Forts in India
Ancient Indian forts, primarily found in shastras and stupa reliefs, were characterized by crenellations, embrasures, and sloping walls. The Arthashastra, an Indian treatise on military strategy, identifies six major types of forts based on their defense modes: Jala-durga (water fort), Antardvipa-durga (island fortress), Sthala-durga (plain fortress), Dhanvana- or Maru-durga (Desert Fort), Giri-durga (Hill fort), Prantara-durga (flat hill summit), Giri-parshva-durga (fortifications and civilian structures extend down to the hill slope), Guha-durga (valley surrounded by hills), Vana-durga (forest fort), Khanjana-durga (built on a fen surrounded by thorny forests), Sthambha-durga (built in the forest among tall trees), Mahi-durga (earthen fort), Parigha-durga (surrounded by earthen walls), Panka-durga (surrounded by fens or quicksand), and Niri-durga (Human fort). Each type had its own advantages and disadvantages.