text: [Career structure and advancement in cardiology in Italy. The Group for the Study of the Italian Status of Cardiologists].
  Women are less present on the labor market and many studies have demonstrated the existence of gender differences regarding the participation rate and career advancement of women. The processes through which job-, career- and research-related choices are structured within the realm of Italian cardiology is described in this study, emphasizing the effects of productivity, gender and family commitments. In June of 1996, a questionnaire was mailed to all members of the Italian societies of cardiology. It included mainly (pre-coded) set-choice questions concerning individual characteristics, career-related data and information pertaining to teaching, scientific and research activity. Returned questionnaires numbered 1715 (21.4% of the total mailed), with 83% completed by males and 17% by females. For both hospital and academic careers, advancement in rank was influenced by variables denoting productivity, family and individual characteristics. Promotion to the upper ranks of the hierarchy was highly dependent upon time (once the effects of the covariates were eliminated). This is a situation that is typical of the internal labor market or in other words, of an institution in which staff members are ranked on a hierarchical scale according to formal criteria that are "rigid" and institutionalized, partially or totally sheltered from competition. Therefore, once a member has gained access to the first level of the hierarchy, his/her professional career is pre-determined to a certain extent and seniority ends up taking on importance in promotion decisions to an appreciable extent; in this field, the weight of seniority on promotion ranges between 30 and 50%.