To counter these developments, a policy that was rooted in the late 1980s and early 1990s was implemented. In line with this "Fixing Broken Windows" philosophy, the New York City Transit Authority (NYCTA) began a five-year program to eradicate graffiti from subway trains in 1984. In 1993, Mayor Rudy Giuliani took office and with Police Commissioner Howard Safir, the strategy was more widely deployed in New York. Crime rates in the subway and the city dropped to an extent during this time and Giuliani's campaign credited this success to his policy. The extent to which his policies deserve the credit is disputed. New York City Police Department Commissioner, William J. Bratton and the author of "Fixing Broken Windows", George L. Kelling have stated that the police played an "important, even central, role" in the declining crime rates.