Temperamental. Behavioral inhibition and neurotic disposition (i.e., negative affectivity
[neuroticism] and anxiety sensit ivity) are closely associated with agoraphobia but are rel-
evant to most anxiety disorders (phobic disord ers, panic disorder, generalized anxiety dis-
order). Anxiety sensitivity (t he disposition to believe that symptoms of anxiety are
harmful) is also characteristic of individuals with agoraphobia.
Environmental. Negative events in childhood (e.g., se paration, death of parent) and other
stressful events, such as being attacked or mugge d, are associated with the onset of agorapho-
bia. Furthermore, individuals with agoraphobia describe the family climate and child-rearing
behavior as being characterized by redu ced warmth and increased overprotection.
Genetic and physiological. Heritability for agoraphobia is 61%. Of the various phobias,
agoraphobia has the strongest and most specific association with the genetic factor that
represents proneness to phobias. 
Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues
Females have different patterns of comorbid disorders than males. Consistent with gender
differences in the prevalence of mental diso rders, males have higher rates of comorbid
substance use disorders. 
Functional Consequences of Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia is associated with considerable  impairment and disability in terms of role
functioning, work productivity, and disability days. Agoraphobia severity is a strong de-
terminant of the degree of disab ility, irrespective of the pres ence of comorbid panic disor-
der, panic attacks, and other comorbid cond itions. More than one- third of individuals
with agoraphobia are completely homebound and unable to work. 
Differential Diagnosis