These electrons are not associated with specific atoms , so when an electric field is applied , they are free to move like a gas ( called Fermi gas ) through the material much like free electrons .


In BCS theory , pairs of electrons called Cooper pairs have their motion coupled to nearby matter via lattice vibrations called phonons , thereby avoiding the collisions with atoms that normally create electrical resistance .


In Naqada II times , early evidence exists of contact with the Near East , particularly Canaan and the Byblos coast .


As they interact with the medium , they generate a faint light called Cherenkov radiation .


For example , the Stanford linear accelerator can accelerate an electron to roughly 51 " GeV .


This is given by " λ " " = " " h " / " p " where " h " is the Planck constant and " p " is the momentum .


According to classical physics , these massive stellar objects exert a gravitational attraction that is strong enough to prevent anything , even electromagnetic radiation , from escaping past the Schwarzschild radius .


The increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos , which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death .


The development of the Paul trap and Penning trap allows charged particles to be contained within a small region for long durations .


" Carbon " ( from " coal " ) is a chemical element with the symbol " C " and atomic number 6 .


Carbon makes up only about 0.025 percent of Earth ’s crust .


Graphite is soft enough to form a streak on paper ( hence its name , from the Greek verb " γράφειν " which means " to write " ) , while diamond is the hardest naturally occurring material known .


With the rising importance of central administration in Egypt a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services .


This carbyne is of considerable interest to nanotechnology as its Young 's modulus is 40 times that of the hardest known material " – diamond .


In 2014 NASA announced a [ http://www.astrochem.org/pahdb/ greatly upgraded database ] for tracking polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAHs ) in the universe .


Most diamond deposits are in Africa , notably in South Africa , Namibia , Botswana , the Republic of the Congo , and Sierra Leone .


Diamonds are now also being recovered from the ocean floor off the Cape of Good Hope .


Scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of Egypt , and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration .


The exotic C exhibits a nuclear halo , which means its radius is appreciably larger than would be expected if the nucleus were a sphere of constant density .


A wide range of such compounds exist ; major classes include simple alkyl-metal compounds ( for example , tetraethyllead ) , η-alkene compounds ( for example , Zeise 's salt ) , and η-allyl compounds ( for example , allylpalladium chloride dimer ) ; metallocenes containing cyclopentadienyl ligands ( for example , ferrocene ) ; and transition metal carbene complexes .


The cation [ ( PhPAu ) C ] contains an octahedral carbon bound to six phosphine-gold fragments .


The English name " carbon " comes from the Latin " carbo " for coal and charcoal , whence also comes the French " charbon " , meaning charcoal .


They and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into Egypt , most notably the composite bow and the horse-drawn chariot .


In 1722 , René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur demonstrated that iron was transformed into steel through the absorption of some substance , now known to be carbon .


In 1779 , Carl Wilhelm Scheele showed that graphite , which had been thought of as a form of lead , was instead identical with charcoal but with a small admixture of iron , and that it gave " aerial acid " ( his name for carbon dioxide ) when oxidized with nitric acid .


Some iron again was left , which the French scientists thought was necessary to the graphite structure .


In their publication they proposed the name " carbone " ( Latin " carbonum " ) for the element in graphite which was given off as a gas upon burning graphite .


After years of vassalage , Thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years , until 1555BC .


Commercially viable natural deposits of graphite occur in many parts of the world , but the most important sources economically are in China , India , Brazil and North Korea .


Historically diamonds were known to be found only in alluvial deposits in southern India .


Diamond production of primary deposits ( kimberlites and lamproites ) only started in the 1870 s after the discovery of the diamond fields in South Africa .


In 2004 , a startling discovery of a microscopic diamond in the United States led to the January 2008 bulk-sampling of kimberlite pipes in a remote part of Montana .


A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th centuryBC , but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians .


Australia has the richest diamantiferous pipe with production reaching peak levels of per year in the 1990 s .


Carbon black was probably one of the first pigments to be used for tattooing , and Ötzi the Iceman was found to have carbon tattoos that survived during his life and for 5200 " years after his death .


In nuclear applications where graphite is used as a neutron moderator , accumulation of Wigner energy followed by a sudden , spontaneous release may occur .


Annealing to at least 250 " °C can release the energy safely , although in the Windscale fire the procedure went wrong , causing other reactor materials to combust .


Following its annexation by Persia , Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire .


This element also has 8 meta states , with the most stable being Eu ( " t " = 12.8 hours ) , Eu ( " t " = 9.3116 hours ) and Eu ( " t " = 96 minutes ) .


No europium-dominant minerals are known yet , despite a single find of a tiny possible Eu–O or Eu–O–C system phase in the Moon 's regolith .


Divalent europium ( Eu ) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite ( CaF ) .


For instance , astronomers in 2019 identified higher-than-expected levels of europium within the star J1124 + 4535 , hypothesizing that this star originated in a dwarf galaxy that collided with the Milky Way billions of years ago .


From the mid-first century AD , Christianity took root in Egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted .


Three oxides are known : europium ( II ) oxide ( EuO ) , europium ( III ) oxide ( EuO ) , and the mixed-valence oxide EuO , consisting of both Eu ( II ) and Eu ( III ) .


William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements including those eventually assigned to europium .


However , the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène-Anatole Demarçay , who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901 ; he then named it " europium " .


The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy , who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry .


This led to the persecution of converts to Christianity , culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 , but eventually Christianity won out .


Co-doping of optical fiber with Er and Yb is used in high-power Er / Yb fiber lasers .


At constant temperature and pressure , one must consider the Gibbs free energy , " G " , while at constant temperature and volume , one must consider the Helmholtz free energy , " A " , for the reaction ; and at constant internal energy and volume , one must consider the entropy , " S " , for the reaction .


Obtaining the value of the standard Gibbs energy change , allows the calculation of the equilibrium constant .


The effect of electric field on equilibrium has been studied by Manfred Eigen among others .


Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed .


In terms of combinations , , which is the sum of the " n " th row ( counting from 0 ) of the binomial coefficients in Pascal 's triangle .


Einsteinium was discovered as a component of the debris of the first hydrogen bomb explosion in 1952 , and named after Albert Einstein .


Einsteinium-254 was used as the calibration marker in the chemical analysis spectrometer ( " alpha-scattering surface analyzer " ) of the Surveyor 5 lunar probe .


For instance , NASA has extremely rigorous software testing procedures for many operating systems and communication functions .


As a consequence , Egypt 's native religious culture was continually in decline .


This enables many people who work at NASA to check and evaluate functional systems overall .


Companies like Oracle and Microsoft provide their own APIs so that many applications are written using their software libraries that usually have numerous APIs in them .


Software standard organizations like the W3C , IETF develop recommended software standards such as XML , HTTP and HTML , so that software can interoperate through these standards .


Other well-known large software companies include Google , IBM , TCS , Infosys , Wipro , HCL Technologies , Oracle , Novell , SAP , Symantec , Adobe Systems , Sidetrade and Corel , while small companies often provide innovation .


During the fifth centuryBC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad .


One approach popular for requirements analysis is Use Case analysis .


Methods of measuring programming language popularity include : counting the number of job advertisements that mention the language , the number of books sold and courses teaching the language ( this overestimates the importance of newer languages ) , and estimates of the number of existing lines of code written in the language ( this underestimates the number of users of business languages such as COBOL ) .


For example , COBOL is still strong in corporate data centers often on large mainframe computers , Fortran in engineering applications , scripting languages in Web development , and C in embedded software .


New languages are generally designed around the syntax of a prior language with new functionality added , ( for example C ++ adds object-orientation to C , and Java adds memory management and bytecode to C ++ , but as a result , loses efficiency and the ability for low-level manipulation ) .


Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt , known as the " white kilt class " in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank .


Boethius engages questions such as the nature of predestination and free will , why evil men often prosper and good men fall into ruin , human nature , virtue , and justice .


Boethius repeats the Macrobius model of the Earth in the center of a spherical cosmos .


The book is heavily influenced by Plato and his dialogues ( as was Boethius himself ) .


In the course of the text , Boethius displays a virtuosic command of the forms of Latin poetry .


It is unclear whether slavery as understood today existed in ancient Egypt , there is difference of opinions among authors .


In 1998 , he also succeeded Theo Waigel as chairman of the CSU .


The SPD had mounted a huge comeback , and the CDU / CSU was narrowly defeated ( though both the SPD and CDU / CSU had 38.5 % of the vote , the SPD was ahead by a small 6,000 vote margin , winning 251 seats to the CDU / CSU 's 248 ) .


The election was one of modern Germany 's closest votes .


This was the widest margin ever achieved by a German party in any state .


Ore-bearing rock formations were found in distant , inhospitable wadis in the Eastern Desert and the Sinai , requiring large , state-controlled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there .


However , on 1 November 2005 , he announced his decision to stay in Bavaria , due to personnel changes on the SPD side of the coalition ( Franz Müntefering resigned as SPD chairman ) and an unsatisfactory apportionment of competences between himself and designated Science minister Annette Schavan .


When the European Commission recommended that Greece be allowed to join the eurozone in 1998 , he demanded that the country be barred from adopting the common currency for several years instead .


He enjoys considerably more support in his home state of Bavaria than in the rest of Germany , where CDU chairwoman Angela Merkel is more popular .


After he left office , the German federal government abandoned the plans in 2008 because of spiraling costs of as much as € 3.4 billion .


There were extensive gold mines in Nubia , and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region .


The tone of the comments was exacerbated by a perception by some within Germany of the state of Bavaria as " arrogant " .


Croatia was seeking to join the European Union at the time .


The central bank 's board later reviewed and accepted BayernLB 's offer of 1.6 billion euros .


The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite , greywacke , and gold .


The film features an international cast of actors of Chinese ethnicity , including Chow Yun-fat , Michelle Yeoh , Zhang Ziyi and Chang Chen .


Only Zhang Ziyi spoke with a native Mandarin accent that Ang Lee wanted .


A direct-to-television sequel to the film , " Crouching Tiger , Hidden Dragon : Sword of Destiny " , was released in 2016 .


It features a mostly new cast , headed by Donnie Yen .


Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools , and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley .


The names of the pterosaur genus " Kryptodrakon " and the ceratopsian genus " Yinlong " ( both meaning " hidden dragon " in Greek and Mandarin respectively ) allude to the film .


It is located south-west of Leipzig , south-west of Berlin , north of Munich and north-east of Frankfurt .


The city is situated on the Via Regia , a medieval trade and pilgrims ' road network .


480 and gave their name to Thuringia ca .


Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper , both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze .


In 1379 , the University of Erfurt was founded .


In 1507 he was ordained as a priest in Erfurt Cathedral .


He moved permanently to Wittenberg in 1511 .


In 1952 , the in the GDR were dissolved in favour of centralization under the new socialist government .


In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials , Egypt mainly exported grain , gold , linen , and papyrus , in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects .


With the re-formation of the state of Thuringia in 1990 , the city became the state capital .


To the east and to the west are some non-forested hills so that the Gera river valley within the town forms a basin .


Due to the official atheism of the former GDR , most of the population is non-religious .


The theologian , philosopher and mystic Meister Eckhart ( c .


It has the second longest known history of any language ( after Sumerian ) , having been written from c .


The city is the birthplace of one of Johann Sebastian Bach 's cousins , Johann Bernhard Bach , as well as Johann Sebastian Bach 's father Johann Ambrosius Bach .


Public green spaces are located along Gera river and in several parks like the " , the " and the " .


The city centre has about 25 churches and monasteries , most of them in Gothic style , some also in Romanesque style or a mixture of Romanesque and Gothic elements , and a few in later styles .


They built their synagogue on the banks of the Gera river and used it from 1840 until 1884 .


During this period , the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography , such as those of Harkhuf and Weni .


It was the only synagogue building erected under communist rule in East Germany .


The Schmale Gera stream runs through the area .


The " Bauhaus " style is represented by some housing cooperative projects in the east around and and in the north around .


After 1945 , the companies were nationalized by the GDR government , which led to the decline of some of them .


Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus , a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests .


Born into a musical family and raised in the Irish-speaking area of Gweedore in County Donegal , Enya began her music career when she joined her family 's Celtic folk band Clannad in 1980 on keyboards and backing vocals .


Enya developed her sound over the following four years with multitracked vocals and keyboards with elements of new age , Celtic , classical , church , and folk music .


The commercial and critical success of " Watermark " ( 1988 ) propelled her to worldwide fame , helped by the international top-10 hit single " Orinoco Flow " .


This was followed by the multi-million-selling albums " Shepherd Moons " ( 1991 ) , " The Memory of Trees " ( 1995 ) and " A Day Without Rain " ( 2000 ) .


Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk .


A Day Without Rain " ( 2000 ) remains the best-selling new-age album , with an estimated 16 million copies sold worldwide .


It is a Gaeltacht region where Irish is the primary language .


Enya described her upbringing as " very quiet and happy .


Enya looked back on the project as a good career move , but a disappointing one as " we were n't part of it at the end " .


Juggling and ball games were popular with children , and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan .


Enya started work on her fifth studio album , titled " A Day Without Rain " , in mid-1998 .


In a departure from her previous albums she incorporated the use of a string section into her compositions , something that was not a conscious decision at first , but Enya and Nicky Ryan agreed it complemented the songs that were being written .


In 2001 , Enya agreed to write and perform on two tracks for the soundtrack of " The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring " ( 2001 ) at the request of director Peter Jackson .


Its composer Howard Shore " imagined her voice " as he wrote the film 's score , making an uncommon exception to include another artist in one of his soundtracks .


The excavation of the workers ' village of Deir el-Medina has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world , which spans almost four hundred years .


The album is formed of tracks spanning her career from " Enya " to " A Day Without Rain " with two B-sides .


November 2002 saw the release of " Only Time – The Collection " , a box set of 51 tracks recorded through her career which received a limited release of 200,000 copies .


The lead single , " Amarantine " , was released in December 2005 .


, Enya took an extended break from writing and recording music .


The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes , such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia .


In 2012 , Enya returned to the studio to record her eighth album , " Dark Sky Island " .


Its name refers to the island of Sark , where it became the first island to be designated a dark-sky preserve , and a series of poems on islands by Roma Ryan .


The new album was promoted with the premiere in October 2015 of its lead single , " Echoes in Rain " , on Ken Bruce 's radio show and with the release in the same month of the single as a digital download .


The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period , and show a fully developed numeral system .


Since 1982 , she has recorded her music with Nicky Ryan as producer and arranger and his wife Roma Ryan as lyricist .


Enya performs all vocals and the majority of instruments in her songs apart from musicians to play percussion , guitar , uilleann pipes , cornet , and double bass .


Numerous critics and reviewers classify Enya 's albums as new age music and she has won four Grammy Awards in the category .


However , Enya does not classify her music as part of the genre .


The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world .


Enya adopted a composing and songwriting method that has deviated little throughout her career .


During her time writing , Enya works a five-day week , takes weekends off , and does not work on her music at home .


Since the 1980 s , Enya has attracted the attention of several stalkers .


In May 2005 , Enya applied to spend roughly £ 250,000 on security improvements , covering gaps in the castle 's outer wall and installing bollards and iron railings .


His onstage persona , that of an egotistical , narcissistic , nervous comic , an ironic showbiz insider who punctured himself before an audience by disassembling his mastery of comedic stagecraft , influenced other ' 70 s post-modern comedians , including Steve Martin , Martin Mull , and Andy Kaufman .


Formally , it was the Soviet sector of Berlin , established in 1945 .


Following a civic debate about whether the Ampelmännchen should be abolished or disseminated more widely ( due to concerns of consistency ) , several crosswalks in some parts of the former West Berlin also employ the Ampelmännchen .


He campaigned against the Saxons to his east , Christianising them upon penalty of death and leading to events such as the Massacre of Verden .


He married at least four times and had three legitimate sons who lived to adulthood , but only the youngest of them , Louis the Pious , survived to succeed him .


He had a cameo in the opening scene of " Twilight Zone : The Movie " , playing a driver whose passenger ( Dan Aykroyd ) has a shocking secret .


In many languages of Europe , the very word for " king " derives from his name ; e.g. , , , , , , , , , , , , , .


This development parallels that of the name of the Caesars in the original Roman Empire , which became " kaiser " and " tsar " ( or " czar " ) , among others .


After 737 , Charles governed the Franks in lieu of a king and declined to call himself " king " .


In 743 , the brothers placed Childeric III on the throne to curb separatism in the periphery .


In 2005 , his film " Looking for Comedy in the Muslim World " was dropped by Sony Pictures due to their desire to change the title .


The date of 742 - calculated from Einhard 's date of death of January 814 at age 72 - predates the marriage of his parents in 744 .


The month and day of 2 April are based on a calendar from Lorsch Abbey .


In 747 , Easter fell on 2 April , a coincidence that likely would have been remarked upon by chroniclers but was not .


If Easter was being used as the beginning of the calendar year , then 2 April 747 could have been , by modern reckoning , April 748 ( not on Easter ) .


Warner Independent Pictures purchased the film and gave it a limited release in January 2006 ; the film received mixed reviews and a low box office gross .


The Franks " in general assembly " ( " generali conventu " ) gave them both the rank of a king ( " reges " ) but " partitioned the whole body of the kingdom equally " ( " totum regni corpus ex aequo partirentur " ) .


The two " lords " ( " domni " ) were " elevated to kingship " ( " elevati sunt in regnum " ) , Charles on 9 October in Noyon , Carloman on an unspecified date in Soissons .


If born in 742 , Charles was 26 years old , but he had been campaigning at his father 's right hand for several years , which may help to account for his military skill .


It was the national star of the Shang Dynasty , and it was sometimes referred to as ( ) because of its reddish appearance .


The border with Aquitaine was at Toulouse .


As the Basques had no law of joint inheritance but relied on primogeniture , Lupus in effect founded a hereditary dynasty of Basque rulers of an expanded Aquitaine .


The Latin chronicles of the end of Visigothic Hispania omit many details , such as identification of characters , filling in the gaps and reconciliation of numerous contradictions .


Ibn al-Qūṭiyya , who had another , much longer name , must have been relying to some degree on family oral tradition .


However , they are not classified as " motor neuron diseases " by the 11th edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD-11 ) , which is the definition followed in this article .


The latter 's kingdom is securely placed to the northeast , while Roderic seems to have taken the rest , notably modern Portugal .


After the death of his father , Hunald I allied himself with free Lombardy .


His son Waifer took an early inheritance , becoming duke of Aquitaine and ratified the alliance with Lombardy .


However , the latter had married Liutperga , a daughter of Desiderius , king of Lombardy .


The name " abjad " ( " ) is derived from pronouncing the first letters of the Arabic alphabet order , in its original order .


Gascon lords also surrendered , and Aquitaine and Gascony were finally fully subdued by the Franks .


The repudiated Desiderata returned to her father 's court at Pavia .


Her father 's wrath was now aroused , and he would have gladly allied with Carloman to defeat Charles .


Before any open hostilities could be declared , however , Carloman died on 5 December 771 , apparently of natural causes .


The ordering ( " ) of Arabic letters used to match that of the older Phoenician , Hebrew and Semitic proto-alphabets : specifically , aleph , bet , gimel , dalet .


Nonetheless , he had only four legitimate grandsons , the four sons of his fourth son , Louis .


Among his descendants are several royal dynasties , including the Habsburg , Capetian and Plantagenet dynasties .


During the first peace of any substantial length ( 780 – 782 ) , Charles began to appoint his sons to positions of authority .


In 781 , during a visit to Rome , he made his two youngest sons kings , crowned by the Pope .


According to the formulations of Peter T. Daniels , abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants , not vowels , are represented among the basic graphemes .


He did not tolerate insubordination in his sons : in 792 , he banished Pepin the Hunchback to Prüm Abbey because the young man had joined a rebellion against him .


Charles was determined to have his children educated , including his daughters , as his parents had instilled the importance of learning in him at an early age .


He also fought the Saxons on multiple occasions .


He took Barcelona in a great siege in 797 .


Abjads differ from abugidas , another category defined by Daniels , in that in abjads , the vowel sound is " implied " by phonology , and where vowel marks exist for the system , such as nikkud for Hebrew and ḥarakāt for Arabic , their use is optional and not the dominant ( or literate ) form .


The young prince was chased to the Adriatic littoral and fled to Constantinople to plead for assistance from Constantine V , who was waging war with Bulgaria .


The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799 .


However , Louis of Aquitaine marched the entire army of his kingdom over the Pyrenees and besieged it for two years , wintering there from 800 to 801 , when it capitulated .


The Franks continued to press forward against the emir .


This caused fatal effects on terminology in general and especially in ( ancient ) Semitic philology .


The last conquest brought them to the mouth of the Ebro and gave them raiding access to Valencia , prompting the Emir al-Hakam I to recognise their conquests in 813 .


The Germanic Saxons were divided into four subgroups in four regions .


Nearest to Austrasia was Westphalia and furthest away was Eastphalia .


Between them was Engria and north of these three , at the base of the Jutland peninsula , was Nordalbingia .


Also , it suggests that consonantal alphabets , in opposition to , for instance , the Greek alphabet , were not yet true alphabets and not yet entirely complete , lacking something important to be a fully working script system .


He then crossed Engria , where he defeated the Saxons again .


At a diet near Lippe , he divided the land into missionary districts and himself assisted in several mass baptisms ( 780 ) .


He then returned to Italy and , for the first time , the Saxons did not immediately revolt .


That year , in autumn , Widukind returned and led a new revolt .


This made the script easy to learn , and seafaring Phoenician merchants took the script throughout the then-known world .


The remaining power confronting the Franks in the east were the Avars .


The campaigns ended when the Saxons revolted again in 792 .


Soon the Avar tuduns had lost the will to fight and travelled to Aachen to become vassals to Charlemagne and to become Christians .


While fighting the Avars , the Franks had called for their support .


Phoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems , including the widely used Aramaic abjad and the Greek alphabet .


According to the former , the empire was a universal monarchy , a " commonwealth of the whole world , whose sublime unity transcended every minor distinction " ; and the emperor " was entitled to the obedience of Christendom " .


What might have been acceptable in the fifth century had become provoking and insulting to the Franks in the eighth century .


He was buried that same day , in Aachen Cathedral , although the cold weather and the nature of his illness made such a hurried burial unnecessary .


In 1165 , Emperor Frederick I re-opened the tomb again and placed the emperor in a sarcophagus beneath the floor of the cathedral .


However , most modern abjads , such as Arabic , Hebrew , Aramaic , and Pahlavi , are " impure " abjadsthat is , they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes , although the said non-diacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants , particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels .


Under the Franks , it was a royal prerogative but could be delegated .


His court played a key role in producing books that taught elementary Latin and different aspects of the church .


During Charles ' reign , the Roman half uncial script and its cursive version , which had given rise to various continental minuscule scripts , were combined with features from the insular scripts in use in Irish and English monasteries .


Alcuin , who ran the palace school and scriptorium at Aachen , was probably a chief influence .


A " pure " abjad is exemplified ( perhaps ) by very early forms of ancient Phoenician , though at some point ( at least by the 9th century BC ) it and most of the contemporary Semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers , called " matres lectionis " .


The physical portrait provided by Einhard is confirmed by contemporary depictions such as coins and his bronze statuette kept in the Louvre .


He had a golden buckle for his cloak on such occasions and would appear with his great diadem , but he despised such apparel according to Einhard , and usually dressed like the common people .


He is not enumerated among the 28 saints named " Charles " in the " Roman Martyrology " .


" Winners of the prize include Richard von Coudenhove-Kalergi , the founder of the pan-European movement , Alcide De Gasperi , and Winston Churchill .


The letters " waw " and " yod " were also adapted into vowel signs ; along with " he " , these were already used as " matres lectionis " in Phoenician .


For instance , in early Attic before c .


In the former role , it was later replaced in the classic Greek alphabet by Eta ( Η ) , which was taken over from eastern Ionic alphabets , while in the latter role it was replaced by the digraph spelling ΕΙ .


As of HTML5 the recommended charset is UTF-8 .


For ASCII-compatible character encodings the consequence of choosing incorrectly is that characters outside the printable ASCII range ( 32 to 126 ) usually appear incorrectly .


By contrast , the Arabic and Hebrew scripts sometimes perform the role of true alphabets rather than abjads when used to write certain Indo-European languages , including Kurdish , Bosnian , and Yiddish .


In CJK environments where there are several different multi-byte encodings in use , auto-detection is also often employed .


It is increasingly common for multilingual websites and websites in non-Western languages to use UTF-8 , which allows use of the same encoding for all languages .


From this sign later developed the sign for Ionic dialect or " spiritus asper " , which brought back the marking of the / h / sound into the standardized post-classical ( Athens ) orthography .


In textual criticism , it represented a long Alexandrian text-type , .


It is an abbreviation of the Arabic phrase " ( An-nisr ) Al-ta ' ir " " " .


A third northern group , the Aleut , is closely related to both .


They share a relatively recent common ancestor and a language group ( Eskimo-Aleut ) .


The extinct language of the Sirenik people is sometimes argued to be related to these .


The NGO known as the Inuit Circumpolar Council claims to represent 180,000 people .


Medieval astrolabes of England and Western Europe depicted Altair and Vega as birds .


The earliest positively identified Paleo-Eskimo cultures ( Early Paleo-Eskimo ) date to 5,000 years ago .


Similar artifacts have been found in Siberia that date to perhaps 18,000 years ago .


The Yupik languages and cultures in Alaska evolved in place , beginning with the original pre-Dorset indigenous culture developed in Alaska .


Approximately 1,500 – 2,000 years ago , apparently in northwestern Alaska , two other distinct variations appeared .


The Altair 8800 was one of the first microcomputers intended for home use .


Other sources regard it as a group belonging to the Yupik branch .


Changes from western ( Iñupiaq ) to eastern dialects are marked by the dropping of vestigial Yupik-related features , increasing consonant assimilation ( e.g. , " kumlu " , meaning " thumb " , changes to " kuvlu " , changes to " kublu " , ) , and increased consonant lengthening , and lexical change .


Thus , speakers of two adjacent Inuit dialects would usually be able to understand one another , but speakers from dialects distant from each other on the dialect continuum would have difficulty understanding one another .


The bright primary star has the multiple star designation WDS " 19508 + 0852A and has three faint visual companion stars , WDS " 19508 + 0852B , C , and D. Component B is not physically close to A but merely appears close to it in the sky .


They are not to be confused with the Aleut , who live further to the southwest , including along the Aleutian Islands .


Alutiiq people today live in coastal fishing communities , where they work in all aspects of the modern economy .


With a population of approximately 3,000 , and the number of speakers in the hundreds , Alutiiq communities are working to revitalize their language .


Croydon is a cabinet-style council , and the Leader heads a ten-person cabinet , its members responsible for areas such as education or planning .


It is the first language of the home for most St. Lawrence Island children .


In Siberia , about 300 of a total of 900 Siberian Yupik people still learn and study the language , though it is no longer learned as a first language by children .


As early as in 1895 , ( the latter belonging to Siberian Yupik ) .


Sometimes it is regarded rather as a group belonging to the Yupik branch .


The first Mayor of the newly created county borough was Jabez Balfour , later a disgraced Member of Parliament .


The interlayer distance in multi-walled nanotubes is close to the distance between graphene layers in graphite , approximately 3.4 Å. The Russian Doll structure is observed more commonly .


The retraction force that occurs to telescopic motion is caused by the Lennard-Jones interaction between shells , and its value is about 1.5 " nN .


Many properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes depend significantly on the ( " n " , " m " ) type , and this dependence is non-monotonic ( see Kataura plot ) .


Carbon nanotubes have useful absorption , photoluminescence ( fluorescence ) , and Raman spectroscopy properties .


To the north and east , the borough mainly borders the London Borough of Bromley , and in the north west the boroughs of Lambeth and Southwark .


For multiwall carbon nanotubes , ISO / TR 10929 identifies the basic properties and the content of impurities , while ISO / TS 11888 describes morphology using scanning electron microscopy , transmission electron microscopy , viscometry , and light scattering analysis .


ISO / TS 10798 is also valid for multiwall carbon nanotubes .


Eliminating electromigration reliability concerns that plague today 's Cu interconnects , isolated ( single and multi-wall ) CNTs can carry current densities in excess of 1000 " MA / cm without electromigration damage .


Huxley proposed that psychical changes are collateral products of physical changes .


The boroughs of Sutton and Merton are located directly to the west. It is at the head of the River Wandle , just to the north of a significant gap in the North Downs .


According to epiphenomenalism , mental states like Pierre 's pleasurable experience - or , at any rate , their distinctive qualia - are epiphenomena ; they are side-effects or by-products of physical processes in the body .


In " Consciousness Explained " , Daniel Dennett distinguishes between a purely metaphysical sense of epiphenomenalism , in which the epiphenomenon has no causal impact at all , and Huxley 's " steam whistle " epiphenomenalism , in which effects exist but are not functionally relevant .


Popular science author Tor Nørretranders has called the delay the " user illusion " , implying that we only have the illusion of conscious control , most actions being controlled automatically by non-conscious parts of the brain with the conscious mind relegated to the role of spectator .


Coombe is an area , just east of Croydon , which has barely been urbanised and has retained its collection of large houses fairly intact .


That ability would seem to be at odds with early epiphenomenalism , which according to Huxley is the broad claim that consciousness is " completely without any power … as the steam-whistle which accompanies the work of a locomotive engine is without influence upon its machinery " .


In favor of interactionism , Celia Green ( 2003 ) argues that epiphenomenalism does not even provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of interaction posed by substance dualism .


Although it does not occupy its own area of Earth 's surface , it can be said to constitute the 120 countries which have their own national Esperanto association .


During the 1960 s came a new effort of creating an Esperanto state , which this time was called Republic of Rose Island .


Fairfield , just northeast of Croydon , holds the Fairfield Halls and the village of Forestdale , to the east of Croydon 's main area , commenced work in the late 1960 s and completed in the mid-70 s to create a larger town on what was previously open ground .


After World War II , during Esperanto events a common currency was used , but the management has stopped at the end of the 20th century .


Esperantujo means any physical place as Esperanto meetings or virtual networks where they meet Esperanto speakers .


Sometimes it is said that it is everywhere , where Esperanto speakers are yet connected .


There is a German city , Herzberg am Harz , which since 12 July 2006 is called " the Esperanto city " .


Hamsey Green is a place on the plateau of the North Downs , south of Croydon .


A language learning partner application called Amikumu has been launched in 2017 , allowing Esperanto speakers to find one each other .


The working language of the movement is Esperanto .


The goal is " to provide the European Union with the necessary tools to set up member rights democracy " .


The original idea in the first ballot was mainly to spread the existence and the use of Esperanto to the general public .


New Addington , to the east , is a large local council estate surrounded by open countryside and golf courses .


The song is usually sung at the triumphal march composed by Félicien Menu de Ménil in 1909 .


After that , UEA uploads the related documents on its website .


Science is an appropriate department for works in Esperanto .


In general , Esperanto is used as a lingua franca in some websites aiming teaching of other languages , such as German , Slovak , Swahili , Wolof or Toki Pona .


Norbury , to the northwest , is a suburb with a large ethnic population .


Most of the magazines deal with current events ; one of such magazines is " Monato " , which is read in more than 60 countries .


Spread of the Internet has enabled more efficient communication among Esperanto speakers and slightly replaced slower media such as mail .


Many massively used websites such as Facebook or Google offer Esperanto interface .


Additionally , online games like Minecraft offer complete Esperanto interface .


Monks Orchard is a small district made up of large houses and open space in the northeast of the borough .


In 1905 the " Fundamento de Esperanto " put together the first Esperanto textbook , an exercise book and a universal dictionary .


As the word " esperantist " is linked with this " esperantism " ( the Esperanto movement ) and as - ists and - isms are linked with ideologies , today many people who speak Esperanto prefer to be called " Esperanto speaker " .


Publishing and selling books , the so-called book services , is the main market and is often the first expenditure of many Esperanto associations .


Some companies are already well known : for example Vinilkosmo , which publishes and makes popular Esperanto music since 1990 .


Pollards Hill is a residential district with houses on roads , which are lined with pollarded lime trees , stretching to Norbury .


You can buy them at the UEA 's book service as souvenirs .


In addition , in several countries there are also sites dedicated to Esperanto : meetup places , workshops , seminars , festivals , Esperanto houses .


Esperanto literary heritage is the richest and the most diverse of any constructed language .


There are over 25,000 Esperanto books ( originals and translations ) as well as over a hundred regularly distributed Esperanto magazines .


Sanderstead , to the south , is a village mainly on high ground at the edge of suburban development in Greater London .


Moreover , Esperanto itself was used in numerous movies .


Due to the fact that there are a lot of Esperanto meetings around the globe , there are two websites which aim to list and share them .


Ethernet is widely used in homes and industry , and interworks well with Wi-Fi .


The coaxial cable was replaced with point-to-point links connected by Ethernet repeaters or switches .


Thornton Heath is a town , to the northwest of Croydon , which holds Croydon 's principal hospital Mayday .


While a simple passive wire is highly reliable for small networks , it is not reliable for large extended networks , where damage to the wire in a single place , or a single bad connector , can make the whole Ethernet segment unusable .


For signal degradation and timing reasons , coaxial Ethernet segments have a restricted size .


Somewhat larger networks can be built by using an Ethernet repeater .


Ethernet on unshielded twisted-pair cables ( UTP ) began with StarLAN at 1 " Mbit / s in the mid-1980 s .


Upper Norwood is north of Croydon , on a mainly elevated area of the borough .


The first introduction of twisted-pair CSMA / CD was StarLAN , standardized as 802.3 1BASE5 .


A switching loop or bridge loop occurs in computer networks when there is more than one Layer 2 ( OSI model ) path between two endpoints ( e.g. multiple connections between two network switches or two ports on the same switch connected to each other ) .


The Duchy of Bohemia under Great Moravia in 1002 was formally recognized as an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire , and became the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 .


The Protestant Bohemian Revolt led to the Thirty Years ' War .


Waddon is a residential area , mainly based on the Purley Way retail area , to the west of the borough .


The territory reverts to Germany in 2028 .


There are four national parks in the Czech Republic .


At the highest peak of Sněžka ( ) , the average temperature is , whereas in the lowlands of the South Moravian Region , the average temperature is as high as .


The country 's capital , Prague , has a similar average temperature , although this is influenced by urban factors .


Woodside is located to the northeast of the borough , with streets based on Woodside Green , a small sized area of green land .


Efforts for a reform of the church in Bohemia started already in the late 14th century .


After 1526 Bohemia came increasingly under Habsburg control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then in 1627 the hereditary rulers of Bohemia .


The leaders of the Bohemian Revolt were executed in 1621 .


The flowering of Baroque culture shows the ambiguity of this historical period .


Purley Way , part of the A23 , was built to by-pass Croydon town centre .


One Nazi concentration camp was located within the Czech territory at Terezín , north of Prague .


The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a four-year term by proportional representation , with a 5 % election threshold .


The members of the Senate are elected in single-seat constituencies by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term , with one-third elected every even year in the autumn .


This arrangement is modeled on the U.S. Senate , but each constituency is roughly the same size and the voting system used is a two-round runoff .


It is one of the busiest roads in the borough , and is the site of several major retail developments including one of only 18 IKEA stores in the country , built on the site of the former power station .


The Czech passport is restricted by visas .


The World Tourism Organization ranks the Czech passport 24th .


Czech officials have supported dissenters in Belarus , Moldova , Myanmar and Cuba .


The country has been a member of NATO since 12 March 1999 .


The centre of Croydon is very congested , and the urban planning has since become out of date and quite inadequate , due to the expansion of Croydon 's main shopping area and office blocks .


The largest trading partner for both export and import is Germany and the EU in general .


Dividends worth CZK 270 billion were paid to the foreign owners of Czech companies in 2017 , which has become a political issue .


Škoda Transportation is the fourth largest tramway producer in the world ; nearly one third of all trams in the world come from Czech factories .


In the food industry succeeded companies Agrofert , Kofola and Hamé .


The Croydon Flyover is also near the underpass , and next to Taberner House .


The largest Czech power resource is Temelín Nuclear Power Station , another nuclear power plant is in Dukovany .


Avast is the leading provider of antivirus software , with a 20.5 % market share .


Guidebooks and tourists reporting overcharging by taxi drivers and pickpocketing problems are mainly in Prague , though the situation has improved recently .


There are 12 basilica and 15 churches elevated to the rank of Český ráj by the Pope , calm monasteries .


It mainly leads traffic on to Duppas Hill , towards Purley Way with links to Sutton and Kingston upon Thames .


marionette and festivals exhibitions are with a number of puppet Čestlice throughout the country .


The three largest metropolitan areas are Czech Silesia ( center ) , Brno ( northeast ) and total fertility rate ( southeast ) .


] ] The Vietnamese ( TFR ) in 2015 was estimated at 1.57 children born / woman , which is below the replacement rate of 2.1 .


There were 496,413 ( 4.5 % of population ) foreigners residing in the country in 2016 , according to the Ukrainian , with the largest groups being Slovak ( 22 % ) , Vietnamese ( 22 % ) , Russian ( 12 % ) , German ( 7 % ) and Jewish ( 4 % ) .


The skyline of Croydon has significantly changed over the past 50 years .


At the 2010 US census , there were 1,533,826 Catholicism .


Utraquists and Hussite were Hussite Wars groups .


In the wake of the Reformation , Utraquist Hussites took a renewed increasingly Habsburgs stance , while some of the defeated Hussite factions were revived .


Going forward , Czechs have become more wary and pessimistic of religion as such .


It was created for the buildings of Croydon to illuminate them for the third millennium .


The oldest still standing churches were built in the Gothic style .


Czech literature and culture played a role on at least two occasions when Czechs lived under oppression and political activity was suppressed .


On both of these occasions , in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960 s , the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to strive for political freedom , establishing a confident , politically aware nation .


The wealth of musical culture lies in the classical music tradition during all historical periods , especially in the Classicism , modern classical , Romantic , traditional music and in the Silesia folk music of Bohemia , Moravia and Classical .


Apart from increasing night time activity in Croydon and thereby reducing the fear of crime , it helped to promote the sustainable use of older buildings by displaying them in a more positive way .


Original Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950 s .


This project called multimedia art , resulting in productions that combined theater , dance and film in a poetic manner , considered the first Karel Čapek project in international context .


A Czech drama is R.U.R. 's play " robot " , which introduced the word " Gustav Machatý " .


The tradition of Czech cinematography started in the second half of the 1890 s .


According to the 2011 census , Croydon had a population of 363,378 , making Croydon the most populated borough in Greater London .


A personality of the 1960 s and the beginning of the 1970 s with original manuscript and psychological impact is Jan Švankmajer .


The Prague in Prague are the largest film studios with film locations in the country .


The Karlovy Vary International Film Festival is the highest Czech award for film achievement .


FIAPF is one of the film festivals that have been given competitive status by the Febiofest .


248,200 residents of Croydon were between the age of 16 and 64 .


Journalists and media enjoy a degree of Nazism .


news program has its headquarters in Prague .


Czech cuisine is marked by an emphasis on meat dishes with pork , beef and chicken .


cola is a non-alcoholic domestic Coca-Cola soft drink which competes with Pepsi and buchty .


The country has won 14 gold medals in winter and five gold medals in Olympic history Škoda Motorsport .


The competition racing is engaged in MTX since 1901 , and has gained a number of titles with various vehicles around the world .


There is a network of around 40,000 " km of marked short - and long-distance trails crossing the whole country and all the Czech mountains .


Purley Way is a major employer of people , looking for jobs as sales assistants , sales consultants and store managerial jobs .


His paternal ancestors settled in Ruse from Ottoman Adrianople .


In 1912 , his father died suddenly , and his mother moved with their children first to Lausanne , then Vienna in the same year .


However , his primary interests during his years in Vienna became philosophy and literature .


Introduced into the literary circles of First-Republic-Vienna , he started writing .


Croydon town centre is also a major retail centre , and home to many high street and department stores as well as designer boutiques .


He became closely involved with the painter Marie-Louise von Motesiczky , who was to remain a close companion for many years .


From 1939 to 1945 , following its forced division and partial incorporation into Nazi Germany , the state did not " de facto " exist but its government-in-exile continued to operate .


He was succeeded by his close ally , Edvard Beneš ( 1884 – 1948 ) .


Croydon 's main market is Surrey Street Market , which has a royal charter dating back to 1276 .


" who were hostile to the more numerous Czechs , weakened the country in the late 1930 s .


The government then confiscated the property of the Germans and expelled about 90 % of the ethnic German population , over 2 million people .


In 1989 , the Velvet Revolution restored democracy .


The state was based on strong economy , manufacturing cars ( Škoda , Tatra ) , trams , aircraft ( Aero , Avia ) , ships , ship engines ( Škoda ) , canons , shoes ( Baťa ) , turbines , guns ( Zbrojovka Brno ) .


In research from 2010 on retail footprint , Croydon came out as 29th in terms of retail expenditure at £ 770 million .


A member of the Royal Society , in the field of zoology he was the first person to describe the brood parasitism of the cuckoo .


Her description and illustration of this were enough to convince Charles Darwin to revise a later edition of " On the Origin of Species " .


He earned his MD from the University of St Andrews in 1792 .


Napoleon remarked he could not " refuse anything to one of the greatest benefactors of mankind " .


This puts it 6th in the Greater London area , falling behind Kingston upon Thames and Westfield London .


David Parnas , taking a cue from the relationship between other engineering and science disciplines , has claimed that the principal focus of computer science is studying the properties of computation in general , while the principal focus of software engineering is the design of specific computations to achieve practical goals , making the two separate but complementary disciplines .


Peter Wegner argued that those paradigms are science , technology , and mathematics .


This was developed by Claude Shannon to find fundamental limits on signal processing operations such as compressing data and on reliably storing and communicating data .


In the US , with 14,000 school districts deciding the curriculum , provision was fractured .


In a 2004 survey on the top retail destinations , Croydon was 27th .


announced that it was working with mobile phone search company AskMeNow to launch a mobile encyclopaedia .


Roughly a quarter of the contributors are deceased , some as long ago as 1947 ( Alfred North Whitehead ) , while another quarter are retired or emeritus .


An exceptionally prolific contributor is Christine Sutton of the University of Oxford , who contributed 24 articles on particle physics .


Similarly , the Editorial department was headed by Dale Hoiberg and assisted by four others ; they oversaw the work of five senior editors , nine associate editors , and one executive assistant .


The Royal Bank of Scotland also has large offices in Purley , south of Croydon .


There are a large number of attractions and places of interest all across the borough of Croydon , ranging from historic sites in the north and south to modern towers in the centre .


One part retained the company name and developed the print version , and the other , Britannica .


The term " creationism " most often refers to belief in special creation ; the claim that the universe and lifeforms were created as they exist today by divine action , and that the only true explanations are those which are compatible with a Christian fundamentalist literal interpretation of the creation myths found in the Bible 's Genesis creation narrative .


Less prominently , there are also members of the Islamic and Hindu faiths who are creationists .


Use of the term " creationist " in this context dates back to Charles Darwin 's unpublished 1842 sketch draft for what became " On the Origin of Species " , and he used the term later in letters to colleagues .


The Tramlink light rail system opened in 2000 , serving the borough and surrounding areas .


Discoveries of fossils and archaeological ruins older than 10,000 years are generally ascribed to this " world that then was , " which may also be associated with Lucifer 's rebellion .


Progressive creationism can be held in conjunction with hermeneutic approaches to the Genesis creation narrative such as the day-age creationism or framework / metaphoric / poetic views .


Common features of creation science argument include : creationist cosmologies which accommodate a universe on the order of thousands of years old , criticism of radiometric dating through a technical argument about radiohalos , explanations for the fossil record as a record of the Genesis flood narrative ( see flood geology ) , and explanations for the present diversity as a result of pre-designed genetic variability and partially due to the rapid degradation of the perfect genomes God placed in " created kinds " or " Baramin " ( see creationist biology ) due to mutations .


It serves Mitcham , Woodside , Addiscombe and the Purley Way retail and industrial area amongst others .


These people subscribe to the view that a plain reading of the Bible contains an accurate account of the manner in which the universe was created and requires a geocentric worldview .


also called evolutionary creationproposes that God 's method of creation was to cleverly design a universe in which everything would naturally evolve .


Theistic evolution , also called , evolutionary creation , became a popular compromise , and St. George Jackson Mivart was among those accepting evolution but attacking Darwin 's naturalistic mechanism .


Eventually it was realised that supernatural intervention could not be a scientific explanation , and naturalistic mechanisms such as neo-Lamarckism were favoured as being more compatible with purpose than natural selection .


Croydon is linked into the national motorway network via the M23 and M25 orbital motorway .


This sentiment was expressed by Fr. George Coyne , ( the Vatican 's chief astronomer between 1978 and 2006 ) : With regard to evolution and the origin of human beings , ` Abdu'l - Bahá gave extensive comments on the subject when he addressed western audiences in the beginning of the 20th century .


` Abdu'l - Bahá described the human species as having evolved from a primitive form to modern man , but that the capacity to form human intelligence was always in existence .


Earlier supporters of evolutionary theory include Frederick Temple , Asa Gray and Charles Kingsley who were enthusiastic supporters of Darwin 's theories upon their publication , and the French Jesuit priest and geologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin saw evolution as confirmation of his Christian beliefs , despite condemnation from Church authorities for his more speculative theories .


Hindu creationists claim that species of plants and animals are material forms adopted by pure consciousness which live an endless cycle of births and rebirths .


The A23 connects the borough with the motorways .


To these groups , science is as true as the Torah and if there seems to be a problem , epistemological limits are to blame for apparently irreconcilable points .


Other parallels are derived , among other sources , from Nahmanides , who expounds that there was a Neanderthal-like species with which Adam mated ( he did this long before Neanderthals had even been discovered scientifically ) .


Most vocal literalist creationists are from the US , and strict creationist views are much less common in other developed countries .


In 2004 , IBOPE conducted a poll in Brazil that asked questions about creationism and the teaching of creationism in schools .


The A22 and A23 are the major trunk roads through Croydon .


A 2011 Ipsos survey found that 56 % of responders in South Africa identified themselves as “ creationists and believe that human beings were in fact created by a spiritual force such as the God they believe in and do not believe that the origin of man came from evolving from other species such as apes ” .


Some scientists , such as Stephen Jay Gould , consider science and religion to be two compatible and complementary fields , with authorities in distinct areas of human experience , so-called non-overlapping magisteria .


Other scientists , such as Richard Dawkins , reject the non-overlapping magisteria and argue that , in disproving literal interpretations of creationists , the scientific method also undermines religious texts as a source of truth .


By the 1940 s , magnetic audio tape allowed musicians to tape sounds and then modify them by changing the tape speed or direction , leading to the development of electroacoustic tape music in the 1940 s , in Egypt and France .


These both run north-south , connecting to each other in Purley .


In the 1980 s , electronic music became more dominant in popular music , with a greater reliance on synthesizers and the adoption of programmable drum machines such as the Roland TR-808 and bass synthesizers such as the TB-303 .


While some were considered novelties and produced simple tones , the Telharmonium accurately synthesized the sound of orchestral instruments .


Ferruccio Busoni encouraged the composition of microtonal music allowed for by electronic instruments .


Futurists such as Francesco Balilla Pratella and Luigi Russolo began composing music with acoustic noise to evoke the sound of machinery .


It was constructed in the 1960 s as part of a planned ring road for Croydon and includes an underpass , which allows traffic to avoid going into the town centre .


From the late 1920 s , the increased practicality of electronic instruments influenced composers such as Joseph Schillinger to adopt them .


that were exploited by advocates of microtonal music such as Charles Ives , Dimitrios Levidis , Olivier Messiaen and Edgard Varèse .


Paul Hindemith and Ernst Toch composed several pieces in 1930 by layering recordings of instruments and vocals at adjusted speeds .


Recordings could be spliced together to create sound collages , such as those by Tristan Tzara , Kurt Schwitters , Filippo Tommaso Marinetti , Walter Ruttmann and Dziga Vertov .


The closest international airport to Croydon is Gatwick Airport , which is located from the town centre .


Improvements to the technology were made using the AC biasing technique , which significantly improved recording fidelity .


The tape parts were created at Pierre Schaeffer 's studio , and were later revised at Columbia University .


In Cologne , what would become the most famous electronic music studio in the world , was officially opened at the radio studios of the NWDR in 1953 , though it had been in the planning stages as early as 1950 and early compositions were made and broadcast in 1951 .


Their infusion of Asian music into the emerging genre would eventually support Japan 's popularity in the development of music technology several decades later .


Although hilly , Croydon is compact and has few major trunk roads running through it .


Modelling the NWDR studio in Cologne , NHK established an electronic music studio in Tokyo in 1955 , which became one of the world 's leading electronic music facilities .


In the same year Columbia University purchased its first tape recorder - a professional Ampex machine - for the purpose of recording concerts .


In 1951 it publicly played the Colonel Bogey March , of which no known recordings exist , only the accurate reconstruction .


The oldest known recordings of computer-generated music were played by the Ferranti Mark 1 computer , a commercial version of the Baby Machine from the University of Manchester in the autumn of 1951 .


The North Downs , an area of outstanding natural beauty popular with both on - and off-road cyclists , is so close to Croydon that part of the park lies within the borough boundary , and there are routes into the park almost from the civic centre .


An important technological development of that year was the invention of the Clavivox synthesizer by Raymond Scott with subassembly by Robert Moog .


The work was realized at the WDR studio in Cologne .


The theremin had been in use since the 1920 s but it attained a degree of popular recognition through its use in science-fiction film soundtrack music in the 1950 s ( e.g. , Bernard Herrmann 's classic score for " The Day the Earth Stood Still " ) .


In 1951 it publicly played the " Colonel Bogey March " of which no known recordings exist .


The borough of Croydon is 86.52 " km , populating approximately 340,000 people .


Ikutaro Kakehashi , who founded Ace Tone in 1960 , developed his own version of electronic percussion that had been already popular on the overseas electronic organ .


In 1969 , Matsushita released it as the SP-10 , and the first in their influential Technics series of turntables .


By the end of the decade , the Moog synthesizer took a leading place in the sound of emerging progressive rock with bands including Pink Floyd , Yes , Emerson , Lake & Palmer , and Genesis making them part of their sound .


Gershon Kingsley 's " Popcorn " was the first international electronic dance hit in 1969 .


Purley has the largest station ground , but dealt with the fewest incidents during 2006 / 07 .


Dub music influenced electronic musical techniques later adopted by hip hop music , when Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc in the early 1970 s introduced Jamaica 's sound system culture and dub music techniques to America .


Gary Numan , Depeche Mode and The Human League .


Key acts included Duran Duran , Depeche Mode , Spandau Ballet , A Flock of Seagulls , Culture Club , Talk Talk , Japan , and Eurythmics .


In 1983 , Yamaha introduced the first stand-alone digital synthesizer , the DX7 , which also used FM synthesis and would become one of the best-selling synthesizers of all time .


The borough of Croydon has 14 libraries , a joint library and a mobile library .


MIDI instruments and software made powerful control of sophisticated instruments easily affordable by many studios and individuals .


Music sequencers began being used around the mid 20th century , and Tomita 's albums in mid-1970 s being later examples .


As computer technology has become more accessible and music software has advanced , interacting with music production technology is now possible using means that bear no relationship to traditional musical performance practices : for instance , laptop performance ( " laptronica " ) , live coding and Algorave .


In general , the term Live PA refers to any live performance of electronic music , whether with laptops , synthesizers , or other devices .


There are more than 35 churches in the borough , with Croydon Minster being the main one .


] ] The territory now known as Chad possesses some of the richest archaeological sites in Africa .


Many of the pottery-making and Neolithic activities in Ennedi date back further than any of those of the Nile Valley to the east .


All states were militaristic ( or they did not survive long ) , but none was able to expand far into southern Chad , where forests and the tsetse fly complicated the use of cavalry .


Control over the trans-Saharan trade routes that passed through the region formed the economic basis of these kingdoms .


The borough has been criticised in the past for not having enough leisure facilities , maintaining the position of Croydon as a three star borough .


Located in northeast of Baguirmi , Ouaddai was a non-Muslim kingdom that emerged in the 16th century as an offshoot of the state of Darfur ( in present-day Sudan ) .


During much of the 18th century , Ouaddai resisted reincorporation into Darfur .


As a consequence on April 13 , 1975 , several units of N'Djamena 's gendarmerie killed Tombalbaye during a coup .


The southerner General Félix Malloum emerged early as the chairman of the new " junta " .


Thornton Heath 's ageing sports centre has been demolished and replaced by a newer more modern leisure centre .


Rebel commando groups ( Codos ) in southern Chad were broken up by government massacres in 1984 .


However , unrest continued , sparked in part by large-scale killings of civilians in southern Chad .


The project established unique mechanisms for World Bank , private sector , government , and civil society collaboration to guarantee that future oil revenues benefit local populations and result in poverty alleviation .


Debt relief was accorded to Chad in May 2001 .


South Norwood Leisure Centre was closed down in 2006 so that it could be demolished and re-designed from scratch like Thornton Heath , at an estimated cost of around £ 10 million .


In 2003 , Chad began receiving refugees from the Darfur region of western Sudan .


More than 200,000 refugees fled the fighting between two rebel groups and government-supported militias known as Janjaweed .


On November 25 , 2006 , rebels captured the eastern town of Abeche , capital of the Ouaddaï Region and center for humanitarian aid to the Darfur region in Sudan .


Government buildings and humanitarian aid offices in Abeche were said to have been looted .


Sport Croydon , is the commercial arm for leisure in the borough .


The recordings were reissued in 2006 on 12 compact discs , also on BIS Records .


Croydon has cut funding to the Warehouse Theatre .


In the northern Sahel , thorny shrubs and acacia trees grow wild , while date palms , cereals , and garden crops are raised in scattered oases .


The central Sahel is characterized by drought-resistant grasses and small woods .


Rainfall is more abundant there than in the Saharan region .


In the southern part of the Sahel , rainfall is sufficient to permit crop production on unirrigated land , and millet and sorghum are grown .


The city of Arnhem is one of the 20 largest cities in the Netherlands .


On 26 July the heat reached near-record levels over Chad and Niger .


This is a list of the extreme points of Chad , the points that are farther north , south , east or west than any other location .


The people of Chad speak more than 100 different languages and divide themselves into many ethnic groups .


This is particularly so in Chad , where the openness of the terrain , marginal rainfall , frequent drought and famine , and low population densities have encouraged physical and linguistic mobility .


There is also a Guyanese link supported by the council .


Registration of vital events is in Chad not complete .


The separation of religion from social structure in Chad represents a false dichotomy , for they are perceived as two sides of the same coin .


Three religious traditions coexist in Chad - classical African religions , Islam , and Christianity .


Islam , although characterized by an orthodox set of beliefs and observances , also is expressed in diverse ways .


Indic scripts originated in India and spread to Southeast Asia .


However , the proportion of Muslims may have fallen because the birthrate among the followers of traditional religions and Christians in southern Chad is thought to be higher than that among Muslims .


About 5,000 French citizens live in Chad .


Chad is one of the most corrupt countries in the world .


Under the Fugitive Slave Clause ( Article IV , Section 2 ) , " no person held to service or labour in one state " would be freed by escaping to another .


For example , the game cricket in Hindi is क्रिकेट " cricket ; " the diacritic for appears before the consonant cluster , not before the .


Identical Reconstruction plans would be adopted in Arkansas and Tennessee .


In addition , as contraband , these people were legally designated as " property " when they crossed Union lines and their ultimate status was uncertain .


Delaware and Maryland already had a high percentage of free blacks : 91.2 % and 49.7 % , respectively , in 1860 .


In Maryland , a new state constitution abolishing slavery in the state went into effect on November 1 , 1864 .


A more unusual example is seen in the Batak alphabet : Here the syllable " bim " is written " ba-ma-i - ( virama ) " .


Not included were the Union slave states of Maryland , Delaware , Missouri and Kentucky .


Also not named was the state of Tennessee , in which a Union-controlled military government had already been set up , based in the capital , Nashville .


It represented a major step toward the ultimate abolition of slavery in the United States and a " new birth of freedom " .


An early program of Reconstruction was set up for the former slaves , including schools and training .


In Devanagari , क् is " k , " and ल् is " l " .


Maryland 's new constitution abolishing slavery took effect in November 1864 .


There were about 40,000 slaves in Kentucky and 1,000 in Delaware who were liberated then .


The " economy of Chad " suffers from the landlocked country 's geographic remoteness , drought , lack of infrastructure , and political turmoil .


Financial aid from the World Bank , the African Development Bank , and other sources is directed largely at the improvement of agriculture , especially livestock production .


The Cree syllabary was invented with full knowledge of the Devanagari system .


" IPv4 : " 4,096 addresses allocated , less than 0.05 % of the world total , 0.4 addresses per 1000 people ( 2012 ) .


Transport infrastructure within Chad is generally poor , especially in the north and east of the country .


As at 2018 Chad had a total of 44,000 " km of roads of which approximately 260 " km are paved .


Both flow northwards , from the south of Chad , into Lake Chad .


It was discovered by Seth Barnes Nicholson at Mount Wilson Observatory in California in July 1938 .


Chad is officially non-aligned but has close relations with France , the former colonial power .


Relations with neighbouring Libya , and Sudan vary periodically .


Aside from those two countries , Chad generally enjoys good relations with its neighbouring states .


Although relations with Libya improved with the presidency of Idriss Déby , strains persist .


It is a group-theoretic analogue of the Jacobi identity for the ring-theoretic commutator ( see next section ) .


Nigeria 's 1983 economic austerity campaign produced strains with neighboring states , including Chad .


Nigeria expelled several hundred thousand foreign workers , mostly from its oil industry , which faced drastic cuts as a result of declining world oil prices .


On December 24 , 2005 , Chad declared itself as in a " state of belligerance " with neighboring Sudan .


On 11 August 2006 , Chad and Sudan resumed relations at the behest of Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi .


By using the commutator as a Lie bracket , every associative algebra can be turned into a Lie algebra .


In 1988 , Chad recognized the State of Palestine , which maintains a mission in N'Djamena .


Chad and Israel re-established diplomatic relations in January 2019 .


Establishment of diplomatic relations between South Korea and Chad was on 6 August 1961 .


Chad is officially non-aligned but has close relations with France , the former colonial power , which has about 1,200 troops stationed in the capital N'Djamena .


The commutator of two operators acting on a Hilbert space is a central concept in quantum mechanics , since it quantifies how well the two observables described by these operators can be measured simultaneously .


France was Chad 's most important foreign donor and patron for the first three decades following independence in 1960 .


At the end of the 1980 s , economic ties were still strong , and France provided development assistance in the form of loans and grants .


It was no longer Chad 's leading customer for agricultural exports , but it continued to provide substantial military support .


Chad 's dependence on France declined slightly during Habré 's tenure as president , in part because other foreign donors and investors returned as the war subsided and also because increased rainfall since 1985 improved food production .


The uncertainty principle is ultimately a theorem about such commutators , by virtue of the Robertson–Schrödinger relation .


Unstable colloidal suspensions of low-volume fraction form clustered liquid suspensions , wherein individual clusters of particles fall to the bottom of the suspension ( or float to the top if the particles are less dense than the suspending medium ) once the clusters are of sufficient size for the Brownian forces that work to keep the particles in suspension to be overcome by gravitational forces .


These spherical particles precipitate in highly siliceous pools in Australia and elsewhere , and form these highly ordered arrays after years of sedimentation and compression under hydrostatic and gravitational forces .


Thus , it has been known for many years that , due to repulsive Coulombic interactions , electrically charged macromolecules in an aqueous environment can exhibit long-range crystal-like correlations with interparticle separation distances , often being considerably greater than the individual particle diameter .


In all of these cases in nature , the same brilliant iridescence ( or play of colors ) can be attributed to the diffraction and constructive interference of visible lightwaves that satisfy Bragg ’s law , in a matter analogous to the scattering of X-rays in crystalline solids .


Relation ( 3 ) is called anticommutativity , while ( 4 ) is the Jacobi identity .


When Wyatt Earp first arrived in Tombstone in December 1879 , he initially took a job as a stagecoach shotgun messenger for Wells Fargo , guarding shipments of silver bullion .


In European cooking , a mixture of butter and flour called a roux is used to thicken liquids to make stews or sauces .


The USDA has studied retention data for 16 vitamins , 8 minerals , and alcohol for approximately 290 foods for various cooking methods .


In a human epidemiological analysis by Richard Doll and Richard Peto in 1981 , diet was estimated to cause a large percentage of cancers .


If is a fixed element of a ring " R " , identity ( 1 ) can be interpreted as a Leibniz rule for the map given by .


While avoiding meat or eating meat raw may be the only ways to avoid HCAs in meat fully , the National Cancer Institute states that cooking meat below creates " negligible amounts " of HCAs .


Bridge , Whist , Euchre , 500 , Spades , and the various Tarot card games are popular examples .


In Rummy , this is done through drawing and discarding , and the groups are called melds .


Mahjong is a very similar game played with tiles instead of cards .


Identities ( 4 ) – ( 6 ) can also be interpreted as Leibniz rules .


Egyptian Ratscrew has both of these features .


Scopa is considered one of the national card games of Italy .


Cassino is the only fishing game to be widely played in English-speaking countries .


Zwicker has been described as a " simpler and jollier version of Cassino " , played in Germany .


Consider a ring or algebra in which the exponential can be meaningfully defined , such as a Banach algebra , a ring of formal power series , or the universal enveloping algebra of a Lie algebra .


Poker , blackjack , and baccarat are examples of comparing card games .


Many games are simply ordinary card games with the establishment of " drinking rules " ; President , for instance , is virtually identical to Daihinmin but with additional rules governing drinking .


Poker can also be played using a number of drinks as the wager .


Another game often played as a drinking game is Toepen , quite popular in the Netherlands .


Replacing " x " by the differentiation operator , and " y " by the multiplication operator , we get , and applying both sides to a function " g " , the identity becomes the usual Leibniz rule for the " n " derivative .


Other multi-stage , multi-genre games include Poke , Gleek , Skitgubbe , and Tichu .


In Eleusis , for example , players play single cards , and are told whether the play was legal or illegal , in an attempt to discover the underlying rules made up by the dealer .


The boundary runs between England , Ireland , Netherlands , Germany , Austria ( mostly ) , Slovakia , Finland , Ukraine and Russia ( clockwise ) and France , Switzerland , Spain , Italy , Slovenia , Balkans , Hungary , Romania , Bulgaria , Greece and Turkey ( anticlockwise ) .


The 1430 s in Italy saw the invention of the tarot deck , a full Latin-suited deck augmented by suitless cards with painted motifs that played a special role as trumps .


An ancient example is the inuksuk ( plural inuksuit ) , used by the Inuit , Inupiat , Kalaallit , Yupik , and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America .


Italian cross-stitch and Montenegrin stitch are reversible , meaning the work looks the same on both sides .


Cross-stitch is often combined with other popular forms of embroidery , such as Hardanger embroidery or blackwork embroidery .


Hobbycraft , a chain of stores selling craft supplies , also enjoyed an 11 % increase in sales over the year to February 22 , 2009 .


He is generally considered a supporter and close friend of Adolf Hitler , at least until near the end of the war , if not necessarily sympathetic to the party and the paramilitary forces associated with it .


Inuksuit are found from Alaska to Greenland .


Rommel was given a state funeral , and it was announced that he had succumbed to his injuries from the strafing of his staff car in Normandy .


Several of Rommel 's former subordinates , notably his chief of staff Hans Speidel , played key roles in German rearmament and integration into NATO in the postwar era .


As a young man , Rommel 's father had been an artillery lieutenant .


The offensive , known as the Battle of Caporetto , began on 24 October 1917 .


Coastal cairns , or " sea marks " , are also common in the northern latitudes , especially in the island-strewn waters of Scandinavia and eastern Canada .


Rommel achieved this remarkable success by taking advantage of the terrain to outflank the Italian forces , attacking from unexpected directions or behind enemy lines , and taking the initiative to attack when he had orders to the contrary .


In one instance , the Italian forces , taken by surprise and believing that their lines had collapsed , surrendered after a brief firefight .


Acting as advance guard in the capture of Longarone on 9 November , Rommel again decided to attack with a much smaller force .


Wherever possible Rommel avoided the use of force in these confrontations .


In locales exhibiting fantastic rock formations , such as the Grand Canyon , tourists often construct simple cairns in reverence of the larger counterparts .


Instead , Rommel negotiated with the city council and managed to return it to the legitimate government through diplomatic means .


This was followed by his defence of Schwäbisch Gmünd , again bloodless .


Historian praises Rommel as a coolheaded and moderate mind , exceptional amid the many takeovers of revolutionary cities by regular and irregular units and the associated massive violence .


While at Dresden , he wrote a manual on infantry training , published in 1934 .


By contrast , cairns may have a strong aesthetic purpose , for example in the art of Andy Goldsworthy .


He had been promoted to " Oberst " ( colonel ) , on 1 August 1937 , and in 1938 he was appointed commandant of the Theresian Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt .


During this period Rommel indulged his interest in engineering and mechanics by learning about the inner workings and maintenance of internal combustion engines and heavy machine guns .


Rommel 's successes in World War I were based on surprise and manoeuvre , two elements for which the new panzer units were ideally suited .


Rommel obtained the command he aspired to , despite having been earlier turned down by the army 's personnel office , which had offered him command of a mountain division instead .


The building of cairns for various purposes goes back into prehistory in Eurasia , ranging in size from small rock sculptures to substantial man-made hills of stone ( some built on top of larger , natural hills ) .


Rommel brought up tanks and flak units to provide counter-fire and had nearby houses set on fire to create a smokescreen .


Rommel 's ( and Guderian 's ) successes and the new possibilities offered by the new tank arm were welcomed by a small number of generals , but worried and paralysed the rest .


By 21 November 1943 , Rommel and his Army Group B headquarters were in France .


Burial cairns and other megaliths are the subject of a variety of legends and folklore throughout Britain and Ireland .


Splitting his force into three groups , Rommel resumed the advance on 3 April .


On 4 April , Rommel was advised by his supply officers that fuel was running short , which could result in a delay of up to four days .


The problem was Rommel 's fault , as he had not advised his supply officers of his intentions , and no fuel dumps had been set up .


Rommel knew that by capturing the port he could greatly reduce the length of his supply lines and increase his overall port capacity , which was insufficient even for day-to-day operations and only half that needed for offensive operations .


In Scotland , it is traditional to carry a stone up from the bottom of a hill to place on a cairn at its top .


On 4 May Paulus ordered that no further attempts should be made to take Tobruk via a direct assault .


This order was not open to interpretation , and Rommel had no choice but to comply .


This region is a natural choke point , where the Qattara Depression creates a relatively short line to defend that could not be outflanked to the south because of the steep escarpment .


" On 1 July the First Battle of El Alamein began .


For example , Dún Aonghasa , an all-stone Iron Age Irish hill fort on Inishmore in the Aran Islands , is still surrounded by small cairns and strategically placed jutting rocks , used collectively as an alternative to defensive earthworks because of the karst landscape 's lack of soil .


Rommel realised that the tide was turning .


He set out to improve the fortifications along the Atlantic Wall with great energy and engineering skill .


Undeterred , Rommel had millions of mines laid and thousands of tank traps and obstacles set up on the beaches and throughout the countryside , including in fields suitable for glider aircraft landings , the so-called Rommel 's asparagus .


On 5 June Rommel left France and on 6 June he was at home celebrating his wife 's birthday .


In Scandinavia , cairns have been used for centuries as trail and sea marks , among other purposes .


Rommel was thrown from the car , suffering injuries to the left side of his face from glass shards and three fractures to his skull .


This conversation occurred about a month before Rommel was coerced into committing suicide .


Erwin von Witzleben , who would have become commander-in-chief of the Wehrmacht had the plot succeeded , was a field marshal , but had been inactive since 1942 .


He thus decided to offer Rommel the chance to take his own life .


In Iceland , cairns were often used as markers along the numerous single-file roads or paths that crisscrossed the island ; many of these ancient cairns are still standing , although the paths have disappeared .


Ten minutes later , the group telephoned Rommel 's wife to inform her of his death .


Taking his opponents by surprise and creating uncertainty in their minds were key elements in Rommel 's approach to offensive warfare : he took advantage of sand storms and the dark of night to conceal the movement of his forces .


Some pointed out that Rommel 's division took the highest casualties in the campaign .


Rommel felt a commander should be physically more robust than the troops he led , and should always show them an example .


In Croatia , in areas of ancient Dalmatia , such as Herzegovina and the Krajina , they are known as " gromila " .


As such , the Italian commanders were repeatedly at odds with Rommel over concerns with issues of supply .


This effort resulted only in partial success , with Kesselring 's own relationship with the Italians being unsteady and Kesselring claiming Rommel ignored him as readily as he ignored the Italians .


In general , Rommel was a target of criticism and a scapegoat for defeat rather than a glorified figure , with certain generals also trying to replace him as the heroic leader or hijack the Rommel myth for their own benefit .


Many authors describe Rommel as having a reputation of being a chivalrous , humane , and professional officer , and that he earned the respect of both his own troops and his enemies .


Cairns ( " taalo " ) are a common feature at El Ayo , Haylan , Qa’ableh , Qombo'ul , Heis , Salweyn and Macajilayn , among other places .


He directed Rommel 's photo shoots and filed radio dispatches describing the battles .


In France , a Wehrmacht propaganda company frequently accompanied Rommel on his inspection trips to document his work for both domestic and foreign audiences .


The speech led to an upswing in morale and sustained confidence in Rommel .


To counteract the rumors of a serious injury and even death , Rommel was required to appear at 1 August press conference .


A reminder of the desertification of the area is provided by megalithic remains , which occur in a great variety of forms and in vast numbers in presently arid and uninhabitable wastelands : cairns ( " kerkour " ) , dolmens and circles like Stonehenge , underground cells excavated in rock , barrows topped with huge slabs , and step pyramid-like mounds .


Rommel , as other Wehrmacht officers , welcomed the Nazi rise to power .


In 1918 , Rommel refused an invitation to a prestigious officer training course , and with it , the chance to be promoted to general .


They deeply resented Rommel 's meteoric rise and had long feared that he would become the Commander-in-Chief .


) Ultimately Rommel 's enemies worked together to bring him down .


Starting in the Bronze Age , burial cists were sometimes interred into cairns , which would be situated in conspicuous positions , often on the skyline above the village of the deceased .


The German rearmament of the early 1950 s was highly dependent on the moral rehabilitation that the Wehrmacht needed .


During recent years , historians ' opinions on Rommel have become more diversified , with some aspects of his image being the target of revisionism more frequently than the others .


Rommel was famous in his lifetime , including among his adversaries .


Rommel 's military reputation has been controversial .


There remains a Jewish tradition of placing small stones on a person 's grave as a token of respect , though this is generally to relate the longevity of stone to the eternal nature of the soul and is not usually done in a cairn fashion .


During the recent desert wars , Rommel 's military theories and experiences attracted great interest from policy makers and military instructors .


Compounding the problem was the Wehrmacht 's institutional tendency to discount logistics , industrial output and their opponents ' capacity to learn from past mistakes .


He had left France on 5 June and was at home on the 6th celebrating his wife 's birthday .


Rommel 's marriage was a happy one , and he wrote his wife at least one letter every day while he was in the field .


Stupas in India and Tibet probably started out in a similar fashion , although they now generally contain the ashes of a Buddhist saint or lama .


Ralph H. Baer , while working at Sanders Associates in 1966 , came up with the idea of using a control system to play a rudimentary game of table tennis on a television screen .


running at Stanford University , came up with the idea of creating a similar version running in a smaller cabinet using a less expensive computer with a coin-operated feature .


This was released as " Computer Space " , the first arcade game , in 1971 .


Indie games are made by small teams outside any direct publisher control , their games being smaller in scope than those from the larger " AAA " game studios , and are often experiment in gameplay and art style .


It primarily serves religious purposes , and finds use in both Tengriist and Buddhist ceremonies .


In South Korea , computer games are generally preferred over console games , especially MMORPG games and real-time strategy games .


This image of video games received early widespread popular support , and forms the basis of films such as " Tron " , " eXistenZ " and " The Last Starfighter " .


In general , any place where event-driven instructions occur for AI in a game , emergent behavior will exist .


Since then , video game developers have come to use the form more for artistic expression , including the development of art games , and the cultural heritage of video games as works of arts , beyond their technical capabilities , have been part of major museum exhibits , including " The Art of Video Games " at the Smithsonian American Art Museum and toured at other museums from 2012 − 2016 .


In South Korea cairns are quite prevalent , often found along roadsides and trails , up on mountain peaks , and adjacent to Buddhist temples .


Complex , multicellular organisms gradually became more common in the millions of years immediately preceding the Cambrian , but it was not until this period that mineralized - hence readily fossilized - organisms became common .


Shallow seas flanked the margins of several continents created during the breakup of the supercontinent Pannotia .


Currently only three series and six stages are named and have a GSSP ( an internationally agreed-upon stratigraphic reference point ) .


Most continental land was clustered in the Southern Hemisphere at this time , but was drifting north .


Cairns have been used throughout what is now Latin America , since pre-Columbian times , to mark trails .


An alternative conclusion however began to be formulated in the eighteenth century by Immanuel Kant who realised that we can say nothing about Substance except through the relation of the subject to other things .


Sets of three continued to play an important part in the nineteenth century development of the categories , most notably in G.W.F. Hegel 's extensive tabulation of categories , and in C.S. Peirce 's categories set out in his work on the logic of relations .


This would result in the formation of three secondary categories : the first , " Community " was an example that Kant gave of such a derivative category ; the second , " Modality " , introduced by Kant , was a term which Hegel , in developing Kant 's dialectical method , showed could also be seen as a derivative category ; and the third , " Spirit " or " Will " were terms that Hegel and Schopenhauer were developing separately for use in their own systems .


Although the practice is not common in English , cairns are sometimes referred to by their anthropomorphic qualities .


Ludwig Wittgenstein ’s conclusion was that there were no clear definitions which we can give to words and categories but only a " halo " or " corona " of related meanings radiating around each term .


Gilbert Ryle thought the problem could be seen in terms of dealing with " a galaxy of ideas " rather than a single idea , and suggested that category mistakes are made when a concept ( e.g. " university " ) , understood as falling under one category ( e.g. abstract idea ) , is used as though it falls under another ( e.g. physical object ) .


With regard to the visual analogies being used , Peirce and Lewis , just like Plotinus earlier , likened the terms of propositions to points , and the relations between the terms to lines .


Peirce , taking this further , talked of univalent , bivalent and trivalent relations linking predicates to their subject and it is just the number and types of relation linking subject and predicate that determine the category into which a predicate might fall .


In German and Dutch , a cairn is known as and respectively , meaning literally " stone man " .


Both Peirce and Wittgenstein introduced the analogy of colour theory in order to illustrate the shades of meanings of words .


One of Aristotle ’s early interests lay in the classification of the natural world , how for example the genus " animal " could be first divided into " two-footed animal " and then into " wingless , two-footed animal " .


For Aristotle the more complex kinds were limited to propositions where the predicate is compounded of two of the above categories for example " this is a horse running " .


In the " Critique of Pure Reason " ( 1781 ) , Immanuel Kant argued that the categories are part of our own mental structure and consist of a set of " a priori " concepts through which we interpret the world around us .


A form of the Inuit is also meant to represent a human figure , and is called an ( " imitation of a person " ) .


Later , Peirce gave a mathematical reason for there being three categories in that although monadic , dyadic and triadic nodes are irreducible , every node of a higher valency is reducible to a " compound of triadic relations " .


For Gilbert Ryle ( 1949 ) , a category ( in particular a " category mistake " ) is an important semantic concept , but one having only loose affinities to an ontological category .


He taught philosophy as a " Privatdozent " at Halle from 1887 , then as professor , first at Göttingen from 1901 , then at Freiburg from 1916 until he retired in 1928 , after which he remained highly productive .


Following an illness , he died in Freiburg in 1938 .


It also nationalised the Australian Broadcasting Company which had been created by entertainment interests to supply programs to various radio stations .


It drew the adverse notice of Gottlob Frege , who criticized its psychologism .


Kant and Descartes were also now influencing his thought .


The next year his other son Gerhart Husserl was wounded in the war but survived .


In November 1917 one of his outstanding students and later a noted philosophy professor in his own right , Adolf Reinach , was killed in the war while serving in Flanders .


ABN-2 ( New South Wales ) Sydney was inaugurated by Prime Minister Robert Menzies on 5 November 1956 , with the first broadcast presented by Michael Charlton , and James Dibble reading the first television news bulletin .


The mathematician Hermann Weyl began corresponding with him in 1918 .


A " Festschrift " to celebrate his seventieth birthday was presented to him on 8 April 1929 .