History of variational principles in physics involves integrals over an interval of time and (for fields) extended region of space. Moreover, in the usual formulation of classical action principles, the initial and final states of the system are fixed, e.g., In particular, the fixing of the "final" state appears to give the action principle a teleological character which has been controversial historically. This apparent teleology is eliminated in the quantum mechanical version of the action principle. History of variational principles in physics A variational principle in physics is an alternative method for determining the state or dynamics of a physical system, by identifying it as an
Physics in the medieval Islamic world physics from the Greeks and during the Islamic Golden Age developed it further, especially placing emphasis on observation and "a priori" reasoning, developing early forms of the scientific method. With Aristotelian physics, physics was seen as lower than demonstrative mathematical sciences, but in terms of a larger theory of knowledge, physics was higher than astronomy; many of whose principles derive from physics and metaphysics. The primary subject of physics, according to Aristotle, was motion or change; there were three factors involved with this change, underlying thing, privation, and form. In his "Metaphysics", Aristotle believed that the "Unmoved Mover" was responsible