Philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche suggested that egoistic or "life-affirming" behavior stimulates jealousy or "ressentiment" in others, and that this is the psychological motive for the altruism in Christianity. Sociologist Helmut Schoeck similarly considered envy the motive of collective efforts by society to reduce the disproportionate gains of successful individuals through moral or legal constraints, with altruism being primary among these. In addition, Nietzsche (in "Beyond Good and Evil") and Alasdair MacIntyre (in "After Virtue") have pointed out that the ancient Greeks did not associate morality with altruism in the way that post-Christian Western civilization has done.