Radiation material science structures to fulfill their purpose, a firm understanding of the effect of radiation on materials is required in order to account for irradiation effects in design, to mitigate its effect by changing operating conditions, or to serve as a guide for creating new, more radiation-tolerant materials that can better serve their purpose. The types of radiation that can alter structural materials consist of neutrons, ions, electrons and gamma rays. All of these forms of radiation have the capability to displace atoms from their lattice sites, which is the fundamental process that drives the changes in structural metals.The inclusion of ions
Albrecht effect as well understood as the Twomey effect. There are many other effects, indirect and semi-direct aerosol effects resulting in a large uncertainty in the radiative forcing due to aerosols. Albrecht effect The Albrecht effect describes how cloud condensation nuclei (CCN), possibly from anthropogenic pollution, may increase cloud lifetime and hence increase the amount of solar radiation reflected from clouds. Because it does not directly interact with incoming or outgoing radiation, it has an indirect effect on climate. Aerosol particles act as CCNs creating more droplets of a smaller size. These take more time to coalesce to raindrop size (>100μm), reducing