When in 1664 Anne of Austria was diagnosed with breast cancer, the initial treatment involved compresses saturated with hemlock juice. When the lumps increased the King's physician commenced a treatment with arsenic ointments. The royal patient died 1666 in atrocious pain. Each failing treatment for breast cancer led to the search for new treatments, spurning a market in remedies that were advertised and soled by quacks, herbalists, chemists and apothecaries. The lack of anesthesia and antiseptics made mastectomy a painful and dangerous ordeal. In the 18th century, a wide variety of anatomical discoveries were accompanied by new theories about the cause and growth of breast cancer. The investigative surgeon John Hunter claimed that neural fluid generated breast cancer. Other surgeons proposed that milk within the mammary ducts led to cancerous growths. Theories about trauma to the breast as cause for malignant changes in breast tissue were advanced. The discovery of breast lumps and swellings fueled controversies about hard tumors and whether lumps were benign stages of cancer. Medical opinion about necessary immediate treatment varied. The surgeon Benjamin Bell advocated removal of the entire breast, even when only a portion was affected.