Yet a third difference between laboratory and biological reactions is that laboratory reactions are often done using relatively small, simple reagents such as $\mathrm{Br}_{2}, \mathrm{HCl}, \mathrm{NaBH}_{4}, \mathrm{CrO}_{3}$, and so forth, while biological reactions usually involve relatively complex "reagents" called coenzymes. In the hexokinase-catalyzed phosphorylation of glucose just shown, ATP is the coenzyme. As another example, compare the $\mathrm{H}_{2}$ molecule, a laboratory reagent that adds to a carbon-carbon double bond to yield an alkane, with the reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) molecule, a coenzyme that effects an analogous addition of hydrogen to a double bond in many biological pathways. Of all the atoms in the coenzyme, only the one hydrogen atom shown in red is transferred to the double-bond substrate.
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Solution - 6.11 A Comparison Between Biological Reactions and Laboratory Reactions

Reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NADH
(a coenzyme)
Don't be intimidated by the size of the ATP or NADH molecule; most of the structure is there to provide an overall shape for binding to the enzyme and to provide appropriate solubility behavior. When looking at biological molecules, focus on the small part of the molecule where the chemical change takes place.


One final difference between laboratory and biological reactions is in their specificity. A catalyst might be used in the laboratory to catalyze the reaction of thousands of different substances, but an enzyme, because it can only bind a specific substrate molecule having a specific shape, will usually catalyze only a specific reaction. It's this exquisite specificity that makes biological chemistry so remarkable and that makes life possible. TABLE 6.4 summarizes some of the differences between laboratory and biological reactions.


TABLE 6.4 A Comparison of Typical Laboratory and Biological Reactions A Comparison of Typical Laboratory and Biological Reactions


|  | Laboratory reaction | Biological reaction |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Solvent | Organic liquid, such as ether | Aqueous environment in cells |
| Temperature | Wide range; -80 to $150^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ | Temperature of organism |
| Catalyst | Either none, or very simple | Large, complex enzymes needed |
| Reagent size | Usually small and simple | Relatively complex coenzymes |
| Specificity | Little specificity for substrate | Very high specificity for substrate |


(8) CHEMISTRY MATTERS -


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

It has been estimated that major pharmaceutical companies in the United States spent some $\$ 200$ billion on drug research and development in 2020, while government agencies and private foundations spent another $\$ 28$ billion. What does this money buy? From 1983 to 2022, the money resulted in a total of 1237 new molecular entities (NMEs) - new biologically active chemical substances approved for sale as drugs by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

Where do the new drugs come from? According to a study carried out several years ago at the U.S. National Cancer Institute, only about $33 \%$ of new drugs are entirely synthetic and completely unrelated to any naturally occurring substance. The remaining $67 \%$ take their lead, to a greater or lesser extent, from nature. Vaccines and genetically engineered proteins of biological origin account for $15 \%$ of NMEs, but most new drugs come from natural products, a catchall term generally taken to mean small molecules found in bacteria, plants, algae, and other living organisms. Unmodified natural products isolated directly from the producing organism account for $24 \%$ of NMEs, while natural products that have been chemically modified in the laboratory account for the remaining $28 \%$.


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

Origin of New Drugs 1981-2014
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0190.jpg?height=475&width=1053&top_left_y=1112&top_left_x=533)


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

Many years of work go into screening many thousands of substances to identify a single compound that might ultimately gain approval as an NME. But after that single compound has been identified, the work has just begun because it takes an average of 9 to 10 years for a drug to make it through the approval process. First, the safety of the drug in animals must be demonstrated and an economical method of manufacture must be devised. With these preliminaries out of the way, an Investigational New Drug (IND) application is submitted to the FDA for permission to begin testing in humans.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0190.jpg?height=511&width=844&top_left_y=1872&top_left_x=638)


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

FIGURE 6.11 Introduced in June, 2006, Gardasil is the first vaccine ever approved for the prevention of cancer. Where do new drugs like this come from? (credit: modification of work "COVIran Barekat vaccine production" by Sadegh Nikgostar/Wikimedia Commons, CC BY 4.0)


Where Do Drugs Come From? -

Human testing takes, or should take, 5 to 7 years and is divided into three phases. Phase I clinical trials are
carried out on a small group of healthy volunteers to establish safety and look for side effects. Several months to a year are needed, and only about $70 \%$ of drugs pass at this point. Phase II clinical trials next test the drug for 1 to 2 years in several hundred patients with the target disease or condition, looking both for safety and efficacy, and only about $33 \%$ of the original group pass. Finally, phase III trials are undertaken on a large sample of patients to document definitively the drug's safety, dosage, and efficacy. If the drug is one of the $25 \%$ of the original group that make it to the end of phase III, all the data are then gathered into a New Drug Application (NDA) and sent to the FDA for review and approval, which can take another 2 years. Ten years have elapsed and at least $\$ 500$ million has been spent, with only a $20 \%$ success rate for the drugs that began testing. Finally, though, the drug will begin to appear in medicine cabinets. The following timeline shows the process.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0191.jpg?height=340&width=1357&top_left_y=600&top_left_x=381)


Key Terms -

- activation energy $\left(\Delta G^{\ddagger}\right)$
- active site
- addition reaction
- bond dissociation energy (D)
- carbocation
- electrophile
- elimination reaction
- endergonic
- endothermic
- enthalpy change ( $\Delta H$ )
- entropy change ( $\Delta S$ )
- enzyme
- exergonic
- exothermic
- Gibbs free-energy change ( $\Delta G$ )
- heat of reaction
- nucleophile
- polar reaction
- polarizability
- radical
- radical reaction
- reaction coordinate
- reaction intermediate
- reaction mechanism
- rearrangement reaction
- substitution reaction
- transition state


Key Terms -


Summary -

All chemical reactions, whether in the laboratory or in living organisms, follow the same chemical rules. To understand both organic and biological chemistry, it's necessary to know not just what occurs but also why and how chemical reactions take place. In this chapter, we've taken a brief look at the fundamental kinds of organic reactions, we've seen why reactions occur, and we've seen how reactions can be described.


Summary -

There are four common kinds of reactions: addition reactions take place when two reactants add together to give a single product; elimination reactions take place when one reactant splits apart to give two products; substitution reactions take place when two reactants exchange parts to give two new products; and rearrangement reactions take place when one reactant undergoes a reorganization of bonds and atoms to give an isomeric product.


Summary -

A full description of how a reaction occurs is called its mechanism. There are two general kinds of mechanisms by which most reactions take place: radical mechanisms and polar mechanisms. Polar reactions, the more common type, occur because of an attractive interaction between a nucleophilic (electron-rich) site in one molecule and an electrophilic (electron-poor) site in another molecule. A bond is formed in a polar reaction when the nucleophile donates an electron pair to the electrophile. This transfer of electrons is indicated by a curved arrow showing the direction of electron travel from the nucleophile to the electrophile. Radical reactions involve species that have an odd number of electrons. A bond is formed when each reactant donates one
electron.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0192.jpg?height=250&width=698&top_left_y=252&top_left_x=708)


Summary -

The energy changes that take place during reactions can be described by considering both rates (how fast the reactions occur) and equilibria (how much the reactions occur). The position of a chemical equilibrium is determined by the value of the free-energy change $(\boldsymbol{\Delta} \boldsymbol{G})$ for the reaction, where $\Delta G=\Delta H-T \Delta S$. The enthalpy term $(\Delta H)$ corresponds to the net change in strength of chemical bonds broken and formed during the reaction; the entropy term $(\Delta S)$ corresponds to the change in the amount of molecular randomness during the reaction. Reactions that have negative values of $\Delta G$ release energy, are said to be exergonic, and have favorable equilibria. Reactions that have positive values of $\Delta G$ absorb energy, are said to be endergonic, and have unfavorable equilibria.


Summary -

A reaction can be described pictorially using an energy diagram that follows the reaction course from reactants through transition state to product. The transition state is an activated complex occurring at the highestenergy point of a reaction. The amount of energy needed by reactants to reach this high point is the activation energy, $\Delta G^{*}$. The higher the activation energy, the slower the reaction.


Summary -

Many reactions take place in more than one step and involve the formation of a reaction intermediate. An intermediate is a species that lies at an energy minimum between steps on the reaction curve and is formed briefly during the course of a reaction.


Additional Problems -


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following alkyl halide can be prepared by addition of HBr to two different alkenes. Draw the 6-14 structures of both (reddish-brown $=\mathrm{Br}$ ).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0192.jpg?height=250&width=499&top_left_y=1507&top_left_x=447)

PROBLEM The following structure represents the carbocation intermediate formed in the addition reaction of 6-15 HBr to two different alkenes. Draw the structures of both.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0192.jpg?height=272&width=457&top_left_y=1959&top_left_x=433)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Electrostatic potential maps of (a) formaldehyde $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right)$ and $(\mathbf{b})$ methanethiol $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{SH}\right)$ are shown.
6-16 Is the formaldehyde carbon atom likely to be electrophilic or nucleophilic? What about the methanethiol sulfur atom? Explain.
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0193.jpg?height=337&width=299&top_left_y=214&top_left_x=479)


Visualizing Chemistry -

Formaldehyde
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0193.jpg?height=342&width=399&top_left_y=211&top_left_x=863)


Visualizing Chemistry -

Methanethiol


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Look at the following energy diagram:
6-17
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0193.jpg?height=337&width=757&top_left_y=707&top_left_x=413)
(a) Is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ for the reaction positive or negative? Label it on the diagram.
(b) How many steps are involved in the reaction?
(c) How many transition states are there? Label them on the diagram.

PROBLEM Look at the following energy diagram for an enzyme-catalyzed reaction:
6-18
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0193.jpg?height=402&width=800&top_left_y=1257&top_left_x=413)
(a) How many steps are involved? (b) Which step is most exergonic?
(c) Which step is slowest?


Energy Diagrams and Reaction Mechanisms -

PROBLEM What is the difference between a transition state and an intermediate?
6-19
PROBLEM Draw an energy diagram for a one-step reaction with $K_{\mathrm{eq}}<1$. Label the parts of the diagram 6-20 corresponding to reactants, products, transition state, $\Delta G^{\circ}$, and $\Delta G^{\ddagger}$. Is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ positive or negative?

PROBLEM Draw an energy diagram for a two-step reaction with $K_{\mathrm{eq}}>1$. Label the overall $\Delta G^{\circ}$, transition 6-21 states, and intermediate. Is $\Delta G^{\circ}$ positive or negative?


PROBLEM Draw an energy diagram for a two-step exergonic reaction whose second step is faster than its first 6-22 step.


PROBLEM Draw an energy diagram for a reaction with $K_{\text {eq }}=1$. What is the value of $\Delta G^{\circ}$ in this reaction? 6-23


PROBLEM The addition of water to ethylene to yield ethanol has the following thermodynamic parameters: 6-24
$\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightleftarrows \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}\left\{\begin{array}{l}\Delta H^{\circ}=-44 \mathrm{~kJ} / \mathrm{mol} \\ \Delta S^{\circ}=-0.12 \mathrm{~kJ} /(\mathrm{K} \cdot \mathrm{mol}) \\ K_{\text {eq }}=24\end{array}\right.$
(a) Is the reaction exothermic or endothermic?
(b) Is the reaction favorable (spontaneous) or unfavorable (nonspontaneous) at room temperature ( 298 K )?


PROBLEM When isopropylidenecyclohexane is treated with strong acid at room temperature, isomerization
6-25 occurs by the mechanism shown below to yield 1-isopropylcyclohexene:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0194.jpg?height=261&width=1256&top_left_y=585&top_left_x=472)


Isopropylidenecyclohexane
1-Isopropylcyclohexene
At equilibrium, the product mixture contains about $30 \%$ isopropylidenecyclohexane and about 70\% 1-isopropylcyclohexene.
(a) What is an approximate value of $K_{\text {eq }}$ for the reaction?
(b) Since the reaction occurs slowly at room temperature, what is its approximate $\Delta G^{\ddagger}$ ?
(c) Draw an energy diagram for the reaction.


PROBLEM Add curved arrows to the mechanism shown in Problem 6-25 to indicate the electron movement in 6-26 each step.


PROBLEM Use curved arrows to show the flow of electrons, and draw the carbon radical that is formed when 6-28 the halogen radicals below add to the corresponding alkenes.
(a)
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3mz8qmgsfr4hnir" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyBpZD0ic21pbGVzLW02c24zbXo4cW1nc2ZyNGhuaXIiIHhtbG5zPSJodHRwOi8vd3d3LnczLm9yZy8yMDAwL3N2ZyIgdmlld0JveD0iMCAwIDE5MyA1Ny43NTAwNTUwOTQ2OTg2NSIgc3R5bGU9IndpZHRoOiAxOTMuMTE5MjAwODc2ODE0NTVweDsgaGVpZ2h0OiA1Ny43NTAwNTUwOTQ2OTg2NXB4OyBvdmVyZmxvdzogdmlzaWJsZTsiPjxkZWZzPjxsaW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudCBpZD0ibGluZS1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyLTEiIGdyYWRpZW50VW5pdHM9InVzZXJTcGFjZU9uVXNlIiB4MT0iMTIzLjgzOTQxMTI2MDU5MTI5IiB5MT0iMjEuMDAwMDM2NzI5ODAxNDgiIHgyPSIxNTEuMTE5MjAwODc2ODE0NTUiIHkyPSIzNi43NTAwNTUwOTQ2OTg2NSI+PHN0b3Agc3RvcC1jb2xvcj0iY3VycmVudENvbG9yIiBvZmZzZXQ9IjIwJSI+PC9zdG9wPjxzdG9wIHN0b3AtY29sb3I9ImN1cnJlbnRDb2xvciIgb2Zmc2V0PSIxMDAlIj48L3N0b3A+PC9saW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudD48bGluZWFyR3JhZGllbnQgaWQ9ImxpbmUtbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pci0zIiBncmFkaWVudFVuaXRzPSJ1c2VyU3BhY2VPblVzZSIgeDE9IjEwMi4xMjI1NzgyMTQ5NDI5IiB5MT0iNDAuMDg1Mzg2MTQ5MzgwNzQiIHgyPSIxMjMuOTQ2NDI2ODcyNjkwMTEiIHkyPSIyNy40ODU0MDA4NDEzMDQxNyI+PHN0b3Agc3RvcC1jb2xvcj0iY3VycmVudENvbG9yIiBvZmZzZXQ9IjIwJSI+PC9zdG9wPjxzdG9wIHN0b3AtY29sb3I9ImN1cnJlbnRDb2xvciIgb2Zmc2V0PSIxMDAlIj48L3N0b3A+PC9saW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudD48bGluZWFyR3JhZGllbnQgaWQ9ImxpbmUtbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pci01IiBncmFkaWVudFVuaXRzPSJ1c2VyU3BhY2VPblVzZSIgeDE9Ijk2LjU1OTYwMDQzODQwNzI3IiB5MT0iMzYuNzUwMDE4MzY0ODk3MTciIHgyPSIxMjMuODM5NDExMjYwNTkxMjkiIHkyPSIyMS4wMDAwMzY3Mjk4MDE0OCI+PHN0b3Agc3RvcC1jb2xvcj0iY3VycmVudENvbG9yIiBvZmZzZXQ9IjIwJSI+PC9zdG9wPjxzdG9wIHN0b3AtY29sb3I9ImN1cnJlbnRDb2xvciIgb2Zmc2V0PSIxMDAlIj48L3N0b3A+PC9saW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudD48bGluZWFyR3JhZGllbnQgaWQ9ImxpbmUtbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pci03IiBncmFkaWVudFVuaXRzPSJ1c2VyU3BhY2VPblVzZSIgeDE9IjY5LjI3OTgxMDgyMjE4NDAyIiB5MT0iMjEiIHgyPSI5Ni41NTk2MDA0Mzg0MDcyNyIgeTI9IjM2Ljc1MDAxODM2NDg5NzE3Ij48c3RvcCBzdG9wLWNvbG9yPSJjdXJyZW50Q29sb3IiIG9mZnNldD0iMjAlIj48L3N0b3A+PHN0b3Agc3RvcC1jb2xvcj0iY3VycmVudENvbG9yIiBvZmZzZXQ9IjEwMCUiPjwvc3RvcD48L2xpbmVhckdyYWRpZW50PjxsaW5lYXJHcmFkaWVudCBpZD0ibGluZS1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyLTkiIGdyYWRpZW50VW5pdHM9InVzZXJTcGFjZU9uVXNlIiB4MT0iNDIiIHkxPSIzNi43NDk5ODE2MzUwOTU2OSIgeDI9IjY5LjI3OTgxMDgyMjE4NDAyIiB5Mj0iMjEiPjxzdG9wIHN0b3AtY29sb3I9ImN1cnJlbnRDb2xvciIgb2Zmc2V0PSIyMCUiPjwvc3RvcD48c3RvcCBzdG9wLWNvbG9yPSJjdXJyZW50Q29sb3IiIG9mZnNldD0iMTAwJSI+PC9zdG9wPjwvbGluZWFyR3JhZGllbnQ+PC9kZWZzPjxtYXNrIGlkPSJ0ZXh0LW1hc2stbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pciI+PHJlY3QgeD0iMCIgeT0iMCIgd2lkdGg9IjEwMCUiIGhlaWdodD0iMTAwJSIgZmlsbD0id2hpdGUiPjwvcmVjdD48Y2lyY2xlIGN4PSI0MiIgY3k9IjM2Ljc0OTk4MTYzNTA5NTY5IiByPSI3Ljg3NSIgZmlsbD0iYmxhY2siPjwvY2lyY2xlPjwvbWFzaz48c3R5bGU+CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAuZWxlbWVudC1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyIHsKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICBmb250OiAxNHB4IEhlbHZldGljYSwgQXJpYWwsIHNhbnMtc2VyaWY7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgYWxpZ25tZW50LWJhc2VsaW5lOiAnbWlkZGxlJzsKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIH0KICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIC5zdWItbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pciB7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgZm9udDogOC40cHggSGVsdmV0aWNhLCBBcmlhbCwgc2Fucy1zZXJpZjsKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIH0KICAgICAgICAgICAgPC9zdHlsZT48ZyBtYXNrPSJ1cmwoI3RleHQtbWFzay1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyKSI+PGxpbmUgeDE9IjEyMy44Mzk0MTEyNjA1OTEyOSIgeTE9IjIxLjAwMDAzNjcyOTgwMTQ4IiB4Mj0iMTUxLjExOTIwMDg3NjgxNDU1IiB5Mj0iMzYuNzUwMDU1MDk0Njk4NjUiIHN0eWxlPSJzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtZGFzaGFycmF5Om5vbmU7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjEuMjYiIHN0cm9rZT0idXJsKCcjbGluZS1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyLTEnKSI+PC9saW5lPjxsaW5lIHgxPSIxMDIuMTIyNTc4MjE0OTQyOSIgeTE9IjQwLjA4NTM4NjE0OTM4MDc0IiB4Mj0iMTIzLjk0NjQyNjg3MjY5MDExIiB5Mj0iMjcuNDg1NDAwODQxMzA0MTciIHN0eWxlPSJzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtZGFzaGFycmF5Om5vbmU7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjEuMjYiIHN0cm9rZT0idXJsKCcjbGluZS1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyLTMnKSI+PC9saW5lPjxsaW5lIHgxPSI5Ni41NTk2MDA0Mzg0MDcyNyIgeTE9IjM2Ljc1MDAxODM2NDg5NzE3IiB4Mj0iMTIzLjgzOTQxMTI2MDU5MTI5IiB5Mj0iMjEuMDAwMDM2NzI5ODAxNDgiIHN0eWxlPSJzdHJva2UtbGluZWNhcDpyb3VuZDtzdHJva2UtZGFzaGFycmF5Om5vbmU7c3Ryb2tlLXdpZHRoOjEuMjYiIHN0cm9rZT0idXJsKCcjbGluZS1tNnNuM216OHFtZ3NmcjRobmlyLTUnKSI+PC9saW5lPjxsaW5lIHgxPSI2OS4yNzk4MTA4MjIxODQwMiIgeTE9IjIxIiB4Mj0iOTYuNTU5NjAwNDM4NDA3MjciIHkyPSIzNi43NTAwMTgzNjQ4OTcxNyIgc3R5bGU9InN0cm9rZS1saW5lY2FwOnJvdW5kO3N0cm9rZS1kYXNoYXJyYXk6bm9uZTtzdHJva2Utd2lkdGg6MS4yNiIgc3Ryb2tlPSJ1cmwoJyNsaW5lLW02c24zbXo4cW1nc2ZyNGhuaXItNycpIj48L2xpbmU+PGxpbmUgeDE9IjQyIiB5MT0iMzYuNzQ5OTgxNjM1MDk1NjkiIHgyPSI2OS4yNzk4MTA4MjIxODQwMiIgeTI9IjIxIiBzdHlsZT0ic3Ryb2tlLWxpbmVjYXA6cm91bmQ7c3Ryb2tlLWRhc2hhcnJheTpub25lO3N0cm9rZS13aWR0aDoxLjI2IiBzdHJva2U9InVybCgnI2xpbmUtbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pci05JykiPjwvbGluZT48L2c+PGc+PHRleHQgeD0iMTUxLjExOTIwMDg3NjgxNDU1IiB5PSIzNi43NTAwNTUwOTQ2OTg2NSIgY2xhc3M9ImRlYnVnIiBmaWxsPSIjZmYwMDAwIiBzdHlsZT0iCiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICBmb250OiA1cHggRHJvaWQgU2Fucywgc2Fucy1zZXJpZjsKICAgICAgICAgICAgIj48L3RleHQ+PHRleHQgeD0iMTIzLjgzOTQxMTI2MDU5MTI5IiB5PSIyMS4wMDAwMzY3Mjk4MDE0OCIgY2xhc3M9ImRlYnVnIiBmaWxsPSIjZmYwMDAwIiBzdHlsZT0iCiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICBmb250OiA1cHggRHJvaWQgU2Fucywgc2Fucy1zZXJpZjsKICAgICAgICAgICAgIj48L3RleHQ+PHRleHQgeD0iOTYuNTU5NjAwNDM4NDA3MjciIHk9IjM2Ljc1MDAxODM2NDg5NzE3IiBjbGFzcz0iZGVidWciIGZpbGw9IiNmZjAwMDAiIHN0eWxlPSIKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIGZvbnQ6IDVweCBEcm9pZCBTYW5zLCBzYW5zLXNlcmlmOwogICAgICAgICAgICAiPjwvdGV4dD48dGV4dCB4PSI2OS4yNzk4MTA4MjIxODQwMiIgeT0iMjEiIGNsYXNzPSJkZWJ1ZyIgZmlsbD0iI2ZmMDAwMCIgc3R5bGU9IgogICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgZm9udDogNXB4IERyb2lkIFNhbnMsIHNhbnMtc2VyaWY7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICI+PC90ZXh0Pjx0ZXh0IHg9IjQ3LjI1IiB5PSI0MS45OTk5ODE2MzUwOTU2OSIgY2xhc3M9ImVsZW1lbnQtbTZzbjNtejhxbWdzZnI0aG5pciIgZmlsbD0iY3VycmVudENvbG9yIiBzdHlsZT0iCiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICB0ZXh0LWFuY2hvcjogc3RhcnQ7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICB3cml0aW5nLW1vZGU6IGhvcml6b250YWwtdGI7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICB0ZXh0LW9yaWVudGF0aW9uOiBtaXhlZDsKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIGxldHRlci1zcGFjaW5nOiBub3JtYWw7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICBkaXJlY3Rpb246IHJ0bDsgdW5pY29kZS1iaWRpOiBiaWRpLW92ZXJyaWRlOwogICAgICAgICAgICAiPjx0c3BhbiBzdHlsZT0iCiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICB1bmljb2RlLWJpZGk6IHBsYWludGV4dDsKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIHdyaXRpbmctbW9kZTogbHItdGI7CiAgICAgICAgICAgICAgICBsZXR0ZXItc3BhY2luZzogbm9ybWFsOwogICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgdGV4dC1hbmNob3I6IHN0YXJ0OwogICAgICAgICAgICAiPkNsPC90c3Bhbj48L3RleHQ+PHRleHQgeD0iNDIiIHk9IjM2Ljc0OTk4MTYzNTA5NTY5IiBjbGFzcz0iZGVidWciIGZpbGw9IiNmZjAwMDAiIHN0eWxlPSIKICAgICAgICAgICAgICAgIGZvbnQ6IDVweCBEcm9pZCBTYW5zLCBzYW5zLXNlcmlmOwogICAgICAgICAgICAiPjwvdGV4dD48L2c+PC9zdmc+"/>
$\qquad$ (b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0194.jpg?height=153&width=424&top_left_y=1856&top_left_x=978)
(c)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0194.jpg?height=131&width=383&top_left_y=1864&top_left_x=1462)


Polar Reactions -


Polar Reactions -

PROBLEM Identify the following reactions as additions, eliminations, substitutions, or rearrangements:
6-30 (a) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{Br}+\mathrm{NaCN} \longrightarrow \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CN}(+\mathrm{NaBr})$
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0195.jpg?height=134&width=673&top_left_y=318&top_left_x=479)
(c)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0195.jpg?height=202&width=718&top_left_y=460&top_left_x=481)
(d)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0195.jpg?height=144&width=887&top_left_y=676&top_left_x=478)


Polar Reactions -

PROBLEM Identify the likely electrophilic and nucleophilic sites in each of the following molecules:


Polar Reactions -

Methamphetamine


Polar Reactions -

PROBLEM Identify the electrophile and the nucleophile.


Polar Reactions -

PROBLEM Add curved arrows to the following polar reactions to indicate the flow of electrons in each:
6-33 (a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0195.jpg?height=196&width=1302&top_left_y=1927&top_left_x=477)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0195.jpg?height=207&width=1150&top_left_y=2138&top_left_x=477)

PROBLEM Follow the flow of electrons indicated by the curved arrows in each of the following polar reactions,
6-34 and predict the products that result:
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0196.jpg?height=232&width=402&top_left_y=204&top_left_x=474)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0196.jpg?height=183&width=521&top_left_y=212&top_left_x=932)
(c)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0196.jpg?height=183&width=383&top_left_y=445&top_left_x=475)
(d)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0196.jpg?height=194&width=535&top_left_y=445&top_left_x=914)