According to the Jewish philosopher and professor Menachem Kellner's study on Maimonidean texts (1991), a "ger toshav" could be a transitional stage on the way to becoming a "righteous alien" (, "ger tzedek"), i.e. a full convert to Judaism. He conjectures that, according to Maimonides, only a full "ger tzedek" would be found during the Messianic era. Furthermore, Kellner criticizes the assumption within Orthodox Judaism that there is an "ontological divide between Jews and Gentiles", which he believes is contrary to what Maimonides thought and the Torah teaches, stating that "Gentiles as well as Jews are fully created in the image of God".