From 1814 until the death of Pope Gregory XVI in 1846, the popes followed a reactionary policy in the Papal States. For instance, the city of Rome maintained the last Jewish ghetto in Western Europe. The Papal States, in 1870, were the last countries to discontinue the practice of castrating young boys of musical promise, making them castrati, who were in demand musically. There were hopes that this would change when Pope Pius IX (in office 1846–1878) succeeded Gregory XVI and began to introduce liberal reforms.