Wave shoaling and the angular frequency is proportional to its local rate of change, Simplifying to one dimension and cross-differentiating it is now easily seen that the above definitions indicate simply that the rate of change of wavenumber is balanced by the convergence of the frequency along a ray; Assuming stationary conditions (formula_27), this implies that wave crests are conserved and the frequency must remain constant along a wave ray as formula_28. As waves enter shallower waters, the decrease in group velocity caused by the reduction in water depth leads to a reduction in wave length formula_29 because the nondispersive shallow water
Genetic distance and Reynolds, Weir and Cockerham's genetic distance, listed below. In all the formulae in this section, formula_1 and formula_2 represent two different populations for which formula_3 loci have been studied. Let formula_4 represent the formula_5 allele at the formula_6 locus. In 1972, Masatoshi Nei published what came to be known as Nei's standard genetic distance. This distance has the nice property that if the rate of genetic change (amino acid substitution) is constant per year or generation then Nei's standard genetic distance ("D") increases in proportion to divergence time. This measure assumes that genetic differences are caused by mutation and