Charles II of England was a "de facto" republic, led by Oliver Cromwell. Cromwell defeated Charles II at the Battle of Worcester on 3 September 1651, and Charles fled to mainland Europe. Cromwell became virtual dictator of England, Scotland and Ireland. Charles spent the next nine years in exile in France, the Dutch Republic and the Spanish Netherlands. A political crisis that followed the death of Cromwell in 1658 resulted in the restoration of the monarchy, and Charles was invited to return to Britain. On 29 May 1660, his 30th birthday, he was received in London to public acclaim. After 1660, all legal documents
Oak apple due to the superficial resemblance and the preponderance of the oak marble gall in the wild. Other galls found on oak trees include the oak artichoke gall and the acorn cup gall, but each of these has its own distinctive form. Some common oak-apple-forming species are the "Biorhiza pallida" gall wasp in Europe, "Amphibolips confluenta" in eastern North America, and "Atrusca bella" in western North America. Oak apples may be brownish, yellowish, greenish, pinkish, or reddish. Oak galls have been used in the production of ink since at least the time of the Roman Empire. From the Middle Ages to