Pneumatic artificial muscles conventional electric motors and hydraulic cylinders. Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurized air filling a pneumatic bladder. In an approximation of human muscles, PAMs are usually grouped in pairs: one agonist and one antagonist. PAMs were first developed (under the name of "McKibben Artificial Muscles") in the 1950s for use in artificial limbs. The Bridgestone rubber company (Japan) commercialized the idea in the 1980s under the name of Rubbertuators. The retraction strength of the PAM is limited by the sum total strength of individual fibers in the woven shell. The exertion
Philosophy of medicine Philosophy of medicine The philosophy of medicine is a branch of philosophy that includes the epistemology, ontology/metaphysics, and ethics of medicine. Perhaps the most well known area is medical ethics, which overlaps with bioethics. It can be distinguished from the philosophy of healthcare, which is mostly concerned with ethical and political issues arising from healthcare research and practice. There are a variety of university courses, journals, books and conferences dedicated to the philosophy of medicine. There is also a new direction, or school, in the philosophy of medicine termed analytic philosophy of medicine. Epistemology is the study of knowledge. The