It is caused by damage to the pons or upper medulla caused by strokes or trauma. Specifically, concurrent removal of input from the vagus nerve and the pneumotaxic center causes this pattern of breathing. It is an ominous sign, with a generally poor prognosis. It can also be temporarily caused by some drugs, such as ketamine. It causes craniocerebral injury.
Apneustic respirations
Expiratory apnea
Breath-holding spell
Periodic breathing
Hypoxic ventilatory response
Agonal respiration
Bradypnea
Sleep paralysis