The US armed forces overthrew Noriega's government during the US invasion of Panama in December 1989. Endara had by this time taken refuge in the military bases under US control. American officials told Endara that if he did not accept the presidency, the only alternative would be an undisguised American occupation. Though Endara had opposed US military action during his campaign, he accepted the presidency, stating later that, "morally, patriotically, civically I had no other choice". He was certified the winner of the election and inaugurated at Fort Clayton, a United States military base, on December 20, 1989. Arias was inaugurated as first vice president, and Ford as second vice president. Unlike previous rulers Omar Torrijos and Noriega, Endara appointed only whites to ministerial positions, excluding Panama's large mestizo population and other ethnicities.