Italian armies of the late medieval period consisted of forces from the many independent towns of Italy. They were raised by establishing a contract, or "condotta", between the town leaders and the chiefs of mercenary bands, who came to be called Condottieri. Military doctrines and tactics destined to establish field supremacy were developed, as were methods of capture of wealthy prisoners for ransom, and astuces to minimize casualties. All of these were proven ineffective when the highly motivated standing armies of France and Spain invaded the Italian Peninsula.