Dermabond <br> (2-ethylhexyl $\alpha$-cyanoacrylate) - 31.2 Stereochemistry of Polymerization: Ziegler-Natta Catalysts

Although we didn't point it out when discussing chain-growth polymers in Section 8.10, the polymerization of a substituted vinyl monomer can lead to a polymer with numerous chirality centers in its chain. Propylene, for example, might polymerize with any of the three stereochemical outcomes shown in FIGURE 31.2. A polymer with all methyl groups on the same side of the zigzag backbone is called isotactic, one in which the methyl groups alternate regularly on opposite sides of the backbone is called syndiotactic, and one with its methyl groups randomly oriented is called atactic.
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Isotactic (same side)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1117.jpg?height=216&width=836&top_left_y=407&top_left_x=639)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1117.jpg?height=150&width=833&top_left_y=668&top_left_x=638)
Atactic (random)
FIGURE 31.2 Isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic forms of polypropylene.


The three different stereochemical forms of polypropylene all have somewhat different properties, and all can be made by using the right polymerization catalyst. Propylene polymerization using radical initiators does not work well, but polymerization using Ziegler-Natta catalysts allows preparation of isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic polypropylene.


Ziegler-Natta catalysts-there are many different formulations-are organometallic transition-metal complexes prepared by treatment of an alkylaluminum with a titanium compound. Triethylaluminum with titanium tetrachloride is a typical preparation.


$$
\left(\mathrm{CH}_{3} \mathrm{CH}_{2}\right)_{3} \mathrm{Al}+\mathrm{TiCl}_{4} \rightarrow \text { A Ziegler-Natta catalyst }
$$


Following their introduction in 1953, Ziegler-Natta catalysts revolutionized the field of polymer chemistry because of two advantages: first, the resultant polymers are linear, with practically no chain branching, and second, they are stereochemically controllable. Isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic forms can all be produced, depending on the catalyst system used.


The active form of a Ziegler-Natta catalyst is an alkyltitanium intermediate with a vacant coordination site on the metal. Coordination of alkene monomer to the titanium occurs, and the coordinated alkene then inserts into the carbon-titanium bond to extend the alkyl chain. A new coordination site opens up during the insertion step, so the process repeats indefinitely.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1117.jpg?height=199&width=1251&top_left_y=1733&top_left_x=437)


The linear polyethylene produced by the Ziegler-Natta process, called high-density polyethylene, is a highly crystalline polymer with 4000 to 7000 ethylene units per chain and molecular weights in the range 100,000 to 200,000 amu. High-density polyethylene has greater strength and heat resistance than the branched product of radical-induced polymerization, called low-density polyethylene, and is used to produce plastic squeeze bottles and molded housewares.


Polyethylenes of even higher molecular weights are produced for specialty applications. So-called high-molecular-weight (HMW) polyethylene contains 10,000 to 18,000 monomer units per chain and molecular weights in the range of 300,000-500,000. It is used for underground pipes and large containers. Ultrahigh-molecular-weight (UHMW) polyethylene contains more than 100,000 monomer units per chain and has molecular weights ranging from $3,000,000$ to $6,000,000 \mathrm{amu}$. It is used in bearings, conveyor belts, and bulletproof vests, among other applications requiring exceptional wear resistance.


PROBLEM Vinylidene chloride, $\mathrm{H}_{2} \mathrm{C}=\mathrm{CCl}_{2}$, does not polymerize in isotactic, syndiotactic, and atactic forms.
31-4 Explain.
PROBLEM Polymers such as polypropylene contain a large number of chirality centers. Would you therefore
31-5 expect samples of isotactic, syndiotactic, or atactic polypropylene to rotate plane-polarized light? Explain.


Dermabond <br> (2-ethylhexyl $\alpha$-cyanoacrylate) - 31.3 Copolymers

Up to this point we've discussed only homopolymers-polymers that are made up of identical repeating units. In practice, however, copolymers are more important commercially. Copolymers are obtained when two or more different monomers are allowed to polymerize together. For example, copolymerization of vinyl chloride with vinylidene chloride (1,1-dichloroethylene) in a 1 : 4 ratio leads to the polymer Saran.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1118.jpg?height=262&width=858&top_left_y=712&top_left_x=631)


Copolymerization of monomer mixtures often leads to materials with properties quite different from those of either corresponding homopolymer, giving the polymer chemist a vast flexibility for devising new materials. TABLE 31.1 lists some common copolymers and their commercial applications.


TABLE 31.1 Some Common Copolymers and Their Uses


| Monomers | Structures | Trade name | Uses |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Vinyl chloride
 Vinylidene chloride | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1118.jpg?height=147&width=380&top_left_y=1265&top_left_x=576) | Saran | Fibers, food packaging |
| Styrene
 1,3-Butadiene | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1118.jpg?height=188&width=492&top_left_y=1453&top_left_x=576) | SBR (styrene-butadiene rubber) | Tires, rubber articles |
| Hexafluoropropene Vinylidene fluoride | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1118.jpg?height=147&width=390&top_left_y=1682&top_left_x=576) | Viton | Gaskets, seals |
| Acrylonitrile 1,3-Butadiene | <smiles>C=CC=C</smiles> | Nitrile rubber | Adhesives, hoses |


| Monomers | Structures | Trade name | Uses |
| :---: | :---: | :---: | :---: |
| Isobutylene Isoprene | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1119.jpg?height=189&width=479&top_left_y=338&top_left_x=576) | Butyl rubber | Inner tubes |
| Acrylonitrile 1,3-Butadiene Styrene | ![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1119.jpg?height=293&width=497&top_left_y=568&top_left_x=576) | ABS (monomer initials) | Pipes, high-impact applications |


Several different types of copolymers can be defined, depending on the distribution of monomer units in the chain. If monomer A is copolymerized with monomer B, for instance, the resultant product might have a random distribution of the two units throughout the chain, or it might have an alternating distribution.


$$
(A-A-A-B-A-B-B-A-B-A-A-A-B-B-B+
$$


Random copolymer -

$$
(A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B-A+
$$


Alternating copolymer -

The exact distribution of monomer units depends on the initial proportions of the two reactant monomers and their relative reactivities. In practice, neither perfectly random nor perfectly alternating copolymers are usually found. Most copolymers have many random imperfections.


Alternating copolymer -

Two other forms of copolymers that can be prepared under certain conditions are called block copolymers and graft copolymers. Block copolymers are those in which different blocks of identical monomer units alternate with each other; graft copolymers are those in which homopolymer branches of one monomer unit are "grafted" onto a homopolymer chain of another monomer unit.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1119.jpg?height=345&width=1189&top_left_y=1665&top_left_x=468)

Block copolymers are prepared by initiating the polymerization of one monomer as if growing a homopolymer chain and then adding an excess of the second monomer to the still-active reaction mix. Graft copolymers are made by gamma irradiation of a completed homopolymer chain in the presence of the second monomer. The high-energy irradiation knocks hydrogen atoms off the homopolymer chain at random points, thus generating new radical sites that can initiate polymerization of the added monomer.


Alternating copolymer -

PROBLEM Draw the structure of an alternating segment of butyl rubber, a copolymer of isoprene 31-6 (2-methyl-1,3-butadiene) and isobutylene (2-methylpropene) prepared using a cationic initiator.


Alternating copolymer -

PROBLEM Irradiation of poly(1,3-butadiene), followed by addition of styrene, yields a graft copolymer that 31-7 is used to make rubber soles for shoes. Draw the structure of a representative segment of this styrene-butadiene graft copolymer.


Alternating copolymer - 31.4 Step-Growth Polymers

Step-growth polymers are produced by reactions in which each bond in the polymer is formed stepwise, independently of the other bonds. Like the polyamides (nylons) and polyesters that we saw in Section 21.9, most step-growth polymers are produced by reaction between two difunctional reactants. The polymer Nylon 66, for instance, is made by reaction between the six-carbon adipic acid and the six-carbon hexamethylenediamine (1,6-hexanediamine). Alternatively, a single reactant with two different functional groups can polymerize. Nylon 6 is made by polymerization of the six-carbon caprolactam. The reaction is initiated by adding a small amount of water, which hydrolyzes some caprolactam to 6-aminohexanoic acid. Nucleophilic addition of the amino group to caprolactam then propagates the polymerization.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1120.jpg?height=435&width=874&top_left_y=628&top_left_x=333)


Nylon 66
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1120.jpg?height=289&width=1446&top_left_y=1162&top_left_x=337)


Caprolactam -


Polycarbonates -

Polycarbonates are like polyesters, but their carbonyl group is linked to two $-O R$ groups, $\left[\mathrm{O}=\mathrm{C}(\mathrm{OR})_{2}\right]$. Lexan, for instance, is a polycarbonate prepared from diphenyl carbonate and a diphenol called bisphenol A. Lexan has unusually high impact strength, making it valuable for use in machinery housings, telephones, bicycle safety helmets, and bulletproof glass.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1120.jpg?height=591&width=1242&top_left_y=1778&top_left_x=444)


Polyurethanes -

A urethane is a carbonyl-containing functional group in which the carbonyl carbon is bonded to both an -OR group and an $-\mathrm{NR}_{2}$ group. As such, a urethane is halfway between a carbonate and a urea.
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A carbonate
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A urethane
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Polyurethanes -

A urea


Polyurethanes -

A urethane is typically prepared by nucleophilic addition reaction of an alcohol with an isocyanate $(\mathrm{R}-\mathrm{N}=\mathrm{C}=\mathrm{O})$, so a polyurethane is prepared by reaction of a diol with a diisocyanate. The diol is usually a low-molecular-weight polymer (MW $\approx 1000 \mathrm{amu}$ ) with hydroxyl end-groups; the diisocyanate is often toluene-2,4-diisocyanate.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1121.jpg?height=207&width=1530&top_left_y=582&top_left_x=295)


Polyurethanes -

Toluene-2,4-diisocyanate
A polyurethane
Several different kinds of polyurethanes can be produced, depending on the nature of the polymeric alcohol used. One major use of polyurethane is in the stretchable spandex fibers used for bathing suits and athletic gear. These polyurethanes have a fairly low degree of cross-linking so that the resultant polymer is soft and elastic. A second major use of polyurethanes is in the foams used for insulation. Foaming occurs when a small amount of water is added during polymerization, giving a carbamic acid intermediate that spontaneously loses bubbles of $\mathrm{CO}_{2}$.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1121.jpg?height=250&width=1351&top_left_y=1127&top_left_x=384)


Polyurethanes -

Polyurethane foams are generally made using a polyalcohol rather than a diol as the monomer so that the polymer has a high amount of three-dimensional cross-linking. The result is a rigid but very light foam suitable for use as thermal insulation in building construction and portable ice chests.


Polyurethanes -

PROBLEM Poly(ethylene terephthalate), or PET, is a polyester used to make soft-drink bottles. It is prepared
31-8 by reaction of ethylene glycol with 1,4-benzenedicarboxylic acid (terephthalic acid). Draw the structure of PET.


Polyurethanes -

PROBLEM Show the mechanism of the nucleophilic addition reaction of an alcohol with an isocyanate to yield 31-9 a urethane.


Polyurethanes - 31.5 Olefin Metathesis Polymerization

Perhaps the most important advance in polymer synthesis in recent years has been the development of olefin metathesis polymerization by Yves Chauvin of the Institut Français du Pétrole, Robert H. Grubbs of CalTech, and Richard R.Schrock of MIT who shared the 2005 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work. At its simplest, an olefin metathesis reaction is two olefins (alkenes) exchanging substituents on their double bonds.


An olefin metathesis reaction -


An olefin metathesis reaction -

Olefin metathesis catalysts, such as the Grubbs catalyst now in common use, contain a carbon-metal double
bond (usually to ruthenium, Ru ) and have the general structure $\mathrm{M}=\mathrm{CH}-\mathrm{R}$. They function by reacting reversibly with an alkene to form a four-membered, metal-containing intermediate called a metallacycle, which immediately opens to give a different catalyst and a different alkene. The mechanism is shown in FIGURE 31.3.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1122.jpg?height=185&width=738&top_left_y=341&top_left_x=653)


Initiation -


Initiation -

FIGURE 31.3 Mechanism of the olefin metathesis reaction. The process is initiated by a two-step sequence that involves (1) reaction of the catalyst and olefin 1 to give a four-membered metallacycle intermediate, followed by (2) ring-opening to give a different form of catalyst that contains part of olefin 1. (3) Reaction of this new catalyst with olefin 2 gives another metallacycle intermediate, (4) which opens to give metathesis product and another form of catalyst. $(5,6)$ The repeating ring-forming and ring-opening steps then continue.


Initiation -

There are several methods for implementing the olefin metathesis reaction to prepare polymers. One method, called ring-opening metathesis polymerization, or ROMP, involves the use of a moderately strained cycloalkene, such as cyclopentene. The strain of the ring favors ring-opening, thereby driving formation of the open-chain product. The polymer that results has double bonds spaced regularly along the chain, allowing for either hydrogenation or further functionalization if desired.


Ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) -


A second method of using olefin metathesis to prepare polymers is by acyclic diene metathesis, or ADMET. As the name suggests, ADMET involves olefin metathesis of an open-chain substrate with two double bonds at the ends of a long chain, such as 1,8-nonadiene. As the reaction proceeds, the gaseous ethylene by-product
escapes, thereby driving the equilibrium toward polymer product. So efficient is this reaction that polymers with molecular weights as high as $80,000 \mathrm{amu}$ have been prepared.


Acyclic diene metathesis (ADMET)
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1123.jpg?height=592&width=1427&top_left_y=363&top_left_x=338)


The ROMP and ADMET procedures are particularly valuable because the metathesis reaction is compatible with the presence in the olefin monomer of many different functional groups. In addition, the double bonds in the polymers provide still more flexibility for further manipulations. Among the commercial polymers produced by olefin metathesis are Vestenamer, used in the manufacture of tires and other molded rubber objects, and Norsorex, used in the automobile industry as a sealing material.
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Vestenamer
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Norsorex


PROBLEM Look at the structures of Vestenamer and Norsorex and show how they might be made by olefin 31-10 metathesis polymerization.


Ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) - 31.6 Intramolecular Olefin Metathesis

The olefin metathesis reaction has been used primarily as an intermolecular process for polymer synthesis, but it is also finding increased usage in complex organic synthesis as an intramolecular process in what is called ring-closing metathesis (RCM). The optimum catalyst is an $\mathrm{Ru}(\mathrm{II})$ complex, and cyclic alkenes with up to 30 atoms in ring size are easily produced.
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1123.jpg?height=323&width=1351&top_left_y=1752&top_left_x=387)


Ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP) - 31.7 Polymer Structure and Physical Properties

Polymers aren't really that different from other organic molecules. They're much larger, of course, but their chemistry is similar to that of analogous small molecules. Thus, the alkane chains of polyethylene undergo radical-initiated halogenation, the aromatic rings of polystyrene undergo typical electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions, and the amide linkages of nylon are hydrolyzed by aqueous base.


The major difference between small and large organic molecules is in their physical properties. For instance, their large size means that polymers experience substantially greater van der Waals forces than do small molecules (Section 2.12). But because van der Waals forces operate only at close distances, they are strongest in polymers like high-density polyethylene, in which chains can pack together closely in a regular way. Many
polymers, in fact, have regions that are essentially crystalline. These regions, called crystallites, consist of highly ordered portions in which the zigzag polymer chains are held together by van der Waals forces (FIGURE 31.4).
![](https://cdn.mathpix.com/cropped/2025_02_06_5556f7656cbdcaa0f9a7g-1124.jpg?height=741&width=874&top_left_y=340&top_left_x=623)


FIGURE 31.4 Crystallites in linear polyethylene. The long polymer chains are arranged in parallel lines in the crystallite regions.
As you might expect, polymer crystallinity is strongly affected by the steric requirements of substituent groups on the chains. Linear polyethylene is highly crystalline, but poly(methyl methacrylate) is noncrystalline because the chains can't pack closely together in a regular way. Polymers with a high degree of crystallinity are generally hard and durable. When heated, the crystalline regions melt at the melt transition temperature, $\boldsymbol{T}_{\mathbf{m}}$, to give an amorphous material.


Noncrystalline, amorphous polymers like poly(methyl methacrylate), sold under the trade name Plexiglas, have little or no long-range ordering among chains but can nevertheless be very hard at room temperature. When heated, the hard amorphous polymer becomes soft and flexible at a point called the glass transition temperature, $\boldsymbol{T}_{\mathbf{g}}$. Much of the art in polymer synthesis lies in finding methods for controlling the degree of crystallinity and the glass transition temperature, thereby imparting useful properties to the polymer.