Oud later), tuned in successive fourths. Curt Sachs said they were called (from lowest to highest pitch) "bamm", "maṭlaṭ", "maṭnā" and "zīr". "As early as the ninth century" a fifth string "ḥād" ("sharp") was sometimes added "to make the range of two octaves complete". It was highest in pitch, placed lowest in its positioning in relation to other strings. Modern tuning preserves the ancient succession of fourths, with adjunctions (lowest or highest courses) which may be tuned differently following regional or personal preferences. Sachs gives one tuning for this arrangement of five pairs of strings, d, e, a, d', g'. Historical
Basic physics of the violin bridge and nut of the violin so that the ends are essentially stationary, allowing for the creation of standing waves. The fundamental frequency and harmonic overtones of the resulting sound depend on the material properties of the string, such as the tension, length, mass, elasticity and damping factor. String tension affects the sound a violin produces in an obvious way. Increasing the tension on a string results in a higher frequency note. The strings of a violin are wrapped around adjustable tuning pegs. By turning its associated peg, each string may be loosened or tightened until it produces the desired