Cluster (physics) however, comparatively little is known about the condensed phases (the liquid phase and solid phase.) The study of clusters attempts to bridge this gap of knowledge by clustering atoms together and studying their characteristics. If enough atoms were clustered together, eventually one would obtain a liquid or solid. The study of atomic and molecular clusters also benefits the developing field of nanotechnology. If new materials are to be made out of nanoscale particles, such as nanocatalysts and quantum computers, the properties of the nanoscale particles (the clusters) must first be understood. Cluster (physics) In physics, the term clusters denotes small,
Ionizing radiation cancer, and death. Ionizing radiation is categorized by the nature of the particles or electromagnetic waves that create the ionizing effect. These have different ionization mechanisms, and may be grouped as directly or indirectly ionizing. Any charged massive particle can ionize atoms directly by fundamental interaction through the Coulomb force if it carries sufficient kinetic energy. This includes atomic nuclei, electrons, muons, charged pions, protons, and energetic charged nuclei stripped of their electrons. When moving at relativistic speeds these particles have enough kinetic energy to be ionizing, but relativistic speeds are not required. For example, a typical alpha particle is