Reforms of local government closely followed emancipation. In 1864 most local government in the European part of Russia was organized into provincial and district elected self-government ("zemstvos"), which were made up of representatives of all classes and were responsible for local schools, public health, roads, prisons, food supply, and other concerns. In 1870 elected city councils, or "duma", were formed. Dominated by property owners and constrained by provincial governors and the police, the "zemstva" and "duma" raised taxes and levied labor to support their activities.