Indo-European copula copula (with corresponding voiceless and voiced fricatives) existed side by side in Germanic, and the involvement of a separate root "" is unnecessary. The root "*(s)teh-" meant "to stand". From this root comes the present stem of the so-called "substantive verb" in Irish and Scottish Gaelic, "tá" and "tha" respectively. On the absence of the initial s- in Celtic, see Indo-European s-mobile. In Latin, "stō, stare" retained the meaning "to stand", until local forms of Vulgar Latin began to use it as a copula in certain circumstances. Today, this survives in that several Romance languages (Galician-Portuguese, Spanish, Catalan) use it
Asha ("haiθiia-"), "true", the opposite of which is also "druj-". Avestan "haithya-" derives from Indo-Iranian "*sātya" that in turn derives from Indo-European "*sat-" "being, existing". The Sanskrit cognate "sátya-" means "true" in the sense of "really existing." This meaning is also preserved in Avestan, for instance in the expression "haiθīm var"ə"z", "to make true" as in "to bring to realization." Another meaning of "reality" may be inferred from the component parts of the "aša/arta": from (root) "ŗ" with a substantivizing "-ta" suffix. The root "ŗ" corresponds to Old Avestan "ar"ə"ta-" and Younger Avestan ə"r"ə"ta-" "established", hence "aša/arta" "that which is established."