Red-giant branch the star when it reaches the horizontal branch, so the properties of red-clump stars can be used to determine the mass difference before and after the helium flash. Mass lost from red giants also determines the mass and properties of the white dwarfs that form subsequently. Estimates of total mass loss for stars that reach the tip of the red-giant branch are around . Most of this is lost within the final million years before the helium flash. Mass lost by more-massive stars that leave the red-giant branch before the helium flash is more difficult to measure directly. The current
Hydrogen gas porosity forms whenever molten aluminium comes into contact with water vapor, and easily dissolves into the melt. The gas tends to come out of the solution and forms bubbles when the melt solidifies. The detrimental effects arising from the presence of an excess of dissolved hydrogen in aluminium are numerous. Hydrogen causes porosity in aluminum products leading to many casting defects, reduced mechanical properties like fatigue and lower corrosion resistance. Several methods are used to reduce the amount of dissolved hydrogen from the melt, such as furnace fluxing prior to the casting process or using in-line degasing equipment during the casting