Neutron star to neutrons, or ultra-dense quark-degenerate matter. Neutron stars are detected from their electromagnetic radiation. Neutron stars are usually observed to pulse radio waves and other electromagnetic radiation, and neutron stars observed with pulses are called pulsars. Pulsars' radiation is thought to be caused by particle acceleration near their magnetic poles, which need not be aligned with the rotational axis of the neutron star. It is thought that a large electrostatic field builds up near the magnetic poles, leading to electron emission. These electrons are magnetically accelerated along the field lines, leading to curvature radiation, with the radiation being strongly polarized
Proximity effect (electron beam lithography) and formula_4 are determined by the resist and substrate materials and the primary beam energy. The two-gaussian model parameters, including the development process, can be determined experimentally by exposing shapes for which the Gaussian integral is easily solved, i.e. donuts, with increasing dose and observing at which dose the center resist clears or does not clear. A thin resist with a low electron density will reduce forward scattering. A light substrate (light nuclei) will reduce backscattering. When electron beam lithography is performed on substrates with 'heavy' films, such as gold coatings, the backscatter effect will (depending on thickness) significantly increase.