Many Japanese have adopted wide ranges of sexual identity, and space has always existed for non-exclusively hegemonic gender roles in Japanese society. The modern era, however, has made more room for those openly varied gender roles. Before Western contact, Japan did not have a system of identification in which one’s identity was determined by one’s biological sexual preference (see Sexual minorities in Japan). Yet, hegemonic notions of how men and women "should" behave are still strong in the country, as in the Western cultures. Earlier studies on sex roles and gender identities in Asia focused heavily on particular constraints felt by women, for "' models of citizenship implicitly privilege the male, white-collar 'citizen in a suit.""