Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles Pneumatic artificial muscles (PAMs) are contractile or extensional devices operated by pressurized air filling a pneumatic bladder. In an approximation of human muscles, PAMs are usually grouped in pairs: one agonist and one antagonist. PAMs were first developed (under the name of "McKibben Artificial Muscles") in the 1950s for use in artificial limbs. The Bridgestone rubber company (Japan) commercialized the idea in the 1980s under the name of Rubbertuators. The retraction strength of the PAM is limited by the sum total strength of individual fibers in the woven shell. The exertion distance is limited by the tightness
Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Dignity of the Human Being with regard to the Application of Biology and Medicine violation of the Oviedo Convention alone, but may reference the provisions in proceedings relating to the European Convention on Human Rights. A reservation may be made with respect to a particular provision of the convention ("Article 36"). Six states have reservations regarding particular provisions: Any signatory can denounce the convention by means of notification to the Secretary General of the Council of Europe. Deliberate cloning, to create genetically identical human beings, is contrary to human dignity and constitutes a misuse of biology and medicine. It is therefore prohibited under this protocol. The protocol stipulates that, insofar as is possible, equitable