Mass in special relativity what causes these particles to be termed "massless." However, even massless particles have a relativistic mass, which varies with their observed energy in various frames of reference, The invariant mass is the ratio of four-momentum (the four-dimensional generalization of classical momentum) to four-velocity: and is also the ratio of four-acceleration to four-force when the rest mass is constant. The four-dimensional form of Newton's second law is: The relativistic expressions for "E" and "p" obey the relativistic energy–momentum relation: where the m is the rest mass, or the invariant mass for systems, and "E" is the total energy. The equation is
Electromagnetic mass mass becomes infinitely large at this velocity. Additionally, a third electron model was developed by Alfred Bucherer and Paul Langevin, in which the electron contracts in the line of motion, and expands perpendicular to it, so that the volume remains constant. This gives: The predictions of the theories of Abraham and Lorentz were supported by the experiments of Walter Kaufmann (1901), but the experiments were not precise enough to distinguish between them. In 1905 Kaufmann conducted another series of experiments (Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments) which confirmed Abraham's and Bucherer's predictions, but contradicted Lorentz's theory and the "fundamental assumption of Lorentz and Einstein",