Chiral Drugs -

Those drugs that come from natural sources, either directly or after laboratory modification, are usually chiral and are generally found only as a single enantiomer rather than as a racemate. Penicillin V, for example, an antibiotic isolated from the Penicillium mold, has the $2 S, 5 R, 6 R$ configuration. Its enantiomer, which does not occur naturally but can be made in the laboratory, has no antibiotic activity.
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Penicillin V ( $2 S, 5 R, 6 R$ configuration)
In contrast to drugs from natural sources, drugs that are made entirely in the laboratory are either achiral or, if chiral, are often produced and sold as racemates. Ibuprofen, for example, has one chirality center and is sold commercially under such trade names as Advil, Nuprin, and Motrin as a $50: 50$ mixture of $R$ and $S$. It turns out, however, that only the $S$ enantiomer is active as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory agent. The $R$ enantiomer of ibuprofen is inactive, although it is slowly converted in the body to the active $S$ form.
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(S)-Ibuprofen (an active analgesic agent)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0155.jpg?height=326&width=727&top_left_y=523&top_left_x=696)


Chiral Drugs -

Not only is it chemically wasteful to synthesize and administer an enantiomer that does not serve the intended purpose, many instances are now known where the presence of the "wrong" enantiomer in a racemic mixture either affects the body's ability to utilize the "right" enantiomer or has unintended pharmacological effects of its own. The presence of $(R)$-ibuprofen in the racemic mixture, for instance, slows the rate at which the $S$ enantiomer takes effect in the body, from 12 minutes to 38 minutes.


Chiral Drugs -

To get around this problem, pharmaceutical companies attempt to devise methods of enantioselective synthesis, which allow them to prepare only a single enantiomer rather than a racemic mixture. Viable methods have been developed for the preparation of (S)-ibuprofen, which is marketed in Europe. We'll look further into enantioselective synthesis in the Chapter 19 Chemistry Matters.


Key Terms -

- absolute configuration
- achiral
- Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules
- chiral
- chiral environment
- chirality center
- configuration
- dextrorotatory
- diastereomer
- enantiomer
- epimer
- levorotatory
- meso compound
- optically active
- prochiral
- prochirality center
- pro-R configuration
- pro-S configuration
- $R$ configuration
- racemate
- Re face
- resolution
- S configuration
- Si face
- specific rotation, $[\alpha]_{D}$


Key Terms -


Summary -

In this chapter, we've looked at some of the causes and consequences of molecular handedness-a topic of particular importance in understanding biological chemistry. The subject can be a bit complex but is so important that it's worthwhile spending time to become familiar with it.


Summary -

An object or molecule that is not superimposable on its mirror image is said to be chiral, meaning "handed." A chiral molecule is one that does not have a plane of symmetry cutting through it so that one half is a mirror image of the other half. The most common cause of chirality in organic molecules is the presence of a tetrahedral, $s p^{3}$-hybridized carbon atom bonded to four different groups-a so-called chirality center. Chiral compounds can exist as a pair of nonsuperimposable mirror-image stereoisomers called enantiomers. Enantiomers are identical in all physical properties except for the direction in which they rotate plane-polarized light.


Summary -

The stereochemical configuration of a chirality center can be specified as either $\boldsymbol{R}$ (rectus) or $\boldsymbol{S}$ (sinister) by using the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog rules. First rank the four substituents on the chiral carbon atom, and then orient the molecule so that the lowest-ranked group points directly back. If a curved arrow drawn in the direction of decreasing rank $(1 \rightarrow 2 \rightarrow 3)$ for the remaining three groups is clockwise, the chirality center has the $R$ configuration. If the direction is counterclockwise, the chirality center has the $S$ configuration.


Summary -

Some molecules have more than one chirality center. Enantiomers have opposite configuration at all chirality centers, whereas diastereomers have the same configuration in at least one center but opposite configurations at the others. Epimers are diastereomers that differ in configuration at only one chirality center. A compound with $n$ chirality centers can have a maximum of $2^{n}$ stereoisomers.


Summary -

A meso compound contains a chirality center but is achiral overall because it has a plane of symmetry. Racemic mixtures, or racemates, are 50:50 mixtures of (+) and (-) enantiomers. Racemates and individual diastereomers differ in their physical properties, such as solubility, melting point, and boiling point.


Summary -

A molecule is prochiral if it can be converted from achiral to chiral in a single chemical step. A prochiral $s p^{2}$-hybridized atom has two faces, described as either $\mathbf{R e}$ or $\mathbf{S i}$. An $s p^{3}$-hybridized atom is a prochirality center if, by changing one of its attached atoms, a chirality center results. The atom whose replacement leads to an $R$ chirality center is pro- $\boldsymbol{R}$, and the atom whose replacement leads to an $S$ chirality center is pro- $\boldsymbol{S}$.


Additional Problems -


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Which of the following structures are identical? (Green $=\mathrm{Cl}$.)
5-26
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0156.jpg?height=333&width=304&top_left_y=1194&top_left_x=463)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0156.jpg?height=278&width=343&top_left_y=1200&top_left_x=815)
(c)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0156.jpg?height=342&width=329&top_left_y=1195&top_left_x=1191)
(d)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0156.jpg?height=262&width=397&top_left_y=1555&top_left_x=471)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Assign $R$ or $S$ configurations to the chirality centers in the following molecules (blue $=\mathrm{N}$ ):


Visualizing Chemistry -

5-27 (a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0156.jpg?height=348&width=354&top_left_y=1913&top_left_x=479)


Visualizing Chemistry -


Visualizing Chemistry -

Adrenaline


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Which, if any, of the following structures represent meso compounds? (Blue $=\mathrm{N}$, green $=\mathrm{Cl}$.)
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0157.jpg?height=321&width=434&top_left_y=200&top_left_x=485)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0157.jpg?height=299&width=464&top_left_y=214&top_left_x=985)
(c)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0157.jpg?height=305&width=367&top_left_y=536&top_left_x=483)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Assign $R$ or $S$ configuration to each chirality center in pseudoephedrine, an over-the-counter 5-29 decongestant found in cold remedies (blue $=\mathrm{N}$ ).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0157.jpg?height=354&width=654&top_left_y=975&top_left_x=421)


Visualizing Chemistry -

Chirality and Optical Activity
PROBLEM Which of the following objects are chiral?
5-31
(a) A basketball
(b) A fork
(c) A wine glass
(d) A golf club
(e) A spiral staircase
(f) A snowflake


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM Which of the following compounds are chiral? Draw them, and label the chirality centers.
5-32 (a) 2,4-Dimethylheptane (b) 5-Ethyl-3,3-dimethylheptane (c) cis-1,4-Dichlorocyclohexane
PROBLEM Draw chiral molecules that meet the following descriptions:
5-33 (a) A chloroalkane, $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{11} \mathrm{Cl}$
(b) An alcohol, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{14} \mathrm{O}$
(c) An alkene, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{12}$
(d) An alkane, $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}$

PROBLEM Eight alcohols have the formula $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}$. Draw them. Which are chiral?
5-34
PROBLEM Draw compounds that fit the following descriptions:
5-35 (a) A chiral alcohol with four carbons (b) A chiral carboxylic acid with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}_{2}$
(c) A compound with two chirality centers
(d) A chiral aldehyde with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{BrO}$


Visualizing Chemistry -

Erythronolide B


Assigning Configuration to Chirality Centers -


PROBLEM Assign $R$ or $S$ configurations to each chirality center in the following molecules:


PROBLEM Assign $R$ or $S$ configuration to each chirality center in the following biological molecules:


Prostaglandin $\mathrm{E}_{\mathbf{1}}$


PROBLEM Draw tetrahedral representations of the following molecules:
5-46 (a) (S)-2-Chlorobutane
(b) (R)-3-Chloro-1-pentene $\left[\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CHCH}(\mathrm{Cl}) \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}\right]$


Ascorbic acid -


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM Draw examples of the following:
5-51 (a) A meso compound with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}$ (b) A meso compound with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{9} \mathrm{H}_{20}$
(c) A compound with two chirality centers, one $R$ and the other $S$


Meso Compounds -


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM Draw the structure of a meso compound that has five carbons and three chirality centers. 5-53


Meso Compounds -

Ribose
(a) How many chirality centers does ribose have? Identify them.
(b) How many stereoisomers of ribose are there?
(c) Draw the structure of the enantiomer of ribose.
(d) Draw the structure of a diastereomer of ribose.


Meso Compounds -

Ribitol


Meso Compounds -

Malic acid
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0160.jpg?height=258&width=324&top_left_y=1435&top_left_x=830)


Meso Compounds -

Cysteine


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM Identify the indicated faces in the following molecules as Re or Si :


Meso Compounds -

Crotonate


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM One of the steps in fat metabolism is the hydration of crotonate to yield 3-hydroxybutyrate. The
5-58 reaction occurs by addition of -OH to the Si face at C 3 , followed by protonation at C 2 , also from the Si face. Draw the product of the reaction, showing the stereochemistry of each step.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0160.jpg?height=109&width=358&top_left_y=2274&top_left_x=420)


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM The dehydration of citrate to yield cis-aconitate, a step in the citric acid cycle, involves the pro- $R$ 5-59 "arm" of citrate rather than the pro- $S$ arm. Which of the following two products is formed?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0161.jpg?height=229&width=1223&top_left_y=311&top_left_x=424)


Meso Compounds -

PROBLEM The first step in the metabolism of glycerol, formed by digestion of fats, is phosphorylation of the
5-60 pro- $R-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$ group by reaction with adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to give the corresponding glycerol phosphate plus adenosine diphosphate (ADP). Show the stereochemistry of the product.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0161.jpg?height=159&width=706&top_left_y=712&top_left_x=414)


Meso Compounds -

Glycerol
Glycerol phosphate
PROBLEM One of the steps in fatty-acid biosynthesis is the dehydration of ( $R$ )-3-hydroxybutyryl ACP to give
5-61 trans-crotonyl ACP. Does the reaction remove the pro- $R$ or the pro- $S$ hydrogen from C2?
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(R)-3-Hydroxybutyryl ACP
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trans-Crotonyl ACP


General Problems -

PROBLEM Draw all possible stereoisomers of 1,2-cyclobutanedicarboxylic acid, and indicate the
5-62 interrelationships. Which, if any, are optically active? Do the same for 1,3-cyclobutanedicarboxylic acid.


General Problems -

PROBLEM Draw tetrahedral representations of the two enantiomers of the amino acid cysteine,
5-63 $\mathrm{HSCH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}\left(\mathrm{NH}_{2}\right) \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$, and identify each as $R$ or $S$.
PROBLEM The naturally occurring form of the amino acid cysteine (Problem 5-63) has the $R$ configuration
5-64 at its chirality center. On treatment with a mild oxidizing agent, two cysteines join to give cystine, a disulfide. Assuming that the chirality center is not affected by the reaction, is cystine optically active? Explain.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0161.jpg?height=107&width=768&top_left_y=1849&top_left_x=418)

Cysteine
Cystine
PROBLEM Draw tetrahedral representations of the following molecules:
5-65 (a) The $2 S, 3 R$ enantiomer of 2,3-dibromopentane
(b) The meso form of 3,5-heptanediol


General Problems -


Cephalexin -

PROBLEM Chloramphenicol, a powerful antibiotic isolated in 1947 from the Streptomyces venezuelae
5-67 bacterium, is active against a broad spectrum of bacterial infections and is particularly valuable against typhoid fever. Assign $R$ or $S$ configurations to the chirality centers in chloramphenicol.


Cephalexin -