Risk and Prognostic Factors 
Environmental. Sexual and/or physical abuse have often been cited as predictors of the
DSM-IV-defined sexual pain di sorders dyspareunia and vaginismus. This is a matter of con-
troversy in the current literature.
Genetic and physiological. Women experiencing superficial pain during sexual inter-
course often report the onset of the pain after a history of vaginal infections. Even after the in-
fections have resolved and there are no known residual physical findings, the pain persists.
Pain during tampon insertion or the inability to  insert tampons before any sexual contact has
been attempted is an importan t risk factor for genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder.
Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues 
In the past, inadequate sexual education and religious orthodoxy have often been consid-
ered to be culturally related predisposing fa ctors to the DSM-IV diagnosis of vaginismus.
This perception appears to be confirmed by recent reports from Turkey, a primarily Mus-
lim country, indicating a strikingly high prev alence for the disorder. However, most avail-
able research, although limited in scope, does  not support this notion (Lahaie et al. 2010). 
Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues
By definition, the diagnosis of  genito-pelvic pain/penetration  disorder is only given to
women. There is relatively new research concerning urological chronic pelvic pain syn-
drome in men, suggesting that men may expe rience some similar problems. The research
and clinical experience are not sufficiently de veloped yet to justify the application of this
diagnosis to men. Other specified sexual dy sfunction or unspecified sexual dysfunction
may be diagnosed in men appearing to fit this pattern.
Functional Consequences of 
Genito-Pelvic Pain/Penetration Disorder