Armenian survivors were left mainly in three locations. In the Republic of Turkey, about 100,000 Armenians lived in Constantinople and another 200,000, largely women and children who had been subject to forced conversion and marriage or adoption, lived in the provinces. While Armenians in the capital faced discrimination, they were able to maintain their cultural identity, unlike those elsewhere in Turkey; those living outside of Istanbul continued to face forced Islamization and kidnapping of girls after 1923. In early republican Turkey, courts did not enforce the property rights that non-Muslims were granted on paper. It is estimated that as many as 2 million Turkish citizens may have at least one Armenian grandparent. About 295,000 Armenians had fled to Russian-controlled territory during the genocide and ended up mostly in Soviet Armenia. An estimated 200,000 Armenian refugees lived in the Middle East.