Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurized air filling a pneumatic bladder. In an approximation of human muscles, PAMs are usually grouped in pairs: one agonist and one antagonist. PAMs were first developed (under the name of "McKibben Artificial Muscles") in the 1950s for use in artificial limbs. The Bridgestone rubber company (Japan) commercialized the idea in the 1980s under the name of Rubbertuators. The retraction strength of the PAM is limited by the sum total strength of individual fibers in the woven shell. The exertion distance is limited by the tightness
Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority 10% over a period of years. Former Chairs include Professor Lisa Jardine, Walter Merricks, Shirley Harrison, Lord Richard Harries, Dame Suzi Leather, Baroness Ruth Deech and Colin Campbell. Other notable former members include Professor Emily Jackson. Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA) is an executive non-departmental public body of the Department of Health in the United Kingdom. It is a statutory body that regulates and inspects all clinics in the United Kingdom providing "in vitro" fertilisation (IVF), artificial insemination and the storage of human eggs, sperm or embryos. It also regulates human embryo research.