Regardless of whether the writ is positively guaranteed by the constitution, "habeas corpus" was first established by statute in the Judiciary Act of 1789. This statutory writ applied only to those held in custody by officials of the executive branch of the federal government and not to those held by state governments, which independently afford "habeas corpus" pursuant to their respective constitutions and laws. From 1789 until 1866, the federal writ of "habeas corpus" was largely restricted to prisoners in federal custody, at a time when no direct appeals from federal criminal convictions were provided for by law. "Habeas corpus" remained the only means for judicial review of federal capital convictions until 1889, and the only means for review of federal convictions for other "infamous crimes" until 1891. Until 1983 the writ of "habeas corpus" remained the only way that decisions of military courts could be reviewed by the Supreme Court.