19th-century philosophy of complexity from mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and a new discipline called "sociology", which is the study of the "dynamics and statics of society". The American philosophers Charles Sanders Peirce and William James developed the pragmatist philosophy in the late 19th century. The twilight years of the 19th century in Britain saw the rise of British idealism, a revival of interest in the works of Kant and Hegel. Transcendentalism was rooted in Immanuel Kant's transcendence and German idealism, led by Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau. The main belief was in an ideal spiritual state that 'transcends' the
David N. Livingstone David N. Livingstone David Noel Livingstone, (born 15 March 1953) is a Northern Ireland-born geographer, historian, and academic. He is Professor of Geography and Intellectual History at Queen's University Belfast. David Livingstone was born in Northern Ireland, and educated at Banbridge Academy and Queen's University Belfast (B.A., Ph.D.). Following graduation, he continued at Queen's as a Research Officer and Lecturer, becoming Reader and then full Professor. He has held visiting professorships at Calvin College, Michigan, University of British Columbia, University of Notre Dame, and Baylor University. He is married to Frances Livingstone, has two children (Justin and Emma), and lives