Various methods have been used to treat<unk>  limb<unk> . Doctors may prescribe medications to reduce the<unk> . Some antidepressants or antiepileptics have been shown to have a beneficial effect on reducing<unk>  limb<unk> . Often physical methods such as light massage, electrical stimulation, and hot and cold therapy have been used with variable results. There are many different treatment options for<unk>  limb<unk>  that are actively being researched. Most treatments do not take into account the mechanisms underlying<unk> s, and are therefore ineffective. However, there are a few treatment options that have been shown to alleviate<unk>  in some patients, but these treatment options usually have a success rate less than 30%. It is important to note that this rate of success does not exceed the placebo effect. It is also important to note that because the degree of cortical reorganization is proportional to<unk>  limb<unk> s, any perturbations to the amputated regions may increase<unk>  perception. Mirror therapy Ramachandran (right) with his original mirror box Mirror box therapy allows for illusions of movement and touch in a<unk>  limb by inducing somatosensory and motor pathway coupling between the<unk>  and real limb. Many patients experience<unk>  as a result of a clenched<unk>  limb, and because<unk>  limbs are not under voluntary control, unclenching becomes impossible. This theory proposes that the<unk>  limb feels paralyzed because there is no feedback from the<unk>  back to the brain to inform it otherwise. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran believes that if the brain received visual feedback that the limb had moved, then the<unk>  limb would become unparalyzed. Although the use of mirror therapy has been shown to be effective in some cases there is still no widely accepted theory of how it works. According to 2017 paper that reviewed a wide range of studies of mirror therapy, "Research evidence suggests that a course of treatment (four weeks) of mirror therapy may reduce chronic<unk> . Contraindications and side effects are few. The mechanism of action of mirror therapy remains uncertain, with reintegration of motor and sensory systems, restored body image and control over fear-avoidance likely to influence outcome. The evidence for clinical efficacy of mirror therapy is encouraging, but not yet definitive. Nevertheless, mirror therapy is inexpensive, safe and easy for the patient to self-administer." Little research was published on MT before 2009, and much of the research since then has been of low quality. Out of 115 publications between 2012 and 2017 about using mirror therapy to treat<unk>  limb<unk> , a 2018 review, found only 15 studies whose scientific results should be considered. From these 15 studies, the reviewers concluded that "MT seems to be effective in relieving PLP, reducing the intensity and duration of daily<unk>  episodes. It is a valid, simple, and inexpensive treatment for PLP." Medication Pharmacological techniques are often continued in conjunction with other treatment options. Doses of<unk>  medications needed often drop substantially when combined with other techniques, but rarely are discontinued completely. Tricyclic antidepressants, such as amitriptyline, and sodium channel blockers, mainly carbamazepine, are often used to relieve chronic<unk> , and recently have been used in an attempt to reduce<unk> s.<unk>  relief may also be achieved through use of opioids, ketamine, calcitonin, and lidocaine. Deep-brain stimulation Deep brain stimulation is a surgical technique used to alleviate patients from<unk>  limb<unk> . Prior to surgery, patients undergo functional brain imaging techniques such as PET scans and functional MRI to determine an appropriate trajectory of where<unk>  is originating. Surgery is then carried out under local anesthetic, because patient feedback during the operation is needed. In the study conducted by Bittar et al., a radiofrequency electrode with four contact points was placed on the brain. Once the electrode was in place, the contact locations were altered slightly according to where the patient felt the greatest relief from<unk> . Once the location of maximal relief was determined, the electrode was implanted and secured to the skull. After the primary surgery, a secondary surgery under general anesthesia was conducted. A subcutaneous pulse generator was implanted into a pectoral pocket below the clavicle to stimulate the electrode. It was found that all three patients studied had gained satisfactory<unk>  relief from the deep brain stimulation.<unk>  had not been completely eliminated, but the intensity had been reduced by over 50% and the burning component had completely vanished.
Phantom pain
Neuropathic pain
Allodynia
Visceral pain
Tenderness 
Psychogenic pain
Pain
Radicular pain