Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurized air filling a pneumatic bladder. In an approximation of human muscles, PAMs are usually grouped in pairs: one agonist and one antagonist. PAMs were first developed (under the name of "McKibben Artificial Muscles") in the 1950s for use in artificial limbs. The Bridgestone rubber company (Japan) commercialized the idea in the 1980s under the name of Rubbertuators. The retraction strength of the PAM is limited by the sum total strength of individual fibers in the woven shell. The exertion distance is limited by the tightness
Journal of Molecular Medicine Journal of Molecular Medicine The Journal of Molecular Medicine is a monthly, peer-reviewed, scientific journal published by Springer Science+Business Media. It covers all aspects of human biology and pathophysiology. The emphasis is on the progress and precision now possible in the understanding, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of human diseases. The employment of molecular biology and gene technology has enhanced the understanding of human diseases and has created a new branch of research known as "molecular medicine". The journal is the continuation of the "Klinische Wochenschrift" ("Journal for Clinical Medicine") established in 1864 and published by Springer for the "Gesellschaft Deutscher