The ideological roots of fascism have been traced to the 1880s and in particular the "fin de siècle" theme of that time. The theme was based on revolt against materialism, rationalism, positivism, bourgeois society and liberal democracy. The "fin-de-siècle" generation supported emotionalism, irrationalism, subjectivism and vitalism. The "fin-de-siècle" mindset saw civilization as being in a crisis that required a massive and total solution. The "fin-de-siècle" intellectual school of the 1890s – including Gabriele d'Annunzio and Enrico Corradini in Italy; Maurice Barrès, Edouard Drumont and Georges Sorel in France; and Paul de Lagarde, Julius Langbehn and Arthur Moeller van den Bruck in Germany – saw social and political collectivity as more important than individualism and rationalism. They considered the individual as only one part of the larger collectivity, which should not be viewed as an atomized numerical sum of individuals. They condemned the rationalistic individualism of liberal society and the dissolution of social links in bourgeois society. They saw modern society as one of mediocrity, materialism, instability, and corruption. They denounced big-city urban society as being merely based on instinct and animality and without heroism.