The third problem involves Tang Dynasty usages of "fan" "foreigner" and "lu" "prisoner", neither of which meant "barbarian." Beckwith says Tang texts used "fan" 番 or 蕃 "foreigner" (see "shengfan" and "shufan" above) as "perhaps the only true generic at any time in Chinese literature, was practically the opposite of the word "barbarian". It meant simply 'foreign, foreigner' without any pejorative meaning." In modern usage, "fan" 番 means "foreigner; barbarian; aborigine". The linguist Robert Ramsey illustrates the pejorative connotations of "fan".