A quaternary ammonium salt -

Unsymmetrically substituted secondary and tertiary amines are referred to as $N$-substituted primary amines. The largest alkyl group takes the parent name, and the other alkyl groups are considered $N$-substituents on the parent ( $N$ because they're attached to nitrogen).
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$\mathbf{N}, \mathbf{N}$-Dimethylpropylamine
$\boldsymbol{N}$-Ethyl- $\boldsymbol{N}$-methylcyclohexylamine
Heterocyclic amines-compounds in which the nitrogen atom occurs as part of a ring-are also common, and each different heterocyclic ring system has its own parent name. The heterocyclic nitrogen atom is always numbered as position 1.
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Pyridine
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Pyrrole
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Quinoline
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Imidazole
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Indole -


Indole -

Piperidine


Indole -

PROBLEM Draw structures corresponding to the following IUPAC names:
24-2 (a) Triisopropylamine (b) Triallylamine (c) $N$-Methylaniline
(d) $N$-Ethyl- $N$-methylcyclopentylamine (e) $N$-Isopropylcyclohexylamine (f) $N$-Ethylpyrrole


Indole -

PROBLEM Draw structures for the following heterocyclic amines:
24-3 (a) 5-Methoxyindole
(b) 1,3-Dimethylpyrrole
(c) 4-( $N, N$-Dimethylamino)pyridine
(d) 5-aminopyrimidine


Indole - 24.2 Structure and Properties of Amines

The bonding in alkylamines is similar to the bonding in ammonia. The nitrogen atom is $s p^{3}$-hybridized, with its three substituents occupying three corners of a regular tetrahedron and the lone pair of electrons occupying the fourth corner. As you might expect, the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{C}$ bond angles are close to the $109^{\circ}$ tetrahedral value. For trimethylamine, the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{C}$ bond angle is $108^{\circ}$ and the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}$ bond length is 147 pm .
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0852.jpg?height=229&width=400&top_left_y=978&top_left_x=662)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0852.jpg?height=223&width=334&top_left_y=981&top_left_x=1118)


Trimethylamine
One consequence of tetrahedral geometry is that an amine with three different substituents on nitrogen is chiral, as we saw in Section 5.10. Unlike chiral carbon compounds, however, chiral amines can't usually be resolved because the two enantiomeric forms rapidly interconvert by a pyramidal inversion, much as an alkyl halide inverts in an $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction. Pyramidal inversion occurs by a momentary rehybridization of the nitrogen atom to planar, $s p^{2}$ geometry, followed by rehybridization of the planar intermediate to tetrahedral, $s p^{3}$ geometry (FIGURE 24.2). The barrier to inversion is about $25 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol}$ ( $6 \mathrm{kcal} / \mathrm{mol}$ ), an amount only twice as large as the barrier to rotation about a $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ single bond.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0852.jpg?height=323&width=963&top_left_y=1584&top_left_x=581)


FIGURE 24.2 Pyramidal inversion rapidly interconverts the two mirror-image (enantiomeric) forms of an amine.
Alkylamines have a variety of applications in the chemical industry as starting materials for the preparation of insecticides and pharmaceuticals. Labetalol, for instance, a so-called $\beta$-blocker used for the treatment of high blood pressure, is prepared by $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ reaction of an epoxide with a primary amine. The substance marketed for drug use is a mixture of all four possible stereoisomers, but the biological activity results primarily from the $(R, R)$ isomer.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0853.jpg?height=283&width=1392&top_left_y=195&top_left_x=364)


Labetalol
Like alcohols, amines with fewer than five carbon atoms are generally water-soluble. Also like alcohols, primary and secondary amines form hydrogen bonds and are highly associated. As a result, amines have higher boiling points than alkanes of similar molecular weight. Diethylamine ( $\mathrm{MW}=73 \mathrm{amu}$ ) boils at $56.3^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$, for instance, while pentane ( $\mathrm{MW}=72 \mathrm{amu}$ ) boils at $36.1^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0853.jpg?height=597&width=1296&top_left_y=753&top_left_x=436)


FIGURE 24.3 Hydrogen bonding in amines.
One other characteristic of amines is their odor. Low-molecular-weight amines such as trimethylamine have a distinctive fishlike aroma, while diamines such as cadaverine (1,5-pentanediamine) and putrescine (1,4-butanediamine) have the appalling odors you might expect from their common names. Both of these diamines arise from the decomposition of decaying tissue.


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

The chemistry of amines is dominated by the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen, which makes amines both basic and nucleophilic. They react with acids to form acid-base salts, and they react with electrophiles in many of the polar reactions seen in past chapters. Note in the following electrostatic potential map of trimethylamine how the negative (red) region corresponds to the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0853.jpg?height=324&width=1166&top_left_y=1925&top_left_x=496)


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

Amines are much stronger bases than alcohols and ethers, their oxygen-containing analogs. When an amine is dissolved in water, an equilibrium is established in which water acts as an acid and transfers a proton to the amine. Just as the acid strength of a carboxylic acid can be measured by defining an acidity constant $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ (Section 2.8), the base strength of an amine can be measured by defining an analogous basicity constant $K_{b}$. The larger the value of $K_{\mathrm{b}}$ and the smaller the value of $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{b}}$, the more favorable the proton-transfer equilibrium and the stronger the base.


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

For the reaction


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

$$
\begin{aligned}
& \mathrm{RNH}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightleftarrows \mathrm{RNH}_{3}^{+}+\mathrm{OH}^{-} \\
& K_{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]} \\
& \mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{b}}=-\log K_{\mathrm{b}}
\end{aligned}
$$


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

In practice, $K_{\mathrm{b}}$ values are not often used. Instead, the most convenient way to measure the basicity of an amine $\left(\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right)$ is to look at the acidity of the corresponding ammonium ion $\left(\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right)$.


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

$$
\begin{aligned}
& \mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightleftarrows \mathrm{RNH}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+} \\
& K_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]}
\end{aligned}
$$


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

so


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

$$
\begin{aligned}
K_{\mathrm{a}} & \cdot K_{\mathrm{b}}=\left[\frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]}\right]\left[\frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]}\right] \\
& =\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]=K_{\mathrm{w}}=1.00 \times 10^{-14}
\end{aligned}
$$


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

Thus


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

$$
K_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{K_{\mathrm{w}}}{K_{\mathrm{b}}} \quad \text { and } \quad K_{\mathrm{b}}=\frac{K_{\mathrm{w}}}{K_{\mathrm{a}}}
$$


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

and


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

$$
\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}+\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{b}}=14
$$


Indole - 24.3 Basicity of Amines

These equations say that the $K_{\mathrm{b}}$ of an amine multiplied by the $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of the corresponding ammonium ion is equal to $K_{\mathrm{W}}$, the ion-product constant for water ( $1.00 \times 10^{-14}$ ). Thus, if we know $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ for an ammonium ion, we also know $K_{\mathrm{b}}$ for the corresponding amine base because $K_{\mathrm{b}}=K_{\mathrm{w}} / K_{\mathrm{a}}$. The more acidic the ammonium ion, the less tightly the proton is held and the weaker the corresponding base. That is, a weaker base has an ammonium ion with a smaller $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ and a stronger base has an ammonium ion with a larger $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$.


Weaker base Smaller $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ for ammonium ion <br> Stronger base Larger $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ for ammonium ion -

TABLE 24.1 lists $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values of the ammonium ions from a variety of amines and indicates that there is a substantial range of amine basicities. Most simple alkylamines are similar in their base strength, with $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ 's for their ammonium ions in the narrow range 10 to 11. Arylamines, however, are considerably less basic than alkylamines, as are the heterocyclic amines pyridine and pyrrole.


TABLE 24.1 Basicity of Some Common Amines


| Name | Structure | $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of ammonium ion |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Ammonia | $\mathrm{NH}_{3}$ | 9.26 |
| Primary alkylamine |  |  |
| Methylamine |  | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$ |


Secondary alkylamine -


Secondary alkylamine -

| Name | Structure | $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of ammonium ion |
| :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Diethylamine | $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{2} \mathrm{NH}$ | 10.98 |
| Pyrrolidine | <smiles>C1CCNC1</smiles> | 11.27 |
| Tertiary alkylamine |  |  |
| Triethylamine | $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{3} \mathrm{~N}$ | 10.76 |
| Arylamine |  |  |
| Aniline | <smiles>Nc1ccccc1</smiles> | 4.63 |
| Heterocyclic amine |  |  |
| Pyridine | <smiles>c1ccncc1</smiles> | 5.25 |
| Pyrimidine | <smiles>c1cncnc1</smiles> | 1.3 |
| Pyrrole | <smiles>c1cc[nH]c1</smiles> | 0.4 |
| Imidazole | <smiles>c1c[nH]cn1</smiles> | 6.95 |


Secondary alkylamine -

In contrast with amines, amides $\left(\mathrm{RCONH}_{2}\right)$ are nonbasic. Amides aren't protonated by aqueous acids, and they are poor nucleophiles. The main reason for this difference in basicity between amines and amides is that an amide is stabilized by delocalization of the nitrogen lone-pair electrons through orbital overlap with the carbonyl group. In resonance terms, amides are more stable and less reactive than amines because they are hybrids of two resonance forms. This amide resonance stabilization is lost when the nitrogen atom is protonated, so protonation is disfavored. The following electrostatic potential maps clearly show a reduced electron density on the amide nitrogen.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0856.jpg?height=540&width=1334&top_left_y=180&top_left_x=398)


Secondary alkylamine -

To purify amines, it's often possible to take advantage of their basicity. For example, if a mixture of a basic amine and a neutral compound such as a ketone or alcohol is dissolved in an organic solvent and aqueous acid is added, the basic amine dissolves in the water layer as its protonated salt, while the neutral compound remains in the organic solvent layer. Separation of the water layer and neutralization of the ammonium ion by addition of NaOH then provides the pure amine (FIGURE 24.4).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0856.jpg?height=524&width=963&top_left_y=952&top_left_x=578)


Secondary alkylamine -

FIGURE 24.4 Separation and purification of an amine component from a mixture by extraction of its ammonium salt into water.
In addition to their behavior as bases, primary and secondary amines can also act as very weak acids because an $\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{H}$ proton can be removed by a sufficiently strong base. We've seen, for example, how diisopropylamine ( $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}} \approx 36$ ) reacts with butyllithium to yield lithium diisopropylamide (LDA; Section 22.5). Dialkylamine anions like LDA are very strong bases that are often used in laboratory organic chemistry for the generation of enolate ions from carbonyl compounds (Section 22.7). They are not, however, encountered in biological chemistry.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0856.jpg?height=245&width=1049&top_left_y=1769&top_left_x=538)


Secondary alkylamine -

PROBLEM Which compound in each of the following pairs is more basic?
24-4 (a) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$ or $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CONH}_{2}$
(b) NaOH or $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$
(c) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NHCH}_{3}$ or pyridine


Secondary alkylamine -

PROBLEM The benzylammonium ion $\left(\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{NH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right)$has $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=9.33$, and the propylammonium ion has $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=$
24-5 10.71. Which is the stronger base, benzylamine or propylamine? What are the $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{b}}$ 's of benzylamine and propylamine?


Secondary alkylamine - 24.4 Basicity of Arylamines

As noted previously, arylamines are generally less basic than alkylamines. Anilinium ion has $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=4.63$, for instance, whereas methylammonium ion has $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=10.64$. Arylamines are less basic than alkylamines because the nitrogen lone-pair electrons are delocalized by interaction with the aromatic ring's $\pi$ electron system and are less available for bonding to $\mathrm{H}^{+}$. In resonance terms, arylamines are stabilized relative to alkylamines
because of their five resonance forms.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0857.jpg?height=226&width=1175&top_left_y=261&top_left_x=475)


Much of the resonance stabilization is lost on protonation, however, so the energy difference between protonated and nonprotonated forms is higher for arylamines than it is for alkylamines. As a result, arylamines are less basic. FIGURE 24.5 illustrates this difference.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0857.jpg?height=446&width=944&top_left_y=639&top_left_x=607)
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Aniline (delocalized electrons)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0857.jpg?height=253&width=567&top_left_y=1126&top_left_x=1042)


Anilinium ion (localized charge)


FIGURE 24.5 Arylamines have a larger positive $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for protonation and are therefore less basic than alkylamines, primarily because of resonance stabilization of the ground state. Electrostatic potential maps show that lone-pair electron density is delocalized in the amine but the charge is localized in the corresponding ammonium ion.


Substituted arylamines can be either more basic or less basic than aniline, depending on the substituent. Electron-donating substituents, such as $-\mathrm{CH}_{3},-\mathrm{NH}_{2}$, and $-\mathrm{OCH}_{3}$, which increase the reactivity of an aromatic ring toward electrophilic substitution (Section 16.4), also increase the basicity of the corresponding arylamine. Electron-withdrawing substituents, such as $-\mathrm{Cl},-\mathrm{NO}_{2}$, and -CN , which decrease ring reactivity toward electrophilic substitution, also decrease arylamine basicity. TABLE 24.2 considers only $p$-substituted anilines, but similar trends are observed for ortho and meta derivatives.


TABLE 24.2 Base Strength of Some p-Substituted Anilines
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0858.jpg?height=161&width=1041&top_left_y=234&top_left_x=542)


|  | Substit | $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ |  |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Stronger base | $-\mathrm{NH}_{2}$ | 6.15 | Activating groups |
|  | $-\mathrm{OCH}_{3}$ | 5.34 |  |
|  | $-\mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | 5.08 |  |
|  | -H | 4.63 |  |
| Weaker base | $-\mathrm{Cl}$ | 3.98 | Deactivating groups |
|  | $-\mathrm{Br}$ | 3.86 |  |
|  | -CN | 1.74 |  |
|  | $-\mathrm{NO}_{2}$ | 1.00 |  |


PROBLEM Without looking at Table 24.2, rank the following compounds in order of ascending basicity.
24-6 (a) $p$-Nitroaniline, $p$-aminobenzaldehyde, $p$-bromoaniline
(b) $p$-Chloroaniline, $p$-aminoacetophenone, $p$-methylaniline
(c) $p$-(Trifluoromethyl)aniline, $p$-methylaniline, $p$-(fluoromethyl)aniline


Secondary alkylamine - 24.5 Biological Amines and the Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation

We saw in Section 20.3 that the extent of dissociation of a carboxylic acid HA in an aqueous solution buffered to a given pH can be calculated with the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation. Furthermore, we concluded that at the physiological pH of 7.3 inside living cells, carboxylic acids are almost entirely dissociated into their carboxylate anions, $\mathrm{RCO}_{2}{ }^{-}$.


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

$$
\mathrm{pH}=\mathrm{p} K \mathrm{a}+\log \frac{\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]}{[\mathrm{HA}]} \text { so } \log \frac{\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}=\mathrm{pH}-\mathrm{p} K \mathrm{a}
$$


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

What about amine bases? In what form do they exist at physiological pH ? As the amine $\left(\mathrm{A}^{-}=\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right)$, or as the ammonium ion $\left(\mathrm{HA}=\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right)$? Let's take a 0.0010 M solution of methylamine at $\mathrm{pH}=7.3$, for example. According to TABLE 24.1, the $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of methylammonium ion is 10.64 , so from the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation, we have


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

$$
\begin{aligned}
& \log \frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}+\right]}=\mathrm{pH}-\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=7.3-10.64=-3.34 \\
& \frac{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]}{\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]}=\operatorname{antilog}(-3.34)=4.6 \times 10^{-4} \text { so }\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]=\left(4.6 \times 10^{-4}\right)\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}^{+}\right]
\end{aligned}
$$


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

In addition, we know that


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

$$
\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]+\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]=0.0010 \mathrm{M}
$$


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

Solving the two simultaneous equations gives $\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{3}{ }^{+}\right]=0.0010 \mathrm{M}$ and $\left[\mathrm{RNH}_{2}\right]=5 \times 10^{-7} \mathrm{M}$. In other words, at a physiological pH of 7.3 , essentially $100 \%$ of the methylamine in a 0.0010 M solution exists in its protonated form as methylammonium ion. The same is true of other amine bases, so we always write cellular amines in their protonated form and amino acids in their ammonium carboxylate form to reflect their structures at
physiological pH.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0859.jpg?height=289&width=874&top_left_y=254&top_left_x=620)


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: -

PROBLEM Calculate the percentages of neutral and protonated forms present in a solution of 0.0010 Molar 24-7 pyrimidine at $\mathrm{pH}=7.3$. The $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ of pyrimidinium ion is 1.3.


Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: - 24.6 Synthesis of Amines


Reduction of Nitriles, Amides, and Nitro Compounds -

We've already seen in Section 20.7 and Section 21.7 how amines can be prepared by reduction of nitriles and amides with $\mathrm{LiAlH}_{4}$. The two-step sequence of $\mathrm{S}_{\mathrm{N}} 2$ displacement with $\mathrm{CN}^{-}$followed by reduction thus converts an alkyl halide into a primary alkylamine having an additional carbon atom. Amide reduction converts carboxylic acids and their derivatives into amines with the same number of carbon atoms.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0859.jpg?height=205&width=909&top_left_y=987&top_left_x=592)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0859.jpg?height=220&width=944&top_left_y=1229&top_left_x=588)