Albedo distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface. These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location and time (see position of the Sun). While bi-hemispherical reflectance is calculated for a single angle of incidence (i.e., for a given position of the Sun), albedo is the directional integration of reflectance over all solar angles in a given period. The temporal resolution may range from seconds (as obtained from flux measurements) to daily, monthly, or annual averages. Unless given for a specific wavelength (spectral albedo), albedo refers to the entire spectrum of solar radiation. Due to measurement constraints, it is often given
Riemannian connection on a surface Riemannian connection on a surface embedded in Euclidean space "E" is just the pullback under the Gauss map of the Riemannian connection on "S". Using the identification of "S" with the homogeneous space SO(3)/SO(2), the connection 1-form is just a component of the Maurer–Cartan 1-form on SO(3). In other words, everything reduces to understanding the 2-sphere properly. For a surface "M" embedded in E (or more generally a higher-dimensional Euclidean space), there are several equivalent definitions of a vector field "X" on "M": The last condition means that the assignment "f" "Xf" on "C"("M") satisfies the Leibniz rule The space