A carbocation -

PROBLEM Two different substances have the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$. Draw both, and tell how they differ.
1-52
PROBLEM Two different substances have the formula $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{6}$. Draw both, and tell how they differ.
1-53
PROBLEM Two different substances have the formula $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{O}$. Draw both, and tell how they differ.
1-54
PROBLEM Three different substances contain a carbon-carbon double bond and have the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{8}$. Draw
1-55 them, and tell how they differ.
PROBLEM Among the most common over-the-counter drugs you might find in a medicine cabinet are mild
1-56 pain relievers such ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin), naproxen (Aleve), and acetaminophen (Tylenol).
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Ibuprofen
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A carbocation -

Acetaminophen
(a) How many $s p^{3}$-hybridized carbons does each molecule have?
(b) How many $s p^{2}$-hybridized carbons does each molecule have?
(c) What similarities can you see in their structures?


CHAPTER 2 -

Polar Covalent Bonds; Acids and Bases
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0031.jpg?height=1047&width=2123&top_left_y=341&top_left_x=1)


CHAPTER 2 -

FIGURE 2.1 The opium poppy is the source of morphine, one of the first "vegetable alkali," or alkaloids, to be isolated. (credit: modification of work "Papaver somniferum" by Liz West/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)


CHAPTER CONTENTS -

2.1 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity
2.2 Polar Covalent Bonds and Dipole Moments
2.3 Formal Charges
2.4 Resonance
2.5 Rules for Resonance Forms
2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms
2.7 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted-Lowry Definition
2.8 Acid and Base Strength
2.9 Predicting Acid-Base Reactions from $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ Values
2.10 Organic Acids and Organic Bases
2.11 Acids and Bases: The Lewis Definition
2.12 Noncovalent Interactions between Molecules


CHAPTER CONTENTS -

WHY THIS CHAPTER? Understanding organic chemistry means knowing not just what happens but also why and how it happens at the molecular level. In this chapter, we'll look at some of the ways that chemists describe and account for chemical reactivity, thereby providing a foundation to understand the specific reactions discussed in subsequent chapters. Topics such as bond polarity, the acid-base behavior of molecules, and hydrogen-bonding are a particularly important part of that foundation.


CHAPTER CONTENTS -

We saw in the previous chapter how covalent bonds between atoms are described, and we looked at the valence
bond model, which uses hybrid orbitals to account for the observed shapes of organic molecules. Before going on to a systematic study of organic chemistry, however, we still need to review a few fundamental topics. In particular, we need to look more closely at how electrons are distributed in covalent bonds and at some of the consequences that arise when the electrons in a bond are not shared equally between atoms.


CHAPTER CONTENTS - 2.1 Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity

Up to this point, we've treated chemical bonds as either ionic or covalent. The bond in sodium chloride, for instance, is ionic. Sodium transfers an electron to chlorine to produce $\mathrm{Na}^{+}$and $\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$ions, which are held together in the solid by electrostatic attractions between unlike charges. The $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ bond in ethane, however, is covalent. The two bonding electrons are shared equally by the two equivalent carbon atoms, resulting in a symmetrical electron distribution in the bond. Most bonds, however, are neither fully ionic nor fully covalent but are somewhere between the two extremes. Such bonds are called polar covalent bonds, meaning that the bonding electrons are attracted more strongly by one atom than the other so that the electron distribution between atoms is not symmetrical (FIGURE 2.2).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0032.jpg?height=407&width=1215&top_left_y=829&top_left_x=458)


FIGURE 2.2 The continuum in bonding from covalent to ionic is a result of an unequal distribution of bonding electrons between atoms. The symbol $\delta$ (lowercase Greek letter delta) means partial charge, either partial positive ( $\delta+$ ) for the electron-poor atom or partial negative ( $\delta-$ ) for the electron-rich atom.


Bond polarity is due to differences in electronegativity (EN), the intrinsic ability of an atom to attract the shared electrons in a covalent bond. As shown in FIGURE 2.3, electronegativities are based on an arbitrary scale, with fluorine the most electronegative ( $\mathrm{EN}=4.0$ ) and cesium the least ( $\mathrm{EN}=0.7$ ). Metals on the left side of the periodic table attract electrons weakly and have lower electronegativities, while oxygen, nitrogen, and halogens on the right side of the periodic table attract electrons strongly and have higher electronegativities. Carbon, the most important element in organic compounds, has an intermediate electronegativity value of 2.5 .


| $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{H} \\ 2.1 \end{gathered}$ |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | He |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Li} \\ & 1.0 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Be} \\ & 1.6 \end{aligned}$ |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | $\begin{gathered} \text { B } \\ 2.0 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} C \\ C \\ 2.5 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{N} \\ 3.0 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} 0 \\ 3.5 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \text { F } \\ 4.0 \end{gathered}$ | Ne |
| $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Na} \\ & 0.9 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Mg} \\ & 1.2 \end{aligned}$ |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  |  | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Al} \\ & 1.5 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{Si} \\ 1.8 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \hline P \\ 2.1 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{S} \\ 2.5 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{Cl} \\ 3.0 \end{gathered}$ | Ar |
| $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{K} \\ 0.8 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Ca} \\ & 1.0 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Sc} \\ & 1.3 \end{aligned}$ | Ti 1.5 | $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{V} \\ 1.6 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{Cr} \\ 1.6 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Mn} \\ & 1.5 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Fe} \\ & 1.8 \end{aligned}$ | Co 1.9 | $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{Ni} \\ 1.9 \end{gathered}$ | Cu 1.9 | Zn 1.6 | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Ga} \\ & 1.6 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Ge} \\ & 1.8 \end{aligned}$ | As 2.0 | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Se} \\ & 2.4 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Br} \\ & 2.8 \end{aligned}$ | Kr |
| $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Rb} \\ & 0.8 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{Sr} \\ 1.0 \end{gathered}$ | Y 1.2 | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Zr} \\ & 1.4 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Nb} \\ & 1.6 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \text { Mo } \\ & 1.8 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \text { Tc } \\ & 1.9 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Ru} \\ & 2.2 \end{aligned}$ | Rh 2.2 | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Pd} \\ & 2.2 \end{aligned}$ | Ag 1.9 | Cd 1.7 | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \text { In } \\ & 1.7 \end{aligned}$ | Sn | Sb | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \mathrm{Te} \\ & 2.1 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{I} \\ 2.5 \end{gathered}$ | Xe |
| $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{Cs} \\ 0.7 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \mathrm{Ba} \\ & 0.9 \end{aligned}$ | La 1.0 | Hf 1.3 | Ta 1.5 | W | Re 1.9 | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \text { Os } \\ & 2.2 \end{aligned}$ | Ir 2.2 | Pt 2.2 | Au 2.4 | Hg 1.9 | $\begin{gathered} \hline \mathrm{Tl} \\ 1.8 \end{gathered}$ | $\mathrm{Pb}$ | $\begin{gathered} \mathrm{Bi} \\ 1.9 \end{gathered}$ | $\begin{aligned} & \hline \text { Po } \\ & 2.0 \end{aligned}$ | $\begin{gathered} \hline \text { At } \\ 2.1 \end{gathered}$ | Rn |


FIGURE 2.3 Electronegativity values and trends. Electronegativity generally increases from left to right across the periodic table and decreases from top to bottom. The values are on an arbitrary scale, with $\mathrm{F}=4.0$ and $\mathrm{Cs}=0.7$. Elements in red are the most electronegative, those in yellow are medium, and those in green are the least electronegative.


As a rough guide, bonds between atoms whose electronegativities differ by less than 0.5 are nonpolar covalent, bonds between atoms whose electronegativities differ by 0.5 to 2 are polar covalent, and bonds between atoms whose electronegativities differ by more than 2 are largely ionic. Carbon-hydrogen bonds, for example, are relatively nonpolar because carbon ( $\mathrm{EN}=2.5$ ) and hydrogen ( $\mathrm{EN}=2.1$ ) have similar electronegativities. Bonds between carbon and more electronegative elements such as oxygen ( $\mathrm{EN}=3.5$ ) and nitrogen ( $\mathrm{EN}=3.0$ ), by contrast, are polarized so that the bonding electrons are drawn away from carbon toward the electronegative atom. This leaves carbon with a partial positive charge, $\delta$-, and the electronegative atom with a partial negative charge, $\delta$-. An example is the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{O}$ bond in methanol, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}$ (FIGURE 2.4a). Bonds between carbon and less
electronegative elements are polarized so that carbon bears a partial negative charge and the other atom bears a partial positive charge. An example is the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{Li}$ bond in methyllithium, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Li}$ (FIGURE 2.4b).
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0033.jpg?height=324&width=790&top_left_y=342&top_left_x=689)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0033.jpg?height=329&width=277&top_left_y=714&top_left_x=691)


Methyllithium


FIGURE 2.4 Polar covalent bonds. (a) Methanol, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}$, has a polar covalent $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{O}$ bond, and (b) methyllithium, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Li}$, has a polar covalent C-Li bond. The computer-generated representations, called electrostatic potential maps, use color to show calculated charge distributions, ranging from red (electron-rich; $\delta$-) to blue (electron-poor; $\delta+$ ).


Note in the representations of methanol and methyllithium in FIGURE 2.4 that a crossed arrow $\longrightarrow$ is used to indicate the direction of bond polarity. By convention, electrons are displaced in the direction of the arrow. The tail of the arrow (which looks like a plus sign) is electron-poor ( $\delta+$ ), and the head of the arrow is electron-rich ( $\delta$-).


Note also in FIGURE 2.4 that calculated charge distributions in molecules can be displayed visually with what are called electrostatic potential maps, which use color to indicate electron-rich (red; $\delta$-) and electron-poor (blue; $\delta+$ ) regions. In methanol, oxygen carries a partial negative charge and is colored red, while the carbon and hydrogen atoms carry partial positive charges and are colored blue-green. In methyllithium, lithium carries a partial positive charge (blue), while carbon and the hydrogen atoms carry partial negative charges (red). Electrostatic potential maps are useful because they show at a glance the electron-rich and electron-poor atoms in molecules. We'll make frequent use of these maps throughout the text and will see many examples of how electronic structure correlates with chemical reactivity.


When speaking of an atom's ability to polarize a bond, we often use the term inductive effect. An inductive effect is simply the shifting of electrons in a $\sigma$ bond in response to the electronegativity of nearby atoms. Metals, such as lithium and magnesium, inductively donate electrons, whereas reactive nonmetals, such as oxygen and nitrogen, inductively withdraw electrons. Inductive effects play a major role in understanding chemical reactivity, and we'll use them many times throughout this text to explain a variety of chemical observations.


PROBLEM Which element in each of the following pairs is more electronegative?
2-1 (a) Li or H
(b) B or Br
(c) Cl or I (d) C or H


PROBLEM Use the $\delta+/ \delta$ - convention to indicate the direction of expected polarity for each of the bonds 2-2 indicated.
(a) $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{Cl}$
(b) $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{NH}_{2}$
(c) $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{~N}-\mathrm{H}$
(d) $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{SH}$
(e) $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{MgBr}$ (f) $\quad \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{F}$


PROBLEM Use the electronegativity values shown in Figure 2.3 to rank the following bonds from least polar to 2-3 most polar: $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{Li}, \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{K}, \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{F}, \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{MgBr}, \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{OH}$


PROBLEM Look at the following electrostatic potential map of methylamine, a substance responsible for the $\mathbf{2 - 4}$ odor of rotting fish, and tell the direction of polarization of the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}$ bond:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0034.jpg?height=245&width=391&top_left_y=211&top_left_x=417)


Methylamine


CHAPTER CONTENTS - 2.2 Polar Covalent Bonds and Dipole Moments

Just as individual bonds are often polar, molecules as a whole are often polar as well. Molecular polarity results from the vector summation of all individual bond polarities and lone-pair contributions in the molecule. As a practical matter, strongly polar substances are often soluble in polar solvents like water, whereas less polar substances are insoluble in water.


Net polarity is measured by a quantity called the dipole moment and can be thought of in the following way: assume that there is a center of mass of all positive charges (nuclei) in a molecule and a center of mass of all negative charges (electrons). If these two centers don't coincide, then the molecule has a net polarity.


The dipole moment, $\mu$ (lowercase Greek letter mu), is defined as the magnitude of the charge $Q$ at either end of the molecular dipole times the distance $r$ between the charges, $\mu=Q \times r$. Dipole moments are expressed in debyes $(\mathrm{D})$, where $1 \mathrm{D}=3.336 \times 10^{-30}$ coulomb meters ( $\mathrm{C} \cdot \mathrm{m}$ ) in SI units. For example, the unit charge on an electron is $1.60 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{C}$. Thus, if one positive charge and one negative charge are separated by 100 pm (a bit less than the length of a typical covalent bond), the dipole moment is $1.60 \times 10^{-29} \mathrm{C} \cdot \mathrm{m}$, or 4.80 D .


$$
\begin{aligned}
& \mu=Q \times r \\
& \mu=\left(1.60 \times 10^{-19} \mathrm{C}\right)\left(100 \times 10^{-12} \mathrm{~m}\right)\left(\frac{1 \mathrm{D}}{3.336 \times 10^{-30} \mathrm{C} \cdot \mathrm{~m}}\right)=4.80 \mathrm{D}
\end{aligned}
$$


Dipole moments for some common substances are given in TABLE 2.1. Of the compounds shown in the table, sodium chloride has the largest dipole moment $(9.00 \mathrm{D})$ because it is ionic. Even small molecules like water ( $\mu=1.85 \mathrm{D}$ ), methanol ( $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH} ; \mu=1.70 \mathrm{D}$ ), and ammonia ( $\mu=1.47 \mathrm{D}$ ), have substantial dipole moments, however, both because they contain strongly electronegative atoms (oxygen and nitrogen) and because all three molecules have lone-pair electrons. The lone-pair electrons on oxygen and nitrogen stick out into space away from the positively charged nuclei, giving rise to a considerable charge separation and making a large contribution to the dipole moment.


TABLE 2.1 Dipole Moments of Some Compounds


| Compound | Dipole moment (D) |  | Compound |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| NaCl | 9.00 | $\mathrm{NH}_{3}$ | 1.47 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | 2.33 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$ | 1.31 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{Cl}$ | 1.87 | $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ | 0 |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ | 1.85 | $\mathrm{CH}_{4}$ | 0 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{OH}$ | 1.70 | $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | 0 |


| Compound | Dipole moment (D) | Compound | Dipole moment (D) |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ | 1.70 | <smiles>c1ccccc1</smiles>
 Benzene | 0 |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{SH}$ | 1.52 |  |  |
| <smiles>C1=C[C+]2CC(O2)[Te]1</smiles><smiles>H1([H])C@H[C@H]2C=C[C@H]1C2</smiles><smiles>C[I-]NH+[I-]</smiles>Water Methanol Ammonia
 $(\mu=1.85 \mathrm{D})$ $(\mu=1.70 \mathrm{D})$ $(\mu=1.47 \mathrm{D})$ |  |  |  |
|  |  |  |  |


In contrast with water, methanol, and ammonia, molecules such as carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, and benzene have zero dipole moments. Because of the symmetrical structures of these molecules, the individual bond polarities and lone-pair contributions exactly cancel.


$$
\mathrm{O}=\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}
$$


Benzene ( $\mu=0$ )


WORKED EXAMPLE 2.1 -


Predicting the Direction of a Dipole Moment -

Make a three-dimensional drawing of methylamine, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{NH}_{2}$, and show the direction of its dipole moment $(\mu=$ 1.31).


Strategy -

Look for any lone-pair electrons, and identify any atom with an electronegativity substantially different from that of carbon. (Usually, this means O, N, F, Cl, or Br.) Electron density will be displaced in the general direction of the electronegative atoms and the lone pairs.


Solution -


Solution -

Methylamine
( $\mu=1.31$ )


Solution -

PROBLEM Ethylene glycol, $\mathrm{HOCH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$, may look nonpolar when drawn, but an internal hydrogen bond 2-5 between the two - OH groups results in a dipole moment. Explain.


Solution -

PROBLEM Make three-dimensional drawings of the following molecules, and predict whether each has a 2-6 dipole moment. If you expect a dipole moment, show its direction.
(a) $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}$
(b) $\mathrm{CHCl}_{3}$
(c) $\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{2}$
(d) $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CCl}_{2}$


Solution - 2.3 Formal Charges

Closely related to the ideas of bond polarity and dipole moment is the assignment of formal charges to specific atoms within a molecule, particularly atoms that have an apparently "abnormal" number of bonds. Look at dimethyl sulfoxide $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{SOCH}_{3}\right)$, for instance, a solvent commonly used for preserving biological cell lines at low temperature. The sulfur atom in dimethyl sulfoxide has three bonds rather than the usual two and has a formal positive charge. The oxygen atom, by contrast, has one bond rather than the usual two and has a formal negative charge. Note that an electrostatic potential map of dimethyl sulfoxide shows the oxygen as negative (red) and the sulfur as relatively positive (blue), in accordance with the formal charges.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0036.jpg?height=396&width=857&top_left_y=851&top_left_x=626)


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

Formal charges, as the name suggests, are a formalism and don't imply the presence of actual ionic charges in a molecule. Instead, they're a device for electron "bookkeeping" and can be thought of in the following way: A typical covalent bond is formed when each atom donates one electron. Although the bonding electrons are shared by both atoms, each atom can still be considered to "own" one electron for bookkeeping purposes. In methane, for instance, the carbon atom owns one electron in each of the four $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ bonds. Because a neutral, isolated carbon atom has four valence electrons, and because the carbon atom in methane still owns four, the methane carbon atom is neutral and has no formal charge.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0036.jpg?height=177&width=936&top_left_y=1641&top_left_x=592)


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

The same is true for the nitrogen atom in ammonia, which has three covalent $\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{H}$ bonds and two nonbonding electrons (a lone pair). Atomic nitrogen has five valence electrons, and the ammonia nitrogen also has five-one in each of three shared $\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{H}$ bonds plus two in the lone pair. Thus, the nitrogen atom in ammonia has no formal charge.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0036.jpg?height=184&width=950&top_left_y=2009&top_left_x=586)


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

The situation is different in dimethyl sulfoxide. Atomic sulfur has six valence electrons, but the dimethyl sulfoxide sulfur owns only five-one in each of the two $\mathrm{S}-\mathrm{C}$ single bonds, one in the $\mathrm{S}-\mathrm{O}$ single bond, and two in a lone pair. Thus, the sulfur atom has formally lost an electron and therefore has a positive formal charge. A similar calculation for the oxygen atom shows that it has formally gained an electron and has a negative charge. Atomic oxygen has six valence electrons, but the oxygen in dimethyl sulfoxide has seven-one in the $O-S$ bond and two in each of three lone pairs. Thus, the oxygen has formally gained an electron and has a negative formal charge.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0037.jpg?height=532&width=881&top_left_y=176&top_left_x=622)


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

To express the calculations in a general way, the formal charge on an atom is equal to the number of valence electrons in a neutral, isolated atom minus the number of electrons owned by that bonded atom in a molecule. The number of electrons in the bonded atom, in turn, is equal to half the number of bonding electrons plus the nonbonding, lone-pair electrons.

$$
\begin{aligned}
\text { Formal charge } & =\left(\begin{array}{c}
\text { Number of } \\
\text { valence electrons } \\
\text { in free atom }
\end{array}\right)-\left(\begin{array}{c}
\text { Number of } \\
\text { valence electrons } \\
\text { in bonded atom }
\end{array}\right) \\
& =\left(\begin{array}{c}
\text { Number of } \\
\text { valence electrons } \\
\text { in free atom }
\end{array}\right)-\left(\begin{array}{c}
\text { Number of } \\
\text { bonding electrons } \\
2
\end{array} \begin{array}{c}
\text { Number of } \\
\text { nonbonding } \\
\text { electrons }
\end{array}\right)
\end{aligned}
$$


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

A summary of commonly encountered formal charges and the bonding situations in which they occur is given in TABLE 2.2. Although only a bookkeeping device, formal charges often give clues about chemical reactivity, so it's helpful to be able to identify and calculate them correctly.


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

TABLE 2.2 A Summary of Common Formal Charges


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

| Atom | C |  |  | N |  | 0 |  | S |  | P |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Structure | <smiles>CC(C)(C)C</smiles> | <smiles>CC(C)(C)C</smiles> | <smiles>CC(C)(C)C</smiles> | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0037.jpg?height=121&width=126&top_left_y=1489&top_left_x=920) | <smiles>CN+C</smiles> | <smiles></smiles> | - $\ddot{0}$ | $-\ddot{S}{ }^{+}$ | - | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0037.jpg?height=121&width=111&top_left_y=1489&top_left_x=1786) |
| Valence electrons | 4 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 5 |
| Number of bonds | 3 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
| Number of nonbonding electrons | 1 | 0 | 2 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 6 | 0 |
| Formal charge | 0 | +1 | -1 | +1 | -1 | +1 | -1 | +1 | -1 | +1 |


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

PROBLEM Calculate formal charges for the nonhydrogen atoms in the following molecules:
2-7 (a)
Diazomethane, $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{N}=\ddot{\mathrm{N}}$ :
(b) Acetonitrile oxide, $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C} \equiv \mathrm{N}-\ddot{\mathrm{O}}$ :
(c) Methyl isocyanide, $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N} \equiv \mathrm{C}$ :


Dimethyl sulfoxide -

PROBLEM Organic phosphate groups occur commonly in biological molecules. Calculate formal charges on
the four O atoms in the methyl phosphate dianion.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0038.jpg?height=178&width=733&top_left_y=258&top_left_x=411)


Dimethyl sulfoxide - 2.4 Resonance

Most substances can be represented unambiguously by the Kekulé line-bond structures we've been using up to this point, but an interesting problem sometimes arises. Look at the acetate ion, for instance. When we draw a line-bond structure for acetate, we need to show a double bond to one oxygen and a single bond to the other. But which oxygen is which? Should we draw a double bond to the "top" oxygen and a single bond to the "bottom" oxygen, or vice versa?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0038.jpg?height=305&width=757&top_left_y=761&top_left_x=684)

Although the two oxygen atoms in the acetate ion appear different in line-bond structures, experiments show that they are equivalent. Both carbon-oxygen bonds, for instance, are 127 pm in length, midway between the length of a typical $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{O}$ single bond ( 135 pm ) and a typical $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ double bond ( 120 pm ). In other words, neither of the two structures for acetate is correct by itself. The true structure is intermediate between the two, and an electrostatic potential map shows that both oxygen atoms share the negative charge and have equal electron densities (red).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0038.jpg?height=337&width=901&top_left_y=1382&top_left_x=623)


Dimethyl sulfoxide - 2.4 Resonance

The two individual line-bond structures for acetate ion are called resonance forms, and their special resonance relationship is indicated by the double-headed arrow between them. The only difference between the two resonance forms is the placement of the $\pi$ and nonbonding valence electrons. The atoms themselves occupy exactly the same place in both resonance forms, the connections between atoms are the same, and the threedimensional shapes of the resonance forms are the same.

A good way to think about resonance forms is to realize that a substance like the acetate ion is the same as any other. Acetate doesn't jump back and forth between two resonance forms, spending part of the time looking like one and part of the time looking like the other. Rather, acetate has a single unchanging structure that we say is a resonance hybrid of the two individual forms and has characteristics of both. The only "problem" with acetate is that we can't draw it accurately using a familiar line-bond structure-line-bond structures just don't work for resonance hybrids. The difficulty, however, is with the representation of acetate on paper, not with acetate itself.


Dimethyl sulfoxide - 2.4 Resonance

Resonance is a very useful concept that we'll return to on numerous occasions throughout the rest of this book. We'll see in Chapter 15, for instance, that the six carbon-carbon bonds in aromatic compounds, such as benzene, are equivalent and that benzene is best represented as a hybrid of two resonance forms. Although each individual resonance form seems to imply that benzene has alternating single and double bonds, neither form is correct by itself. The true benzene structure is a hybrid of the two individual forms, and all six carbon-carbon bonds are equivalent. This symmetrical distribution of electrons around the molecule is evident in an
electrostatic potential map.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0039.jpg?height=332&width=320&top_left_y=281&top_left_x=607)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0039.jpg?height=264&width=584&top_left_y=323&top_left_x=955)


Dimethyl sulfoxide - 2.4 Resonance

Benzene (two resonance forms)


Dimethyl sulfoxide - 2.5 Rules for Resonance Forms

When first dealing with resonance forms, it's useful to have a set of guidelines that describe how to draw and interpret them. The following rules should be helpful:


RULE 1 -

Individual resonance forms are imaginary, not real. The real structure is a composite, or resonance hybrid, of the different forms. Species such as the acetate ion and benzene are no different from any other. They have single, unchanging structures, and they don't switch back and forth between resonance forms. The only difference between these and other substances is in the way they are represented in drawings.


RULE 2 -

Resonance forms differ only in the placement of their $\boldsymbol{\pi}$ or nonbonding electrons. Neither the position nor the hybridization of any atom changes from one resonance form to another. In the acetate ion, for instance, the carbon atom is $s p^{2}$-hybridized and the oxygen atoms remain in exactly the same place in both resonance forms. Only the positions of the $\pi$ electrons in the $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond and the lone-pair electrons on oxygen differ from one form to another. This movement of electrons from one resonance structure to another can be indicated with curved arrows. A curved arrow always indicates the movement of electrons, not the movement of atoms. An arrow shows that a pair of electrons moves from the atom or bond at the tail of the arrow to the atom or bond at the head of the arrow.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0039.jpg?height=429&width=1173&top_left_y=1477&top_left_x=473)


RULE 2 -

The situation with benzene is similar to that with acetate. The $\pi$ electrons in the double bonds move, as shown with curved arrows, but the carbon and hydrogen atoms remain in place.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0039.jpg?height=272&width=692&top_left_y=2005&top_left_x=714)


RULE 2 -

RULE 3
Different resonance forms of a substance don't have to be equivalent. As an example, we'll see in Chapter 22 that a compound such as acetone, which contains a $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond, can be converted into its anion by reaction with a strong base. The resultant anion has two resonance forms. One form contains a carbon-oxygen double bond and has a negative charge on carbon; the other contains a carbon-carbon double bond and has a negative charge on oxygen. Even though the two resonance forms aren't equivalent, both contribute to the overall
resonance hybrid.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0040.jpg?height=453&width=1083&top_left_y=256&top_left_x=521)


RULE 2 -

When two resonance forms are nonequivalent, the actual structure of the resonance hybrid resembles the more stable form. Thus, we might expect the true structure of the acetone anion to be more like that of the form that places the negative charge on the electronegative oxygen atom rather than on the carbon.


RULE 2 -

RULE 4
Resonance forms obey normal rules of valency. A resonance form is like any other structure: the octet rule still applies to second-row, main-group atoms. For example, one of the following structures for the acetate ion is not a valid resonance form because the carbon atom has five bonds and ten valence electrons:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0040.jpg?height=258&width=733&top_left_y=1058&top_left_x=696)


RULE 2 -

RULE 5
The resonance hybrid is more stable than any individual resonance form. In other words, resonance leads to stability. Generally speaking, the larger the number of resonance forms a substance has, the more stable the substance is, because its electrons are spread out over a larger part of the molecule and are closer to more nuclei. We'll see in Chapter 15, for instance, that a benzene ring is more stable because of resonance than might otherwise be expected.


RULE 2 - 2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms

Look back at the resonance forms of the acetate ion and the acetone anion shown in the previous section. The pattern seen there is a common one that leads to a useful technique for drawing resonance forms. In general, any three-atom grouping with a $p$ orbital on each atom has two resonance forms:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0040.jpg?height=345&width=1145&top_left_y=1871&top_left_x=490)


RULE 2 - 2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms

The atoms $\mathrm{X}, \mathrm{Y}$, and Z in the general structure might be $\mathrm{C}, \mathrm{N}, \mathrm{O}, \mathrm{P}, \mathrm{S}$, or others, and the asterisk (*) might mean that the $p$ orbital on atom $Z$ is vacant, that it contains a single electron, or that it contains a lone pair of electrons. The two resonance forms differ simply by an exchange in position of the multiple bond and the asterisk from one end of the three-atom grouping to the other.


RULE 2 - 2.6 Drawing Resonance Forms

By learning to recognize such three-atom groupings within larger structures, resonance forms can be systematically generated. Look, for instance, at the anion produced when $\mathrm{H}^{+}$is removed from 2,4-pentanedione by reaction with a base. How many resonance structures does the resultant anion have?
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0041.jpg?height=250&width=746&top_left_y=181&top_left_x=687)

The 2,4-pentanedione anion has a lone pair of electrons and a formal negative charge on the central carbon atom, next to a $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond on the left. The $\mathrm{O}=\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}:^{-}$grouping is a typical one for which two resonance structures can be drawn.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0041.jpg?height=253&width=860&top_left_y=584&top_left_x=635)

Just as there is a $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond to the left of the lone pair, there is a second $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond to the right. Thus, we can draw a total of three resonance structures for the 2,4-pentanedione anion.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0041.jpg?height=197&width=1139&top_left_y=945&top_left_x=490)


WORKED EXAMPLE 2.2 -


Drawing Resonance Forms for an Anion -

Draw three resonance structures for the carbonate ion, $\mathrm{CO}_{3}{ }^{2-}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0041.jpg?height=142&width=415&top_left_y=1368&top_left_x=855)


Strategy -

Look for three-atom groupings that contain a multiple bond next to an atom with a $p$ orbital. Then exchange the positions of the multiple bond and the electrons in the $p$ orbital. In the carbonate ion, each singly bonded oxygen atom with three lone pairs and a negative charge is adjacent to the $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ double bond, giving the grouping Ö: $=C-$ Ö:-


Solution -

Exchanging the position of the double bond and an electron lone pair in each grouping generates three resonance structures.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0041.jpg?height=242&width=907&top_left_y=1939&top_left_x=609)


WORKED EXAMPLE 2.3 -


Drawing Resonance Forms for a Radical -

Draw three resonance forms for the pentadienyl radical, where a radical is a substance that contains a single, unpaired electron in one of its orbitals, denoted by a dot $(\cdot)$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0042.jpg?height=244&width=643&top_left_y=187&top_left_x=741)


Strategy -

Find the three-atom groupings that contain a multiple bond next to an atom with a $p$ orbital.


Solution -


Solution -

Thus, the three resonance forms for the pentadienyl radical are:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0042.jpg?height=190&width=1237&top_left_y=1431&top_left_x=444)


Solution -

PROBLEM Which of the following pairs of structures represent resonance forms, and which do not? Explain. 2-9
(a)


Solution - 2.7 Acids and Bases: The Brønsted-Lowry Definition

Perhaps the most important of all concepts related to electronegativity and polarity is that of acidity and
basicity. We'll soon see, in fact, that the acid-base behavior of organic molecules explains much of their chemistry. You may recall from a course in general chemistry that two definitions of acidity are frequently used: the Brønsted-Lowry definition and the Lewis definition. We'll look at the Brønsted-Lowry definition in this and the following three sections and then discuss the Lewis definition in Section 2.11.


A Brønsted-Lowry acid is a substance that donates a hydrogen ion, $\mathrm{H}^{+}$, and a Brønsted-Lowry base is a substance that accepts a hydrogen ion. (The name proton is often used as a synonym for $\mathrm{H}^{+}$because loss of the valence electron from a neutral hydrogen atom leaves only the hydrogen nucleus-a proton.) When gaseous hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, for example, a polar HCl molecule acts as an acid and donates a proton, while a water molecule acts as a base and accepts the proton, yielding chloride anion ( $\mathrm{Cl}^{-}$) and hydronium cation $\left(\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right)$. This and other acid-base reactions are reversible, so we'll write them with double, forward-andbackward arrows.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0043.jpg?height=223&width=509&top_left_y=756&top_left_x=504)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0043.jpg?height=66&width=202&top_left_y=1002&top_left_x=585)


Conjugate base
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0043.jpg?height=331&width=226&top_left_y=775&top_left_x=1405)


Conjugate acid


Chloride ion, the product that results when the acid HCl loses a proton, is called the conjugate base of the acid, and hydronium ion, the product that results when the base $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}$ gains a proton, is called the conjugate acid of the base. Other common mineral acids such as $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}$ and $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}$ behave similarly, as do organic acids such as acetic acid, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$.


In a general sense,


$$
\begin{array}{cc}
\mathrm{H}-\mathrm{A} & +\mathrm{B} \\
\text { Acid } & \text { Base }
\end{array}
$$


For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0043.jpg?height=527&width=942&top_left_y=1645&top_left_x=589)


Notice that water can act either as an acid or as a base, depending on the circumstances. In its reaction with HCl , water is a base that accepts a proton to give the hydronium ion, $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}$. In its reaction with ammonia $\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)$, however, water is an acid that donates a proton to give ammonium ion $\left(\mathrm{NH}_{4}^{+}\right)$and hydroxide ion, $\mathrm{HO}^{-}$.


PROBLEM Nitric acid $\left(\mathrm{HNO}_{3}\right)$ reacts with ammonia $\left(\mathrm{NH}_{3}\right)$ to yield ammonium nitrate. Write the reaction, and
2-11 identify the acid, the base, the conjugate acid product, and the conjugate base product.


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

Different acids differ in their ability to donate $\mathrm{H}^{+}$. Stronger acids, such as HCl , react almost completely with water, whereas weaker acids, such as acetic acid $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}\right)$, react only slightly. The exact strength of a given acid HA in water solution is described using the acidity constant ( $\boldsymbol{K}_{\mathbf{a}}$ ) for the acid-dissociation equilibrium. Recall from general chemistry that the concentration of solvent is ignored in the equilibrium expression and that brackets [ ] around a substance refer to the concentration of the enclosed species in moles per liter.


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

$$
\begin{gathered}
\mathrm{HA}+\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{~A}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+} \\
K_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}
\end{gathered}
$$


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

Stronger acids have their equilibria toward the right and thus have larger acidity constants, whereas weaker acids have their equilibria toward the left and have smaller acidity constants. The range of $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values for different acids is enormous, running from about $10^{15}$ for the strongest acids to about $10^{-60}$ for the weakest. Common inorganic acids such as $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{SO}_{4}, \mathrm{HNO}_{3}$, and HCl have $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ 's in the range of $10^{2}$ to $10^{9}$, while organic acids generally have $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ 's in the range of $10^{-5}$ to $10^{-15}$. As you gain experience, you'll develop a rough feeling for which acids are "strong" and which are "weak" (always remembering that the terms are relative, not absolute).


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

Acid strengths are normally expressed using $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values rather than $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values, where the $\mathbf{p} \boldsymbol{K}_{\mathbf{a}}$ is the negative common logarithm of the $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ :


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

$$
\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=-\log K_{\mathrm{a}}
$$


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

A stronger acid (larger $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ ) has a smaller $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$, and a weaker acid (smaller $K_{\mathrm{a}}$ ) has a larger $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$. TABLE 2.3 lists the $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ 's of some common acids in order of their strength, and a more comprehensive table is given in Appendix B .


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

Notice that the $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ value shown in TABLE 2.3 for water is 15.74 , which results from the following calculation. Because water is both the acid and the solvent, the equilibrium expression is


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

$$
\begin{gathered}
\begin{array}{c}
\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}
\end{array}+\underset{\text { (acid) }}{\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}} \rightleftharpoons \mathrm{OH}^{-}+\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+} \\
K_{\mathrm{a}}=\frac{\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{A}^{-}\right]}{[\mathrm{HA}]}=\frac{\begin{array}{c}
{\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]}
\end{array}}{\left[\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right]}=\frac{\left[1.0 \times 10^{-7}\right]\left[1.0 \times 10^{-7}\right]}{[55.4]}=1.8 \times 10^{-16} \\
\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=15.74
\end{gathered}
$$


Solution - 2.8 Acid and Base Strength

The numerator in this expression is the so-called ion-product constant for water, $K_{\mathrm{w}}=\left[\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}\right]\left[\mathrm{OH}^{-}\right]=1.00 \times$ $10^{-14}$, and the denominator is the molar concentration of pure water, $\left[\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right]=55.4 \mathrm{M}$ at $25^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$. The calculation is artificial in that the concentration of "solvent" water is ignored while the concentration of "acid" water is not, but it is nevertheless useful for making a comparison of water with other weak acids on a similar footing.