Functional Groups with a Carbon-Oxygen Double Bond (Carbonyl Groups) - 3.2 Alkanes and Alkane Isomers

Before beginning a systematic study of the different functional groups, let's look first at the simplest family of molecules to develop some general ideas that apply to all families. We saw in Section 1.7 that the carbon-carbon single bond in ethane results from $\sigma$ (head-on) overlap of carbon $s p^{3}$ hybrid orbitals. If we imagine joining three, four, five, or even more carbon atoms by $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ single bonds, we can generate the large family of molecules called alkanes.
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m8t5dkieihgc5k" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>


Butane


Alkanes are often described as saturated hydrocarbons: hydrocarbons because they contain only carbon and hydrogen; saturated because they have only $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}$ and $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{H}$ single bonds and thus contain the maximum possible number of hydrogens per carbon. They have the general formula $\mathrm{C}_{n} \mathrm{H}_{2 n+2}$, where $n$ is an integer. Alkanes are also occasionally called aliphatic compounds, a name derived from the Greek aleiphas, meaning "fat." We'll see in Section 27.1 that many animal fats contain long carbon chains similar to alkanes.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0072.jpg?height=308&width=999&top_left_y=952&top_left_x=563)


A typical animal fat
Think about the ways that carbon and hydrogen might combine to make alkanes. With one carbon and four hydrogens, only one structure is possible: methane, $\mathrm{CH}_{4}$. Similarly, there is only one combination of two carbons with six hydrogens (ethane, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ ) and only one combination of three carbons with eight hydrogens (propane, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ ). When larger numbers of carbons and hydrogens combine, however, more than one structure is possible. For example, there are two substances with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$ : the four carbons can all be in a row (butane), or they can branch (isobutane). Similarly, there are three $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{12}$ molecules, and so on for larger alkanes.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0073.jpg?height=1340&width=1291&top_left_y=200&top_left_x=414)


Compounds like butane and pentane, whose carbons are all connected in a row, are called straight-chain alkanes, or normal alkanes. Compounds like 2-methylpropane (isobutane), 2-methylbutane, and 2,2-dimethylpropane, whose carbon chains branch, are called branched-chain alkanes.


Compounds like the two $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$ molecules and the three $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{12}$ molecules, which have the same formula but different structures, are called Isomers, from the Greek isos + meros, meaning "made of the same parts." Isomers have the same numbers and kinds of atoms but differ in the way the atoms are arranged. Compounds like butane and isobutane, whose atoms are connected differently, are called constitutional isomers. We'll see shortly that other kinds of isomers are also possible, even among compounds whose atoms are connected in the same order. As TABLE 3.2 shows, the number of possible alkane isomers increases dramatically with the number of carbon atoms.


| TABLE 3.2 Number of Alkane Isomers |  |  |  |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| Formula | Number of isomers | Formula | Number of isomers |
| $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{14}$ | 5 | $\mathrm{C}_{10} \mathrm{H}_{22}$ | 75 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{7} \mathrm{H}_{16}$ | 9 | $\mathrm{C}_{15} \mathrm{H}_{32}$ | 4347 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}$ | 18 | $\mathrm{C}_{20} \mathrm{H}_{42}$ | 366,319 |
| $\mathrm{C}_{9} \mathrm{H}_{20}$ | 35 | $\mathrm{C}_{30} \mathrm{H}_{62}$ | $4,111,846,763$ |


Constitutional isomerism is not limited to alkanes-it occurs widely throughout organic chemistry. Constitutional isomers may have different carbon skeletons (as in isobutane and butane), different functional groups (as in ethanol and dimethyl ether), or different locations of a functional group along the chain (as in isopropylamine and propylamine). Regardless of the reason for the isomerism, constitutional isomers are always different compounds with different properties but with the same formula.


Different carbon skeletons $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$ -

Different functional groups
$\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6} \mathrm{O}$


Isopropylamine


$$
\text { and } \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}
$$


Propylamine


A given alkane can be drawn in many ways. For example, the straight-chain, four-carbon alkane called butane can be represented by any of the structures shown in FIGURE 3.3. These structures don't imply any particular three-dimensional geometry for butane; they indicate only the connections among atoms. In practice, as noted in Section 1.12, chemists rarely draw all the bonds in a molecule and usually refer to butane by the condensed structure, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ or $\mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$. Still more simply, butane can be represented as $n-\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$, where $n$ denotes normal (straight-chain) butane.
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$$
\mathrm{CH}_{3}-\mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{CH}_{2}-\mathrm{CH}_{3} \quad \mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3} \quad \mathrm{CH}_{3}\left(\mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}
$$


FIGURE 3.3 Some representations of butane, $\mathbf{C}_{\mathbf{4}} \mathbf{H}_{\mathbf{1 0}}$. The molecule is the same regardless of how it's drawn. These structures imply only that butane has a continuous chain of four carbon atoms; they do not imply any specific geometry.


Straight-chain alkanes are named according to the number of carbon atoms they contain, as shown in TABLE 3.3. With the exception of the first four compounds-methane, ethane, propane, and butane-whose names have historical roots, the alkanes are named based on Greek numbers. The suffix -ane is added to the end of each name to indicate that the molecule identified is an alkane. Thus, pentane is the five-carbon alkane, hexane is the six-carbon alkane, and so on. We'll soon see that these alkane names form the basis for naming all other organic compounds, so at least the first ten should be memorized.


TABLE 3.3 Names of Straight-Chain Alkanes -

| Number of carbons
 $(n)$ | Name | Formula
 $\left(\mathrm{C}_{n} \mathrm{H}_{2 n+2}\right)$ | Number of carbons
 $(n)$ | Name | Formula
 $\left(\mathrm{C}_{n} \mathrm{H}_{2 n+2}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 1 | Methane | $\mathrm{CH}_{4}$ | 9 | Nonane | $\mathrm{C}_{9} \mathrm{H}_{20}$ |
| 2 | Ethane | $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{6}$ | 10 | Decane | $\mathrm{C}_{10} \mathrm{H}_{22}$ |
| 3 | Propane | $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{8}$ | 11 | Undecane | $\mathrm{C}_{11} \mathrm{H}_{24}$ |
| 4 | Butane | $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10}$ | 12 | Dodecane | $\mathrm{C}_{12} \mathrm{H}_{26}$ |
| 5 | Pentane | $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{12}$ | 13 | Tridecane | $\mathrm{C}_{13} \mathrm{H}_{28}$ |


TABLE 3.3 Names of Straight-Chain Alkanes


| Number of carbons
 $(n)$ | Name | Formula
 $\left(\mathrm{C}_{n} \mathrm{H}_{2 n+2}\right)$ | Number of carbons
 $(n)$ | Name | Formula
 $\left(\mathrm{C}_{n} \mathrm{H}_{2 n+2}\right)$ |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| 6 | Hexane | $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{14}$ | 20 | Icosane | $\mathrm{C}_{20} \mathrm{H}_{42}$ |
| 7 | Heptane | $\mathrm{C}_{7} \mathrm{H}_{16}$ | 30 | Triacontane | $\mathrm{C}_{30} \mathrm{H}_{62}$ |
| 8 | Octane | $\mathrm{C}_{8} \mathrm{H}_{18}$ |  |  |  |


WORKED EXAMPLE 3.1 -


Drawing the Structures of Isomers -

Propose structures for two isomers with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{2} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{~N}$.


Strategy -

We know that carbon forms four bonds, nitrogen forms three, and hydrogen forms one. Write down the carbon atoms first, and then use trial and error plus intuition to put the pieces together.


Solution -

There are two isomeric structures. One has the connection $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}$, and the other has the connection $\mathrm{C}-\mathrm{N}-\mathrm{C}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0075.jpg?height=337&width=830&top_left_y=1168&top_left_x=645)


Solution -

PROBLEM Draw structures of the five isomers of $\mathrm{C}_{6} \mathrm{H}_{14}$.
3-4
PROBLEM Propose structures that meet the following descriptions:
3-5 (a) Two isomeric esters with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{5} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{O}_{2}$ :
(b) Two isomeric nitriles with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{7} \mathrm{~N}$
(c) Two isomeric disulfides with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{10} \mathrm{~S}_{2}$

PROBLEM How many isomers are there with the following descriptions?
3-6 (a) Alcohols with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{3} \mathrm{H}_{8} \mathrm{O}$ (b) Bromoalkanes with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{9} \mathrm{Br}$
(c) Thioesters with the formula $\mathrm{C}_{4} \mathrm{H}_{8} \mathrm{OS}$


Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups

If you imagine removing a hydrogen atom from an alkane, the partial structure that remains is called an alkyl group. Alkyl groups are not stable compounds themselves, they are simply parts of larger compounds and are named by replacing the -ane ending of the parent alkane with an $-y l$ ending. For example, removal of a hydrogen from methane, $\mathrm{CH}_{4}$, generates a methyl group, $-\mathrm{CH}_{3}$, and removal of a hydrogen from ethane, $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$, generates an ethyl group, $-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$. Similarly, removal of a hydrogen atom from the end carbon of any straight-chain alkane gives the series of straight-chain alkyl groups shown in TABLE 3.4. Combining an alkyl group with any of the functional groups listed earlier makes it possible to generate and name many thousands of compounds. For example:
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0076.jpg?height=191&width=174&top_left_y=257&top_left_x=455)
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m923jkx20v6ed3" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>


Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups


Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups

Methylamine
TABLE 3.4 Some Straight-Chain Alkyl Groups


Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups

| Alkane |  | Name | Alkyl group |
| :--- | :--- | :--- | :--- |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{4}$ | Methane | $-\mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Mame (abbreviation) |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Ethane (Me) | $-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Ethyl (Et) |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Propane | $-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Propyl (Pr) |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Butane | $-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Butyl (Bu) |
| $\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Pentane | $-\mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$ | Pentyl, or amyl |


Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups

Just as straight-chain alkyl groups are generated by removing a hydrogen from an end carbon, branched alkyl groups are generated by removing a hydrogen atom from an internal carbon. Two 3-carbon alkyl groups and four 4-carbon alkyl groups are possible (FIGURE 3.4).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=321&width=340&top_left_y=208&top_left_x=497)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=182&width=236&top_left_y=218&top_left_x=912)
$\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \frac{?}{2}$
Propyl
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=171&width=256&top_left_y=218&top_left_x=1233)
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m948hc3lbmhlrk" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,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"/>

Isopropyl
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=205&width=402&top_left_y=586&top_left_x=498)
$\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{3}$
Butane
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=311&width=279&top_left_y=899&top_left_x=565)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=188&width=294&top_left_y=589&top_left_x=937)
$\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2}$ 之
Butyl
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0077.jpg?height=245&width=234&top_left_y=954&top_left_x=897)
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Solution - 3.3 Alkyl Groups

FIGURE 3.4 Alkyl groups generated from straight-chain alkanes.
One further comment about naming alkyl groups: the prefixes sec- (for secondary) and tert- (for tertiary) used for the $\mathrm{C}_{4}$ alkyl groups in FIGURE 3.4 refer to the number of other carbon atoms attached to the branching carbon atom. There are four possibilities: primary $\left(1^{\circ}\right)$, secondary $\left(2^{\circ}\right)$, tertiary $\left(3^{\circ}\right)$, and quaternary $\left(4^{\circ}\right)$.
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Primary carbon ( $1^{\circ}$ )
is bonded to one other carbon.
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m9nnwf19di0rnq" 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Secondary carbon ( $\mathbf{2}^{\circ}$ ) is bonded to two other carbons.
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m9od0ocn9jzu57" 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Tertiary carbon ( $3^{\circ}$ ) is bonded to three other carbons.
<img class="imgSvg" id = "m6sn3m9pqfdjijc82s" 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Quaternary carbon (40) <br> is bonded to four -

other carbons.The symbol $\mathbf{R}$ is used here and throughout organic chemistry to represent a generalized organic group. The $R$ group can be methyl, ethyl, propyl, or any of a multitude of others. You might think of $\mathbf{R}$ as representing the Rest of the molecule, which isn't specified.


The terms primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary are routinely used in organic chemistry, and their meanings need to become second nature. For example, if we were to say, "Citric acid is a tertiary alcohol," we would mean that it has an alcohol functional group $(-\mathrm{OH})$ bonded to a carbon atom that is itself bonded to three other carbons.
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General class of tertiary alcohols, $\mathrm{R}_{3} \mathrm{COH}$
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Citric acid-a specific tertiary alcohol


In addition to speaking of carbon atoms as being primary, secondary, or tertiary, we speak of hydrogens in the same way. Primary hydrogen atoms are attached to primary carbons $\left(\mathrm{RCH}_{3}\right)$, secondary hydrogens are attached to secondary carbons $\left(\mathrm{R}_{2} \mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)$, and tertiary hydrogens are attached to tertiary carbons $\left(\mathrm{R}_{3} \mathrm{CH}\right)$. There is, however, no such thing as a quaternary hydrogen. (Why not?)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0078.jpg?height=354&width=895&top_left_y=384&top_left_x=615)


PROBLEM Draw the eight 5-carbon alkyl groups (pentyl isomers). 3-7


PROBLEM Identify the hydrogen atoms on the compounds shown in Problem 3-8 as primary, secondary, or 3-9 tertiary.


PROBLEM Draw structures of alkanes that meet the following descriptions:
3-10 (a) An alkane with two tertiary carbons (b) An alkane that contains an isopropyl group
(c) An alkane that has one quaternary and one secondary carbon


Quaternary carbon (40) <br> is bonded to four - 3.4 Naming Alkanes

In earlier times, when relatively few pure organic chemicals were known, new compounds were named at the whim of their discoverer. Thus, urea $\left(\mathrm{CH}_{4} \mathrm{~N}_{2} \mathrm{O}\right)$ is a crystalline substance isolated from urine; morphine $\left(\mathrm{C}_{17} \mathrm{H}_{19} \mathrm{NO}_{3}\right)$ is an analgesic (painkiller) named after Morpheus, the Greek god of dreams; and acetic acid, the primary organic constituent of vinegar, is named from the Latin word for vinegar, acetum.


As the science of organic chemistry slowly grew in the 19th century, so too did the number of known compounds and the need for a systematic method of naming them. The system of naming (nomenclature) we'll use in this book is that devised by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC, usually spoken as eye-you-pac).


A chemical name typically has four parts in the IUPAC system: parent, prefix, locant, and suffix. The parent name identifies the main part of the molecule and tells how many carbon atoms are in that part. Prefixes identify the various substituent groups attached to the parent. Locants give the positions of the attached substituents. And the suffix identifies the primary functional group attached to the parent.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-0078.jpg?height=183&width=1128&top_left_y=2012&top_left_x=496)


As we cover new functional groups in later chapters, the applicable IUPAC rules of nomenclature will be given. In addition, Appendix $A$ at the back of this book gives an overall view of organic nomenclature and shows how compounds that contain more than one functional group are named. (If preferred, you can study that appendix now.) For the present, let's see how to name branched-chain alkanes and learn some general rules that are applicable to all compounds.


All but the most complex branched-chain alkanes can be named by following four steps. For a very few compounds, a fifth step is needed.


STEP 1 -