Aldehydes (RCHO) and ketones ( $\mathbf{R}_{\mathbf{2}} \mathbf{C O}$ ) are among the most widely occurring of all compounds. In nature, many substances required by living organisms are aldehydes or ketones. The aldehyde pyridoxal phosphate, for instance, is a coenzyme involved in a large number of metabolic reactions; the ketone hydrocortisone is a steroid hormone secreted by the adrenal glands to regulate fat, protein, and carbohydrate metabolism.
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Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)
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CHAPTER CONTENTS - 19.1 Naming Aldehydes and Ketones

Hydrocortisone


In the chemical industry, simple aldehydes and ketones are produced in large quantities for use as solvents and as starting materials to prepare a host of other compounds. For example, more than 50 million tons per year of formaldehyde, $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$, is produced worldwide for use in building insulation materials and in the adhesive resins that bind particle board and plywood. Acetone, $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3}\right)_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$, is widely used as an industrial solvent, with approximately 8 million tons per year produced worldwide. Formaldehyde is synthesized industrially by catalytic oxidation of methanol, and one method of acetone preparation involves oxidation of 2-propanol produced by hydration of propylene.
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Acetone
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0646.jpg?height=280&width=373&top_left_y=1562&top_left_x=1158)


Aldehydes are named by replacing the terminal -e of the corresponding alkane name with -al. The parent chain must contain the - CHO group, and the - CHO carbon is numbered as carbon 1 . Note in the following examples that the longest chain in 2-ethyl-4-methylpentanal is actually a hexane, but this chain does not include the -CHO group and thus is not the parent.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0646.jpg?height=264&width=919&top_left_y=2107&top_left_x=603)


A few simple and well-known aldehydes have common names that are recognized by IUPAC. Several that you might encounter are listed in TABLE 19.1.

TABLE 19.1 Common Names of Some Simple Aldehydes


| Formula | Common name | Systematic name |
| :--- | :--- | :--- |
| HCHO | Formaldehyde | Methanal |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CHO}$ | Acetaldehyde | Ethanal |
| $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CHCHO}$ | Acrolein | Propenal |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CHCHO}$ | Crotonaldehyde | 2-Butenal |
|  | Benzaldehyde | Benzenecarbaldehyde |


Ketones are named by replacing the terminal -e of the corresponding alkane name with -one. The parent chain is the longest one that includes the ketone group, and the numbering begins at the end nearer the carbonyl carbon. As with alkenes (Section 7.3) and alcohols (Section 17.1), the locant is placed before the parent name using older rules but before the suffix with the newer IUPAC guidelines. For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0647.jpg?height=223&width=1049&top_left_y=1401&top_left_x=538)


Benzophenone


When it's necessary to refer to the $\mathrm{R}-\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ group as a substituent, the name acyl (a-sil) group is used and the name ending $-y l$ is attached. Thus, $-\mathrm{COCH}_{3}$ is an acetyl group, -CHO is a formyl group, -COAr is an aroyl group, and $-\mathrm{COC}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{5}$ is a benzoyl group.
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An acyl group
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CAgICAgICI+PC90ZXh0PjwvZz48L3N2Zz4="/>

Acetyl
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Formyl
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Benzoyl


If other functional groups are present and the double-bonded oxygen is considered a substituent on a parent chain, the prefix oxo- is used. For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0648.jpg?height=120&width=527&top_left_y=192&top_left_x=799)


PROBLEM Draw structures corresponding to the following names:
19-2 (a) 3-Methylbutanal (b) 4-Chloro-2-pentanone (c) Phenylacetaldehyde
(d) cis-3-tert-Butylcyclohexanecarbaldehyde
(e) 3-Methyl-3-butenal
(f) 2-(1-Chloroethyl)-5-methylheptanal


CHAPTER CONTENTS - 19.2 Preparing Aldehydes and Ketones


Preparing Aldehydes -

Perhaps the best method of aldehyde synthesis is by oxidation of a primary alcohol, as we saw in Section 17.7. The reaction is usually carried out using the Dess-Martin periodinane reagent in dichloromethane solvent at room temperature:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0648.jpg?height=337&width=1137&top_left_y=1306&top_left_x=491)


Preparing Aldehydes -

Another method of aldehyde synthesis is one that we'll mention here just briefly and then return to in Section 21.6. Certain carboxylic acid derivatives can be partially reduced to yield aldehydes. The partial reduction of an ester by diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAH, or DIBAL-H), for instance, is an important laboratory-scale method of aldehyde synthesis, and mechanistically related processes also occur in biological pathways. The reaction is normally carried out at $-78^{\circ} \mathrm{C}$ (dry-ice temperature) in toluene solution.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0648.jpg?height=114&width=844&top_left_y=1881&top_left_x=632)


Methyl dodecanoate -


Methyl dodecanoate -

PROBLEM How would you prepare pentanal from the following starting materials?
19-3 (a) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{OH}$
(b) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}$
(c) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CO}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$
(d) $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}=\mathrm{CH}_{2}$


Preparing Ketones -

For the most part, methods of ketone synthesis are similar to those for aldehydes. Secondary alcohols are
oxidized by a variety of reagents to give ketones (Section 17.7). The choice of oxidant depends on such factors as reaction scale, cost, and acid or base sensitivity of the alcohol. The Dess-Martin periodinane is a common choice although chromic acid $\left(\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{CrO}_{4}\right)$ was frequently used in older work.
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src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>


Preparing Ketones -

Other methods include the ozonolysis of alkenes in which one of the unsaturated carbon atoms is disubstituted (Section 8.8) and Friedel-Crafts acylation of an aromatic ring with an acid chloride in the presence of $\mathrm{AlCl}_{3}$ catalyst (Section 16.3).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0649.jpg?height=556&width=1010&top_left_y=649&top_left_x=552)


Preparing Ketones -

In addition to those methods already discussed, ketones can also be prepared from certain carboxylic acid derivatives, just as aldehydes can. Among the most useful reactions of this sort is that between an acid chloride and a lithium diorganocopper reagent, as we saw in Section 10.7. We'll discuss this reaction in more detail in Section 21.4.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0649.jpg?height=131&width=1026&top_left_y=1404&top_left_x=547)


Preparing Ketones -

Hexanoyl chloride
2-Heptanone (81\%)
PROBLEM How would you carry out the following reactions? More than one step may be needed.
19-4 (a) 3-Hexyne $\rightarrow 3$-Hexanone (b) Benzene $\rightarrow$ m-Bromoacetophenone
(c) Bromobenzene $\rightarrow$ Acetophenone (d) 1-Methylcyclohexene $\rightarrow$ 2-Methylcyclohexanone


Preparing Ketones - 19.3 Oxidation of Aldehydes and Ketones

Aldehydes are easily oxidized to yield carboxylic acids, but ketones are generally inert toward oxidation. The difference is a consequence of structure: aldehydes have a -CHO proton that can be abstracted during oxidation, but ketones do not.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0649.jpg?height=281&width=1036&top_left_y=1979&top_left_x=547)


Many oxidizing agents, including alkaline $\mathrm{KMnO}_{4}$ and hot $\mathrm{HNO}_{3}$, convert aldehydes into carboxylic acids. The oxidation occurs rapidly at room temperature and generally works well.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0650.jpg?height=112&width=893&top_left_y=191&top_left_x=611)


Hexanal
Hexanoic acid (85\%)
Aldehyde oxidations occur through intermediate 1,1-diols, or hydrates, which are formed by a reversible nucleophilic addition of water to the carbonyl group. Even though it's formed to only a small extent at equilibrium, the hydrate reacts like any typical primary or secondary alcohol and is oxidized to a carbonyl compound (Section 17.7).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0650.jpg?height=169&width=286&top_left_y=563&top_left_x=605)


An aldehyde
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0650.jpg?height=169&width=383&top_left_y=566&top_left_x=898)


A carboxylic acid


Ketones are inert to most oxidizing agents but undergo a slow cleavage reaction of the $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ bond next to the carbonyl group when treated with hot alkaline $\mathrm{KMnO}_{4}$. The reaction is not often used, however, and is mentioned here only for completeness.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0650.jpg?height=142&width=638&top_left_y=945&top_left_x=711)


Cyclohexanone Hexanedioic acid (79\%)


Preparing Ketones - 19.4 Nucleophilic Addition Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones

As we saw in the Preview of Carbonyl Chemistry, the most general reaction of aldehydes and ketones is the nucleophilic addition reaction. As shown in FIGURE 19.2, a nucleophile, : $\mathrm{Nu}^{-}$, approaches the carbonyl group from an angle of about $105^{\circ}$ opposite the carbonyl oxygen and forms a bond to the electrophilic $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{O}$ carbon atom. At the same time, rehybridization of the carbonyl carbon from $s p^{2}$ to $s p^{3}$ occurs, an electron pair from the $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond moves toward the electronegative oxygen atom, and a tetrahedral alkoxide ion intermediate is produced. Protonation of the alkoxide by addition of acid then gives an alcohol.


FIGURE 19.2 MECHANISM -

A nucleophilic addition reaction to an aldehyde or ketone. The nucleophile approaches the carbonyl group from an angle of approximately $75^{\circ}$ to the plane of the $s p^{2}$ orbitals, the carbonyl carbon rehybridizes from $s p^{2}$ to $s p^{3}$, and an alkoxide ion is formed. Protonation by addition of acid then gives an alcohol.
(1) An electron pair from the nucleophile adds to the electrophilic carbon of the carbonyl group, pushing an electron pair from the $\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O}$ bond onto oxygen and giving an alkoxide ion intermediate. The carbonyl carbon rehybridizes from $s p^{2}$ to $s p^{3}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0651.jpg?height=299&width=210&top_left_y=498&top_left_x=1218)


FIGURE 19.2 MECHANISM -


FIGURE 19.2 MECHANISM -

Alkoxide ion
(2) $\mathrm{H}_{3} \mathrm{O}^{+}$
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0651.jpg?height=169&width=302&top_left_y=1257&top_left_x=1280)


FIGURE 19.2 MECHANISM -

Alcohol


FIGURE 19.2 MECHANISM -

The nucleophile can be either negatively charged (: $\mathrm{Nu}^{-}$) or neutral (: Nu ). If it's neutral, however, it usually carries a hydrogen atom that can subsequently be eliminated, : Nu-H. For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0651.jpg?height=633&width=722&top_left_y=1665&top_left_x=677)