that the individual feels is de served, with the behavior induci ng a pleasant and relaxed state
or generating attention and help from a signific ant other, or as an expression of anger. Neg-
ative reinforcement results from affect regula tion and the reduction of unpleasant emotions
or avoiding distressing thoughts, including th inking about suicide. In the second theory,
nonsuicidal self-injury is thought to be a form of self-punishment, in which self-punitive ac-
tions are engaged in to make up for acts that caused distress or harm to others.