text: Detection and analysis of nucleic acid molecules are among the most important techniques in biology. Such techniques are at the heart of molecular biology and play a rapidly expanding role in the rest of biology.
  Generally, one type of analysis of nucleic acid reactions involves separation of nucleic acid molecules based on length. For example, one widely used technique, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,683,195, 4,683,202, and 4,800,159) has become a widely utilized technique to both identify sequences present in a sample and to synthesize DNA molecules for further manipulation.
  Briefly, in PCR, DNA sequences are amplified by enzymatic reaction that synthesizes new DNA strands in either a geometric or linear fashion. Following amplification, the DNA sequences must be detected and identified. Because of non-specific amplifications, which would otherwise confuse analysis, or the need for purity, the PCR reaction products are generally subjected to separation prior to detection. Separation based on the size (i.e., length) of the products yields the most useful information. The method giving the highest resolution of nucleic acid molecules is electrophoretic separation. In this method, each individual PCR reaction is applied to an appropriate gel and subjected to a voltage potential. The number of samples that can be processed is limited by the number of wells in the gel. On most gel apparatus, from approximately 10 to 64 samples can be separated in a single gel. Thus, processing large numbers of samples is both labor and material intensive.
  Electrophoretic separation must be coupled with some detection system in order to obtain data. Detection systems of nucleic acids commonly, and almost exclusively, utilize an intercalating dye or radioactive label, and less frequently, a non-radioactive label. Intercalating dyes, such as ethidium bromide, are simple to use. The dye is included in the gel matrix during electrophoresis or, following electrophoresis, the gel is soaked in a dye-containing solution. The dye can be directly visualized in some cases, but more often, and for ethidium bromide in particular, is excited by light (e.g., UV) to fluoresce. In spite of this apparent ease of use, such dyes have some notable disadvantages. First, the dyes are insensitive and there must be a large mass amount of nucleic acid molecules in order to visualize the products. Second, the dyes are typically mutagenic or carcinogenic.
  A more sensitive detection technique than dyes uses a radioactive (or nonradioactive) label. Typically, either a radiolabeled nucleotide or a radiolabeled primer is included in the PCR reaction. Following separation, the radiolabel is “visualized” by autoradiography. Although more sensitive, the detection suffers from film limitations, such as reciprocity failure and non-linearity. These limitations can be overcome by detecting the label by phosphor image analysis. However, radiolabels have safety requirements, increasing resource utilization and necessitating specialized equipment and personnel training. For such reasons, the use of nonradioactive labels has been increasing in popularity. In such systems, nucleotides contain a label, such as a fluorophore, biotin or digoxin, which can be detected by an antibody or other molecule (e.g., other member of a ligand pair) that is labeled with an enzyme reactive with a chromogenic substrate. These systems do not have the safety concerns as described above, but use components that are often labile and may yield nonspecific reactions, resulting in high background (i.e., low signal-to-noise ratio).
  The present invention provides novel compositions and methods which may be utilized in a wide variety of nucleic acid reactions, and further provides other related advantages.