Kinetic Isotope Effects of RuBisCO carbon, oxygen, and/or hydrogen, though currently only a significant isotope effect is seen for carbon isotope substitution. Isotopes are atoms that have the same number of protons but varying numbers of neutrons. "Lighter" isotopes (like the stable Carbon-12 isotope) have a smaller overall mass, and "heavier" isotopes (like the stable Carbon-13 isotope or radioactive Carbon-14 isotope) have a larger overall mass. Stable isotope geochemistry is concerned with how varying chemical and physical processes preferentially enrich or deplete stable isotopes. Enzymes like RuBisCO cause isotopic fractionation because molecules containing lighter isotopes have higher zero-point energies (ZPE), the lowest possible quantum energy
Archaeological science archaeological strata and artifacts. Some of the most important dating techniques include: Another important subdiscipline of archaeometry is the study of artifacts. Archaeometrists have used a variety of methods to analyze artifacts, either to determine more about their composition, or to determine their provenance. These techniques include: Lead, strontium and oxygen isotope analysis can also test human remains to estimate the diets and even the birthplaces of a study's subjects. Provenance analysis has the potential to determine the original source of the materials used, for example, to make a particular artifact. This can show how far the artifact has traveled