Hundred Days' Reform in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895, not long after the First (1839–1842) and Second (1856–1860) Opium Wars; this blow came as a major shock to the Chinese, because Japan had been regarded as a tributary state, was much smaller than China, and was regarded as inferior. China also fought France in the Sino-French War from 1884 to 1885. Moreover, the defeat of China by Japan led to a scramble for "privileges" in China by other foreign powers, notably by the German Empire and Russia, further awakening the conservatives. Before the First Sino-Japanese War, China engaged in technological modernization only,
Apostolic Nunciature to China early August as plenipotentiary with regard to diplomatic affairs. In July 1918, the Holy See and the Beiyang Government of the Republic of China agreed to send Giuseppe Petrelli and Dai Chenlin as their respective diplomats. However, this did not succeed due to objections from France. Relations between the Republic of China and the Holy See strengthened in 1922 when Celso Benigno Luigi Costantini was appointed as an Apostolic Delegate to China, although he had no diplomatic status. Official diplomatic ties were established in 1946 when Antonio Riberi assumed office as Apostolic Internuncio to China. In 1951 Riberi left mainland