Alternative DSM-5 Model for Personality Disorders 763
facets, based on meta-analytic reviews and empi rical data on the relationships of the traits
to DSM-IV personality disorder diagnoses.
Criteria C and D: Perv asiveness and Stability
Impairments in personality functioning an d pathological pers onality traits are relatively  per-
vasive across a range of personal and social contexts, as personality is defined as a pattern of
perceiving, relating to, and thinking about the environm ent and oneself. The term relatively
reflects the fact that all except the most extr emely pathological personalities show some de-
gree of adaptability. The pattern in personality disorders is maladaptive and relatively inflex-
ible, which leads to disabilities in social, o ccupational, or other important pursuits, as
individuals are unable to modify their thinking or behavior, even in th e face of evidence that
their approach is not working. The impairments in functioning and personality traits are also
relatively  stable. Personality traits—the dispositions  to behave or feel in certain ways—are
more stable than the symptomatic expressions of  these dispositions, but personality traits can
also change. Impairments in personality fu nctioning are more stable than symptoms.
Criteria E, F, and G: Al ternative Explanations for 
Personality Pathology (D ifferential Diagnosis)
On some occasions, what appears to be a pe rsonality disorder may be better explained by
another mental disorder, the effects of a subs tance or another medica l condition, or a nor-
mal developmental stage (e.g., adolescence, late  life) or the individu al’s sociocultural en-
vironment. When another ment al disorder is present, the diagnosis of a personality
disorder is not made, if the manifestations of  the personality disorder clearly are an ex-