Hundred Days' Reform in the First Sino-Japanese War in 1894–1895, not long after the First (1839–1842) and Second (1856–1860) Opium Wars; this blow came as a major shock to the Chinese, because Japan had been regarded as a tributary state, was much smaller than China, and was regarded as inferior. China also fought France in the Sino-French War from 1884 to 1885. Moreover, the defeat of China by Japan led to a scramble for "privileges" in China by other foreign powers, notably by the German Empire and Russia, further awakening the conservatives. Before the First Sino-Japanese War, China engaged in technological modernization only,
An Authentic Account of an Embassy from the King of Great Britain to the Emperor of China by Staunton brought back detailed descriptions and observations on the Chinese culture that were received with curiosity in the West and led to the commercial success of the book and the publication of several translations and subsequent writings on the Macartney Mission. In the title of the account the King of Great Britain is presented equal if not superior to the Emperor of China, as both names are written in capitals, with King George III's names printed in a larger font. This shows the immense confidence with which the English Empire faced the Ancient Chinese Empire. This confidence is also