All opponents of the ruling policy were disfranchised and disqualified from office by act of parliament in 1652. Cases arising out of the act were to be tried by commissioners, and the commissions of the major-generals gave them opportunity to control the borough policy. Few Commonwealth charters have been preserved, although several were issued in response to the requests of the corporations. In some cases the charters used words which appeared to point to an opportunity for popular elections in boroughs, where a usage of election to the corporation by the town council had been established. In 1598 the judges gave an opinion that the town councils could make by-laws determining the government of the towns regardless of the terms of the charter. In the 18th century the judges decided to the contrary. But even where a usage of popular election was established, there were means of controlling the result of a parliamentary election. The close corporations, though their right to choose a member of parliament might be doubtful, had the sole right to admit new burgesses, and whether in parliamentary elections to enfranchise non-residents. Where conflicts arose over the choice of a member of parliament, two competing selections were typically made and the matter came before the House of Commons. The Commons quite often decided in favour of the more popularly elected candidate against the nominee of the town council, on the general principle that neither the royal charter nor a by-law could curtail the usual franchise. But as each case rested on the national body swayed by the dominant political party, no principle was steadily adhered to in the trial of election petitions. The royal right to create boroughs was freely used by Elizabeth and James I as a means of securing a submissive parliament.