Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire city's coffeehouses, salons, and even stages, but prior to 1848 their demands had not even extended to constitutionalism or freedom of assembly, let alone republicanism. They had merely advocated relaxed censorship, freedom of religion, economic freedoms, and, above all, a more competent administration. They were opposed to outright popular sovereignty and the universal franchise. More to the left was a radicalized, impoverished intelligentsia. Educational opportunities in 1840s Austria had far outstripped employment opportunities for the educated. In 1846 there had been an uprising of Polish nobility in Austrian Galicia, which was only countered when peasants, in turn, rose up against
Diseases and epidemics of the 19th century century. Cholera came in seven waves, the last two of which occurred in the 20th century. The first cholera pandemic started in 1816, spread across India by 1820, and extended to Southeast Asia and Central Europe, lasting until 1826. A second cholera pandemic began in 1829, reached Russia, causing the Cholera Riots. It spread to Hungary, Germany and Egypt in 1831, and London, Paris, Quebec, Ontario and New York City the following year. Cholera reached the Pacific coast of North America by 1834, reaching into the center of the country by steamboat and other river traffic. The third cholera pandemic