Kaluga
Kaluga was used in the 14th century as a stronghold against the Tatar people on the southern borders of Muscovy. It later became a seat of provincial administration. In the early 17th century it was devastated by Cossacks, plague, and fire, and in the winter of 1941 it was held by the Germans. It has a wide range of industries, producing turbines, railway equipment, and consumer goods. The city is on the Vyazma–Tula railway near its junction with the Moscow–Kiev line.