Castoreum was used for a variety of medical purposes; Pliny the Elder suggested it could treat vertigo, seizures, flatulence, sciatica, stomach diseases and epilepsy. He stated it could cure hiccups when mixed with vinegar, toothaches if mixed with oil and injected into the ear opening on the same side as the tooth, and could be used as an antivenom. The substance has traditionally been prescribed to treat hysteria in women, which was believed to have been caused by a "toxic" womb. Castoreum's properties have been credited to the accumulation of salicylic acid from willow and aspen trees in the beaver's diet, and has a physiological effect very similar to aspirin. Today, the medical use of castoreum has declined and is limited mainly to homeopathy. The musky odor of the substance has lent itself as an ingredient in perfumes and for food flavorings.