Wind as the Earth to evolve into planets like Venus. Additionally, planets with hotter lower atmospheres could accelerate the loss rate of hydrogen. Rather than air, the solar wind is a stream of charged particles—a plasma—ejected from the upper atmosphere of the sun at a rate of . It consists mostly of electrons and protons with energies of about 1 keV. The stream of particles varies in temperature and speed with the passage of time. These particles are able to escape the sun's gravity, in part because of the high temperature of the corona, but also because of high kinetic energy
Plasma acceleration with PWFA, was reported by a research group at Argonne National Laboratory in 1988. The acceleration gradient for a linear plasma wave is: In this equation, formula_2 is the electric field, formula_3 is the speed of light in vacuum, formula_4 is the mass of the electron, formula_5 is the plasma electron density (in particles per metre cubed), and formula_6 is the permittivity of free space. Currently, plasma-based particle accelerators are in the proof of concept phase at the following institutions: Plasma acceleration Plasma acceleration is a technique for accelerating charged particles, such as electrons, positrons, and ions, using the electric