Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following model is a representation of citric acid, the key substance in the so-called citric acid
1-19 cycle, by which food molecules are metabolized in the body. Only the connections between atoms are shown; multiple bonds are not indicated. Complete the structure by indicating the positions of multiple bonds and lone-pair electrons (black = C, red = O, gray $=\mathrm{H}$ ).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0025.jpg?height=362&width=578&top_left_y=800&top_left_x=421)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following model is a representation of acetaminophen, a pain reliever sold in drugstores
1-20 under a variety of names, including Tylenol. Identify the hybridization of each carbon atom in acetaminophen, and tell which atoms have lone pairs of electrons (black = C, red = O, blue = N, gray $=\mathrm{H})$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0025.jpg?height=326&width=556&top_left_y=1382&top_left_x=416)


Visualizing Chemistry -

PROBLEM The following model is a representation of aspartame, $\mathrm{C}_{14} \mathrm{H}_{18} \mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}_{5}$, known commercially under
1-21 many names, including NutraSweet. Only the connections between atoms are shown; multiple bonds are not indicated. Complete the structure for aspartame, and indicate the positions of multiple bonds (black $=\mathrm{C}$, red $=\mathrm{O}$, blue $=\mathrm{N}$, gray $=\mathrm{H}$ ).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0025.jpg?height=467&width=825&top_left_y=1927&top_left_x=411)


Electron Configurations -

PROBLEM How many valence electrons does each of the following dietary trace elements have?
1-22
(a) Zinc (b) Iodine (c) Silicon (d) Iron


Electron Configurations -

PROBLEM Give the ground-state electron configuration for each of the following elements:
1-23
(a) Potassium (b) Arsenic
(c) Aluminum
(d) Germanium


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM What are likely formulas for the following molecules?
1-24 (a) $\mathrm{NH}_{?} \mathrm{OH}$
(b) $\mathrm{AlCl}_{\text {? }}$
(c) $\mathrm{CF}_{2} \mathrm{Cl}_{?}$
(d) $\mathrm{CH}_{?} \mathrm{O}$


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Why can't molecules with the following formulas exist?
$\mathbf{1 - 2 5}$ (a) $\mathrm{CH}_{5}$ (b) $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{~N}$ (c) $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{5} \mathrm{Br}_{2}$
PROBLEM Draw an electron-dot structure for acetonitrile, $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{~N}$, which contains a carbon-nitrogen triple
1-26 bond. How many electrons does the nitrogen atom have in its outer shell? How many are bonding, and how many are nonbonding?


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Draw a line-bond structure for vinyl chloride, $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{Cl}$, the starting material from which PVC
1-27 poly(vinyl chloride) plastic is made.
PROBLEM Fill in any nonbonding valence electrons that are missing from the following structures:
1-28
(a)
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Dimethyl disulfide
(b)
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3lwa899xrpjsklo" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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Acetamide
(c)
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Acetate ion


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Convert the following molecular formulas into line-bond structures that are consistent with valence
1-30 rules:
(a) $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{8}$
(b) $\mathrm{CH}_{5} \mathrm{~N}$
(c) $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{O}$ (2 possibilities)
(d) $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{Br}$ (2 possibilities)
(e) $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{4} \mathrm{O}$ (3 possibilities) (f) $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{9} \mathrm{~N}$ (4 possibilities)


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Draw a three-dimensional representation of the oxygen-bearing carbon atom in ethanol,
1-31 $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$, using the standard convention of solid, wedged, and dashed lines.


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Oxaloacetic acid, an important intermediate in food metabolism, has the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{4} \mathrm{O}_{5}$ and
1-32 contains three $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bonds and two $\mathrm{O}-\mathrm{H}$ bonds. Propose two possible structures.
PROBLEM Draw structures for the following molecules, showing lone pairs:
1-33 (a) Acrylonitrile, $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{~N}$, which contains a carbon-carbon double bond and a carbon-nitrogen triple bond
(b) Ethyl methyl ether, $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{8} \mathrm{O}$, which contains an oxygen atom bonded to two carbons
(c) Butane, $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$, which contains a chain of four carbon atoms
(d) Cyclohexene, $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{10}$, which contains a ring of six carbon atoms and one carbon-carbon double bond


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

Hybridization
PROBLEM What is the hybridization of each carbon atom in acetonitrile (Problem 1-26)?
1-34
PROBLEM What kind of hybridization do you expect for each carbon atom in the following molecules?
$1-35$
(a) Propane, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$
(b) 2-Methylpropene,
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3lwzsjcln9oh0mf" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>
(c) But-1-en-3-yne, $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CH}-\mathrm{C} \equiv \mathrm{CH}$
(d) Acetic acid,
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3lx1qit8455un8" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

PROBLEM Propose structures for molecules that meet the following descriptions:
1-38 (a) Contains two $s p^{2}$-hybridized carbons and two $s p^{3}$-hybridized carbons
(b) Contains only four carbons, all of which are $s p^{2}$-hybridized
(c) Contains two $s p$-hybridized carbons and two $s p^{2}$-hybridized carbons


Electron-Dot and Line-Bond Structures -

Pyridoxal phosphate


General Problems -


General Problems -

Cyclopentyne


General Problems -

PROBLEM Allene, $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}$, has two adjacent double bonds. Draw a picture showing the orbitals involved
1-46 in the $\sigma$ and $\pi$ bonds of allene. Is the central carbon atom $s p^{2}$ - or $s p$-hybridized? What about the hybridization of the terminal carbons? What shape do you predict for allene?


General Problems -

PROBLEM Allene (see Problem 1-46) is structurally related to carbon dioxide, $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$. Draw a picture showing the
1-47 orbitals involved in the $\sigma$ and $\pi$ bonds of $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$, and identify the likely hybridization of carbon.
PROBLEM Complete the electron-dot structure of caffeine, showing all lone-pair electrons, and identify the
1-48 hybridization of the indicated atoms.
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A carbocation -

(a) How many valence electrons does the positively charged carbon atom have?
(b) What hybridization do you expect this carbon atom to have?
(c) What geometry is the carbocation likely to have?


A carbocation -


A carbocation -

A carbanion
(a) What is the electronic relationship between a carbanion and a trivalent nitrogen compound such as $\mathrm{NH}_{3}$ ?
(b) How many valence electrons does the negatively charged carbon atom have?
(c) What hybridization do you expect this carbon atom to have?
(d) What geometry is the carbanion likely to have?


A carbocation -

PROBLEM Divalent carbon species called carbenes are capable of fleeting existence. For example, methylene,
1-51 $: \mathrm{CH}_{2}$, is the simplest carbene. The two unshared electrons in methylene can be either paired in a single orbital or unpaired in different orbitals. Predict the type of hybridization you expect carbon to adopt in singlet (spin-paired) methylene and triplet (spin-unpaired) methylene. Draw a picture of each, and identify the valence orbitals on carbon.