By the end of Prohibition, the American wine industry which was (as a whole) fledgling, was largely destroyed. What had not survived the spread of Black rot and other grape diseases was severely damaged by Prohibition. Many winemakers had gone out of business, and to comply with the law many vineyard growers replaced productive wine quality grape vines with lower quality vines growing thicker skinned grapes that could be more easily transported as table fruit. Much of the institutional knowledge was also lost as winemakers either emigrated to other wine producing countries or left the business altogether. Only a few wineries emerged from Prohibition. According to Pinney, they included H.T. Dewey, Herman Kluxen, Miele, Renault, Schuster, Tomasello. The Dewey winery (1857) closed in 1952; Herman Kluxen (1865) went out of business in 1974.