24-22 carbocation intermediates resulting from reaction of an electrophile at C2, C3, and C4, and explain the observed result.