Celestial mechanics planetary positions, using geometrical or arithmetical techniques, and contemporary discussions of the physical causes of the planets' motion. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) was the first to closely integrate the predictive geometrical astronomy, which had been dominant from Ptolemy in the 2nd century to Copernicus, with physical concepts to produce a "New Astronomy, Based upon Causes, or Celestial Physics" in 1609. His work led to the modern laws of planetary orbits, which he developed using his physical principles and the planetary observations made by Tycho Brahe. Kepler's model greatly improved the accuracy of predictions of planetary motion, years before Isaac Newton developed
Observations and Measurements thus provider-centric viewpoint. Many observations are made to detect the variation of some property in the natural environment, expressed as a spatial function or "field", also known as a "coverage" (ISO 19123:2005). The relationship between observations, features and coverages is explained, in the context of ocean observations and modeling, in a report for GEOSS Architecture Implementation Pilot 3. The standard also provides a schema for Sampling Features. Observations commonly involve sampling of the ultimate feature of interest. Specific sampling features, such as station, specimen, transect, section, are used in many application domains, and common processing and visualization tools are used.