Revolutions of 1989 needed Western technology and credits to make up for its increasing backwardness. The costs of maintaining its military, the KGB, subsidies to foreign client states etc., further strained the moribund Soviet economy. The first signs of major reform came in 1986 when Gorbachev launched a policy of "glasnost" (openness) in the Soviet Union, and emphasized the need for "perestroika" (economic restructuring). By the spring of 1989, the Soviet Union had not only experienced lively media debate, but had also held its first multi-candidate elections in the newly established Congress of People's Deputies. While glasnost ostensibly advocated openness and political criticism,
The Age of Openness The Age of Openness The Age of Openness: China Before Mao is a 2008 book by historian Frank Dikötter. It provides an account of the Republican era of Chinese history, spanning from the early 20th century to the Communist Party takeover in 1949. In it, Dikötter describes a period of unprecedented openness during which China was actively pursuing engagement with the world, as evidenced by what Dikötter described as a pluralistic intellectual environment, thriving open markets and economic growth, and expanded liberties and rule of law. In the book, Dikötter challenged conventional historical narratives on China during the Republican period,