Indo-European copula copula (with corresponding voiceless and voiced fricatives) existed side by side in Germanic, and the involvement of a separate root "" is unnecessary. The root "*(s)teh-" meant "to stand". From this root comes the present stem of the so-called "substantive verb" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, "tá" and "tha" respectively. On the absence of the initial s- in Celtic, see Indo-European s-mobile. In Latin, "stō, stare" retained the meaning "to stand", until local forms of Vulgar Latin began to use it as a copula in certain circumstances. Today, this survives in that several Romance languages (Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan) use it
Shall and will or necessity or obligation. The verb "will" derives from Old English "willan", meaning to want or wish. Cognates include Old Norse "vilja", German "wollen" (ich/er/sie will, meaning I/he/she want/s to), Dutch "willen", Gothic "wiljan". It also has relatives in non-Germanic languages, such as Latin "velle" ("wish for") and "voluptas" ("pleasure"), and Polish "woleć" ("prefer"). All of these forms derive from the e-grade or o-grade of Indo-European *"wel-", meaning to wish for or desire. Within English, the modal verb "will" is also related to the noun "will" and the regular lexical verb "will" (as in "She willed him on"). Early Germanic