tion, family dysfunction, parental separation or  death); cultural charac teristics (e.g., fatal-
istic or self-blaming coping strategies); lower intelligence; minority racial/ethnic status;
and a family psychiatric history. Social suppo rt prior to event exposure is protective.
Genetic and physiological. These include female gender and younger age at the time of
trauma exposure (for adults). Certain genotypes may either be  protective or increase risk
of PTSD after exposure  to traumatic events.