20-61 -

PROBLEM The following $\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}$ values have been measured. Explain why a hydroxyl group in the para position 20-64 decreases the acidity while a hydroxyl group in the meta position increases the acidity.
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$\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=4.48$
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$\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=4.19$
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$\mathrm{p} K_{\mathrm{a}}=4.07$


20-61 -

PROBLEM Identify the missing reagents a-f in the following scheme:


20-65 -


20-65 -

PROBLEM Propose a structure for a compound, $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{~N}$, that has the following IR and ${ }^{1} \mathrm{H}$ NMR spectra:
20-66
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0728.jpg?height=1009&width=1411&top_left_y=954&top_left_x=414)


20-65 -

PROBLEM The two ${ }^{1} \mathrm{H}$ NMR spectra shown here belong to crotonic acid (trans $-\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCO}_{2} \mathrm{H}$ ) and 20-67 methacrylic acid $\left[\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right) \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{H}\right]$. Which spectrum corresponds to which acid? Explain.
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0729.jpg?height=511&width=1400&top_left_y=205&top_left_x=479)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0729.jpg?height=508&width=1396&top_left_y=730&top_left_x=481)


20-65 -

PROBLEM The ${ }^{1} \mathrm{H}$ and ${ }^{13} \mathrm{C}$ NMR spectra below belong to a compound with formula $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}_{2}$. Propose a 20-68 structure for this compound.
(a)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0729.jpg?height=535&width=1387&top_left_y=1353&top_left_x=472)
(b)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0729.jpg?height=527&width=1375&top_left_y=1894&top_left_x=475)

PROBLEM Propose structures for carboxylic acids that show the following peaks in their ${ }^{13}$ C NMR spectra.
20-69 Assume that the kinds of carbons $\left(1^{\circ}, 2^{\circ}, 3^{\circ}\right.$, or $\left.4^{\circ}\right)$ have been assigned by DEPT-NMR.
(a) $\mathrm{C}_{7} \mathrm{H}_{12} \mathrm{O}_{2}: 25.5 \delta\left(2^{\circ}\right), 25.9 \delta\left(2^{\circ}\right), 29.0 \delta\left(2^{\circ}\right), 43.1 \delta\left(3^{\circ}\right), 183.0 \delta\left(4^{\circ}\right)$
(b) $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{8} \mathrm{O}_{2}: 21.4 \delta\left(1^{\circ}\right), 128.3 \delta\left(4^{\circ}\right), 129.0 \delta\left(3^{\circ}\right), 129.7 \delta\left(3^{\circ}\right), 143.1 \delta\left(4^{\circ}\right), 168.2 \delta\left(4^{\circ}\right)$


20-65 -

PROBLEM Carboxylic acids having a second carbonyl group two atoms away lose $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$ (decarboxylate) through 20-70 an intermediate enolate ion when treated with base. Write the mechanism of this decarboxylation reaction using curved arrows to show the electron flow in each step.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0730.jpg?height=133&width=1023&top_left_y=454&top_left_x=413)


20-65 -

An enolate ion


CHAPTER 21 <br> Carboxylic Acid Derivatives: Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions -


FIGURE 21.1 The lives of rock climbers depend on their ropes, typically made of a nylon polymer prepared by a nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction. (credit: modification of work "110823-A-NR754-001" by USASOC News Service/Flickr, CC BY 2.0)


CHAPTER CONTENTS -


CHAPTER CONTENTS - 21.1 Naming Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

21.2 Nucleophilic Acyl Substitution Reactions
21.3 Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
21.4 Chemistry of Acid Halides
21.5 Chemistry of Acid Anhydrides
21.6 Chemistry of Esters
21.7 Chemistry of Amides
21.8 Chemistry of Thioesters and Acyl Phosphates: Biological Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
21.9 Polyamides and Polyesters: Step-Growth Polymers
21.10 Spectroscopy of Carboxylic Acid Derivatives


WHY THIS CHAPTER? Carboxylic acid derivatives are among the most widely occurring of all molecules, both in laboratory chemistry and in biological pathways. Thus, a study of them and their primary reaction-nucleophilic acyl substitution-is fundamental to understanding organic chemistry. We'll begin this chapter by first learning about carboxylic acid derivatives, and we'll then explore the chemistry of acyl substitution reactions.


Closely related to the carboxylic acids and nitriles discussed in the previous chapter are the carboxylic acid
derivatives, compounds in which an acyl group is bonded to an electronegative atom or substituent that can act as a leaving group in the nucleophilic acyl substitution reaction that we saw briefly in the Preview of Carbonyl Chemistry:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0732.jpg?height=126&width=701&top_left_y=346&top_left_x=712)


Many kinds of acid derivatives are known, but we'll be concerned primarily with four of the most common ones: acid halides, acid anhydrides, esters, and amides. Acid halides and acid anhydrides are used only in the laboratory, while esters and amides are common in both laboratory and biological chemistry. In addition, carboxylic acid derivatives called thioesters and acyl phosphates are encountered primarily in biological chemistry. Note the structural similarity between acid anhydrides and acyl phosphates.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0732.jpg?height=191&width=221&top_left_y=712&top_left_x=502)
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Acid halide ( $\mathrm{X}=\mathrm{Cl}, \mathrm{Br}$ )
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Acid anhydride
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Ester
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src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>

Amide
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Thioester
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Acyl phosphate