Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis characterization of food chains. Oxygenic photosynthesis is a metabolic pathway facilitated by autotrophs, including plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. This pathway converts inorganic carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or aquatic environment into carbohydrates, using water and energy from light, then releases molecular oxygen as a product. Organic carbon contains less of the stable isotope Carbon-13, or C, relative to the initial inorganic carbon from the atmosphere or water because photosynthetic carbon fixation involves several fractionating reactions with kinetic isotope effects. These reactions undergo a kinetic isotope effect because they are limited by overcoming an activation energy barrier. The lighter isotope has
Carbon dioxide laser the gas for their products. The table below illustrates the output range from nine possible isotope combinations: Because of the high power levels available (combined with reasonable cost for the laser), CO lasers are frequently used in industrial applications for cutting and welding, while lower power level lasers are used for engraving. It is also used in the additive manufacturing process of Selective laser sintering (SLS). Carbon dioxide lasers have become useful in surgical procedures because water (which makes up most biological tissue) absorbs this frequency of light very well. Some examples of medical uses are laser surgery and skin