Other Specified Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct Disorder 479
Risk and Prognostic Factors
Genetic and physiological. There are no controlled family history studies of kleptoma-
nia. However, first-degree relatives of in dividuals with klepto mania may have higher
rates of obsessive-compulsive disorder than the general population. There also appears to
be a higher rate of substance use disorders, including alcohol use disorder, in relatives of
individuals with kleptomania than in the general population. 
Functional Consequenc es of Kleptomania
The disorder may cause legal, family , career, and personal difficulties.
Differential Diagnosis
Ordinary theft. Kleptomania should be distinguishe d from ordinary acts of theft or
shoplifting. Ordinary theft (whether planned or impulsive) is deliberate and is motivated
by the usefulness of the object or its monetary  worth. Some individuals, especially adoles-
cents, may also steal on a dare, as an act of re bellion, or as a rite of passage. The diagnosis
is not made unless other characteristic featur es of kleptomania are also present. Klepto-
mania is exceedingly rare, whereas sh oplifting is relatively common. 
Malingering. In malingering, individuals may simulate the symptoms of kleptomania to
avoid criminal prosecution. 
Antisocial personality disorder and conduct disorder. Antisocial personality disorder
and conduct disorder are distinguished from kleptomania by a general pattern of antiso-
cial behavior. 
Manic episodes, psychotic episodes, and major neurocognitive disorder. Kleptomania
should be distinguished from intentional or inadvertent stealing that may occur during a
manic episode, in response to delusions or ha llucinations (as in, e.g. , schizophrenia), or as